Lecturenote Micro Hydropower Development

EU DELEGATION TO PAKISTAN
Lecture Notes on MHP Development

SRSP 2012
By Nijaz Lukovac
V. 1.0

June, 2012
Funded by
the European Union
Member of the COWI

Consortium
TableofContents:
Coursecurriculum......................................................................................................................................9
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................10
1.
Datacollectionandacquisition...................................................................................................11
1.1.
Survey.......................................................................................................................................11
1.1.1.
Overview..................................................................................................................................11
1.1.2.
MultiplefrequencyGPS............................................................................................................12
1.1.3.
TraditionalmethodsofquickSurvey.................................................................................12
1.2.
Hydrology.................................................................................................................................16
1.2.1.
Overview..................................................................................................................................16
1.2.2.
Analyses....................................................................................................................................17
a)
Availabledischarge.....................................................................................................................17
b)
Flooddischarge...........................................................................................................................20
1.2.3.
Measurements.........................................................................................................................24
c)
Measuringweirs..........................................................................................................................25
d)
Stagedischargemethod.............................................................................................................25
e)
'Saltgulp'method.......................................................................................................................26
f)
Bucketmethod............................................................................................................................27
g)
Floatmethod...............................................................................................................................27
h)
Currentmeters............................................................................................................................28
i)
Automatedmeasurements.........................................................................................................28
1.3.
GeologyandGeomechanics.....................................................................................................29
1.3.1.
Overview..................................................................................................................................29
2.
Basicsofhydraulics.....................................................................................................................33
2.1.
Overview.....................................................................................................................................33
2.2.
Pipelines......................................................................................................................................33
2.3.
Canals..........................................................................................................................................41
2.4.
Tyroleanintake............................................................................................................................43
2.4.1.
Intake........................................................................................................................................44
2.4.2.
Collectioncanal........................................................................................................................46
2.4.3.
Spillwayonthesill(Q1/100)........................................................................................................47
2.4.4.
Stillingbasin(Q1/100).................................................................................................................48
2.4.5.
Settlingbasin(Qi).....................................................................................................................50
2.4.1.
Siltoutlet(Qout).........................................................................................................................52
2.4.2.
Spillwayfromsettlingbasin(Qmax)...........................................................................................54
2.4.3.
Dutyflowoutlet(Qmin).............................................................................................................54
3.
HydropowerbasicsandHydraulicstructures.............................................................................56
3.1.
General........................................................................................................................................56
3.2.
History.........................................................................................................................................56
3.3.
Advantagesanddisadvantages...................................................................................................56
3.4.
StreamorCatchmentDevelopment...........................................................................................57
3.5.
CostoftheMHP..........................................................................................................................60
3.6.
FromwatertoWatts(again).......................................................................................................60
3.7.
Differentsizeshydropowerinstallations....................................................................................63
3.8.
Smallhydropower.......................................................................................................................64
3.9.
Energyuses.................................................................................................................................64
3.10.
Componentsofascheme............................................................................................................65
3.10.1. Weirandintake........................................................................................................................66
a)
Sideintakewithoutweir.............................................................................................................68
b)
Sideintakewithweir...................................................................................................................68
c)
Bottomintake.............................................................................................................................71
3.10.2. Channels...................................................................................................................................72
3.10.3. Settlingbasin/Sandtrap..........................................................................................................73
3.10.4. Spillways...................................................................................................................................75
3.10.5. Forebaytank.............................................................................................................................75
3.10.6. PenstockMaterials...................................................................................................................77
3.10.7. Penstock...................................................................................................................................78
d)
Penstockjointing.........................................................................................................................84
e)
Buryingorsupportingthepenstock............................................................................................84
f)
PenstockAnchorBlocksdimensions...........................................................................................85
g)
Waterhammer.............................................................................................................................87
3.10.8. Powerhouse..............................................................................................................................89
4.
Equipment...................................................................................................................................94
4.1.
Hydromechanicalequipment....................................................................................................94
4.1.1.
Trashracks................................................................................................................................94
4.1.2.
Rakes........................................................................................................................................95
4.1.3.
StoplogsandGates..................................................................................................................96
4.1.4.
Valves.......................................................................................................................................97
4.1.5.
Airvents...................................................................................................................................98
4.1.6.
Airvessels.................................................................................................................................99
4.2.
Electromechanicalequipment.................................................................................................100
4.2.1.
TurbineSelection....................................................................................................................100
4.2.2.
Turbinediameter....................................................................................................................103
4.2.3.
Suctionheadforreactiveturbines.........................................................................................104
4.2.1.
Pumpsasturbines..................................................................................................................104
4.3.
Electricalequipment.................................................................................................................107
4.3.1.
Generators/alternators..........................................................................................................107
4.3.2.
TransformersandSwitchgears...............................................................................................108
4.3.3.
Automationequipment..........................................................................................................109
4.3.4.
Localillumination/lighting....................................................................................................110
4.3.5.
AntiThunderGrounding........................................................................................................111
5.
DesigntoolsandDrawings........................................................................................................112
5.1.
Designtools...............................................................................................................................112
5.2.
Designphases............................................................................................................................112
5.3.
Drawings....................................................................................................................................113
6.
Monitoring................................................................................................................................114
7.
Practicalexercise.......................................................................................................................118
8.
Trainingevaluation....................................................................................................................119
9.
Literature...................................................................................................................................120
Figures:
Figure1UsingGPSinthefield...............................................................................................................12
Figure2Measuringheadinsteps.........................................................................................................14
Figure3Measuringheadinstepsusingspiritlevelmeter....................................................................14
Figure4Measuringheadinstepsusingpocketsightinglevel..............................................................15
Figure5Measuringheadinstepsusingclinometermethod................................................................15
Figure6Hydrologiccycle.......................................................................................................................16
Figure7ExampleofqspAC(=Fsl)..........................................................................................................18
Figure8ExampletypicalMHPFDC.......................................................................................................18
Figure9Catchmentareaboundaries....................................................................................................19
Figure10Catchmentareaboundaries(3D)..........................................................................................19
Figure11ExampleofMHPcatchmentshownon1:25000...................................................................20
Figure12ExampleofintensitycurvesforvariousreturnperiodsforSarajevo.................................22
Figure13Exampleofafloodhydrograph.............................................................................................24
Figure14Flowmeasurementsusingweir.............................................................................................25
Figure15Flowmeasurementsusingfloat............................................................................................26
Figure16Flowmeasurementsusingdilution........................................................................................27
Figure17Flowmeasurementsusingcurrentmeters............................................................................28
Figure18RiverCATinaction................................................................................................................28
Figure19ExampleoftheuseofGoogleEarthinanalysingthearea....................................................29
Figure20Exampleofthegeologicalprofiletakenfromthegeologicalbasemap1:100000..............30
Figure21Exampleofthegeologicalbasemap1:100000....................................................................30
Figure22Landslides..............................................................................................................................30
Figure23Screes.....................................................................................................................................31
Figure24Slopestabilityresults.............................................................................................................31
Figure253Dsitegeologicalpresentation.............................................................................................32
Figure26n=f(R)relationshipintransitionalflowzone.......................................................................35
Figure27Typicalcanalsection..............................................................................................................41
Figure28Typicalcanalsectionwithlateralgroundslope.....................................................................41
Figure29Criticaldepthandflowregimes.............................................................................................42
Figure30Typicalchangesofflowregimes...........................................................................................43
Figure31Tyroleanintake......................................................................................................................44
Figure32Waterprofileontheintake..................................................................................................45
Figure33Waterprofileonthecollectioncanal...................................................................................47
Figure34WaterprofilealongSB..........................................................................................................49
Figure35WaterprofilealongSBanddownstream..............................................................................50
Figure36Tyroleanintakedrawing.....................................................................................................55
Figure37Exampleofstreampowercapacitycalculation.....................................................................59
Figure38Typicalarrangementofmicrohydroscheme........................................................................60
Figure39Flowdurationcurve...............................................................................................................61
Figure40Netheaddurationcurve........................................................................................................62
Figure41Powerdurationcurve............................................................................................................62
Figure42Majorcomponentsofamicrohydroscheme........................................................................65
Figure43Examplesoftemporaryintakes..........................................................................................67
Figure44TheexampleofpermanentMHPconcreteintake.............................................................67
Figure45Uncontrolledintake............................................................................................................68
Figure46Examplesideintake...............................................................................................................69
Figure47Overviewofthesideintake...................................................................................................69
Figure48Exampleofgabionsillintake.................................................................................................70
Figure49Examplesideintake...............................................................................................................71
Figure50ExampleofTyrolean(bottomwithdrawal)intake................................................................72
Figure51Typicalheadracecanalsections............................................................................................73
Figure52Typicalsandtrap/settlingbasin..........................................................................................74
Figure53Typicalsandtrap/settlingbasinelevationsketch...............................................................74
Figure54Exampleofcanalsiltation.....................................................................................................75
Figure55Typicalforebaytankdesigndrawing..................................................................................76
Figure56Typicalforebaytankoverview...............................................................................................76
Figure57Comparisonofpipematerials...............................................................................................78
Figure58Penstockalignmentdesigndrawing...................................................................................79
Figure59PenstockAnchorBlocks(ThrustBlocks)................................................................................79
Figure60PenstockAnchorBlocksatPowerhouse................................................................................80
Figure61PenstockExpansionJoints.....................................................................................................80
Figure62PenstockSupportsspacing...................................................................................................81
Figure63PenstockAlignmentproblems...............................................................................................81
Figure64Plasticpipelaidonground....................................................................................................81
Figure65Plasticpipeburiedinthetrench............................................................................................82
Figure66Penstockplacements.............................................................................................................83
Figure67Penstockdiameteroptimisation............................................................................................84
Figure68Penstocksupports..................................................................................................................85
Figure69Waterhammerschematicsforsuddenclosure......................................................................88
Figure70ResultofwaterhammercomputationforalongMHPpenstock...........................................88
Figure71ExamplesofsimpleMHPPowerhouses.................................................................................89
Figure72TypicalMHPPowerhouse......................................................................................................89
Figure73FrontfaadeofaMHPPowerhouse......................................................................................90
Figure74MHPPowerhouseTailrace..................................................................................................90
Figure75MHPPowerhouseTailrace..................................................................................................91
Figure76TypicalMHPPowerhousewithimpulseturbine....................................................................91
Figure77TypicalMHPPowerhousewithreactionturbine...................................................................92
Figure78Powerhousefoundationforarrangementwithmechanicalgovernor...................................93
Figure79Powerhouseplandrawing......................................................................................................93
Figure80Trashrack..............................................................................................................................94
Figure81Trashrake..............................................................................................................................95
Figure82Slidegates.............................................................................................................................96
Figure83Slidegate...............................................................................................................................96
Figure84Valves....................................................................................................................................97
Figure85Airvent..................................................................................................................................98
Figure86Airvessel................................................................................................................................99
Figure87Typicalturbineselectiondiagram.......................................................................................100
Figure88Typicalturbinefoundationarrangements...........................................................................101
Figure89Nsvs.Hturbinediagram......................................................................................................101
Figure90Hvs.Nsturbinediagram(loglog).......................................................................................102
Figure91Otherturbineapplicationcharts.........................................................................................102
Figure92Typicalturbineefficiencycurves..........................................................................................103
Figure93Centrifugalpumpinturbinemode......................................................................................105
Figure94Pumpasturbine..................................................................................................................105
Figure95T15crossflowturbineparts..............................................................................................106
Figure96T15crossflowturbineprinciple........................................................................................106
Figure97Generators...........................................................................................................................107
Figure98Transformersandswitchgears............................................................................................108
Figure99AutomatedcontrolofMHP.................................................................................................109
Figure100ExampleofGridconnection,electricaldistributionandsupervisionarchitectureofamicro
hydropowerplant..................................................................................................................................110
Figure101Powerhouselighting..........................................................................................................110
Figure102Powerhousegrounding.....................................................................................................111
Tables:
Table1SCScurvenumbers....................................................................................................................22
Table2Piperoughness..........................................................................................................................35
Table3Importantpipematerialproperties..........................................................................................36
Table4Canalflowcalculationsparameters.........................................................................................41
Table5ExampleofthecalculationforTyroleanintake........................................................................45
Table6Settlingvelocityoftheparticledependentonwatertemperature/viscosity...........................51
Table7ExampleofPowercomputationforarunofriverMHP...........................................................63
Table8ExampleofHydropowerclassification......................................................................................63
Table9Typicalenergyuses...................................................................................................................64
Table10Comparisonpenstockmaterials.............................................................................................77
Table11Weightcomparisonbythetypeofpipe(diameter500mm,by1m)......................................78
Course curriculum
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Datacollectionandacquisition
1.1.
Basicgeodeticsurveyingrequirements.(Couldusehelphere)
1.2.
Basichydrologicaldatacollectionandanalysis(measurements,historical/witnessdata,
rainfallrunoffanalysesaveragedischarge,minimumandmaximumflowrates,flow
ratingcurve,flowdurationcurve.
1.3.
Geologic/geomechanicprospection.
Basics of hydraulics, conveyance systems (steady canal and pipe flow computation), friction
losses,spillwaysandoutlets,introductiontounsteadyflowandtransients/waterhammer.
Hydropowerbasics(withemphasisonmicrohydro),determinationofthewatercoursestream
potential (capacity), site selection, site development, possible schemes, design optimisation
and alternative arrangements, equipment selection, calculation of the main power
parameters.Differencesindemanddrivenandpowerdrivenapproachtohydropower.
HydraulicstructuresdescriptionofthemainhydraulicstructuresusedinMHPdevelopment:
river diversion (sill, weir), intake, sandtrap/settling basin, headrace (power canal or pipe),
penstock (and its supports and anchors), powerhouse, tailrace (canal) note: Merged with
Hydropower.
Hydromechanical equipment: gates, valves, trashracks, rakes, steel pipes (Pending
appropriateexpertise)
Electromechanical equipment: Turbine, generator (partly covered but still pending
appropriateexpertise)
Electrical equipment: transformers, alternators, switchgears, cabling (Pending appropriate
expertise)
DrawingsTheminimumfortechnicaldrawingsanddetailsforeachMHP
MonitoringinstructiontocollectdatafornecessaryMonitoringoftheprogress.
Practicalexercise(s)
TrainingEvaluation
Introduction
ThenorthwestpartofPakistan(KPK)isveryrichinhydropowerpotential,butitalsohassomeremote
areas with many villages that do not have access to electricity. In principle, these are areas with
considerabledegreeofpoverty.Withtheobjectivetoalleviatethepovertyandtohelpdevelopment
ofthoseareas,EUDhasdecidedtograntfundsfor(amongotherthings)developmentofanumberof
MHPsinthevillagesof7districtsoftheMalakandregion.
Peshawar seated NGO Sarhad Rural Support Programme SRSP, has submitted the Project Proposal
titledProgrammeforEconomicAdvancementandCommunityEmpowerment(PEACE).Alargepart
ofit,nearly50%isdealingwiththesetupandimplementationof297MHPschemesintheregionover
aperiodoffouryears.
Under the title: Technical Appraisal and Monitoring of a MicroHydel Programme in Pakistan, EUD
issued the ToR for an FWC assignment for a consultant who would provide technical assistance in
relation to the said Proposal and Project implementation within the first year. The FWC assignment
envisaged3visitstoPakistanindifferentphasesoftheProposal/Projectdevelopment.TheConsultant
fortheFWCassignmentisNijazLukovac(infarthertext:theConsultant),whomadethefirstvisitto
Pakistan(IslamabadandPeshawar)from1st27thApril2012andpreparedtheReportforPhaseI.
Meanwhile,basedonfindingsofthevisitanddiscussionswithEUD,thedecisionwasmadetoslightly
adjusttheoriginalplanninginawaythatinsteadof3thereshouldbe4visitsoftheConsultant,and
thatpartofthesecondvisitwouldbeusedtocarryonaTrainingcourseforSRSPengineers.Thetiming
oftheTrainingisoptimalatthebeginningoftheProjectimplementationphase.
The Consultant has proposed a Course curriculum (Chapter 0), and has envisaged the Training as an
interactiveworkshop(s)withparticipationofcertainexternalinstructorsaswellasownSRSPsstaff.A
partofthetrainingworkshopwouldalsobeledbytheConsultant.Inordertohavemajorlinesalong
whichthetrainingshouldgo,thedraftofthecoursematerialhasbeenpreparedandpresentedfurther
on. There will be a number of handouts and free software packages distributed as well. The
workshopsaremeanttohaveadegreeofflexibilityandshouldadjustinaccordancewithneedsand
capabilities of the participants. At the end of the workshop, an effort would be made to turn this
materialintoabaseforfutureSRSPMHPmanual.
10
1.
Data collection and acquisition

