Study Plan for AP physics: 1. 2. 3. 4. BEGIN! AP PHYSICS STUDY GUIDE I. Mechanics A. Motion a. Acceleration i. A change in velocity ii.

Acceleration can be speeding up, slowing down, or turning iii. If the sign of the velocity and the sign of the acceleration is the same, the object speeds up. iv. If the sign of the velocity and the sign of the acceleration are different, the object slows down b. Position VS Time Graphs i. Slope: yf-yi/xf-xi c. Curved Position Rewrite All review guides into document Memorize the formulas Do some AP workout problems Take an official times AP Physics Exam

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At points A and C velocity

equals zero ii. The slope at B is even steeper than at D, so the speed is greatest at B d. Velocity vs Time Graphs i. As with position vs. time graphs, velocity vs. time graphs may also be curved. Remember that regions with a steep slope indicate rapid acceleration or deceleration, regions with a gentle slope indicate small acceleration or deceleration, and the turning points have zero acceleration.

e. f. Free Fall i. Occurs when an object falls unimpeded ii. Acceleration of gravity is always down g. Projectile Motion i. Something if fired, thrown, shot , or hurled near the earths surface

ii. Horizontal velocity is constant iii. Vertical Velocity is constant h. Trajectory of Projectile i. Defined by a parabola ii. RANGE- how far it travels horizontally= 2vcos0t iii. MAXIMUM HEIGHT- occurs halfway through range iv. Velocity is tangent to the path for the entire trajectory v. Vertical velocity changes while horizontal velocity remains constant i. Horizontal component of Velocity i. Not accelerated/ Not influenced by gravity ii. Equation: j. Vertical Component of Velocity ( no initial velocity) i. Use kinematics formulas and adjust k. Projectile Motion in an Angle i. We must determine the initial velocity and horizontal velocity ii. Equations to remember: 1. Horizontal Motion= 2. Vertical Motion= ( ) ( ) ( ) B. Forces a. Force= Push or pull of an object i. Forces cause an object to accelerate (speed up, slow down, change direction) b. Newtons First Law: i. The Law of Inertia: A body in motion stays in motion at constant velocity and a body at rest stays at rest unless acted upon by an external force c. Newtons Second Law i. F=ma d. General Procedures for solving second law problems i. Draw the problem ii. Free body diagram iii. Setup equations iv. Substitute v. Solve e. Newtons third law- For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction i. If A exerts a force F on B then B exerts a force of F on A ii. Weight= Mg iii. Normal Force- Force that prevents objects from penetrating each other 1. Reaction to other forces (gravity) iv. This type of reaction can never balance each other out because they act on different objects.

Drawing free body diagrams i. Fapp= applied force ii. W= force of gravity iii. Fn- Normal Force iv. Tension=T v. Fk or Fs- Kinetic (sliding) friction or Static friction. g. Friction-the force that opposes a sliding motion i. Static- exists before sliding occur ii. Kinetic exists after sliding occurs iii. iv. Static Friction increases as the force trying to push an object increase C. Uniform Circular Motion a. Moves at a uniform speed in a circle of constant radius b. Acceleration in Uniform circular motion i. Turns object, doesnt speed it up or slow it down. It points toward center of circle. Centripetal acceleration ii. c. Force in uniform circular motion i. Centripetal force can arise from one force or from a combination of sources ii. iii. Speed of object is constant, Kinetic Energy (KE) remains constant, and work is zero. Universal Law of Gravity a. F=-Gm1m2/r^2 b. Most orbit problems can be solved by setting the gravitational force equal to the centripetal force Torque a. A twist b. Equals- Force x distance x sin angle c. Units are Nm Rotational Equilibrium a. If counter clockwise torques equal the clockwise torques, the system is balanced and no rotation occurs. Periodic Motion a. Repeats itself over a fixed and reproducible period of time (oscillators) b. Simple harmonic Motion- experience a restoring force c. Restoring Forcei. F=-kx ii. Greatest at maximum displacement and zero at equilibrium iii. Equilibrium- midpoint of oscillation of a SHO 1. Position of minimum PE and highest KE

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d. Amplitude- how far the oscillating mass is from equilibrium at its displacement e. Period (T)- The length of time it takes for one cycle of periodic motion to complete itself f. Frequency (f) - How fast the oscillation occurs, is inversely related to period. F=1/T g. Springs- F=-kx (Hookes Law) h. Period of a spring= i. j.

