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Teaching Heat at Leaving Certificate

Noreen Gillies (Scoil Mhuire, Kanturk)

I have just completed a MEd Science (physics) having studied only Biology and Chemistry previously. I found it quite a struggle but one of the more useful aspects for me, as someone new to physics, was writing up the experiments, particularly the Introduction and STS (Science, Technology and Society) sections. I learned a lot from this and use the material in class to make physics more relevant and hopefully more interesting for the students. The rest of this article is edited from experiment notes (without the details of the apparatus and method for experiments, which are described in most text books).

Latent Heat
The word latent was first used by Joseph Black (1728 1799), a French-born Scottish chemist noted for his fundamental work on latent heat and specific heat as well as his discovery of carbon dioxide. Latent heat means hidden or concealed energy, in the sense that it does not show up on a thermometer. The latent heat (L) of a substance is the heat energy needed to change its state without a change in temperature. Latent heat is energy used for loosening or breaking bonds between molecules and not for raising temperature. The symbol for latent heat is L. Its unit is the joule (J). The latent heat needed to change from a solid to a liquid is called the latent heat of fusion. The latent heat needed to change from a liquid to a gas is called the latent heat of vaporisation. When a solid substance changes from the solid phase to the liquid phase, energy must be supplied in order to overcome the molecular attractions between the constituent particles of the solid. This energy must be supplied externally, normally as heat, and does not bring about a change in temperature. In the case of changing from a solid to a liquid, energy is needed to increase the distances between atoms or molecules, pulling them apart and to reduce the number of bonds between neighbouring atoms or molecules so that they move farther apart and become a liquid. When liquid changes state to become a vapour, more energy is required. The term internal work describes that work required to separate atoms and molecules. External work is required in pushing back the surrounding atmosphere to allow space for the atoms/molecules to escape as vapour. The greater part of the energy is used in separating the molecules and only 10% is used in pushing back the atmosphere. Vaporisation requires more energy than fusion, and the figures bear this out; for example, for water, lF is only about 15% of lV. Much less energy is necessary to separate the molecules present in ice to form water than is required to liberate the molecules present in water as steam is formed. The diagram opposite shows how the uptake of heat by 1 kg of water, as it passes from ice at -50 C to steam at temperatures above 100 C, affects the temperature of the sample. Vaporisation requires more energy than fusion, for example, for water, lF is only about 15% of lV. This is illustrated by the relative sizes of the B and D regions of the graph.

Experiment 1 - To determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.

SOURCES OF ERROR Heat loss/gain from calorimeter REDUCING THE ERRORS Use warm water (10 degrees above room temp). Warm water allows ice to melt quickly and allows more ice to be used, which improves accuracy. Ice can be added until the temperature is ten degrees below room temp. Equal temperatures about and below ambient means the heat losses and gains for the calorimeter balance. Use insulation/lagging and lid. Use a sensitive thermometer or temperature sensor. Mixture must be stirred to ensure that the temperature is uniform. Use computer graph to record the lowest temperature. A temperature change of at least 20 C improves the accuracy by reducing the % error. Ice must be at 0 C, crushed and dried (to match calculation assumptions). Ice must be added without splashing (to prevent loss of mass), with plastic tongs (thermal insulator). The mass of the ice is found by subtraction at the end of the experiment. Ice will melt slowly if the water is too cold, allowing time for heat to enter from surroundings. Water vapour in the air may condense on the calorimeter giving weight errors. Use a sensitive electronic balance. The experiment should be repeated a number of times.
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Measuring temperature

Transferring ice to calorimeter

Calorimeter too cold. Measurements of mass Repeat

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Experiment 2 - To measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water

SOURCES OF ERROR Obtaining dry steam REDUCING THE ERRORS The calculation assumes that only steam is added. Steam was allowed to issue freely from the delivery tube until the tube had warmed up. Liquid on the end of the tube was wiped before being inserted into the calorimeter. A steam trap was used to collect any liquid. The delivery tube is sloped so that condensate will run back into the steam generator. The delivery tube could be insulated to prevent condensation. Anti bumping granules could be added to keep the water boiling smoothly. Use sensitive thermometer or temperature sensor. Mixture must be stirred to ensure uniform temperature. Use computer graph to record the highest temperature. Temperature change of at least 20 C improves the accuracy by reducing the % error. Use cool water (10 degrees below room temp). Cold water allows steam to condense quickly and reduces heat loss, which improves accuracy. Equal temperatures above and below ambient mean the heat losses and gains for the calorimeter balance. Use insulation/lagging and lid. When steam is passed into the water in the calorimeter the delivery tube should be placed below the surface of the water to prevent evaporation of water from the surface. Use a sensitive balance. When removing the delivery tube ensure that water from the calorimeter is not being removed with it. The mass of the steam added is found by subtraction. The experiment should be repeated a number of times.