1.1.
Survey
1.1.1.
Overview
Whatisimportant?
1. Essential:
a. Determiningtheavailablehead
b. Determininglocationsofmajorstructures(intake,sandtrap,headracecanal,forebay,
penstock,powerhouse,tailrace)
c. Baseforpowercalculationsandcostestimate
2. Wouldbebeneficial:
a. Surveyinglocalmapsatstructures
b. longitudinalprofile
c. characteristiccrosssections
EssentialpartwouldbenecessaryforALLMHPsandtherestshouldberequiredatleastforMHPswith
P>100kW.
Each(future)MHPsiteshouldbesurveyedtoadegreethatwouldbesufficienttoprovidebasicdata
andparametersforthedesign.Minimallyitshouldinclude:
Locationanddimensionsofmainstructures:
o Intake
o Sandtrap(ifany)
o Canal(ifany)
o Forebay
o Powerhouse
Availablegrosshead
Moredetailedsurveydatashouldalsoprovide(ifpossible):
Moredetailedmapsaroundthestructures
Longitudinalprofile
Severalcrosssections
Thosedatawouldprovideabaseforbetterdesignoptimisationandmoreaccuratecostestimate(bill
ofquantities).
Finally, once implemented scheme should ideally be recorded and filed in terms of the Asbuilt
documentation. In other words, once completed, the MHP scheme should be surveyed at actual
locationsofbuiltstructures.
11
1.1.2.
MultiplefrequencyGPS
InSRSPsProject,ithasbeenforeseentoacquireacoupleofdouble/triplefrequencyGPSSystemsthat
canprovidequickandaccuratedatawhichcaneasilybeimportedintothesoftwareapplicationsused
fordesign(e.g.AutoCAD).Thiskindofprocedureshouldcertainlybeemployedatleastwithlarger
MHPs(say>100kW).DuetothelargenumberoftheMHPstobeconstructedwithin4yearsitmaybe
impossibletousethissophisticatedsurveyingequipmentateachandeverysite.Forveryremotesites
andverysmallMHPsitwouldstillbeacceptabletousemoretraditionalsitemethodsofmeasuring.
Figure1UsingGPSinthefield
1.1.3.
TraditionalmethodsofquickSurvey
Severalmethodsexistformeasurementoftheavailablehead.Somemeasurementmethodsaremore
suitableonlowheadsites,butaretootediousandinaccurateonhighheads.Ifpossible,itiswiseto
takeseveralseparatemeasurementsoftheheadateachsite.Advice:Alwaysplanforenoughtimeto
allowonsitecomparisonofsurveyresults.Itisbestnottoleavethesitebeforeanalysingtheresults,
asanypossiblemistakeswillbeeasiertocheckonsite.
Afurtherveryimportantfactortobeawareofisthatthegrossheadisnotstrictlyaconstantbutvaries
withtheriverflow.Astheriverfillsup,thetailwaterleveloftenrisesfasterthantheheadwaterlevel,
thusreducingthetotalheadavailable.
Althoughthisheadvariationismuchlessthanthevariationinflow,itcansignificantlyaffectthepower
available,especiallyinlowheadschemeswhereeveryhalfmetreisessential.Toassesstheavailable
grossheadaccuratelyheadwaterandtailwaterlevelsneedtobemeasuredforthefullrangeofriver
flows.(SomeexamplesareillustratedinFigure2throughFigure5).
Dumpylevelsandtheodolite
Theuseofadumpylevel(orbuilder'slevel)istheconventionalmethodformeasuringheadandshould
be used wherever time and funds allow. Such equipment should be used by experienced operators
whoarecapableofcheckingthecalibrationofthedevice.
12
Dumpy levels are used with staffs to measure head in a series of stages. A dumpy level is a device
whichallowstheoperatortotakesightonastaffheldbyacolleague,knowingthatthelineofsightis
exactlyhorizontal.Stagesareusuallylimitedbythelengthofthestafftoaheightchangeofnomore
than3m.Aclearunobstructedviewisneeded,sowoodedsitescanbefrustratedwiththismethod.
Dumpy levels only allow a horizontal sight but theodolite can also measure vertical and horizontal
angles,givinggreaterversatilityandallowingfasterwork.
Sightingmeters
Handheldsightingmetersmeasuresangleofinclinationofaslope(theyareoftencalledinclinometers
orAbneylevels).
They can be accurate if used by an experienced person, but it is easy to make mistakes and double
checking is recommended. They are small and compact, and sometimes include range finders which
savethetroubleofmeasuringlineardistance.Theerrorwilldependontheskilloftheuserandwill
typicallybebetween2and10%.
Waterfilledtubeandpressuregauge
Itisprobablythebestofthesimplemethodsavailable,butitdoeshaveitspitfalls.Thetwosourcesor
errorwhichmustbeavoidedareoutofcalibrationgaugesandairbubblesinthehose.Toavoidthe
firsterror,youshouldrecalibratethegaugebothbeforeandaftereachmajorsitesurvey.Toavoidthe
second,youshoulduseaclearplastictubeallowingyoutoseebubbles.
Thismethodcanbeusedonhighheadsaswellaslowones,butthechoiceofpressuregaugedepends
ontheheadtobemeasured.
Waterfilledtubeandrod
This method is recommended for lowhead sites. It is cheap, reasonably accurate and not prone to
errors.Inthiscase,ifmorebubblesaretrappedinonerisingsectionofthetubesthanintheother,
thenthedifferenceinverticalheightofthesetsofbubbleswillcauseanequaldifferenceinthehead
beingmeasured,thoughthisisusuallyinsignificant.Twoorthreeseparateattemptsmustbemadeto
ensurethatyourfinalresultsareconsistentandreliable.Inadditiontheresultscanbecrosschecked
againstmeasurementsmadebyanothermethod,forinstancebywaterfilledhoseandpressuregauge.
Spiritlevelandplank
Thismethodisidenticalinprincipletothewaterfilledtubeandrodmethod.Thedifferenceisthata
horizontal sighting is established not by water levels but by a carpenter's spirit level placed on a
reliablystraightplankofwoodasdescribedabove.Ongentleslopesthemethodisveryslow,buton
steepslopesitisuseful.Markoneendofplankandturnitateachreadingtocanceltheerrors.The
errorisaround2%.
13
Maps
Largescalemapsareveryusefulforapproximateheadvalues,butarenotalwaysavailableortotally
reliable.Forhighheadsites(>100m)1:50,000mapsbecomeusefulandarealmostalwaysavailable.
Altimeters
These can be useful for highhead prefeasibility studies. Surveying altimeters in experienced hands
will give errors of as little as 3% in 100 m. Atmospheric pressure variations need to be allowed for,
however,andthismethodcannotbegenerallyrecommendedexceptforapproximatereadings.
Figure2Measuringheadinsteps
Figure3Measuringheadinstepsusingspiritlevelmeter
14
Figure4Measuringheadinstepsusingpocketsightinglevel
Figure5Measuringheadinstepsusingclinometermethod
Awaterfilledhosewithpressuregauge(manometer)canalsobelowereddowntofindoutthehead
difference,assaidabove.
15
1.2.
Hydrology
Figure6Hydrologiccycle
1.2.1.
Overview
Whatisimportant?
1. Essential:
a. Determiningthemeanflowrate(discharge)=availablewaterwhichisarowmaterialfor
Hydropowergeneration.
b. Estimatingflooddischargeinordertosafelyplacerequiredstructures
c. Baseforpowercalculationsandcostestimate
a. Establishingwatergaugingstation(s)
b. Determiningflowratingcurve(s)(FRC)
c. Determiningflowdurationcurve(FDC)
d. Determiningafloodhydrograph
e. Determiningthedutyflowandpoweravailableflow
P>100kW.
16
Basichydrologicaldatacollectionandanalysisincludemeasurements,historical/witnessdata,rainfall
runoff analyses average discharge, minimum and maximum flow rates, flow rating curve, flow
durationcurve.
Normally, for a reliable Hydrological study based on proper statistical analyses, one has to collect
longterm data series (20, 30, 40, 50 or more years). However, MHP sites are almost always in the
unexplored areas, and some tradeoffs should be made, keeping in mind that the margin of error
mightbehigh.
ThemajorhydrologicalparametersneededforMHPinstallationinclude:
Meanflowestimation(QAV)
TimedistributionofflowsFlowDurationCurve(FDC)
DepthflowrelationshipFlowRatingCurve(FRC)
Floodwaterdischargesayhundredyearflood(Q1/100)
Floodhydrograph(e.g.SCSUnithydrograph)
1.2.2.
a)
Analyses
Availabledischarge
Mean flow can be obtained from data series, but since they are normally not available, it could be
estimated based on precipitation data (which are more readily available) combined with catchment
characteristicsandgeometry.
Dependingonthecatchmentarea(AC),forgivenannualprecipitation(p),volumeofwaterthatfallson
it,canbecalculatedas:
V=pAC(m3)
Allunitsshouldbeconvertedtom.PrecipitationisusuallyexpressedinmillimetreswhileCatchment
areaisexpressedinkm2,orsometimesinhectares(ha)oracres(a).
If all the water could find its way to the stream and be drained through it, then the flow could be
calculated as ratio of the volume over the time in which that volume was discharged (annually it
meansca.T=31.5106seconds).However,duetoevapotranspiration,aportionofthefallenwater
never ends up in the stream. The ratio of volume of water that flows through the stream over the
volumeofwaterbroughtbyprecipitationiscommonlycalledrunoffcoefficient.Itisdimensionlessand
commonlymarkedas.Thus,averageflowcanroughlybeestimatedas:
QAV=V/T(m3/s)
Runoffcoefficientdependsontheshapeandslopeofthecatchment,typeofsoilandbedrock,extents
andtypeofvegetationandotherfactors.Itcanrangefrom0.2to0.8,butmorecommonlytheyfall
withinrangeof0.4to0.6.Ifonewantstobeonthesafetyside,thelowervaluesshouldbeadopted.
If the larger catchment is relatively known, then by its analysis a specific discharge qSP (l/s/km2)
couldbedeterminedandbasedonit,theactualflowcouldbeestimated.Itusuallyhasaform:
qsp = a AC+ b (l/s/km2)

17
Withreciprocaltrendvs.Area:
13.5
y = -0.0046x + 13.515
R2 = 0.6196
13
Fsl (km 2)
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
qsp (l/s/km )
Figure7Exampleofqsp AC (=Fsl)
TodetermineratedMHPflow,amoredetailedanalysisisneeded.FDCwillgivetheinsightinhowthe
availablevaryingflowscouldbestbeutilised.ForthatonewouldneedatleastonereliableFDCinthe
same or nearby catchment and to make a series of simultaneous flow measurements in order to
determine correlation relationship. In addition, to be able to use longer series from the correlating
gauging station, one would need to form one on the profile of interest (intake) and to make FRC in
ordertobeabletoconvertwaterstagesintoflows.
TypicallyratedflowoftherunofriverMHPisaroundthemeanflow.Therewillbesomefloodwater
during the year (all exceeding Qi) that would spill unutilised, and there should be some duty flow
releasedtosustainlifeinthestreambetweentheintakeandthepowerhouse.Allthisleadstocertain
lossofwaterforpowergeneration. Typically the ratioofusefulmeanflowtoavailable flowis50
60%.
Figure8ExampletypicalMHPFDC
18

Figure9Catchmentareaboundaries
Inordertocarryonabovementionedanalysesoneshoulddeterminethecatchmentareafirst.Forthat
somesortofmapshouldbeavailable.Forsmallcatchmentsideallyitwouldbe1:25000or1:50000or
similar.
Figure10Catchmentareaboundaries(3D)
19

Figure11ExampleofMHPcatchmentshownon1:25000
b)
Flooddischarge
Remember:Thebiggestenemyofallhydraulicstructuresiswateritselfthroughitsdestructiveforces
offloodorleakage.ofallhydraulicstructurefailureswastheactionofwater!
The best way of determining the flood peak flow and volume is to statistically analyse the historical
data.Forthatmethodtobereasonable,longmeasurementseriesneedtobeavailable.Theproblemis
thatinremotesmallcatchmentssuchmeasurementsareseldomavailable.However,ifinthevicinity
thereiswellknownstreamsforwhichsuchdataareexist,thenanattemptcouldbemadetomake
correlationoftheunknownstreamwiththeknownone.
This can be done through a series of simultaneous flow measurements in different hydrological
regimes. Even a series of 45 measurements could be used, but waiting for proper hydrological
conditionsusuallytakesuptoayear.
The known watercourse is analysed by taking the
highest flood hydrographs for each year (40 years or
moreareneededforreliabledata,butevenmuchlessis
betterthannothing).Observedfloodhydrographsare
usually determined through water gauging pole or
limnighraph(automaticwaterlevelmeter).Priortothat,
many flow measurements had to be taken in order to
determine correlation between flowrate and the stage
/level. In such a way a flow rating curve (FRC) is
determined.
Analysed flood flows can then be determined through one of usually used statistical distributions
(mostcommonlyLogPiersonIIIorGumbel).Thisgivesfloodswithdifferentreturnperiodsthatcanbe
usedasDesignFloodDischarge(DFD),dependingontheimportanceofthestructureanddangertothe
surroundingarea.
20
Theproblemhereisthatcorrelationbetweencatchmentsmaynotbereliableoreventhatdatafrom
the known catchment may be dubious since it is very difficult to take measurements in flood
conditions.ThusFRCisusuallyextrapolatedtowardshighflowsandthusnotreallyobserved.
Anyway, in small remote catchments such data availability is unlikely ant therefore other, less
accurate,methodsareemployed.
Empirical formulae
Forveryroughfloodlevelestimation,wheretherearenodataortheyareverypoorsomeempirical
formulaecouldbeused,keepinginmindthattheobtainedvaluescouldbewithlargemarginoferror.
Nevertheless,thatisstillbetterthannothing.
Inglisformula:
QMAX=124AC/(10.4+AC)
Dickensformulae:
QMAX=aAC0.75
Whereais:
11fordry/aridclimatetype
17fornormalclimate
23forwetclimate
AndACiscatchmentareainkm2,whilepeakflowQMAXisinm3/s.
Both formulae are neglecting the geology, shape and slope of the catchment and whether there is
vegetationandtowhatextent.Bothformulae(andespeciallyInglis)giveratherhighflowpeaks,which
is understandable sine high safety factor is taken into account. The values obtained are roughly
corresponding to PMF (Probable Maximum Flood), which is too high for design of MHPs. The
reasonableapproachwouldbetotaketooftheobtainedvalue.
Rational method (RM)

Iftherearegoodrainfalldatathismethodcanbeusedtobetterdeterminethepeakflood.
Q = C i AC (m3/s)
Where:
CRunoffcoefficient(rangingfrom0.25to0.75,say0.5)
iIntensityoftheprecipitationinmm/min
ACCatchmentareainkm2
However intensity drops with increase of rainfall duration and selection of the proper duration
would depend on the size and shape of the catchment. There are many rational formulae to
calculatethedurationT.Hereisonethatneglectstheshapeofthecatchment:
T = 0.27 AC0,612
21

Figure12ExampleofintensitycurvesforvariousreturnperiodsforSarajevo
Unit Hydrograph (UH)

However,forlargerMHPsitisalwaysadvisabletoperformatleastunithydrographcomputation,say
by using HECHMS free computer program. The program provides several methods to compute the
UH.PerhapsthemostpopularisSCSmethod(SoilConservationService)whichrequiresaminimumof:
Theprecipitationforadurationcorrespondingtocatchmentparameters
Catchmentarea
Catchmentshaperesultinginlagtime
SCS Curve number (see Table1SCScurvenumbers)
Table1SCScurvenumbers
Description and Curve Numbers from TR-55
Curve
Number for
Hydrologic
Soil Group
Land Use
Description on
Input Screen
Cover Description
%

Impervious A B C D
Areas
Cover Type and Hydrologic Condition
Row Crops - Straight Rows + Crop Residue

Cover- Good Condition (1)
Agricultural
Commercial
Urban Districts: Commercial and Business
85
Woods(2) - Good Condition
Grass/Pasture
Pasture, Grassland, or Range(3) - Good

Condition
High Density
Residential
Residential districts by average lot size: 1/8

acre or less
65
Industrial
Urban district: Industrial
72
Low Density
Residential

acre lot
22
89 92 94 95
Forest
64 75 82 85
30 55 70 77
39 61 74 80
81 88 91 93
25
77 85 90 92
54 70 80 85
Description and Curve Numbers from TR-55
Curve
Number for
Hydrologic
Soil Group
Land Use
Description on
Input Screen
Cover Description
%