PE of a spring- 1/2kx^2 Pendulum- can be thought of as an oscillator; the displacement needs to be small for it to work properly. The pendulum forces are gravity and tension

k. Period of a Pendulum= l. H. Work a. b. c. d. PE of a pendulum- mgh

The bridge between force and energy Work is a scalar

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Counterintuitive Results i. There is no work if there is no displacement ii. Forces perpendicular to displacement dont work iii. By doing positive work on an object, a force increases its KE and PE. 1. KE=1/2 mv^2 (energy due to motion) e. The work energy theorem i. When network is positive, the kinetic energy of the object will increase (speed up) ii. When network is negative, the KE will decrease (slows down) iii. When there is no network, the KE is unchanged (constant speed) iv. Wnet= KE f. Work and Graphs i. The area under the curve of a graph of force vs displacement gives the work done by the force to perform the displacement. Power a. The rate of which work is done i. P=W/t ii. P= (force)(velocity) iii. When time is little, power is large iv. When time is large, power is little b. How we buy energy i. kWh is not power, but energy consumed ii. 1kWh- 1000 x 3600 J Forces Types

a. a. Conservative forces a. Work in moving an object is path independent b. Work in moving along a closed path is zero c. Work done against conservative forces increases PE, work done by them decreases it. b. Non-conservative forces a. Work is path dependent b. Work along a closed path is not zero c. Potential Energy a. An energy an object possesses by a virtue of its position or configuration b. It is related to work by CONSERVATIVE FORCES only. d. Spring potential energy a. Springs can also possess potential energy b. PE is zero when a spring is in its preferred or equilibrium position where the spring is neither compressed or extended e. Law of conservation of Mechanical Energy a. U+K= Constant b. U+K=0 c. U=-K K. Momentum a. How hard it is to stop a moving object b. Impulse- The product of an external force and time which results in a change in momentum i. J=delta momentum ii. J= (force) (time) c. Law of conservation of momentum i. If the resultant external force on a system is zero, them the momentum will remain constant ii. The sum of momentum before collision is equal to the sum of momentums after collision 1. Collision has impulsive forces (high force, short time). External forces are ignored 2. Types of collisions a. Elastic- PE is conserved, KE is conserved b. Inelastic- PE is conserved, KE is NOT c. Perfectly Inelastic- bodies stick together II. Fluid & Thermodynamic a. Simple concepts i. Density- p=m/v ii. Pressure=Force/Area iii. Gauge pressure ( of a liquid)= pgh

iv. Absolute Pressure= p+ pgh v. Buoyant force= the upward force exerted on a submerged or partially submerged body. F= pVg vi. Fluid flow continuity 1. Conservation of mass results in continuity of fluid flow 2. The volume per unit time of water flowing in a pipe is constant throughout the pipe. a. Av=AV b. V=Avt vii. Bernoullis theorem 1. The faster the fluid moves, the lower the pressure it exerts on surfaces parallel to velocity a. Pressure+ (density)(gravity)(height)+ (density)(velocity)^2 viii. Total energy= U+K+E ix. Temperature 1. Measure of KE in individual molecules 2. Difference in temp causes heat energy to be exchanged between bodies in contact x. Thermal Equilibrium 1. Occurs when two bodies are the same temperature 2. NO heat is transferred between the bodies xi. Ideal Gas Law= PV/T=PV/T 1. PV=nRT 2. PV=nKT 3. R=NK xii. Kinetic Theory of Gases 1. Gases consist of a large number of molecules that make elastic collisions with each other and the walls of the container 2. Molecules are separated, on average, by large distances and exert no forces on each other except when they collide 3. No preferred position for a molecule in the container and no preferred direction for velocity xiii. Average KE of Molecules 1. 3/2 Kb T 2. 3/2 (Boltzmann constant 1.38E-23) (temp) b. First law of thermodynamics i. U=Q+W ii. U is always zero if there is no temperature change iii. Gas processes 1. Isobaric- constant pressure ( work is zero) a. During isobaric heating/cooling, and n is constant we have Charles's Law: Vi /Ti=Vf /Tf

2. Isochoric- Constant volume (work is zero) a. During isochoric heating/cooling, and n is constant we know Pi /Ti=Pf/Tf 3. Isothermal- constant temperature ( internal energy is zero) a. During isothermal expansion/compression, and n is constant we have Boyles Law: PiVi=PfVf 4. Adiabatic- no heat absorbed or emitted ( Q=Zero) a. No heat flows into or out of system. Q=0 , U =W

