Unit V

Rocket Propulsion
I t is the propulsion of an aircraft by the reaction of gases coming out with high velocity.
Since the altitude of the rocket engine is very high, enough air is not available at the
surrounding atmosphere for combustion Hence a separate tank is filled with oxygen
and another tank is filled with fuel. In this case the jet consists 3f the exhaust gases only,
and it is produced directly by the combustion process without the use of mechanical
devices.

Comparison between Air-breathing Engines with Rocket Engines

Classification of Rocket Engines:

Rocket engines are classified in the following manner.

I. Classification based on fuel used

(a) Chemical rockets (They are widely used. Heat energy developed during combustion
is used to propel the rocket.).

b. Nuclear rockets (The heat energy generated by fission and fusion are utilized to
propel the rockets).

c. Solar rockets (The heat energy derived from sun is utilized to propel the rocket).
d.Electrical rockets (Rockets powered by electrical motors with the help of battery or
solar cells.

II. Classification based on propellants used

(a) Liquid propellant rockets
(b) Solid propellant rockets
(c) Hybrid rockets

III. Classification based on applications

(a) Weather forecasting rockets (remote sensing)
(b. Military rockets (spying rockets, missiles)
(c) Space exploration rockets (voyager)
(d) Booster rockets (They are multi stage rockets. As the stage increases, the working
elevation will increase. Booster rockets are generally elevate the main rocket to a
greater height).
(e)Retainer or sustainer rockets (These rockets are generally small rockets which imparts
low thrust for long duration for supplying additional energy to the space vehicle).
(f) Retro-rockets (These rockets are fired in the opposite direction to decrease the speed
of a main rocket like braking).

IV. Classification based on Number of stages

(a) Single stage rockets
(b) Multi-stage rockets

V.Classification based on the size and range

(a) Short range rockets
(b) Long range rockets

Solid Propellant rocket

Solid Propellant rocket

Rockets which use solid fuels and oxidizers are known as solid propellant rockets.
Propellant is nothing but fuel and oxidizer. Fig. 7.1 shows a solid propellant rocket. Solid
fuel (plastic or resin material) and oxidizer (perchlorates, nitrates) are mixed in a single
propellant and is packed inside the shell.
When the ignitor ignites, combustion starts from the centre of the combustion chamber to
its outer periphery due to the star shaped combustion chamber. A liner is provided
between the shell and the propellant to protect the shell from high temperature
developing inside the propellant layers.
After the fuel is completely burned, the combustion products (gases) comes out of the
Nozzle with very high velocity. Hence it propels the rocket in the forward direction.

Advantages
I. Simple in design and construction easy to manufacture. Therefore, a large number of
small size rockets are used in military services.
2. There is no need of feed system. Hence they are free from the moving parts such as
pumps. turbines and valves, etc. Therefore the pay load capacity is very high.
3. They are generally compact due to the nature of the fuel. Since the density of the fuel
is high, therefore a large quantity of fuel is packed into a small space.
4. Vibration is minimum due to the absence of sliding and rotating parts.
5. Best suited for short range and small size.
6. Servicing problems are less.

Disadvantages
I. Once combustion started. it cannot be stopped in the midway. Hence decrease of speed
is not possible.
2. Storing and transportation require greater care because of the presence of propellants
throughout.
3. Malfunctioning or accident may lead to abandon of mission.
4. Specific impulse is lower than liquid propellants.
5. It cannot be re-used or recharged.
6. Nozzle erosion ma lead to shortened life.
7. Nozzle cooling is not possible.

Liquid Propellant Rockets

Rockets which use liquid fuels (liquid hydrogen. UDMH, hydrazine, alcohol, etc and
oxidizers (liquid oxygen, liquid fluorine, red fuming nitric acid (RFNA), etc.) are known
as liquid propellant rockets, one such engine is shown in the Fig.

Fuel and oxidizers are separately stored in two different tanks are pumped through the
valve into a mixing chamber. The mixture is at a very low temperature is preheated in the
preheater ( —1 50°C —100°C). The preheated mixture is injected in the combustion
chamber. Liquid propellants are toxic and the combustion temperature is very high.
Hence a special type of material is used.

The combustion products are coming out of the nozzle with very high velocity and they
propel the rocket engine in the forward direction.