Impervious A B C D
Areas
Cover Type and Hydrologic Condition
Open Spaces
Open Space (lawns, parks, golf courses,

cemeteries, etc.)(4) Fair Condition (grass
cover 50% to 70%)
Parking and
Paved Spaces
Impervious areas: Paved parking lots, roofs,

driveways, etc. (excluding right-of-way)
100
Residential 1/8
acre

acre or less
65
Residential 1/4
acre

acre
38
Residential 1/3
acre

acre
30
Residential 1/2
acre

acre
25
Residential 1
acre
Residential districts by average lot size: 1

acre
20
Residential 2
acres
Residential districts by average lot size: 2

acre
12
46 65 77 82
Water/ Wetlands
49 69 79 84
98 98 98 98
77 85 90 92
61 75 83 87
57 72 81 86
54 70 80 85
51 68 79 84
Hydraulic condition is based on combination factors that affect infiltration and runoff, including (a)
densityandcanopyofvegetativeareas,(b)amountofyearroundcover,(c)amountofgrassorclose
seeded legumes, (d) percent of residue on the land surface (good>=20%), and (e) degree of surface
roughness.
Majorcatchmentparameters,apartfromitsarea,are:
LG=unithydrographlagtime,inhours,
C=constant,(=26n,nisManningcoefficientrangingfrom0.03to0.07)
N=constant(usually0.33)
L=thelengthofthelongestwatercoursefromthepointofconcentrationtotheboundaryofthedrainagebasin,in
miles.Thepointofconcentrationisthelocationonthewatercoursewhereahydrographisdesired,
LCA=thelengthalongthelongestwatercoursefromthepointofconcentrationtoapointoppositethecentroidofthe
drainagebasin,inmiles,and
S=theoverallslopeofthelongestwatercourse(alongL),infeetpermile.
LLCA

0. 5
S
Lagtimeiscalculatedfrom: LG C
TimeofconcentrationTC=5/3LG(seeFigure13Exampleofafloodhydrograph)
RelevantprecipitationdurationTP=TCx(1+TC)0.2
23
Sincelagtimeisempiricallydeterminedthereareotherformulaeaswell.Somemetricformulaegive
theLagtimeas:
LG=1.864AC0.39S0.31
LG=0.4Ls0.67(LLCA/S)0.086
LG=2.3(L/(S)0.5)0.66
Incaseofdoubtusethemeanvalueofallthreeorjusttwothatgivecloserresults.
After that, knowing precipitation, one can compute the flood hydrograph by using manual unit
hydrographprocedureorrunningtheHECHMSprogram.
Figure13Exampleofafloodhydrograph
1.2.3.
Measurements
Thepurposeofahydrologystudyistopredictthevariationintheflowduringtheyear.Sincetheflow
variesfromdaytoday,aoneoffmeasurementisoflimiteduse.Inabsenceofanyhydrological
analysis,alongtermmeasuringsystemmaybesetup.Suchasystemisoftenusedtoreinforcethe
hydrologicalapproachandisalsothemostreliablewayofdeterminingactualflowatasite.Oneoff
measurementsareusefultogiveaspotcheckonhydrologicalpredictions.
Theflowmeasuringtechniquesdescribedhereare:
theweirmethod,
stagecontrolmethod,
thesaltgulpmethod,
thebucketmethod,
thefloatmethod,
currentmeters.
24
c)
Measuringweirs
Aflowmeasurementweirisaweirwithanotchinitthroughwhichallthewaterinthestreamflows.
The flowrate can be determined from a single reading of the difference in height between the
upstreamwaterlevelandthebottomofthenotch(seeFigure14).Forreliableresults,thecrestofthe
weirmustbekeptsharp,theoverflowshouldnotbesubmergedbytailwaterandsedimentmustbe
prevented from accumulating behind the weir. Sharp and durable crests are normally formed from
sheetmetal,preferablybrassorstainlesssteel,asthesedonotcorrode.
Figure14Flowmeasurementsusingweir
Weirscanbetimber,concreteormetalandmustalwaysbeorientedatrightanglestothestreamflow.
Sitingoftheweirshouldbeatapointwherethestreamisstraightandfreefromeddies.Upstream,
thedistancebetweenthepointofmeasurementandthecrestoftheweirshouldbeatleasttwicethe
maximumheadtobemeasured.Thereshouldbenoobstructionstoflownearthenotchandtheweir
mustbeperfectlysealedagainstleakage.
Temporary measuring weirs are used for shortterm or dryseasoned measurements and are usually
constructedfromwoodandstakedintothebankandstreambed.Sealingproblemsmaybesolvedby
attachingalargesheetofplasticandlayingitupstreamoftheweirhelddownwithgravelorrocks.Itis
necessarytoestimatetherangeofflowstobemeasuredbeforedesignedtheweir,toensurethatthe
chosensizeofnotchwillbecorrect.
The use of permanent weirs may be a useful approach for small streams, but larger streams might
betterbemeasuredbystaging(explainedbelow).
d)
Stagedischargemethod
Oncesetup,thismethodprovidesaninstantmeasurementoftheflowatanytime.Itdependsona
fixed relationship between the water level and the flow at a particular section of the stream. This
25
section (the contour section) is calibrated by taking readings of water levels and flow (stage and
discharge)forafewdifferentwaterlevels,coveringtherangeofflowsofinterest,soastobuildupa
stagedischarge curve. During calibration the flow does not have to be measured at the contour
sectionitself.Readingscanbetakeneitherupstreamordownstreamusing,forinstance,atemporary
weir,aslongasnowaterentersorleavesthestreaminbetween.Thestagedischargecurveshouldbe
updated each year. Calibrated staffs are then fixed in the stream and the water level indicated
correspondstoariverflowratewhichcanbereadoffthestagedischargecurve.
Figure15Flowmeasurementsusingfloat
e)
'Saltgulp'method
The `salt gulp' method of flow measurement is adapted from dilution gauging methods with
radioactivetracersusedforrivers.Ithasprovedeasytoaccomplish,reasonablyaccurate(error<7%),
and reliable in a wide range of stream types. It gives better results the more turbulent the stream.
Usingthisapproach,aspotcheckofstreamflowcanbetakeninlessthan10minuteswithverylittle
equipment.
Abucketofheavilysaltedwaterispouredintothestream.Thecloudofsaltywaterinthestreamstarts
tospreadoutwhiletravellingdownstream.Atacertainpointdownstreamitwillhavefilledthewidth
ofthestream.Thecloudwillhavealeadingpartwhichisweakinsalt,amiddlepartwhichisstrongin
saltandalaggingpartwhichisweakagain.Thesaltiness(salinity)ofthewatercanbemeasuredwith
an electrical conductivity meter. If the stream is small, it will not dilute the salt very much, so the
electricalconductivityofthecloud(whichisgreaterthesaltierthewater)willbehigh.Thereforelow
flows are indicated by high conductivity and vice versa. The flow rate is therefore inversely
proportionaltothedegreeofconductivityofthecloud.
26

Figure16Flowmeasurementsusingdilution
Theaboveargumentassumesthatthecloudpassestheprobeinthesametimeineachcase.Butthe
slowertheflow,thelongerthecloudtakestopasstheprobe.Thusflowisalsoinverselyproportional
to the cloudpassing time. Detailed mathematics will not be covered here because the conductivity
metreisusuallysuppliedwithdetailedinstructions.
Theequipmentneededfor`saltgulp'flowmeasurementis:
abucket,
puretablesalt,
athermometer(range040C),
aconductivitymeter(range01000mS),
anelectricalintegrator(Optional).
f)
Bucketmethod
Thebucketmethodisasimplewayofmeasuringflowin
very small streams. The entire flow is diverted into a
bucketorbarrelandthetimeforthecontainertofillis
recorded. The flow rate is obtained simply by dividing
thevolumeofthecontainerbythefillingtime.Flowsof
upto20l/scanbemeasuredusinga200litreoilbarrel.
g)
Floatmethod
TheprincipleofallvelocityareamethodsisthatflowQequalsthemeanvelocityVmeantimescross
sectionalA:
Q=AVmean(m3/s)
27
Onewayofusingthisprincipleisforthecrosssectionalprofileofastreambedtobechartedandan
averagecrosssectionestablishedforaknownlengthofstream.Aseriesoffloats,perhapsconvenient
piecesofwood,arethentimedoverameasuredlengthofstream.Resultsareaveragedandaflow
velocityisobtained.Thisvelocitymustthenbereducedbyacorrectionfactorwhichestimatesthe
meanvelocityasopposedtothesurfacevelocity.Bymultiplyingaveragedandcorrectedflowvelocity,
thevolumeflowratecanbeestimated.
h)
Currentmeters
Theseconsistofashaftwithapropellerorrevolvingcupsconnectedtotheend.Thepropellerisfree
to rotate and the speed of rotation is related to the stream velocity. A simple mechanical counter
records the number of revolutions of a propeller placed at a desired depth. By averaging readings
takenevenlythroughoutthecrosssection,anaveragespeedcanbeobtainedwhichismoreaccurate
thanwiththefloatmethod.
Figure17Flowmeasurementsusingcurrentmeters
i)
Automatedmeasurements
Therearealsosomesophisticatedpiecesofequipmentthattakeautomaticflowrateandcrosssection
readings by just pulling the device across the stream. These are used for larger rivers difficult to
measurebytraditionalmethods.OnesuchdeviceiscalledRiverCATandisratherexpensive(sayabout
$30000ormore,dependingonthytype).
Figure18RiverCATinaction
28
1.3.
Geology and Geomechanics
1.3.1.
Overview
Whatisimportant?
1. Essential:
a. Determiningthetypeofsoil
b. Determiningthetypeofthebedrock
c. Determiningthedepthofoverburden
d. Lookforactualorpotentiallandslidesandscrees(slidingdebris)
e. Roughestimationofgeotechnicalparameters(bad,poor,fair,good,excellent)
a. Makinggeologicalmapofthearea
b. Preparingcharacteristicgeologicalprofiles
c. Determiningactualgeotechnicalparameters(c,,,etc.)
P>100kW.
Geology(geologicalconditionsandformations)canbegenerallydeterminedfromregionalgeological
maps if available. However, for site specific conditions it is necessary to make site geological
assessmentinsitu.
Figure19ExampleoftheuseofGoogleEarthinanalysingthearea
29
Figure20Exampleofthegeologicalprofiletakenfromthegeologicalbasemap1:100000
Figure21Exampleofthegeologicalbasemap1:100000
Figure22Landslides
30

Figure23Screes
Itisimportanttodeterminegeneralgeologicalsiteconditionstakingintoaccountengineeringgeology
andhydrogeology.Itisusedforproperassessmentofthesoil/rockparametersintermsoffoundation,
buildingmaterial,permeabilityetc.Thisgeologyislinkedto:
Geomechanics
Hydrology
Structuraldesign
Hydraulicdesign
Tofindoutaboutgeotechnicalparametersandengineeronthesitecanuseapickhammer,excavatea
testpitortrenchandbasedonexperiencemakeengineeringjudgments.Formorerequiringstructures
(inlargerschemes),itwouldbeadvisabletousesomedrillingandtakesamplesthatwouldbeanalyses
in the geotechnical laboratory. Obtained parameters could be used to run a number of different
analyses.Oneofthecommonlyusedisslopestabilityanalysis:
Figure24Slopestabilityresults
One very good such computer program for geotechnical analyses is GEO5 by FINE, which has 22
differentmodules(fromslopestability,tofoundation,gabionwall,gravitywalltoFEM).Eachmodule
31
costsabout$400to$600,butdiscountscanbeobtainedforasetandmultipleusers.Theprogramhas
a free option with limited functionality. It will run only a few soil layers (and we usually dont need
manyforMHPs)anditwilluseonlydefaultparametersoftheselectedsoiltypeandwouldnotallow
youtochangethemtothoseobtainedfromthesite.Thisisstilluseful,sinceitgivespossibilitytouse
standardparameterswithouttakingsamples.Thentheonlystepneededistorecognizethesoiltype
andselectit.
Other similar programs are GeoStudio and Slope. Figure 24 shows an output from Geostudio
program.
Figure253Dsitegeologicalpresentation
32
2.
Basics of hydraulics
2.1.
Overview
Whatisimportant?
1. Essential:
a. Performingsteadystatecalculationsfor
i. Canals(headrace,tailrace)
ii. Pipelines,penstocks
b. Hydrauliccalculationatintakeifany
c. Hydraulicandsettlementcalculationatsandtrapifany
d. HydrauliccalculationatForebay
e. Hydrauliccalculationforspillways(atintake,sandtrapandforebay)
f.
Hydrauliccalculationforoutlets(sandtrap,forebay)
g. Hydrauliccalculationofthestillingbasin(orapron)ifany
a. Performingunsteady(transient)computations
i. Channelunsteadyflow
ii. Penstockwaterhammer
P>100kW.
2.2.
Pipelines
Pipelinesareusedforwaterorsewerconveyanceusuallyunderpressure,butalsowithfreeflow.They
canbemadeofvariousmaterialssuchas:Steel,GRP,PE,castiron,concrete,wood(obsolete),vitrified
clay(obsolete),asbestoscement(consideredenvironmentallydangerous),plasticmaterials(PVC)and
othermaterialsforspecialpurposes(brass,copper,lead,glass,rubber,etc.).
Hydraulics
Mostoftheprincipleswillbegiveninthissubchapterofpipelines,andonlysomespecificissueswould
bementionedforcanalsandtunnelsintheirrespectivesubchapters.
Basic hydraulic problems for steady flow through pipelines can be solved by 2
formulae:
Continuity(massconservation):Aivi=Constant
2
p
v
p
v
Bernoulli(energyconservation): Z 1 1 1 Z 2 2 2 H 1 2
g 2 g
g 2 g
33
H isthesumofheadlossesbetweensectionsofinterest.Theyincludelinearfrictionlossesalong
thepipeandlocalorminorlosses(inbends,elbows,joints,valves,contractions,expansions,etc.).
Numerousformulaeareavailabletocomputelinearfrictionlosses.Probablythemostuniversallyused
is DarcyWeisbach formula: H f f
L v2
(in USA practice HazenWilliams expression is more
D 2g
commonlyused)
HerefisDarcysfrictioncoefficient.Differentresearchershavedetermineditsvalueinthepast.There
arevariousexperimentallyobtainedexpressionsusedtodeterminef.
Therearedifferentflowregimespossibleinthepipes,dependentonReynoldsnumber:
Re=vD/orReR=vR/R= D/4isHydraulicradiusofthepipe.iskinematiccoefficientoffluids
viscosity(forwater:t=20o=1.01x106m2/s,andt=10o=1.3x106m2/s)
ForRe<2320thereislaminarflowregimeinthepipe,andthenDarcyscoefficientis:
64
16
Re Re R
Inturbulentflowtherearethreeregimes:
Hydraulicallysmoothpipes(Re<27(D/,approximatelyisabsoluteaveragepipewall
roughness)
Amongmanyusedformulae(likeNikuradze,PrandtlKarman,etc.)Colebrooksformulaisgiven
hereasprobablythemostpractical:
1
f
1.8 log
Re
Transitionturbulentflow(27[D/<Re<21.6CD/,whereCisChezycoefficient=[8g/f])
ThenanotherformulaofColebrookcanbeused:
2.51

2 log
Re f 3.7 D
f
ForevenhighervaluesofRef=f()anddoesnotdependonReitselfanymore(quadratic
regionofflowresistance).ThenforinstanceNikuradzesformulacanbeused:
0.25
log3.715 D 2
Forallregionswithlimitedaccuracy(5%)for/D<0.01andf<0.05,Moodysformulacanbeused:
f 5.5 10 3 1 3 2 10 4 D 10 6 Re
34
Table2Piperoughness
Materialandthestateofpipe
Concreterough
Concretesmooth
Steel(welded)new
Steel(welded)used,stained,incrusted
Castiron
(103m)
13
0.30.8
0.040.1
0.151.5
0.251.5(4)
Moredetailedlistcanbeobtainedfromdifferenthandbooks(e.g.Davis).Asmostpracticalproblemsin
hydraulic(civil)engineeringoccurintheregionofquadraticresistance(fullturbulence),evenmanning
formula could be applied with reasonable accuracy. Then better known values for n can be used
and/orconvertedtof.EquatingenergyslopeinManningandDarcyWeisbachequations:
f 124.6 n 2
However, this could be applied only in fully developed turbulent flow as in transitional regime
Manningnshouldnot beconsideredconstantasit isthere dependentonRe aswell.(See following
graphthatclearlydemonstratesthisforasetofmeasurements).
Figure26n=f(R)relationshipintransitionalflowzone
HazenWilliamsformula:
35
Where:
A=Flowareaofthepipe,ft2orm2.
C=HazenWilliamsroughnesscoefficient.
D=Pipediameter,ft.orm.
g=gravitationalconstant=32.174ft/s2=9.807m/s2.
hf=Frictionlosses,ftorm.
hm=Minorlosses,ftorm.
k=conversionfactor=1.318(forimperialunits)=0.85(forSI)
Km=sumofminorlosscoefficients
P1=Upstreampressure,lb/ft2orN/m2.
P2=Downstreampressure,lb/ft2orN/m2.
Q=Discharge,ft3/sorm3/s.
S=Waterdensity=62.4lb/ft(forimperialunits)=9800N/m(forSI)
V=flowvelocityinpipe,ft/sorm/s.
V1=upstreamvelocity,ft/sorm/s.
V2=Downstreamvelocity,ft/sorm/s.
Z1=Upstreamlevel,ftorm.
Z2=Downstreamlevel,ftorm.
Table3Importantpipematerialproperties
Ductileiron
Steel
PVC
PE/GRP
AC
Manningn
0.12
0.013
0.01
0.011
0.011
HazenWilliamsC
130
100
150
140
140
Roughness(mm)(DarcyWeisbach)
0.2591 0.04572 0.00152
0.00152 0.00152
YoungModulusE(MPa)
100000 207000
3300 1300/73500
24000
x
6
Coefficientoflinearexpansion( 10 )
11
12
54
140/5
8.1
Poissonratio
0.25
0.3
0.45
0.45
0.3
Minororlocallossesarecalculatedbasedonexperienceandexperiments.Somecoefficientsto
calculatelocallossesaregivenhere:
Entrance:sharp=0.5,rounded=0.2,bellmouth=0.05,pipestickingintoreservoir
=1
2
D 2
Suddenexpansion: 1 1 inregardtoinflowingvelocity.Ifexpansionisgradual
D2
then this coefficient would be diminished (by multiplier k<1) depending on the angle of
expansion(for5ok=0.13,15ok=0.27,25ok=0.62)
Sudden contraction:
D
1
1 2 ; (based on outflowing velocity) for gradual contraction
2
D1
coefficientwoulddependonangleandratioofdiameters.
36
Elbow: 0.1
L
R
3.5
D