c. Work done BY gases i. Area under the curve of PV graph ii. Positive area for expansions; negative area for compression. iii. Arrow pointing right is positive work done by gas (and W is negative) iv. Arrow pointing left is negative work done by gas (and W is positive) d. Work done ON gases i. Also the area under the curve on PV graph; but after finding the work done by the gas, you need to take the negative of that number. ii. Arrow pointing right is negative work done by environment (and W is negative) iii. Arrow pointing left is positive work done by environment (and W is positive) e. Work at constant pressure i. W = pDV f. Work for a full cycle i. Start and end at the same spot ii. Work is area inside the shape defined by the steps of the cycle g. Clockwise cycles i. Work done by gas is positive ii. Work done by environment is negative iii. W is therefore negative h. Counterclockwise cycles i. Work done by gas is positive ii. Work done by environment is negative iii. W is therefore positive i. Second Law of Thermodynamics i. No process is possible whose sole result is the ii. Complete conversion of heat from a hot reservoir into mechanical work. iii. No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body. j. Heat Engines i. As heat is transferred from a hot reservoir to a cold reservoir, the heat engine converts some of this heat into mechanical work. It can never convert 100% to mechanical work however. k. Efficiency of Heat Engine i. Efficiency = W/QH = (QH - QC)/QH l. Carnot Engine i. The most efficient heat engine theoretically possible. No one has built a Carnot engine. In addition to the efficiency equations shown above, Carnot efficiency can be calculated from the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs. m. Carnot Efficiency i. Efficiency = (TH - TC)/TH

III. Electricity a. Charge (Q or q, unit: Coulomb) i. Comes in + and ii. The proton has a charge of e. iii. The electron has a charge of e. iv. e = 1.602 10^-19 Coulombs. b. Charge distribution i. Positively charged objects have too few electrons; negatively charged objects have too many. ii. If the charged object is an insulator, the excess charge is usually distributed evenly throughout; if it is a conductor, the excess charge will accumulate on the surface. c. Electric Fields (E, unit: N/C or V/m) i. Start on + charges and terminate on charges. ii. Electric field lines indicate direction force would be on a tiny + test charge put in the field. iii. Electric field lines are not vectors. The field vectors are tangent to the field lines. iv. Electric field vector gives direction of electric force on a + charge placed in the field. d. The electric field inside a conductor is always zero, whether or not the conductor is charged or near some external charges. e. Principle of Superposition i. The electric field at a given point in space is the vector sum of the electric fields due to all charges in the vicinity. ii. The resulting vector gives the direction of the electric force on a positive charge placed in the field. f. Electric Polarization i. Electric fields cause polarization (redistribution of charge) on neutral objects ii. Conductors are especially vulnerable to this effect. iii. When placed in an electric field, the charges redistribute themselves so that the electric field inside the conductor is zero. iv. Remember our electroscope experiments? The electroscope is a conductor. When a charged rod is brought near, the charges on the electroscope move. That makes the vanes separate, since they assume the same charge. v. The electric field inside the electroscopes metal parts will be zero g. Electrical Potential (V, unit: Volt, V) i. The electric potential is a scalar value related to potential energy, which is also a scalar. Potential gets more positive as you approach positive charges. Mobile positive charges therefore like to move to positions of lower potential ii. Potential gets more negative as you near negative charges. Mobile negative charges therefore like to move to positions of higher potential iii. Potential difference, DV, is usually more useful than absolute potential, V.

iv. Potential difference, DV, is necessary for current to flow. h. Electrical Potential: uniform field calculation (that is, and electric field that is like the one you drew in the capacitor above) i. DV = -Ed f. Capacitor a. Consists of two plates (or conductors) in close proximity. When the capacitor is charged, there is a voltage across the plates, and they are equal and opposite charges. g. Capacitance (C, unit: Farad) a. The ability of a capacitor to hold charge. i. C = q / DV h. Equivalent capacitance a. The capacitance that a group of capacitors together possesses. i. For capacitors in series: a. 1/Ceq = S(1/Ci) j. For capacitors in parallel: a. Ceq = SCi k. UE = C (DV)^2 is Energy of a capacitor l. Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor a. Capacitance is related linearly with plate area, and inversely with spacing between the plates b. C = kee0A/d i. C: capacitance (F) ii. Ke : dielectric constant of filling iii. e0 : electrical permittivity (8.85 x 10 -12 F/m) iv. A: plate area v. d: distance between plates (m) Current (I, unit: Ampere, A) a. Flow of positive charge I = Q/t Conductors a. Conduct electricity easily; i.e., metals. b. Have low resistivity. Insulators a. Dont conduct electricity easily; i.e. rubber. b. Have high resistivity. Resistivity (r) a. Depends on the identity of the material, not its shape, size, or configuration. Resistors (R, unit: ohm, W) a. Devices put in circuits to reduce the current: The more a resistor reduces current, the higher the resistance it provides to the circuit. Calculating resistance (R) from resistivity (r) R = rL/A