Advantages
I. It is easier to stop the combustion by closing the fuel (or) oxidizer (or) both.
2. It can be reused or recharged. Hence it is economical.
3. Increase and decrease in speed is possible when it is in operation.
4. Storing and transportation is easy as the fuel and oxidizer are kept separately.
5. Malfunctions and accidents can be rectified immediately
6. Aerodynamic shape is possible as the fuel and oxidizer are stored separately.
7. It is more economical for a long range space and military operations.
8. Specific impulse is very high.

Disadvantages
I. Complicated construction and manufacturing is not an easy.
2. Lo pay load capacity due to the presence of pump, valve and turbine, etc.
3. Since the liquid propellants are poisonous and corrosive, therefore careful handling is
required.
4. Many liquid propellants are cryogenic (the temperature is very low) which required
proper heat insulation.
5.
Since the density of the liquid propellants is lower than the solid propellant rockets,
therefore it required more volume. Thus the size and weight of the rocket engine is
bigger.
6. Due to the presence of sliding and rotating parts, vibration is more.
I 7331 Hybrid Propellant Rockets
It is a combination of liquid and solid propellants. The most common hybrid rockets used
as the fuel is solid and the oxidizer is liquid. Hence it combines the advantages of both
liquid and solid propellant rockets.

The liquid oxidizer is stored in a separate tank and it is pumped through the valve and
injected into a combustion chamber where solid fuel is already stored. When fuel and
oxidizer mixes together combustion takes place automatically. The combustion
progresses from the centre of the combustion chamber to the outer periphery. After
combustion, the high temperature exhaust gases are expanded through the nozzle and
propels the rocket.

Fuels: Beryllium hydride. Lithium hydride, Polyethene

Oxidizer : Chlorotrifluorine, nitrogen tetra oxide

Advantages
1. Pay load capacity is more due to the absence of heavier turbines, valves, etc.
2. Decreasing the speed is possible by regulating the oxidizer supply.
3. Since the fuel and oxidizer are kept separate, therefore the chemical deterioration is
absent. Handling and storing is easier.
4. Recharging and reusing is possible.
5. Combustion can be put off at any time, by cutting the oxidizer supply.
6. Solid fuel is compact and more mass can be stored in a given volume.
7. Malfunctioning and accidents can be rectified easily.

Disadvantages
1. Nozzle erosion may lead to shortening the life of the rocket.
I 7.41 Liquid Propellants
Liquid propellants (Liquid fuel and oxidizer) are classified into
1. Monopropellants
2. Bipropellants

Monopropellants
A liquid propellant which contains both the fuel and oxidizer in a single chemical is
known as monopropellant. The commonly used monopropellants are:
(a) hydrazine, (b) nitroglycerine. (c) nitromethane, (d) hydrogen peroxide, etc.

Monopropeliants are suitable for auxiliary and turbo pump power plants in a rocket
engine. These rocket engines are simple in construction and are smaller than the
bipropellant engines.

Bipropellants
A liquid propellant which contains the fuel and oxidizer in separate units is known as
bipropellants. The commonly used bipropellant combinations are shown in the Table .

Fuel
The fuels used in liquid propellant engines are given in Table I are described here.

(a) Hydrazine
This is commonly used with several oxidizers. If there is any leakage, it forms explosive
with air and leads fires and accidents. Since the freezing point of this fuel is high,
therefore some chemicals are added to lower this temperature. It is harmful to personnel.

(b) Liquid Hydrogen

It is a cryogenic propellant (boiling point is 20K). Hence it requires larger volume and
well insulated storage tanks. Since the specific gravity (0.07) and temperature of the fuel
is very low, it leads several technological problems. It also leads explosion where there is
any leakage with air.

(c) Ethyl Alcohol or Ethanol

Ethanol is mixed with some water is used as a rocket fuel with several oxidizers as
hydrogen peroxide, liquid oxygen, nitrogen tetroxide, etc. Its performance and the
combustion temperature are lower than the other fuels.

(d) UDMH (Unsymmetrical dimethyl-hydrazine)

It is a derivative of hydrazine and is a mixture of 50% of oxidizer nitrogen tetroxide.
Since the vapour pressure of the UDMH is very high, it leads cavitation.