D
or o 0.13 1.85
where L is arc length, R is bend
R
90
2 R
radius,Dispipediameter,andisdeflectionangleofthecurve.
Valves and gates: if open 0.05<<0.2 (0.100.12) depending on the type and condition. For
different closures values could be found in handbooks, but accurate ones only from
manufacturers.
Exit(intostillwaterbody):=1.0
For gravity flow conditions in pipeline conveyance systems, Mannings interpretation of Chezy
equation gives good results. Maximum flow capacity is where hydraulic radius is maximal, i.e., for
profileca.94%full.However,ifthereisanymiscalculationordifferenceinroughness(orifpipelineis
notfittingintoprojectlineoriftherewasabrasionordeposition)thenflowcapacitycalculatedfor
maximalconveyancewouldbeoverestimated.
Itismorereasonabletolimitmaximumfillingofthepipe(up)toca.81%.Atthispointconveyanceof
thegravityflowequalsthatoffullcrosssection(100%withoutpressure)
This limit has been adopted for the Spreadsheet model described here. To make the computations
straightforward,conveyance K
Q
S
2
1
AR 3 isused,derivedintoitsspecial(moreuseful)form.
n
Foragivenfillingofthepipe(say81%or100%)anequationofthefollowingformcanbeobtained:
3
8
Qn

D
S
Where isfillingcoefficientandfortheabovecasesitisabout1.55.
Loads in Pipes:
Internalpressures
Verticalloadsduetobackfill(forburiedpipes)
Horizontalbackfillpressures(forburiedpipes)
Surchargeandconcentrations(forburiedpipes)
Beddingandloaddistribution(forburiedpipes)
Supportandanchorloads(forpipessupportedaboveground)
Temperatureloads(foropenairpipelinesduetotendencyofshrinkageandextension)
For pipes under pressure (buried or not), especially if subjected

to waterhammer, inner pressures (loads) might be most
important. The total shell tension due to internal pressure is
approximately:F=pD.
Here is the example of the calculation for a steel pipe. Tensile
37
stress=pD/eforunitlengthofpipe.Hereeispipeshell(wall)thickness(orequivalentthickness
oftensiontakingpart).Thicknesscouldbecalculatedfromhereifinsteadoftensilestress,allowable
tensile stress (for given material) is used. Usual procedure would be to compute this thickness first,
taking into account pressure transients. This procedure requires iterations since the pipe thickness
affectspressurewaveceleritya,whichisrelevantfordeterminationofpressureriseH.
Changeofheadforquickclosure/openingcanbeexpressedby:
av0
Zhkovskycasefullwaterhammer
Whereaiscelerityofthepressurewave:
1
1 D

K eE
10 4
D
50 k
e
Forwater=1000kg/m3,bulkmodulusK20108N/m2,k=1011/E
ForsteelE201010N/m2,k=0.5;Dispipelinediameter,eispipewallthickness.
Forothermaterials:k=1(castiron),k=5(concrete,lead),k=10(wood,plastic)
Openingorclosureisconsideredtobequickifitsshorterthantimeneededforpressurewaveto
traveltotheupperreservoirandback(0T,=2L/a).
Iftheopeningorclosuretakeslongerthanpressurechangeisdiminished: H 2
Lv 0
.Ifalongthe
gT
pipelinecrosssectionchanges,eachchangegeneratestransmissionandreflectionpressurewavesthat
superimposewithoriginalonesandaffecttheresults.Forbranchingorloopingnetworksthesemust
betakenintoaccount,andcomputationbecomesrathermorecomplicated.Ifthepumpingstations
areplacedalongtheconveyanceitisoftendifficulttocontroltimesofopeningand(especially)
closure,thusdifferentmeasurescanbeappliedtocontrolthedrop/riseofhead:
Flywheelsifcoupledwiththepumptheyprovideadditionalinertiasothatpumprotatesawhile
afterpowercutoccurs.Suitableforsmallinstallations.
Bypassesandpressurereliefvalvesbypasswithnonreturnvalvesuckspartoftheoriginalflow
mitigating the negative effects of sudden stoppage. Pressure release valves and air inlet valves
couldbeprovidedinthepipelineasadditionoralternatively.
Surge tanks and air vessels have to be placed as close to the pump(s) as possible. Therefore,
often it is not practicable to use open surge tanks (for they would require enormous heights).
Rather,closeairvesselswithaircompressorsaremorecommonlyused.Theyconvert(orlimitin
space) more severe waterhammer effects to milder (and longer/slower) surge (mass oscillation)
effects.
Airvesselsservebothforsuddenopeningandclosure.Acheckvalveshouldbeprovidedbetweenthe
pumpandairvessel.Predeterminedextremelevelsintheairvesseltriggerthecompressedair
delivery.
Neglectingheadlosses,simplifiedsolutionforsuddencompleteclosure(intermsofheadchange)is:
38
H H 0 Q0
gAH 0
LH 0
sin
t
LV
gAV0
0
H min H 0 Q0
LH 0
gAV0
FromhereVmaxcanbecomputed:
Vmax1.2Hmin=V01.2H0
Periodofoscillationis:
2
gAH 0
LV0
Including losses in the pipeline and (entrance into/exit from) the air vessel, computation gets
somewhat more complicated and is usually solved by finite difference equation or by using design
graphs for given (or assumed) head losses. For pipelines with changing diameters equivalent length
(onediameterlengththatwouldhavesameheadlossesasoriginalpipe)canbeusedinsimplified
computations.
Ifthepipethickness(obtainedinthisway)islessthancertainstructuralminimum,thanthislatervalue
shouldbeadopted.Structuralminimumwoulddependonmaterialusedandpipediameter(forsteel
pipesthisshouldbe8mmormoreforlargerpipes,includingupto2mmprovisionforcorrosionand
abrasion losses of the mass during operation). Such dimensions should be checked if can withstand
otherloads,andadjustedifnecessary.
Usually temperature induced loads should be alleviated using deformable coupling elements
(expansion joints) that can accommodate resulting deformations. Due to temperature changes pipe
wouldtendtoexpand(contract)betweentwofixedpoints(anchorblocks)dependingontemperature
differencebetweenparticularmomentandambienttemperatureduringpipeplacement.Temperature
linearexpansioncoefficientis(m/moC).Forsteelitisabout12x106.Withoutanchors,extensionof
thepipeslengthwouldbe:L=Ltt.
Ifexpansionisdisabledbyanchorblocksreactingstresswoulddevelop:
=EL/L, E is modulus of elasticity of material (for steel 20x1010 Pa). These stresses and resulting
forcescanbeunacceptable,andtodiminishthemspecialpipelineconstructionarrangementscanbe
introducedeitherexpansionjointsorharpshapedpipelinedeformableparts.
For freesurface or lowpressure pipes, loads caused by burying, backfill and surcharge are more
important.Iftheyarenotburied,thenstructuralthicknessdependentonthematerialusedandpipes
diameter, should be adopted. For concrete pipes t=1/12D, but not less than 15 cm (D inner pipe
diameter).
39
Theplatethicknessrequiredtoresistbucklingunderuniformexternalpressureisapproximately:
e 1.6 D 3
6
p
E
Ownweightofthepipeandwaterinitmustbetakenintoaccountforcalculationoftheforcesacting
on supports and anchor blocks. Friction, inertial, deflection (centrifugal) and other effects must be
accountedfor.
Placement considerations
Pipescanbeburiedoropen.Botharrangementshaveadvantagesanddisadvantages.Decisionistobe
madebasedonprojectneeds,localconditionsandthelike.
Buriedpipes:
Advantages Keep water temperature pretty constant and protect from freezing; Ambient
temperatures do not impose extra loads (savings on expansion joints); Once placed they do
notconsumeextraspace;Frequentanticorrosionpaintingnotneeded
Disadvantages difficult accessibility for maintenance; Backfill pressures; Expensive trench

excavation,beddingmaterial,carefulbackfilling;difficultplacementlimitedspaceforwork;
Painfuldetectionofleakageandotherproblems.
Openpipes:
Advantagessimpleaccessibilityformaintenance;Nobackfillpressures;Noexpensivetrench
excavation, bedding material, careful backfilling; Simplified placement plenty of space for
work;Easydetectionofleakageandotherproblems
Disadvantages water temperature affected by ambient and no protection from freezing;

Ambienttemperaturesimposesevereextraloads(expensiveexpansionjoints);theyoccupya
lotofvaluablespace;Frequentanticorrosionpaintingneeded;Anchorblocksandnumerous
supports.
Economic considerations
Importanceofoptimizedlayout.Severalalternativesshouldbecompared.Savinginlengthand
diameter/wallthickness(aswellaspumpingfacilities)
Selectionofeconomicconduitsize(Pumpingstations,HPP,etc.).Incasewhenplentyofheadis
available (no pumping needed, or no HPP foreseen/feasible) then consideration of minimum
diametermax.allowablevelocityandavailableenergyhead.
Comparisonorcombinationwithothertypesofconveyancesifapplicable.
Intermsofmaterialsforthepipesinhydraulicconstruction(largerscale)mostcommonaresteeland
concrete. Asbestoscement introduced after the other two, seemed to be promising due to its
favorableproperties(durability,easeofplacement,etc.),butlatelyitissuspectedtoberesponsiblefor
potentiallycausingcancer,andisnolongerconsideredenvironmentfriendlymaterial.
Steelpipesaremostlyweldednowadays,thoughothertypesofjointsarestillused.Theyarerelatively
expensive and require protection (and maintenance) against corrosion. Otherwise, they are
40
comparatively easy to handle, they can stand extreme pressure and tension stresses, easy to make
fittings,joints,branches,expansions,contractions,bends,andwhateverelseneeded.
2.3.
Canals
Inasimilarmanner,theopencanalscouldbeanalyzedinordertoobtainparametersforpreliminary
design.ForhydrauliccomputationsManningformulawasused:
2
1
AR 3 S
n
Fromherecrosssectionisoptimizedforvariouslateralcanalslopes.Overalloptimumwithsidesat60o
is in most cases not technically feasible from the construction viewpoint. Therefore, as earlier
mentionedfollowing,morecommonslopeswereusedV:H=1:m(form=0,1,1.5and2).(Heremi=
1/Si)
Figure27Typicalcanalsection
Inordertofitthecanalintothegroundafreeboardshouldbedeterminedaswell.Traditionallythisis
between30and120cmandusuallytakenas30cm+0.25.h(wherehisthewaterdepthinthecanalin
cm).Alsoinamoregeneralformalateralslopeoftheterrainshouldbeconsideredinordertofitthe
canalandcalculatethebillofquantities:
Figure28Typicalcanalsectionwithlateralgroundslope
The quantities will generally increase for increased lateral terrain slope for the HJK value. In the
present model this has been ignored and taken into account as contingencies or the lump sum for
unforeseenworksintheformofpercentagebasedongeneralengineeringjudgmentfortheparticular
siteconditions.
The same type of the conveyance formula, as the one for pipes, is derived for those types of
trapezoidal canals. Instead of filling coefficient as in pipes, optimal ratio of h/B would determine a
coefficientintheformula:
3
Qn 8
D
S
Table4Canalflowcalculationsparameters
m OPT.B/h
Applicable
1.834
41
m=0

1.81 e(0.833.m)
m OPT.B/h
1
1.5
2
0.84
0.62
0.592 Log(m)+0.7854
0.48
0.8305
0.711 m
Applicable
m1
1<m1.8
1.8<m
Coefficient (hereby obtained by best fitting curve method rather than using cumbersome exact
arithmeticexpression)inthiswaycouldbeappliedwithreasonableaccuracyforotherslopesaswell.
However,ifonewantstohaveexactsolutionsthoseshouldbederivedforeachparticularcase.Inthis
wayoptimaldimensionsareobtainedforagivenlateralslopemandQ,nandS.Structuralminimum
for bottom width should be observed if the canal is to be constructed mechanically. This is usually
adopted between 60 and 80 cm depending on the type of the equipment to be used. Therefore if
computedBshouldfallbelowthisvalueappropriatestructuralminimumshouldreplaceit.
FlowregimesdependonFroudenumber:
FR
Q 2 BW
,whenequals1.0thenitiscriticalflow
g A3
Forrectangularcanals: FR
v2
orFr=v/(gh)1/2
g h
hc=[Q2/b2g]1/3=(q2/g)1/3
Figure29Criticaldepthandflowregimes
Critical depth gives the maximum discharge for a given energy. It occurs at the section where flow
regimeschange.Whenflowdepthishigherthancriticaldepthhc (oryc),theflowregimeissubcritical
and when h0<hc the flow is supercritical. In supercritical flow regime calculation is performed from
upstreamtodownstream,whileitisoppositeforsubcriticalflowregime.Fortransitionfromsuperto
subcritical,hydraulicjumpoccurs.Energyequationisnotapplicable.Instead,amomentumequationis
used:P=Q(v2v1),resultinginjumpformula(see2.4.4onpage48).
42