Measuring temperature

Heat loss/gain from calorimeter

Measurements of mass Repeat

STS
There are many practical examples of latent heat in our everyday lives.

It feels colder during a thaw since energy is extracted from the

atmosphere to melt the snow or frost remaining on the ground.

An ice-cube is more effective in cooling a drink on a summers day

than would be an equal mass of cold water.

Latent heat released during condensation is an important source of

energy which drives atmospheric systems like hurricanes and cumulus clouds. Heat is added to the air when water condenses from vapour into the liquid phase. This energy heats the air, making it lighter and the lighter air rises. This is what powers thunderstorms and hurricanes.

If one holds a wetted finger in the wind, the wind direction can be determined by the evaporation and subsequent cooling that takes
place on the skins surface.

A scald from steam is more painful than that from boiling water. The steam condenses on the skin, and releases the latent heat of
vaporisation. This heat energy damages the skin causing pain.

A dog does not perspire through its skin, so it cools itself by letting its tongue hang out! Latent heat is involved when the saliva
evaporates.

Aftershave or skin tonic contain alcohol, which evaporates quickly, and cools the skin. A nurse or doctor, before giving a patient an injection, will rub the area with a volatile liquid. This acts as an antiseptic but also, as
the liquid evaporates quickly, cools and anaesthetizes the skin.

Large containers of water are sometimes left in a cellar in which apples, vegetables or tinned foods are stored. Vegetable sap contains
salts and sugars which lower its freezing point to below 0 C. If the temperature in the cellar falls to around 0 C, the water in the containers freezes before the fluids in the food. As the water in the container freezes, the latent heat emitted may be enough to prevent the foods freezing.

A device called the Sizzle Stick, claims to reduce significantly cooking times for roasting meat. The device is a hollow tube of metal,
which contains a wick. Water is added and the stick is inserted into the joint of meat. Heat energy from the hot oven, raises the temperature of the water in the lower, wider end of the tube. Eventually the water boils and absorbs latent heat. This steam rises through the tube, and as it passes through the cooler interior of the piece of meat, it condenses. As this happens, the latent heat, which earlier was absorbed, is released, and helps to cook the meat. The liquid water runs back along the tube, where the process starts once more. The action is that of a mini heat pump. The increased effectiveness of this tube over a solid metal skewer (which heats by conduction) is due to the latent heat of vaporisation.

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A refrigerator works using latent heat. A volatile liquid is pumped through a system of closed pipes containing a valve. A compressor
maintains a higher pressure on one side of the valve than on the other. Because the pressure of the liquid is reduced when it passes through the valve it vaporises, and in so doing extracts the necessary latent heat from inside the cabinet. On the high pressure side of the valve the vapour liquifies once again, and in so doing releases the latent heat of vaporisation.

Keeping the Greenhouse Warm:

Placing large vats of water in greenhouses protects fruit from freezing; the heat liberated when the water freezes warms the air.

It is more effective to wrap a damp cloth around bottles or cartons of milk to

keep them cool, rather than placing them in a jar of water. The water evaporating from the cloth around the milk takes heat energy from the milk, thereby cooling it. The Egyptians realized that water could be kept cool by placing it in porous earthenware vessels. These containers allow sufficient liquid to escape and evaporate, and in so doing cool the water remaining.

The cold feeling one has after emerging from a bath or shower is due to
evaporation which extracts latent heat from the body.

Perspiration acts as a temperature control mechanism in the human body.

Evaporation of the sweat results in heat loss from the body surface.

It is more effective, to sponge the forehead of a patient with a high temperature with tepid water. Because of its higher temperature,
the tepid water will evaporate at a faster rate. It is then the latent heat absorbed from the body, which cools the patient down.