Oxidizers
The commonly used oxidizers are shown in the table
(a) Liquid Oxygen (Lox)
It is a commonly used oxidizer with a large number of rocket fuels are shown in Table 1.
Since it is a cryogenic propellant (B.P. 90°K), it requires proper insulation. It is harmful
to personnel but non-corrosive. When it is mixed with oils and organic substances, it can
be exploded.

(b) Hydrogen Peroxide

It requires special materials and handling system because it is a highly reactive liquid.
Since highly concentrated solution of hydrogen peroxide is used in rocket engines,
therefore it is harmful to the personnel and it leads fire and explosion if there is any
leakage. Due to its high specific gravity (1.4) it is preferred in many applications.

(c) Nitrogen Tetroxide

It is a storable propellant used in the combination of fuels such as hydrogen, UDMH, etc.
are shown in the Table I. Since it is a hypergolic (combustion takes place without ignitor)
it ignites easily with other fuels. The specific gravity of the oxidizer is very high is an
advantage and its vapour pressure is also high is a disadvantage in the feed system.
(d) Nitric Acid
It is a most commonly used oxidizer. The two important types of nitric acids used in
rockets are
(i) Red fuming nitric acid (RFNA) and
(ii) White fuming nitric acid (WFNA)
Its specific gravity is very high. It requires greater handling and storage problems due to
corrosive and poisonous.

Properties of Liquid Propellants

The following properties are required for their application in rocket engine.
1. Propellants must have higher thermal conductivity for better performance.
2. It must be able to produce a high chamber temperature. It should have a high calorific
value per unit of propellant.
3. Density of the propellant must be high. Hence they require smaller tanks.
4. Products of combustion must have lower molecular weight to produce high jet velocity
and high specific thrust.
5. It should not chemically react with motor system including tanks, piping, valves and
injection nozzles.

6. It should he non-corrosive so that handling and storage is easier.

7. Propellants must be easily available.
8. It should not be poisonous and hazardous.
9. It should be readily ignitable.

Solid Propellants
1The types of solid propellants used in rocket engines are
I. Composite or heterogeneous propellants
2. Homogeneous mixture of organic substances
Composite solid propellants are nitrates and perchlorates as oxidizers and fuels such as
plastic. polymers, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and some metals. Some additives and
inhibitors are also added with fuel and oxidizers to regulate the burning rate.
The mixture of organic substances are nitroglycerine and cellulose nitrate. etc.

Properties of Solid Propellants

The following properties are required for their applications in rocket engines.
I. It should he easily available raw materials which are cheap.
2. Ph and chemical properties should not change during combustion.
3. It must release large amount of heat energy during combustion.
4. It must have higher density and comparatively lower molecular weight.
5. It should not be poisonous and hazardous.
6. It should be non-corrosive, so that handling and storage is easier.
Restricted Burning

Inhibiting material covers the propellant grain and it restricts the propellant grain from
burning in all directions. The grain configuration and the restriction is shown in the
Figure.
The restriction prevent the propellant grain to burn in all directions and the burning will
take place only in the direction of burning is shown in Fig. It acts as a liner between the
propellant grain and the thrust chamber or shell.

Thrust and Specific Impulse

In jet propulsion, oxygen is obtained from the surrounding atmosphere for combustion
purposes whereas in Rocket propulsion the oxygen is filled in a separate tank. Therefore
the mass rate of flow of gases.
m = mass rate of fuel + mass rate of oxygen
= rn

Thrust
The force that propels the rocket engine at a given velocity is known as thrust. This is
produced due to the change in momentum flux of the exhaust gases coming out of the
nozzle plus the change in pressure thrust i. e.. the difference between nozzle exit pressure
and the ambient pressure. Fig. 7.5 shows a control surface enclosed the rocket engine.
Since there is no inflow of air into the rocket engine, the initial velocity of the gases
before expansion in the nozzle is zero (C 0). The final velocity of gases after expansion
through the nozzle is C = C Therefore the rate of change of momentum flux at the nozzle
exit is