Figure30Typicalchangesofflowregimes
2.4.
Tyrolean intake
43
Figure31Tyroleanintake
2.4.1.
Intake
44
AfterP.NovakAppliedHydraulics,IHEDelft,1981.
h1
1
h
Distancefromthebeginningoftheintake
h
1
h
1
1
r c
E
E
Where
r=0.57ratiooftheintakebreadthtoriverbreadth
c=0.45coefficient(0.40.5afterMostkov)forlongitudinaltrashrackbars.
h1=hCRwaterdepthatthebeginning(forx=0)
hDepthforwhichdistancefromthebeginningisdetermined
EEnergyoftheflow
Forallwatertobetakeninthedepthattheendwouldbeh=0,thus:
bz
h1
1
h
1
1
r c
E
Forexampleofthedischarge:
Qz=0.21m3/s
Onethirdoftheareaisblockedbybarsandbytheleavesanddebris:
Table5ExampleofthecalculationforTyroleanintake
Q
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
L
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
q
0.105
0.084
0.070
0.053
0.042
hc
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.065
0.06
b
0.25
0.22
0.19
0.16
0.14
B
(increased)
0.38
0.32
0.29
0.24
0.20
Bpot
0.75
0.65
0.57
0.47
0.41
h
0.070
0.060
0.050
0.040
0.030
0.020
0.010
0.000
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
Figure32Waterprofileontheintake
45
0.14
0.16
0.18
Otherapproach:
Bz=
Lz=
br=
c=
q=
hkr=
Breadthofthecanal
Lengthofthecanal
Heightoftherack
Coefficient
Unitdischarge
Criticaldepth
h= Depthofwaterontherack
Dh= Freeboardofnonspillwaysection
bpot= Neededwidth
AfterHajdin,Sarajevo1966.
AndafterI.Valant,Ljubljana1986.
Data:
Bz=
Lz=
br=
c=
q=
hkr=
0,914xQ0,4
7xBz
Bz/cosb
0,6x(a/d)xcos1,5b
Q/Lz
0,476xq0,6667
h= kxhkr
Dh= 1,5xhkr
bpot= 0,3386*(q/(cxmxh0,5)
0.21 m3/s
Qinst=
Slopeoftherack=
a=
d=
m=
k=
10
20
30
0.65
0.91
%
mm
mm
(forflatiron)
(forb=10o)
Bz
0.21 0.490
Lz
beta
3.43 0.492 0.100 0.357
qs
hc
0.061
0.073
0.066
0.091
Bpot
mu
ar
0.348 0.91 0.65
15
25
2.4.2.
Collection canal
Lengthofcollectioncanalundertherackisdonebyempiricalformula:
AfterP.NovakAppliedHydraulicsIHEDelftand1981,HydraulicStructures,London1990:
Computationofthewatersurface
Q
B
n
0.21
0.6
0.02
46
So
0.025
hc
0.232
L
4
Rackheight
0.04
Elevationoftherack
254.4
Elevationofthecanalbeginning
253.66
Elevationofthecanalend
253.56
0.013704
Scr
Q1 v1 v 2
v Q
v 2
S 0 S f x
g Q1 Q2
Q1
WhereS0bedslope,Sfenergyslope
0.500
0.450
0.400
0.350
0.300
h
0.250
h+v2/2g
0.200
0.150
0.100
0.050
0.000
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Figure33Waterprofileonthecollectioncanal
2.4.3.
Spillway on the sill (Q1/100)
Discharge:Q1/100=35m3/s
Q C 2 2 g B H 3 2 C3 B H 3 2
Dischargecoefficient:C2=0.40,orC3=1.77
BSpillwaybreadth
HSpillwaydepth
Elevationofthesill254.50mASL.
Elevationofthespillway254.70mASL.
Bp
4.0
47
BreadthofTyroleanpart
B
Qsr
Q1/100
Qi
Qmin
Pu
Pn
Hp
Ht
m
hc
Eo
7.0
0.24
35
0.37
0.0125
0.95
1.7
1.88
2.08
0.4
1.37
3.78
Breadthofthesill total
Discharges
Sillheightupstream
Sillheightdownstream
Heightofspillingpart
HeightofTyroleanpart
SpillwayCoefficient
Criticaldepth
Availableenergy
Floodwaterelevation=254.50+2.08=256.58mASL.
Orroughly256.60mASL.
2.4.4.
E y1
Stilling basin (Q1/100)
q2
,availableenergy
2 g 2 y12
y1
q2
y2
1 1 8 3
2
gy1
,conjugatedepths(y1iy2)
Stillingbasin(SB)length:
Lb=K(y2y1)
Where4.5<K<5.5for10>Fr13
SB:
Lb
11
Whenallgoesoverspillway
1.85
SBdepth*
Db
ho
1.42
Downstreamdepth
SBdimensions (lengthanddepth)Lb,Db.
kgv
256.58
Headwaterlevel
kp
254.5
252.8
kb
B
7.0
SBBreadth
Ho
2.08
Depthover Tyroleanpart
H
1.7
Sillheightupstream
E
3.78
Energy tobottom
0.64
Firstconj.depth
h1(y1)
3.14
Froude number
Fr1
48
DepthattheSBend:
S
n
h
Fr
1.20%
0.02
0.94
1.87
Bedslopedownstream
Roughness(Manning)
DownstreamdepthendofSB
Froude number
Checkup
Manningsformula:
2
1
Q AR 3 S
n
Where:
QDischarge
nRoughnesscoefficient
ACrosssectionalarea
RHydraulicradius
SRiverbedslope
Graduallyvariedflow:
dy S 0 S f
y S 0 S f
2
dx 1 Fr
x 1 F r 2
Where:
SoRiverbedslope
SfEnergyslope
FrFroudenumber
EndofSBdepth:
S
n
h
Fr
1.20%
0.028
1.37
1.06
Downstreamslope
Roughness
DownstreamdepthendofSB
Froudenumber
253.8
253.6
253.4
kota dna
253.2
kota vode
253
252.8
252.6
0
Figure34WaterprofilealongSB
49
254
253.8
253.6
253.4
kota dna
253.2
kota vode
253
252.8
252.6
252.4
0
10
12
14
16
Figure35WaterprofilealongSBanddownstream
Waterdepthdownstream:
bk
4.5
S
1.20%
n
0.033
m
1.25
A
10.9
10.9
Bw
h
1.42
1.02
Fr
Riverbedbreadth
Downstreamslope
Roughness
Sideslopes
Area
Watersurfacebreadth
DepthattheendofSB
Froudenumber
2.4.5.
Settling basin (Qi)
H1= Waterdepthatthebeginning
H1= k1xh0
0,1
k1= Coefficientoftransitionv0tovT
k1= 1,6xQ
BT= Settlingbasinbreadth
BT= ST/H1
LTC.= Lengthofthesettlingbasin(theoretical)
LTra.= H1x(vT/u)
LT= Lengthofthesettlingbasin(adopted)
LT= 1,6xLTra.

Exampledata:
Qinst=
0.21 m3/s
Discharge
Depthatthebeginningoftransition
h0=
0.85 m
Breadthofthecollectioncanal
b0=
0.60 m
Adoptedflowvelocity
vT=
0.3 m/s
Adoptedsedimentfallvelocity
Adoptedbedslope
u=
I=
0.025 m/s
2 %
50
h0
b0
v0
vT
ST
H1pot
BT
BTusv
LT
LTusv
(m /s)
(m)
(m)
(m/s)
(m/s)
(m )
(m)
(m)
(m)
(m/s)
(m)
(m)
(m)
0.210
0.85
0.80
0.31
0.15
1.45
1.16
1.24
1.70
0.03
6.76
10.82
11.20
CheckupbyStokesLaw:
Table6Settlingvelocityoftheparticledependentonwatertemperature/viscosity
o
20
12
10
m2
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
m3/s
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
VAV
m/s
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
mm
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
vSET
m/s
0.033
0.026
0.025
0.024
0.022
hAV
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
11.20
11.20
11.20
11.20
11.20
TSET
25.99
32.20
34.00
36.17
38.29
t flow
37.84
37.84
37.84
37.84
37.84
51
Otherapproachcanusethefollowingformulae:
Basinlength:h/v <L/v
D
Velocity:
Forturbulentflowacorrectionisrequired:
Where:
Criticalwaterflowvelocity:
2.4.1.
Silt outlet (Qout)
Qout=?
Q C A 2 gH
Coefficient:C=0.7
AArea
HDepthtoaxis
Waterelevation253.75mASL.
Axiselevation253.02mASL.
Adoptedopening0.4x0.4m
52
HpHbottom
b
h
A
H
m
Q
0.93
0.4
0.4
0.16
0.73
0.7
0.424
Qout=424l/s
Timetoempty=?
y2
T 2 Ha
a 2g
Volumeca.
hmax
D
A
m
Q
y1
H2
Ha
H1
Ha
A ydy
c 1 y
15.90 m
0.73
0.4
0.16
0.7
0.42
m
m
m2
m3/s
Timetoempty
Forpartiallyclosedgate:
10%
20%
0.05
0.10
75 s=
1.25 min
30%
0.15
40%
0.20
50%
0.24
60%
0.28
70%
0.32
80%
0.36
Propusna mo ispusta
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Otvor zatvaraa
Q=f(opening)
53
Q (m3/s)
90%
0.39
100%
0.42
2.4.2.
Spillway from settling basin (Qmax)
AfterG.A.Simonjan(1960.):
h2 h1 S 0 S f L 0,9
v1 v 2
2g
h L
h L
m 0,08 2 2 L 0,23 2 2 0,27
B
B
Q m 2g L H 2
32
S o
B
n
m
L
Hp2
v1
v2
P
h2
A
R
m(Hp2)
m=
Sf2
h1
A
R
Hp1
Sf1
0.02
1.7
0.02
0.113
3
0.832
0.614
0
0.87
1.702
2.894
0.567
0.113
0.08*(h2*L/B2)^20.23*((h2*L/B2)2)+0.27
0.013%
2
2
h2h1=(SoSf)*L+0.9(v1 v2 )/2g
1.635
2.783
0.560
0.765
0.015%
2.4.3.
Duty flow outlet (Qmin)
Firstapproach:
L

D
Q C A 2 gH
54
Where:
fCoefficientDarcyWeisbach H f f
f 124.6 n 2
L v2
.
D 2g
D =0,029
sumofminorlosses(1.5)
LPipelength
DDiameter
C=0.762
Secondapproach:
Re=vD/orReR=vR/R=D/4=157000
1
Re
1.8 log
Colebrook
7
f
C=0.762
Thirdapproach:
For3<L/D<55
C=
C(79.2)
(1/(1.5+0.02*L/D))
0.778142 (velocitycoefficientforcontractioncoefficient=1)
C=0.78
Adopted(safetyside)C=0.75
Figure36Tyroleanintakedrawing
55
3.
Hydropower basics and Hydraulic structures

3.1.
General
Thebasicprincipleofhydropoweristhatifwatercanbepipedfromacertainleveltoalowerlevel,
thentheresultingwaterpressurecanbeusedtodowork.Ifthewaterpressureisallowedtomovea
mechanical component then that movement involves the conversion of the potential energy of the
water into mechanical energy. Hydro turbines convert water pressure into mechanical shaft power,
whichcanbeusedtodriveanelectricitygenerator,agrindingmillorsomeotherusefuldevice.
3.2.
History
The use of falling water as a source of energy is known for a long time. In the ancient times
waterwheels were used already, but only at the beginning of the nineteenth century with the
inventionofthehydroturbinetheuseofhydropowergotanewimpulse.
Smallscalehydropowerwasthemostcommonwayofelectricitygeneratingintheearly20thcentury.
In 1924 for example in Switzerland nearly 7000 small scale hydropower stations were in use. The
improvement of distribution possibilities of electricity by means of high voltage transmission lines
causedfaintedinterestinsmallscalehydropower.
Renewed interest in the technology of small scale hydropower started in China. Estimates say that
between1970and1985nearly76,000smallscalehydrostationshavebeenbuiltthere!
3.3.
Advantages and disadvantages
Hydropowerisaverycleansourceofenergy.Itdoesnotconsumebutonlyusesthewater,afteruseit
isavailableforotherpurposes(althoughonalowerhorizontallevel).Theconversionofthepotential
energy of water into mechanical energy is a technology with a high efficiency (in most cases double
thatofconventionalthermalpowerstations).
The useofhydropowercanmakeacontributiontosavingson exhaustibleenergysources.Each600
kWhofelectricitygeneratedwithahydroplantisequivalentto1barrelofoil(assuminganefficiency
of38%fortheconversionofoilintoelectricity).
Themainadvantagesofhydropowerare:
powerisusuallycontinuouslyavailableondemand,
givenareasonablehead,itisaconcentratedenergysource,
theenergyavailableispredictable,
nofuelandlimitedmaintenancearerequired,sorunningcostsarelow(comparedwithdiesel
power)andinmanycasesimportsaredisplacedtothebenefitofthelocaleconomy,
56
Itisalonglastingandrobusttechnology;systemscanlastfor50yearsormorewithoutmajor
newinvestments.
Againstthese,themainshortcomingsare:
itisasitespecifictechnologyandsitesthatarewellsuitedtotheharnessingofwaterpower
itisasitespecifictechnologyandsitesthatarewellsuitedtotheharnessingofwaterpower
andarealsoclosetoalocationwherethepowercanbeeconomicallyexploitedarenotvery
common,
thereisalwaysamaximumusefulpoweroutputavailablefromagivenhydropowersite,which
limitsthelevelofexpansionofactivitieswhichmakeuseofthepower,
riverflowsoftenvaryconsiderablywiththeseasons,especiallywheretherearemonsoontype
climatesandthiscanlimitthefirmpoweroutputtoquiteasmallfractionofthepossiblepeak
output,
Lack of familiarity with the technology and how to apply it inhibits the exploitation of hydro
resourcesinsomeareas.
3.4.
Stream or Catchment Development
Hydropowerisalmostasoldashumankind.Thetheoreticalbaseisverysimple.Allthereistoitisto
use the work of the falling water, thus it depends on water discharge (Q) and available head (H).
Thereisgravity(g)andliquiddensity()involved,butsincewedevelophydropoweronEarthand
use water for that, then those other two parameters are constant and usually expressed as specific
gravity()ofwater.
AllonehastomemoriseisaPowerformula:
P=gQH(W)
TheformulaisSiconsistent,sobyincludingSiUnits,theresultisalsoSi:
water=1000kg/m3
g=9.807m/s2
Q[m3/s]
H[m]
P[W]
Thus
P=9.81QH(kW)
If the energy is needed, we can try to develop the hydro potential. All we need to do is to look for
appropriatelocationswherethereiswater,headorboth,availableandfind theeconomicallyviable
waytoharnessit.Thestructureswebuildandmachinesweinstall,duetoimperfectionsandlawsof
physics,willdissipatesomeoftheavailablepower.Thepartlostonfrictioninwaterpassagethrough
diversionstructures(headrace,penstockandtailrace)areusuallytakenintoaccountthroughreducing
thegrosshead(HG)deductingfrictionlosses(H)andincludinganethead(HN)instead.Thepartlost
to mechanical friction and electric transformation at the power unit is usually taken into account
57
through efficiency coefficient (), which is ranging from 0.81 to 0.89. Thus practical power formula
lookslike:
P=9.81QH(kW)
Or
P8QHNto8.5QHN
Usingthisformulawithknownavailablemeanwaterflowandlongitudinalprofileofastream,onecan
easily determine the streams potential (power capacity). This can be applied to any stream and
tributaries.TheresultofeachonewouldlooksomethinglikeshownonFigure37Exampleofstream
powercapacitycalculation.
Assessment of the stream power capacity is made by analysis of its longitudinal profile (that gives
availableheadH),flowchangealongthestreamandusingPowerformulatocalculateincremental
hydropoweralongthestream.Themostconcentratedpowerperunitoflengthshouldbeaddressed
firstinordertofindthemostsuitablesiteforMHP.Thismethodisusedbypowerdrivenanalyses.If
site driven selection is employed, then the designer will just try to make the most from the site
closesttotheconsumer,withoutoptimisingproceduretofindoutifthatsitecouldbereplacedbya
betterone.
Roughly, when assessing if there is a site available that could provide about 100 kW of power the
followingconditionshouldbesatisfied:
H (m) > 3000 / AC (km2)
Therearetwobasicapproachestoacatchmentwaterpowerdevelopment:
1.
2.
Powerdriven(ifthegoalistoharnessthemaximumavailableortooptimiseutilisation)
Demanddriven(ifthegoalisjusttofulfilcertaindemandinthearea)
The above described procedure is a must with first (1) approach in mind. The river stretches with
highest concentration of power potential would be developed first. If, on the other hand, second
approach is preferred, then this procedure can be skipped in which case one would look for a
suitablelocationneartheconsumerdemand.Thesecondapproachismoresuitableforthekindof
microhydropowerdevelopmentinruralareassuchasplannedbyPEACEProjectbySRSP.However,
itwouldalwaysbeadvisabletoknowwhatportionoftotalpotentialisutilisedforthesakeofpossible
futuredevelopmentopportunitiesinthesameareaoronthesamestream(s).
58

Figure37Exampleofstreampowercapacitycalculation
59
3.5.
Cost of the MHP
AsafirstestimateofthecostofMHP,amodifiedGordonsformulacanbeused(1982,waterpower
andDams).
GordonHPPCostCalculationsinUSD:
ForP<500kW
S=40000(25000to70000dependingonthesiteconditions)
CMHP=SP(kW)0.7Hm0.35+1060.610.7(0.5P(kW)/1000)/Hm0.3)0.82
ThisgivesconsiderablylowervaluethanoriginalGordonsformula(withinflationoftheUSDtakeninto
account), but it is fair to assume that the cost of MHPs would generally decrease due to steeply
increasedproductionandmoreadvancedmanufacturingtechnologiessince1982.Stillthesevaluesare
severalfoldhigherthancostestimatesinPEACEProject.
3.6.
From water to Watts (again)
Toknowthepowerpotentialofwaterinariveritisnecessarytoknowtheflowintheriverandthe
availablehead.Theflowoftheriveristheamountofwater(inm3orlitres)whichpassesinacertain
amountoftimeacrosssectionoftheRiver.Flowsarenormallygivenincubicmeterspersecond(m3/s)
orinlitrespersecond(l/s).Headistheverticaldifferenceinlevel(inmeters)thewaterfallsdown.
Figure38Typicalarrangementofmicrohydroscheme
Thetheoreticalpower(P)availablefromagivenheadofwaterisinexactproportiontotheheadHand
theflowQ.
60
P=QHc c=constant
Theconstantcistheproductofthedensityofwaterandtheaccelerationduetogravity(g).
IfPismeasuredinWatts,Qinm3/sandHinmeters,thegrosspoweroftheflowofwateris:
P=10009.8QH(W)
Thisavailablepowerwillbeconvertedbythehydroturbineinmechanicalpower.Asaturbinehasan
efficiencylowerthan1,thegeneratedpowerwillbeafractionoftheavailablegrosspower.
Practically,onecancalculateactualpower,takingintoaccountallefficiencycoefficients,toberoughly:
P=8.0QH(kW)
For a given runofriver hydropower plant (meaning there is no water storage involved), the energy
computation can be done in a simple manner shown on following figures (Figure 39 through Figure
41).
Duration curve Q
1.000
0.900
Q (prirodno)
0.800
Q sr
Q (m3/s)
0.700
Q min
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0
30
60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