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R. Ohmmeter & Voltmeter & Ammeter a. Placed across resistor or other circuit element to measure resistance when no current is flowing. b. Voltmeter- Placed across resistor or other circuit element to measure potential change when current is flowing. c. Ammeter- Placed in a circuit in place of a wire to measure the current flowing in that part of the circuit. S. Power in Electrical Circuits (P, unit: Watt, W) a. P = I DV T. Energy in Electrical Circuits (unit: Joule, J) a. E = (P)(t) U. Kirchhoffs 1st Rule (Junction rule) a. The sum of the currents entering a junction equals the sum of the currents leaving the junction. Conservation of charge. V. Kirchhoffs 2nd Rule (Loop rule) a. The net change in electrical potential in going around one complete loop in a circuit is equal to zero. Conservation of energy. W. Magnetic Dipole a. Magnetic field lines are complete loops that exit the magnet at the North Pole and re-enter at the South Pole. X. Magnetic Field (B-field)-Units- Tesla (SI) a. Magnetic Force on Charged Particle F = qvBsinq b. direction: Right Hand Rule Y. Magnetic Fields are formed by moving charges. They may exert a force on moving charges, provided a portion of the velocity is perpendicular to the field. Z. Magnetic Forces can accelerate charged particles by changing their direction, causing charged particles to move in circular or helical paths AA. Magnetic Forces cannot change the speed or kinetic energy of charged particles, or do work on charged particles BB. The magnetic force is centripetal a. qvBsinq = mv^2/ r qB = mv/r CC. Hand Rule for magnetic force on moving positive charge a. Place fingers in direction of velocity. Then rotate your wrist so that your fingers can bend into the direction of the field. Your thumb gives direction of the force. DD. Hand Rule for magnetic force on moving negative charge. Uses the method described above, and then flip your thumb 180. Alternately, you may use your left hand. EE. Hand Rule for magnetic force on current in wire. Place fingers in direction of current. Then rotate your wrist so that your fingers can bend into the direction of the field. Your thumb will be pointing in the direction of the force. FF. Hand Rule for fields where current is straight. Curve your fingers. Place thumb in direction of current. Your curved fingers point in direction of curved magnetic field.

GG. Hand Rule for fields where current is circular. Curve your fingers. Place curved fingers in direction of current. Your thumb points in direction of magnetic field in center of circular current. HH. Magnetic Flux (FB, unit Webber, Wb) a. The product of magnetic field and area. b. FB = BAcosq II. Induced Current a. A system will respond to oppose changes in magnetic flux. Changing the magnetic flux can generate electrical current. JJ. Faradays Law of Induction a. e = -NDFB/Dt i. To generate voltage ii. e = -DFB/Dt iii. e = -D(BAcosq)/Dt KK. Lenzs Law a. Induced current will flow in a direction so as to oppose the change in flux. IV. Optics a. Naming optical images i. Nature: real (converging rays) or virtual (diverging rays) ii. Orientation: upright or inverted iii. Size: true, enlarged or reduced b. Law of Reflection i. Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection. c. Plane Mirror i. Produces virtual, upright, and true sized images. V. Waves a. Light is a wave i. c = lf (speed is wavelength times frequency) b. Light is a particle i. A particle of light is called a photon ii. This is a quantum of light energy (quantum means smallest indivisible quantity) c. Energy of a photon i. E = hf VI. Modern Physics a. The electron-volt (eV) i. An energy unit useful on the atomic level. ii. If a moving electron or proton is stopped by 1 Volt of electric potential, we say it has 1 electron-volt (or 1 eV) of kinetic energy! iii. 1 eV = 1.60210^ -19 J b. Absorption Spectrum i. Photon is absorbed and excites atom to higher energy state. ii. Absorption indicated by upward arrows on energy-level diagrams.