T (days)
Figure39Flowdurationcurve
61
Durarion curves Q i H
0.600
100.0
Q (prirodno)
Q turbine
0.500
Hn (m)
90.0
Hn (m)
Q (m3/s)
0.400
0.300
0.200
80.0
0.100
0.000
70.0
0
30
60
90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

T (days)
Figure40Netheaddurationcurve
Duration curves Q i P
0.800
240.0
0.700
Q (prirodno)
Q turbine
0.600
210.0
180.0
0.500
150.0
0.400
120.0
0.300
90.0
0.200
60.0
0.100
30.0
0.000
P (kW)
Q (m3/s)
P (kW)
0.0
0
30
60
90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

T (days)
Figure41Powerdurationcurve
Simpleexcelcomputationisperformedtogettheresults:
62
3.7.
Hn (m)
P (kW)
1.384
0.733
0.554
0.410
0.346
0.270
0.221
0.166
0.138
0.104
0.081
0.076
0.058
0.014
1.38
0.73
0.55
0.41
0.35
0.27
0.22
0.17
0.14
0.10
0.08
0.08
0.06
0.01
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.32
0.24
0.20
0.14
0.11
0.08
0.06
0.00
0.00
0.00
74.74
74.74
74.74
74.74
78.20
82.57
84.74
86.63
87.35
88.02
88.33
88.65
88.65
88.65
233.2
233.2
233.2
233.2
211.8
170.3
139.0
99.3
78.6
51.5
30.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
E (MWh)
Q turbine
0
18
37
55
73
110
146
183
219
256
289
292
329
365
p
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
79%
80%
90%
100%
Q (natural)
Table7ExampleofPowercomputationforarunofriverMHP
102.2
102.2
102.2
97.5
167.4
135.5
104.4
77.9
57.0
32.2
1.3
0.0
0.0
980.1
Different sizes hydropower installations
Hydropowerinstallationscanbeclassifiedasfollows:
Table8ExampleofHydropowerclassification
name
description
Large all installations with an installed capacity of more than 1000 kW (according
to some definitions more than 10,000 kW)
Small general term for installations smaller than 1000 kW (or < 10,000 kW ). Also
used for installations in the range between 500 and 1000 kW.
Mini
capacity between 100 and 500 kW
Micro hydropower installations with a power output less than 100 kW (or less than
1000 kW)
Largescalehydropowerstationsareequippedwithlargedamsandhugewaterstoragereservoirs.In
these reservoirs large amounts of water can be stored when supply of water is higher than the
demand.Waterfromwetperiodscanbeusedinthiswaytosupplementwatersupplyindryperiods
(orevendryyears).
In the sixties and seventies large hydropower stations looked as the solution to the energy crisis in
developingcountries.Inthatperiodmanylargescalehydroschemeswerebuilt.ExamplesareAswan
inEgypt,TarbelainPakistan,CaboraBassainMozambiqueandKaribainZimbabwe.
Theenthusiasmforprojectslikethosehasgenerallydecreasednowadays,eventhoughtherearestill
someexamplesofhugeHPPsespeciallyinBrazilandChina.Theextremehighsumsofmoneyinvolved,
thelongmoneyrecoverytimeandthehugeenvironmentalcostsaredebittothis.Especiallythehigh
63
environmentalcostsareapointofgreatconcern:lossesoffertilearableland,forcedmigrationoflarge
groupsofpeopleandthedangersofmalariaandbilharziainherenttononmovingwater.
3.8.
Small hydropower
Smallscalehydropowerstationscombinetheadvantagesofhydropowerwiththoseofdecentralized
powergeneration,withoutthedisadvantagesoflargescaleinstallations.Smallscalehydropowerhas
hardlydisadvantages:nocostlydistributionofenergyandnohugeenvironmentalcostsaswithlarge
hydro, independent from imported fuels and no need for expensive maintenance. Small scale
hydropowercanbeuseddecentralisedandbelocallyimplementedandmanaged.
Powergeneratedwithsmallhydrostationcanbeusedforagroprocessing,locallighting,waterpumps
andsmallbusinesses.Thecontextofsmallhydropowercanbedescribedasfollows:
decentralised, small demand for power (small industries, farms, households and rural
communities),distributionnetworkwithlowvoltages(eventuallysubregionalgrid),
ownedbyanindividual,cooperativeorcommunitywithsemiskilledworkers,
shortplanninghorizonsandconstructionperiodswiththeuseoflocalavailablematerialsand
skills,
depending on generated power it can have a substantial impact on local standards of living
(biggerthanonlythesuppliedpower),
asonlysomeinformationisavailableaboutthepotentialpoweroftennotmorethan10%of
thepotentialisused.
3.9.
Energy uses
Theuseofpowergeneratedwithsmallhydrostationscanbedividedinproductiveandconsumptive
use.Auseiscalledproductiveasanactivityisperformedinwhichmoney(orsomethingequivalent)is
exchangedforaservice.Mostofthoseactivitieswilltakeplaceinsmallbusinesses
All other activities are called consumptive. These include all uses of energy to upgrade standards of
living.Consumptiveusewillthereforetakeplaceinornearthehouse.
Besides consumptive and productive use a distinction can be made between the use of power in a
mechanicalwayorintheformofelectricity.
Alltogetherthefollowingtablecanbeformed.
Table9Typicalenergyuses
64
3.10.
Components of a scheme
Thewaterintheriverisdivertedbytheweirthroughanopeningintheriverside(the`intake')intoan
openchannel.Asettlingbasinisusedtoremovesandparticlesfromthewater.Thechannelfollows
thecontourofthehillsidesoastopreservetheelevationofthedivertedwater.Thewaterthenenters
atankknownasthe`forebay'andpassesintoaclosedpipeknownasthe`penstock'.Thisisconnected
atalowerelevationtoawaterwheelknownasaturbine.Theturningshaftofthewheelcanbeusedto
rotateamechanicaldevice(suchasagrindingmill,oilexpeller,woodlatheandsoon),ortooperate
an electricity generator. The machinery or appliances which are energized by the hydro scheme are
calledtheload'.
1.Lowheadwithariverbarrage
2.Lowheadwithachannel
3.Highheadwithnochannel
4.Highheadwithchannel
Thefigurebelowshowsthemajorcomponentsofatypicalmicrohydropowerscheme:
Figure42Majorcomponentsofamicrohydroscheme
Anumberofessentialfactorsmustbekeptinmindwhendesigningamicrohydropowersystem.Some
ofthoseare:
1)Useofavailablehead
Thedesignofthesystemhaseffectsonthenetheaddeliveredtotheturbine.Componentssuchasthe
channel and penstock cannot be perfectly efficient. Inefficiencies appear as losses of useful head of
pressure.
65
2)Flowvariations
Theriverflowvariesduringtheyearbutthehydroinstallationisdesignedtotakerelativelyconstant
flow.Ifthechanneloverflowstherewillbeseriousdamagetothesurroundings.Theweirandintake
mustthereforedivertthecorrectflowwhethertheriverisinloworinhighflow.Themainfunctionof
theweiristoensurethatthechannelflowismaintainedwhentheriverislow.Theintakestructureis
designed to regulate the flow to within reasonable limits when the river is in high flow. Further
regulationofthechannelflowisprovidedbythespillways.
3)Sediment
Flowing water in the river may carry small particles of hard abrasive matter (sediment); these can
cause wear to the turbine if they are not removed before the water enters the penstock. Sediment
mayalsoblocktheintakeorcausethechanneltoclogupifadequateprecautionsarenottaken.
4)Floods
Flood water will carry larger suspended particles and will even cause large stones to roll along the
streambed.Unlesscarefuldesignprinciplesareapplied,thediversionweir,theintakestructureand
theembankmentwallsoftherivermaybedamaged.
5)Transients
Inallpartsofthewatersupplyline,includingtheweir,theintakeandthechannel,suddenalterations
totheflowdirectionwillcreatetransientswhishincreasenaturalturbulenceoftheflow.Turbulence
erodesstructuresandcausesenergylosses.Transientscauseunsteadyflowconditionswhichmaytake
longtimetostabilise.
Ahydropowerstationhastodivertwaterfromtheriver.Toperformthisfunctioncivilstructuresare
necessary.Figure42showsthedifferentelementthecivilworksconsistof.
3.10.1.
Weir and intake
Ahydrosystemmustextractwaterfromtheriverinareliableandcontrollableway.Thewaterflowing
inthechannelmustberegulatedduringhighriverflowandlowflowconditions.Aweircanbeusedto
raise the water level and ensure a constant supply to the intake. Sometimes it is possible to avoid
buildingaweirbyusingnaturalfeaturesoftheriver.Apermanentpoolintherivermayprovidethe
samefunctionasaweir.
Anotherconditioninplacingtheweiristoprotectitfromdamage.
Usually it is sensible to adopt traditional water management techniques known to local people.
Temporaryweirconstructionmightbeoneofthesetechniques.Theprincipleofthetemporaryweiris
toconstructasimplestructureatlowcostusinglocallabour,skillsandmaterials.Itisexpectedtobe
destroyed by annual or biannual flooding. Advanced planning is made for rebuilding of the weir
whenevernecessary.
66

Figure43Examplesoftemporaryintakes
Theintakeofahydroschemeisdesignedtodivertacertainpartoftheriverflow.Thispartcangoup
to 100 % as the total flow of the river is diverted via the hydro installation which certainly is not
environmentallyjustifiable!
Thefollowingpointsarerequiredforapermanentintake:
thedesiredflowmustbediverted,
thepeakflowoftherivermustbeabletopasstheintakeandweirwithoutcausingdamageto
them,
aslessaspossiblemaintenanceandrepairs,
itmustpreventlargequantitiesofloosematerialfromenteringthechannel,
itmusthavethepossibilitytoremovepiledupsediment.
Fromthesepointsfollow,thatthepositioningandshapeoftheweirandintakeareveryimportant.
Theintakescanbemadeofgabions,fascines,rockfill,masonry,concrete,woodenbeansandpoles,
etc.Thechoiceofthematerialandtypewouldlargelydependonlocalconditions.
Figure44TheexampleofpermanentMHPconcreteintake
67
a)
Sideintakewithoutweir
+Relativelycheap
+Nocomplexmachineryrequiredfor
Constructionasksforregularmaintenanceandrepairs
Atlowflowsverylittlewaterwillbedivertedandthereforethistypeofintakeisnotsuitablefor
riverswithgreatfluctuationsinflow.
Figure45Uncontrolledintake
b)
Sideintakewithweir
Theweirusedinthisconfigurationcanbepartlyorcompletelysubmergedintothewater.
+Controlwaterlevel
+Littlemaintenancenecessary(ifwelldesigned)
Lowflowcannotbedivertedproperly
Modernmaterialslikeconcretenecessary
68

Figure46Examplesideintake
Figure47Overviewofthesideintake
69

Figure48Exampleofgabionsillintake
70

Figure49Examplesideintake
c)
Bottomintake
Atabottomintakethewholeweirissubmergedintothewater.Excesswaterwillpasstheintakeby
flowingovertheweir.
+ Very useful at fluctuating flows. Even the

lowestflowcanbediverted
+ No (or little) maintenance required (if well
designed)
Expensive
Localmaterialsnotuseable
Good design required to prevent blockage
bysediment.
Iffloatingdebrisisaproblem,asteelorwoodenbar(`skimmer'),canbepositionedonthewater
surfaceatanangletotheflowastostopthedebrisandprotecttheintake.
71

Figure50ExampleofTyrolean(bottomwithdrawal)intake
ExampleofhydrauliccomputationsforTyroleanintakestructuresisgiveninChapter2.4.
3.10.2.
Channels
Thechannelconductsthewaterfromtheintaketotheforebaytank.Thelengthofachannelcanbe
considerable.InNepalchannelsexistwithalengthofafewkilometrestocreateaheadofjust10to30
metres.
The length of the channel depends on local conditions. In one case a long channel combined with a
shortpenstockcanbecheaperornecessary,whileinothercasesacombinationofshortchannelwith
longpenstocksuitsbetter.Insomecasesitisevenadvisabletoavoidthecanalaltogetherandtogo
withapenstockstraitfromtheintakessettlingbasin,whichnowservesasaforebayaswell.
Most channels are excavated, while sometimes structures like aqueducts are necessary. To reduce
frictionandpreventleakageschannelsareoftensealedwithcement,clayorpolythenesheet.
Sizeandshapeofachannelareoftenacompromisebetweencostsandreducedhead.Aswaterflows
inthechannel,itlosesenergyintheprocessofslidingpastthewallsandbedmaterial.Therougherthe
material,thegreaterthefrictionlossandthehighertheheaddropneededbetweenchannelentryand
exit.
Where small streams cross the path of the channel very great care must be taken to protect the
channel.Aheavystormmaycreateatorrenteasilycapableofwashingthechannelaway.Provisionof
72
adrainrunningunderthechannelisusuallynotadequateprotection.Itwilltendtoblockwithmudor
rocks when needed the most. In the long term it is economic to build a complete crossing over the
channel.
Incorporatedinthechannelarethefollowingelements,whichwillbediscussedhere:
settlingbasin,
spillwaysand
Forebaytank
Figure51Typicalheadracecanalsections
Lined canals are prone to uplift damage. The lining either has to withstand the uplift /which would
meanithastobeheavyandthisexpensive)ortohaveprovisionforupliftrelief.Perviousliningisone
ofthesolutionsbutitisalsopronetowaterlossduetoseepage.Drainageholes/pipeswithoneway
checkvalvescouldalsobeused.
3.10.3.
Settling basin / Sandtrap
Thewaterdrawnfromtheriverandfedtotheturbinewillusuallycarryasuspensionofsmallparticles.
This sediment will settling basin can be slowed down by increasing the cross section area of the
channel. For each maximum size of the particles the optimum size of the settling tank can be
calculated.
TheMHPcanbedesignedwithoutit,butthen;
Theturbinerunnerwillsignificantlyshortenitslife
73
Theheadracecanalwillbefilledwithlargequantitiesofthesediment
Therefore it is always advisable to have one just after the intake; there may be another one at the
forebay, to get rid of the remaining sediments before water enters the penstock on its way to the
turbine.
Figure52Typicalsandtrap/settlingbasin
Withorwithoutsettlingbasin,therewillbesomesedimententrainmenttotheheadrace,andthere
willbesomedepositioninit.Howeverthesettlingbasincandecreasetheproblemintheorderof
magnitude(i.e.,10foldormore).
Figure53Typicalsandtrap/settlingbasinelevationsketch
74

Figure54Exampleofcanalsiltation
3.10.4.
Spillways
Spillwaysaredesignedtopermitcontrolledoverflowatcertainpointsalongthechannel.Floodflows
through the intake can be twice the normal channel flow, so the spillway must be large enough for
divertingthisexcessflow.
Thespillwayisaflowregulatorforthechannel.Inadditionitcanbecombinedwithcontrolgatesto
provideameansofemptyingthechannel.
Thespillflowmustbefedbacktotheriverinacontrolledwaysothatitdoesnotdamagethe
foundationsofthechannel.
3.10.5.
Forebay tank
Theforebaytankformstheconnectionbetweenthechannelandthepenstock.Themainpurposeisto
allowthelastparticlestosettledownbeforethewaterentersthepenstock.Dependingonitssizeit
canalsoserveasareservoirtostorewater.
75
A sluice will make it possible to close the entrance to the penstock. In front of the penstock a trash
rack need to be installed to prevent large particles to enter the penstock. A spillway, outlet and silt
preventingsill,areusuallyinstalled.
Aforebay,asaruleofthumb,shouldhaveastorageequallingV=120Qi,inotherwords:2minutes
worthofratedMHPflowshouldbestoredintheforebaytoaccommodatefortransientflowchanges
intheheadracecanalandpenstock.
Figure55Typicalforebaytankdesigndrawing
Figure56Typicalforebaytankoverview
76
3.10.6.
Penstock Materials
Thefollowingfactorshavetobeconsideredwhendecidingwhichmaterialtouseforaparticular
penstock:
surfaceroughness,
designpressure,
methodofjointing,
weightandeaseofinstallation,
accessibilityofthesite,
terrain,soiltype,
designlifeandmaintenance,
weatherconditions,
availability,
relativecost,
Likelihoodofstructuraldamage.
spunductileiron,
asbestoscement(nolongerappropriate),
prestressedconcrete,
woodstave,
Glassreinforcedplastic(GRP)
Steel,GRP,PVCandHDPE(orPEasitiscallednowadays),arethemostcommonusedmaterials.In
Table10thedifferentmaterialsarecomparedonitsmerits.
Table10Comparisonpenstockmaterials
material
friction
weight
corrosion
cost
jointing
pressure
****
*
****
**
****
****
ductileiron
***
****
****
***
***
*
asbestoscement(AC)
*
*
*****
***
***
*
concrete
***
***
****
**
****
***
woodstave
*****
*****
****
***
****
*****
GRP
*****
*****
****
**** ****
****
PVC
***
***
**
***
****
*****
steel
*****
*****
*****
**
**
*****
HDPE(PE)
Legend:*poor;*****excellent
77

Figure57Comparisonofpipematerials
ImportantpipematerialpropertiesaregiveninChapter2.2PipelinesTable3Importantpipe
materialproperties.
Table11Weightcomparisonbythetypeofpipe(diameter500mm,by1m)
3.10.7.
Penstock
The penstock is the pipe which conveys water under pressure from the forebay tank to the turbine.
Thepenstockoftenconstitutesamajorexpenseinthetotalmicrohydrobudget,asmuchas40%is
not uncommon in high head installations, and it is therefore worthwhile optimising the design. The
trade off is between head loss and capital cost. Head loss due to friction in the pipe decreases
dramatically with increasing pipe diameter. Conversely, pipe costs increase steeply with diameter.
Thereforeacompromisebetweencostandperformanceisrequired.
Thedesignphilosophyisfirsttoidentifyavailablepipeoptions,thentoselectatargetheadloss,5%of
thegrossheadbeingagoodstartingpoint.Thedetailsofthepipeswithlossesclosetothistargetare
thentabulatedandcomparedforcosteffectiveness.Asmallerpenstockmaysaveoncapitalcosts,but
theextraheadlossmayaccountforlostrevenuefromgeneratedelectricityeachyear.
78

Figure58Penstockalignmentdesigndrawing
Figure59PenstockAnchorBlocks(ThrustBlocks)
79

Figure60PenstockAnchorBlocksatPowerhouse
Figure61PenstockExpansionJoints
Requiredmaximumspacingofthesupportscanbecalculatedfrom:
WhereDisdiameterinmetresandPisunitweightof1mlengthofthepipefullofwater.
80

Figure62PenstockSupportsspacing
Figure63PenstockAlignmentproblems
Figure64Plasticpipelaidonground
81

Figure65Plasticpipeburiedinthetrench
Roughestimationofpenstockdiametercanbeobtainedfromfollowingformulae:
Fahlbuch1982
DP=0.52Hi0.17(Pi/Hi)0.43
DPQ=0.52Hi0.17(8.5Qi)0.43
MorozovApproximate
DP1=(5.2Qi3/Hi)1/7
DP2=1.547(NhC1/C2)0.154Qi0.46;
Note:DoesnotdependonH
Nhnumberofannualworkinghours
C1Costof1kWh
C2Costof1mpipe
MorozovExact
DP3=((0.2NhC1Qi3)/(1000C2Hi))1/7
AllowableStress(MPa)
Nhnumberofannualworkinghours
C1Costof1kWh
C2Costof1mpipe
82
Indianformula
DPI=3.55(Qi2/(2gHi))0.25
Figure66Penstockplacements
Usualrangeofacceptablevelocityinthepenstockis35m/s.Eventhoughsteelpenstockcanendure
higherflowvelocities(upto7m/sormore),thoseareusuallyoutofeconomicallyacceptablerange
83
due to high friction losses. Still, the best way is to calculate the cost of lost energy due to friction
(higherforsmallerdiameter)andcostofconstruction(higherforlargerdiameter)andtooptimisethe
diameterbyminimisingthetotalcost:
Figure67Penstockdiameteroptimisation
d)
Penstockjointing
Pipesaregenerallysuppliedinstandardlengthsandhavetobejoinedtogetheronsite.Thereare
severalwaysofdoingthisandthefollowingfactorsshouldbeconsideredwhenchoosingthebestjoint
systemforaparticularscheme:
suitabilityforchosenpipematerial,
skilllevelofpersonnelinstallingthepipe,
whetheranydegreeofjointflexibilityisrequired,
relativecosts,
easeofinstallation.
Methodsofpipejointingfallroughlyintofourcategories:
flanged,
Spigotandsocket,
Mechanical,
welded.
e)
Buryingorsupportingthepenstock
Penstockpipelinescaneitherbesurfacemountedorburiedunderground.Thedecisionwilldependon
thepipematerial,thenatureoftheterrainandenvironmentalconsiderations.
Buriedpipelinesshouldideallybeatleast800mmbelowgroundlevel,especiallywhenheavyvehicle
arelikelytocrossit.Buryingapipelineremovesthebiggesteyesoreofahydroschemeandgreatly
reducesitsvisualimpact.Howeveritisvitalundesiredpipelinemovement.
84
Thethreetypesofforcesthatneedtobedesignedagainstare:
theweightofthepipespluswater,
expansionandcontractionofthepipe,
Fluidpressure(bothstaticanddynamic).
Support piers are used primarily to carry the weight of the pipes and enclosed water. Anchors are
large structures which represent the fixed points along a penstock, restraining all movements by
anchoringthepenstocktotheground.Athrustblockisusedtoopposeaspecificforce,forexampleat
abendorcontraction.
The different support structures can usually be built of rubble masonry or plain concrete. Anchor
blocks may need steel reinforcement and triangulated steel frames are sometimes used for support
piers.
Figure68Penstocksupports
Thesizeandcostofsupportstructuresforagivenpenstockareminimisedby:
keepingthepenstockclosertotheground,
avoidingtightjoints,
Avoidingsoftandunstableground.
f)
PenstockAnchorBlocksdimensions
Both buried and surface placed penstock may need anchor blocks (AB) to keep them in place and
prevent penstock structural failure. There are over 10 different forces acting on the penstock. Most
importantintermsofmagnitudeare:
85
Axialforce
Thermalexpansionforce
Ownweight
Othersinclude:frictionofwater,frictionofthepipeagainstsupports,etc.
The resulting thrust force must be taken by the anchor blocks and partly by supports or the soil
dependingonplacement.Anchorblocksandsupportstransfertheforcetothegroundfoundationand
the contact area must be designed in such a way that it doesnt exceed foundation soil barring
capacity.
Buriedpipesdonotsufferfromtemperaturedifferencesthatwouldinduceexpansiononthepipeand
thus development of the thrust on the anchor blocks. They can be designed solely based upon axial
force, neglecting all the others. The soil will take the force to an extent and thus if the force is
acceptablebythefoundation,therewillbenoneedforananchorblockTheangleofthepipeelbow
and pipe pressure will determine the force and the blocks are needed only if it exceeds the barring
capacity. Therefore, the critical angle can be determined to find out whether AB is needed or not.
Also,buriedpipedoesnotneedsupportsasasoilservesthepurpose.
D 2
p
4
Where:
NAxialforce(N)
DDiameter(m)
pMaxpressure(Pa)
Resultingforcedependsontheangleoftheelbowjoint:
R=2Nsin/2,where:
angleofchangingdirection
R=ASOIL,where:
AProjectionareaofthepipe
SOILbarringcapacityofthesoil
2Nsin/2=ASOIL
sin
2 N
Inthiswaythecriticalangleisdetermined.IfitisexceededthenanABisneeded.
Forverticalbendsthereare2types:oneactingtowardsthegroundandtheotheractingawayfrom
theground.Fortheformertheprocedureisthesameasforabovedescribedhorizontalbends.Forthe
lattertheforceistakenbytheweightoftheABitself.Thusithastobeheavierthantheforcetryingto
liftthepenstock.Safetyfactorof1.5iscommonlyadopted.
If soil is unknown one can safely adopt SOIL = 0,015 kN/cm2, by which the result should be on the
safetyside.
86
For openair pipe placement in addition to axial force at least thermal expansion force and
correspondingportionoftheownweightshouldbetakenintoaccount.Theprocedureisthesameas
described above, except that more forces must be taken into account and resulting force computed
whichisthentreatedinthesamefashion.
Expansion:
L=Lt.
Where:(m/mock)forsteelitisabout12x106
Ifexpansionisdisabledbyanchorblocksreactingstresswoulddevelop:
=EL/L,Eismodulusofelasticityofmaterial(forsteel20x1010Pa).
Thereforeinlongerpipesectionsitisessentialtoprovideexpansionjoints.Theyaretypicallyplaced
justdownstreamoftheAB.
PicturesillustratingABplacementandforcesaregiveninthischaptersfiguresabove.
g)
Waterhammer
Waterhammer is transient phenomenon in which water pressure suddenly rises or drops due to
suddenclosureoropeningoftheflow.Suchsuddenabruptflowchangesoccurduetopowerfailure
(pumps)ortransmissionfailure(turbines),butothercausesmayinduceitaswell.
Whengeneratorisspinningandnotgeneratingtheexcessenergyincreasesthespinofthegenerator
anditcanfallapartifrunawayspeedisreached.Forthisreason,ifitdoesntgenerateithastostop
almostimmediately(safestoppagetimesrangefrom210seconds).Thelongerthestoppagetimethe
heavier generator is needed to withstand the forces. In order to stop, the turbine needs to stop as
well,andthatusuallymeansstoppingtheflow.
The problem is more pronounced in reaction turbines than in action ones since the latter can easily
employflowdeflectors.Insuchawaytheturbinecanstopwithoutstoppingtheflowofwaterinthe
pipe. Reaction turbines have flow confined and only certain bypass arrangements van mitigate the
problemabit.
Alsothewaterhammerproblemisworsethelongerthepipelinesystem.Thelongerthetimetostop
theflow,thelesserwaterhammerwilldevelopwhichwouldbebetterforthepipe.Thisisoppositeof
whatisgoodforthegenerator.Usuallyasortofengineeringcompromiseistakenintermsofstoppage
time.Basicsofwaterhammerhydraulicsaregiveninchapter2.2Pipelines.
87

Figure69Waterhammerschematicsforsuddenclosure
Figure70ResultofwaterhammercomputationforalongMHPpenstock
88
3.10.8.
Powerhouse
Thepowerhouseishousinggenerationandauxiliaryequipment.Theycanbeplacedundergroundor
ontopofthegroundintheopenair.ThelatterarrangementisalmostalwaysusedforMHPdesign.
The dimensions would depend on the size of the equipment installed, but should be sufficient for a
reasonably comfortable operation and maintenance (O&M) access. Minimal dimensions can be
estimatedbasedonthesizeoftheunitsaytherunnerdiameter(toseehowtheturbinediameteris
determined see Chapter 4.2.2 Turbine diameter. The required space (Lb., where L B) can be
determinedbytheruleofthumbas:
L=6D
Additional space of about L, should be added for maintenance purpose. For very small units the
multipliershouldbehigher(>6).
Figure71ExamplesofsimpleMHPPowerhouses
Figure72TypicalMHPPowerhouse
89
ThePowerhousebuildingcanbesimplebuthastobefunctional.Itisalwaysanadvantageifitsnot
overlydistinguishablewithinitsenvironment.Traditionalbuildingstylesusedlocallywouldsuitthe
best.Iitisnearthevillage(andshouldpreferablybe),itcanalsobeusedtohouseothervillage
purposesbearinginmindthatthatisoneratherloudplace.
Figure73FrontfaadeofaMHPPowerhouse
Underthepowerhousetherewillusuallybeatailracecanaltoconveythewaterfromtheturbineinto
thedownstreamwatercourse.Itcanbeveryshort,butsometimesaconsiderablelengthisrequired.
Theprinciplesofthedesignarerathersimilartoheadracecanal,onlyheretheseepageproblemisno
longerimportant,provideditdoesntundermineanystructures,aslostwaterwillfinditswaytothe
watercourse.
Figure74MHPPowerhouseTailrace
90

Figure75MHPPowerhouseTailrace
Figure76TypicalMHPPowerhousewithimpulseturbine
91
Figure77TypicalMHPPowerhousewithreactionturbine
Thanks to its draft tube, reactive turbine can utilise most of the head at its tail down to the
downstreamwaterlevel,wastingonlyasmallportionofittofriction.
The powerhouse should be kept dry and clean. Electrical equipment should be kept away from the
water.Lightingofthepowerhouseshouldbearranged,aswellasthunderprotectionbygrounding.It
shouldbeeasilyaccessible,preferablybyacar,especiallyiftheunit(s)itishousingisalargerone.Also
forlargerunitsitisnecessarytohaveacraneinstalledthatwouldbeusedforequipmenterectionand
maintenance.
Themainequipmentneedsobewellfoundedinordertopreventvibrationsfromtransmittingtothe
mainstructure.
92

Figure78Powerhousefoundationforarrangementwithmechanicalgovernor
Figure79Powerhouseplandrawing
93
4.
Equipment
4.1.
Hydromechanical equipment
4.1.1.
Trash racks
Figure80Trashrack
94
4.1.2.
Rakes
Figure81Trashrake
95
4.1.3.
Stop logs and Gates
Figure82Slidegates
Figure83Slidegate
96
4.1.4.
Valves
Figure84Valves
97
4.1.5.
Airvents
Figure85Airvent
Remember:Figure63PenstockAlignmentproblems
98
4.1.6.
Air vessels
Figure86Airvessel
99
4.2.
Electromechanical equipment
4.2.1.
Turbine Selection
Thereareseveralbasictypesofturbines;eachoperatesmosteffectivelyinacertainpressureandflow
range.Manytimestheturbinetypesarecharacterizedbuttheireffective"headrange".Thelistbelow
showsgenerallyacceptedvaluesbyturbinetype:
TurbineStyleHead(H)RangeinMetersHead(H)RangeinFeet
KaplanandPropeller2<H<406<H<125
Francis 10<H<35030<H<375
Pelton 50<H<1300150<H<5000
BankiMichel3<H<2509<H<750
Turgo 15<H<25050<H<750
Another useful tool is the graph below. The graph also includes flow information, so the turbine
selectionismorerefined.TheverticalaxisunitsareforHeadinMeters,andthehorizontalaxisforflow
incubicmeterspersecond.
Figure87Typicalturbineselectiondiagram
100

Figure88Typicalturbinefoundationarrangements
Figure89Nsvs.Hturbinediagram
ForFrancisandKaplanturbinesthereareapproximateformulaegivingnSbasedontheheadinmetres:
Francis:
ns=100ln(H)+685
Kaplan:
ns=210ln(H)+1180
101

Figure90Hvs.Nsturbinediagram(loglog)
Figure91Otherturbineapplicationcharts
102

Figure92Typicalturbineefficiencycurves
WhileFrancisandPropellerhavegoodefficiencyforworkingpoint(atratedload),theycoverfairly
smallrangeandtheirefficiencydropsconsiderablywhentheloadisreduced.Theycannotoperateat
loads less than 30% since the efficiency is too low and vibrations start. On the other hand, Pelton,
Turgo, Crossflow and Kaplan are much more flexible and can operate at much wider range and can
oftenbeusedwithloadsaslowas10%.
4.2.2.
Turbine diameter
Mosonyi1959
ForFrancisorPropeller
DTR=4.4(Qi/NRPM)1/3
ForKaplan
DTR=4.57(Qi/NRPM)1/3
ForPeltonwheel
DTR=38(Hi)/NRPM
103
ForPeltonjet
DJ=0.542(Qi/Hi)
PropellerD=f(Qi,Hi,NS)
DTR=7.1(Qi)/(NS+100)1/3*Hi0.25;Mosonyi1988
KaplanD=f(Qi,Hi,NS)
DTR=7.375(Qi)/(NS+100)1/3*Hi0.25;Mosonyi1988
Rotationalspeed:
NRPM=NSHim5/4/Pi(kW)
4.2.3.
Suction head for reactive turbines
HATM=10.330.0012HASL0.23;At20oC
Francis
=0.0316(NS/100)2;CoefficientNovak=0.432
OR
=(0.01NS0.54)2/45+0.035Schapov
HS=HATMHim;Thoma
Kaplan(Moody)
=1.1(0.28+0.00152(NS/100)3);Note:Mosonyi19590.00152>0.0024;or0.000071*NS1.43
HS=HATMHim;Thoma
Propeller(Moody)
=0.28+0.00152(NS/100)3;Note:Mosonyi19590.00152>0.0024;or0.000071*NS1.43
HS=HATMHim;Thoma
4.2.1.
Pumps as turbines
It is sometimes advisable to use pumps instead of reaction turbines since they are more readily
availabe"ofshelf.Thecharacteristicsmaynotmeettheoptimumbuttheyshouldbebyfarcheaper
thattailormadeturbinesandwouldprobablymeetbetterstandards.Ontheotherhand,theyarenot
flexibleintermsoftheflowratevariations,sotheywouldimposecertainsignificantlimitationsinthe
possibleapplications.
104