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iii. Creates dark bands, since the light disappears and goes into the atom. Emission Spectrum i. Photon is emitted and atom drops to lower energy state. ii. Emission indicated by downward arrows on energy-level diagrams. iii. Creates bright bands of color, since the light is emitted and goes into the atom. Energy Level diagram i. Horizontal lines indicate allowed atomic energies. ii. Atom cannot exist at in between energies. iii. Upward arrows are absorptions iv. Downward arrows are emissions v. Photon energies are calculated by examining the diagram vi. Photon frequencies are calculated from Plancks equation Nuclear Reactions i. Energy released an element changes from one to another. Lots of energy is released due to mass being destroyed. E = mc^2 ii. Mass + energy are conserved. Charge is conserved. iii. Nucleons 1. Proton: Charge: +e 2. Neutron: Charge: 0 iv. Nuclear reactions 1. Nuclear Decay a. Alpha decay: He^ 2+ . Released from heavy nucleus b. Beta decay i. Beta Minus: e1. released from nucleus ii. Positron: e+ 1. released from nucleus v. Fission: Heavy nucleus splits. vi. Fusion: Small nuclei combine Wave-Particle Duality i. Waves are particles and particles are waves ii. Energy 1. Particle: E = K + U 2. Photon: E = hf iii. Momentum 1. Particle: p = mv 2. Photon: p = h/ iv. Wavelength 1. Photon: c/f 2. Particle: = h/p Compton Scattering

i. Proof of the momentum of photons. High-energy photons collided with electrons. Conservation of momentum. Scattered photons examined to determine loss of momentum. h. Davisson-Germer Experiment i. Verified that electrons have wave properties by proving that they diffract. Shone electrons onto a metal strip; they diffracted like light to form a diffraction pattern. i. Rutherford Scattering i. Collided alpha particles onto a gold foil strip. Unexpectedly large back-scattering indicated elastic collision of the alpha particles with nuclei in the atoms. Evidence of a nuclear atom with a dense positive nucleus. j. Milliken Oil Drop Experiment i. Suspended charged oil drops in electric field. Proved that the charge on an electron was the smallest possible charge (or quantum of charge). k. Photoelectric effect i. Showed that the energy of photons depended upon the frequency of incident light, and not on its intensity. Showed that Plancks equation E = hf was correct. Evidence of the particle nature of light. VII. Waves a. Mechanical Wave i. A disturbance that propagates through a medium with little or no net displacement of the particles of the medium. b. Parts of a Wave i. Crest: high point; Trough: low point ii. Equilibrium: mid-point iii. Amplitude: distance from equilibrium to crest or trough iv. Wavelength: distance between adjacent crests c. Speed of a wave i. Distance traveled by a given point on the wave (such as a crest) in a given interval of time. v = d/t and v = l d. Period of a wave i. T = 1/ (reciprocal of frequency) e. Wave types i. A transverse wave: particles of the medium oscillate perpendicular to direction of wave propagation. Example: waves on a string ii. A longitudinal wave (also called a compression wave): particles of the medium oscillate parallel to direction of wave propagation. Example: sound iii. Light A transverse electromagnetic wave that requires no medium through which to travel f. Reflection of waves i. A wave strikes a medium boundary and bounces back into original medium.

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ii. Fixed-end reflection: inverted phase. Occurs when reflecting medium has greater density. iii. Open-end reflection: Same phase. Occurs when reflecting medium has lesser density. Refraction of waves i. Transmission of wave from one medium to another. Refracted waves may change speed and wavelength. Refracted waves do not change frequency. Principle of Superposition i. When two or more waves pass a particular point in a medium simultaneously, the resulting displacement at that point in the medium is the sum of the displacements due to each individual wave. The waves interfere with each other. Types of interference. i. If the waves are in phase (crests and troughs aligned) the amplitudes are summed. This is called constructive interference. ii. If the waves are out of phase (crests and troughs are completely misaligned) the amplitudes are subtracted. This is called destructive interference. Sounds in the Real World i. Because of superposition and interference, real world waveforms may not appear to be pure sine or cosine functions. That is because most real world sounds are composed of multiple frequencies. Standing Wave i. A standing wave is a wave that is reflected back and forth between fixed ends (of a string or pipe, for example). Reflection may be fixed or open ended. Superposition of the wave upon itself results in constructive interference and an enhanced wave. Resonance i. Occurs when a vibration from one oscillator occurs at a natural frequency for another oscillator. The first oscillator causes the second to vibrate. Doppler Effect i. The raising or lowering of perceived pitch of a sound based on the relative motion of the observer and the source of the sound. When an ambulance is racing toward you, the sound of its siren appears to be higher in pitch. When the ambulance is racing away from you, the sound of its siren appears to be lower in pitch. Diffraction i. The bending of a wave around a barrier. Diffraction of light combined with interference of diffracted waves causes diffraction patterns. Double-slit or multi-slit diffraction i. nl = d sinq 1. d: spacing between slits (m) 2. n: bright band number

ii. Note: Although it is most commonly applied to light, the diffraction equation also works for sound or other mechanical waves. p. Single-slit diffraction i. These are much less well defined patterns consisting of central bright spot surrounded by dark bands ii. nl = s sinq 1. n: dark band number 2. s: width of slit (m)