Figure93Centrifugalpumpinturbinemode
Figure94Pumpasturbine
105
Figure95T15crossflowturbineparts

Figure96T15crossflowturbineprinciple
106
4.3.
Electrical equipment
4.3.1.
Generators/alternators
Regulationandoperation
Figure97Generators
Typically, an automatic controller operates the turbine inlet valve to maintain constant speed (and
frequency) when the load changes on the generator. In a system connected to a grid with multiple
sources,the turbinecontrolensuresthatpoweralwaysflowsoutfromthegeneratortothesystem.
The frequency of the alternating current generated needs to match the local standard utility
frequency.Insomesystems,iftheusefulloadonthegeneratorisnothighenough,aloadbankmaybe
107
automatically connected to the generator to dissipate energy not required by the load; while this
wastesenergy,itmayberequiredifitisnotpossibletostopthewaterflowthroughtheturbine.
Aninductiongeneratoralwaysoperatesatthegridfrequencyirrespectiveofitsrotationspeed;allthat
isnecessaryistoensurethatitisdrivenbytheturbinefasterthanthesynchronousspeedsothatit
generatespowerratherthanconsumingit.Othertypesofgeneratorrequireaspeedcontrolsystems
forfrequencymatching.
With the availability of modern power electronics it is often easier to operate the generator at an
arbitraryfrequencyandfeeditsoutputthroughaninverterwhichproducesoutputatgridfrequency.
Power electronics now allow the use of permanent magnet alternators that produce wild AC to be
stabilised.Thisapproachallowslowspeedturbinestobecompetitive;theycanrunatthebestspeed
for extraction of energy and the power frequency is controlled by the electronics instead of the
generator.
Verysmallinstallations,afewkilowattsorsmaller,maygeneratedirectcurrentandchargebatteries
forpeakusetimes.
4.3.2.
Transformers and Switchgears
Figure98Transformersandswitchgears
108
4.3.3.
Automation equipment
SCADA(supervisorycontrolanddataacquisition)
Figure99AutomatedcontrolofMHP
1.RemotecontrolWebnavigator
2.SMSalarmsystem
3.MagelisXBTGTHMI
4.W@deW325telemetrycontroller
5.GPC,synchroniser,protection&monitoringmodule
6.Instrumentation:flow,waterlevel,pressure
7.Valves,gates,deflectors,injectors
8.Ventilation,bearinggreasingsystem:TeSysU&TeSysTmotorstartersandAltivardrives
9.Auxiliaries,contactorandcircuitbreakers
10.W@deW310standalonedataacquisitionmodule
11.OsitrackRFIDmodule
12.Powerhousewebcamcontrol
13.2Modbusportsforexternaldevices
14.Generatorexcitationcontrol
15.Stepuptransformer
16.LVorMVcircuitbreaker
109

Figure100ExampleofGridconnection,electricaldistributionandsupervisionarchitectureofamicro
hydropowerplant
4.3.4.
Local illumination / lighting
Figure101Powerhouselighting
110
4.3.5.
AntiThunder Grounding
Figure102Powerhousegrounding
111
5.
Design tools and Drawings

5.1.
Design tools
There are a number of free computer programs that can be used for hydrological and hydraulic
computations.SincemostofficesandengineersuseMSOffice,itcanalsobeusedforratheradvanced
calculations (Excel), report writing (Word) and presentations (PowerPoint). Making computations in
Excelisveryhandybutitrequiresdeeperknowledgeofthetackledsubject.However,thereareother
computertools,withmorededicatedprogrammedroutinesfordifferentspecifictasks.Amongthem
mostcommonlyused,relativelyuserfriendlyandreasonablypowerfulareUSACEprogramsfromthe
HECfamily.MostusefulforMHPdesignsare:
1. HECRAS (Hydraulics of open channels including steady and unsteady flow and sediment
flow)
2. HECHMS(Hydrology)
Also,usefulfreesoftwareisHY8whichisoriginallymeantforroadwayculvertdesign,butcanbeused
foroutletdesign.
Pipelinedesigncanbedone,forinstance,withfreeEpanetprogram.
Anumberofcommercialsoftwaresolutionsarealsoavailable:
VerypopularopenchannelhydraulicsprogramisMike11andSOBEK,butthefreeHECRASismore
than sufficient in most cases. For pipeline design good committal solutions are Bentleys WaterCAD
andWaterGEMS.ThereisalsoagoodpipelinetransientflowtoolcalledHammer,bythesamevendor.
GeotechnicalsoftwareincludescommercialoptionslikeGeoSLOPEorGEO5.Latterhasafreeoption
withlimitedfunctionality.
Overall useful design tool is ArcGIS. Still, for making engineering drawings, the most popular is
AutoCADbyAutodesk,withmanymodulesspecificallydesignedforvarioustypesofapplications.Both
ArcGISandAutoCADarecommercialsolutions.
ThereisalsoHECGeoRAS(free)thatworksseamlesslywithArcGIS(commercial).ThenDigitalTerrain
Model(DTM)canbeusedtoautomaticallyloadriverprofilesintohydraulicmodel.InsimilarwayHEC
RAS can be tied to AutoCAD by RiverCAD (lowcost commercial program) and then geometrical data
canbecreatedinAutoCADandhydraulicsruneitherwithinRiverCADorHECRAS.
5.2.
Design phases
In most countries design of MHPs is simplified in comparison to larger projects and some design
phasesareskipped.Properdesignforlargerprojectwouldinclude:
Masterplanorahydropowerdevelopmentstudyforacatchmentorastream
112
Conceptualdesign(prefeasibilitystudy)
Preliminarydesign(feasibilitystudy)
Tenderdocumentation(sometimesdoneafterthenextphase)
Finalordetaileddesign
Constructiondrawings
Asbuiltdocumentation
HoweverwithMHPsitisoftenabbreviatedtojust:
Conceptualdesign(prefeasibilitystudy)
Finalordetaileddesign
5.3.
Drawings
While conceptual design for really microscale (<100 kW) can contain just some sketchy drawings
sometimes called napkin design, the larger schemes should have more elaborate approach
containing hydraulic calculations and most important drawings. The detailed design, on the other
hand, should include a minimum of the drawings needed to present the project properly and to be
abletoestimatethecostandtoconstructthestructuresbasedonthem.
Mostofthedetaileddesignprojectrequireddrawingsareshownaboveinchapter3.Typically,the
minimumrequirementwouldbe:
Anoverviewmap(sayscale1:50000)showingpositionoftheMHP(possiblyalsoinrelationto
otherMHPsinthevicinity)
Layout(largerscale,say1:1000)shovingspatialdistributionofallthemajorcomponentsof
theMHP
Longitudinalprofile(usuallydistortedscale,say1:100/1000)
Normalcrosssection(1:100)
Characteristiccrosssections(1:100)ofthe
o Headrace
o Penstock
o Tailrace
Drawingsofthemainstructuresincludingplan,sectionsanddetails:
o Intake(withsettlingbasinandstillingbasinifany)
o Forebay(withspillwayandoutlet)
o Powerhouse(inadditiontotheabove,thefacadesareusuallyshownaswell)
o Accessroads(ifany)
o Riverdiversion(ifany)
Asbuiltdocumentationisthendoneduringthecourseofconstructionbymakingnotesand
adjustmentsuponoriginalfinaldesigndrawings.
TypicalMHPdrawingsaregiveninChapter3HydropowerbasicsandHydraulicstructures.
113
6.
Monitoring
ThemonitoringoftheConsultantshouldinclude:
1. SupervisionoftheSRSPmonitoringefficiency.
2. Monitoring and evaluation of the designs prepared, including possible suggestions for
improvementandwarningiftheplanningbenchmarks(fortheFirstyearoftheProject)setin
theProposalandBudgetlinesarenotmetorarelikelynottobemet.
3. Monitoring, by means of site visits, of randomly selected (by the Consultant in cooperation
with EUD) sites. Since 72 sites are to be developed within the year one of the project
implementation,thevisittoallofthemisnotaviableoption.Some1015%ofthesiteswillbe
physicallyvisited,whiletherestwillbemonitoredviageotaggedphotos.Inaddition,SRSPisto
useacquireddualfrequencyGPSforsurveyinganddefiningthecoordinatesforallthemajor
structures (intake, sand trap, headrace, forebay, penstock, powerhouse and tailrace) for ALL
theMHPsites.Inthiswayitwouldbepossibletohavespatialdistributionofallthesiteswhich
wouldgiveaneffectivemeansforselectionsofthesitestobechecked.
4. AnIDCardshouldbepreparedforeachMHPbySRSP.ItshouldbeasingleA4orA3sheet
containing(butnotlimitedto)mostimportantdata(fields)suchas:
a. Geographiccoordinates
b. Thenameofthevillage,andthenumberofthehouseholdstobereached
c. ThenameofresponsibleengineerandLCrepresentativeinchargeofO&M
d. BasicMHPparameters(Q,H,P,E)
e. Mainstructures/equipmentlist(includingturbinetypeandsupplier)
f. Costestimatefinalcost(tobefilleduponcompletion)
g. Aphotoofthesite(geotagged)
h. RemarksbySRSPsupervisingengineer
i. Remarksbytheexternalsupervision(Monitor)
j. Fields to place the signatures (and dates of signing) of the Engineer and SRSP
supervisor,localrepresentativeandtheMonitor.
k. SRSPshouldprepareatemplatesheetwithinclusionofthesefields(tobefilledasthe
workprogresses)andisfreetoaddanyadditionaldataitfindsimportant.
l. The ID card sheet will be accompanied by annexes in the course of construction,
including justification made on site, recorded difficulties (if any), photos of
construction phase, and photos of completed works that would include all the
structures and equipment thus making the file for each and every MHP in
constructionorcompleted.
5. More efficient Monitoring would be achieved if independent local experts/engineers are
involved.ThesuggestionsgiventotheConsultantmentionedPCRET,SHYDOascompanies,or
WAPDAretiredstaff.Wouldtheybeinvolvedandhow,remaintobeconsidered,decidedand
arranged by EUD. In case there is a team of local Monitors employed, the Consultant would
cooperatewiththem,takepartinmakingplansfortheirsitevisits,definetheformofreporting
andwouldalsosupervisetheirwork.Themodesofthatsupervisionarestilltobediscussedif
andwhensuchateamisactuallyemployed.
114
Exampleofthedatasheet(IDcard)isgivenonthefollowingtemplate.TheIDcardsheetshouldbe
accompaniedbyannexesinthecourseofconstruction,includingjustificationmadeonsite,recorded
difficulties(ifany),photosofconstructionphase,andphotosofcompletedworksthatwouldinclude
all the structures and equipment thus making the file for each and every MHP in construction or
completed.
Basic Datasheet (ID)

The name
Coordinates
MHP Malakand 4
34044.536
Village, households
730 m asl.
346
Name
Responsible Engineer
Cost (estimated/actual)
71046.505
Babar Khan, el. Eng.

Xxxxxx Rs
Yyyyyy Rs
Qi (l/s) rated flow
350
HN (m) net head
41
P (kW) - power
115
E (MWh)
950
Elevation Intake, Forebay, Powerhouse
775
772
Q max (m3/s)
65
Duty flow Q min (l/s)
35
Type MHP, Structures:
Diversion, L=950 m
115
730
Basic Datasheet (ID)

Intake (Tyrolean) LxB
5.0x0.6 m
Sand trap/settling basin
None (or give dimensions)
Canal (Rectangular, concrete lined)
L=900 m, 2.0x1.0 m
V=5.0 m3
Forebay (concrete lined)
L=50 m, 300, t=4 mm
Penstock (steel)
Powerhouse (surface) LxBxH
8x5x3 m
Turbine (type, runner diameter, , power)

Generator (drive, poles, cos , power)
Other equipment (transformer, control board...)
Transmission (cables, length, poles)
Monitoring/Supervision
Remarks by SRSP supervising engineer
Signature
Remarks by the external (EU)Monitor
Signature
Completion date:
21-04-2013
Local representative signature
AnotherexampleoftheDatasheet(byGIZ,calledFactsheet)isgivenbelow.SRSPisencouragedto
createitsownsheetinawaythatwouldbestreflecttheProjectneeds.
116

117
7.
Practical exercise
ApracticaldesignexercisewillbedoneforaMHPscheme,iftherearesomedataavailable(preferably
one of planned MHPs), or otherwise just for an imaginary site. The exercise will be defined in the
course of training based on consultations with the Participants, and can later be added to the
Lecturenotes.
118
8.
Training evaluation
TheParticipantswouldanonymouslyevaluatethecourseintermsofseveralcategories:
Overall
Content
Conduct
Relevance
Theywouldalsobeaskedtoprovideafeedbackintermsofsuggestionsaswhatelseshouldhavebeen
includedandhowtheTrainingcouldhavebeenmadebetter.
119
9.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Literature
HandbookofAppliedHydraulics,Davis,C.V.,McGrawHill,1952
OpenchannelHydraulics,Chaw,V.T.,McGrawHill,1959
WaterpowerDevelopment,Mosonyi,E.,AkademiaiKiadoBudapest,1987
HydraulicStructures,Novak,P.atal.,ChapmanHall,1990
WaterResourcesEngineering,Linsley,R.K.atal.,McGrawHill,1987
DamHydraulics,Vischer,D.L.atal.,JohnWiley&Sons,1998
Gidravlika(Hydraulics),Agroskin,I.I.,Energiya,1964(inRussian)
FundamentalsofHydraulicEngineeringPipelines,Prasuhn,A.L.,NewYork,1987
HydraulicStructureslecturenotes,Lukovac,N.,IHEDelft,1998
AppliedHydraulicslecturenotes,Lejeune,A.,IHEDelft,1994
UnsteadyFlowinOpenChannelslecturenotes,Verwey,A.,IHEDelft,1997
Theuseofdifferentconveyancecalculationsformodelingflowsinacompactcompoundchannel,
Lyness,J.F.atal.,WaterEnviron,Manage.;vol.11,no.5,1997
Addressingproblemsofsmallwatersystems,Okun,D.A.,20thInt.W.S.CongressWaterSupply;
vol.14,no.34,1996
Learningtomaketherightjumps,Rajaratnam,N.atal.,Int.WaterPower&DamConstruction,
1996
Energylossesinlongindustrialpipeswithwaterairmixtureflow,Boeriu,P.,BuletinulStiintificsi
Tehnic,vol.31,1986(translationfromRumanian)
MSEXCELManualandHelp,Microsoft,2010
DesignofSmallDams,USBR,1987
USACEEngineeringmanualsSmallHydroChapter4
MicroHydroPowerScoutGuide,GTZ,2009
GuideonHowtoDevelopaSmallHydroSite,ESHA2004
120

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EU DELEGATION TO PAKISTAN

Lecture Notes on MHP Development

Member of the COWI

Data collection and acquisition

qsp = a AC+ b (l/s/km2)

Rational method (RM)

Unit Hydrograph (UH)

SCS Curve number (see Table1SCScurvenumbers)

Description and Curve Numbers from TR-55

Cover Type and Hydrologic Condition

Row Crops - Straight Rows + Crop Residue

Urban Districts: Commercial and Business

Woods(2) - Good Condition

Pasture, Grassland, or Range(3) - Good

Residential districts by average lot size: 1/8

Urban district: Industrial

Residential districts by average lot size: 1/2

Description and Curve Numbers from TR-55

Cover Type and Hydrologic Condition

Open Space (lawns, parks, golf courses,

Impervious areas: Paved parking lots, roofs,

Residential districts by average lot size: 1/8

Residential districts by average lot size: 1/4

Residential districts by average lot size: 1/3

Residential districts by average lot size: 1/2

Residential districts by average lot size: 1

Residential districts by average lot size: 2

Geology and Geomechanics

For pipes under pressure (buried or not), especially if subjected

Disadvantages difficult accessibility for maintenance; Backfill pressures; Expensive trench

Disadvantages water temperature affected by ambient and no protection from freezing;

3.43 0.492 0.100 0.357

0.348 0.91 0.65

Spillway on the sill (Q1/100)

Stilling basin (Q1/100)

Settling basin (Qi)

Silt outlet (Qout)

Spillway from settling basin (Qmax)

Duty flow outlet (Qmin)

Hydropower basics and Hydraulic structures

Advantages and disadvantages

Stream or Catchment Development

Cost of the MHP

From water to Watts (again)

120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Different sizes hydropower installations

capacity between 100 and 500 kW

Weir and intake

+ Very useful at fluctuating flows. Even the

Settling basin / Sandtrap

Stop logs and Gates

Suction head for reactive turbines

Transformers and Switchgears

Local illumination / lighting

Design tools and Drawings

Basic Datasheet (ID)

Babar Khan, el. Eng.

Qi (l/s) rated flow

HN (m) net head

Elevation Intake, Forebay, Powerhouse

Duty flow Q min (l/s)