Fuel
The fuels used in liquid propellant engines are given in Table I are described here.
(a,) Hydrazine
This is commonly used with several oxidizers. If there is any leakage. it forms explosive
with air and leads tires and accidents. Since the freezing point of this fuel is high.
therefore some chemicals are added to lower this temperature. It is harmful to personnel.
(b) Liquid Hydrogen
It is a cryogenic propellant (boiling point is 20K). I-fence it requires larger volume and
\ell insulated storage tanks. Since the specific gravity (0.07) and temperature of the fuel is
er\ it leads several technological problems. It also leads explosion where there is any
leakage ith air.
(c) Ethyl Alcohol or Ethanol
Ethanol is mixed ith some water is used as a rocket fuel with several oxidizers as h
peroxide, liquid oxygen. nitrogen tetroxide, etc. Its performance and the combustion
temperature are lo than the other fuels.
(d) UDMH (Unsymmetrical dimethyl-hydrazine)
It is a derivative of hvdrazine and is a mixture of 50% of oxidizer nitrogen tetroxide.
Since the vapour pressure of the UDMH is very high. it leads cavitation.

Oxidizers
The common l used oxidizers are shown in the table 1.
(a) Liquid Oxygen (Lox)

It is a commonly used oxidizer with a large number of rocket fuels are sho in Table 1.
Since it is a cryogenic propellant (ftP. = 90°K), it requires proper insulation. It is harmful
to personnel but non-corrosive. When it is mixed with oils and organic substances, it can
be exploded.
(b,) Hydrogen Peroxide
It requires special materials and handling system because it is a highh reactive liquid.
Since highly concentrated solution of hydrogen peroxide is used in rocket engines,
therefore it is harmful to the personnel and it leads lire and explosion if there is any
leakage. Due to its high specific gravity (I .4) it is preferred in many applications.
(c) Nitrogen Tetroxide
It is a storable propellant used in the combination of fuels such as hydrogen. UE)MH. etc.
are shown in the Table I. Since it is a hypergolic (combustion takes place without ignitor)
it ignites easily with other fuels. The specific gravity of the oxidizer is very high is an
advantage and its vapour pressure is also high is a disadvantage in the feed system.
(d) Nitric Acid

It is a most commonly used oxidizer. The two important t of nitric acids used in
rockets are
i. Red fuming nitric acid (RFNA) and (iii White fuming nitric acid (WFNA)
Its specific gravity is very high. It requires greater handling and storage problems due to
corrosive and poisonous.

Properties of Liquid Propellants

The following properties are required for their application in rocket engine.
I. Propellants must have higher thermal conductivity for better performance.
2. It must he able to produce a high chamber temperature. It should have a high calorific
value per unit of propellant.
3. Density of the propellant must be high. Hence they require smaller tanks.
4. Products of combustion must have lower molecular weight to produce high jet velocity
and high specific thrust.
5. It should not chemically react with motor system including tanks, piping. salves and
injection nozzles.

6 It should he non-corrosi\e so that handling and storage is easier. Propellants must he

easily a
8. It should not he poisonoUS and hazardous.
9 Ii should he readil ignitable.
I 7.5J Solid Propellants
The types of solid propellants used in rocket engines are Composite or
heterogeneous propellants
2. Homogeneous mixture of organic substances
(omposite solid propellants are nitrates and perchiorates as oxidizers and fuels such as
plastic. p0k mers. poly I chloride (PVC) and some metals. Some additi es and inhibitors
are also added ith fuel and oxidizers to regulate the burning rate
homogenous mixture of organic substances are cellulose nitrate .

Properties of Solid Propellants

The following properties are required for their applications in rocket engines.
It should be easily available and raw materials must be cheap.
2. Physical and chemical properties should not change during combustion.
It must release large amount of heat energ\ during combustion.
4. It must have higher density and comparatively lo molecular eight.
. It should not be poisonous and hazardous.
6. it should he non-corrosise. so that handling and storage is easier.

Inhibiting material covers the propellant grain and it restricts the propellant grain from
burning in all directions. The grain configuration and the restriction is shown in Fig. 7.4.
The restriction prevent the propellant grain to burn in all directions and the burning will
take place only in the direction of burning is shown in Fig. It acts as a liner between the
propellant grain and the thrust chamber or shell.

Thrust and Specific Impulse

In jet propulsion. oxygen is obtained from the surrounding atmosphere for combustion
purposes whereas in Rocket propulsion the oxygen is filled in a separate tank. Therefore
the mass rate of flow of gases.
Thrust
The force that propels the rocket engine at a given velocity is known as thrust. This is
produced due to the change in momentum flux of the exhaust gases coming out of the
nozzle plus the change in pressure thrust i.e., the difference between nozzle exit pressure
and the ambient pressure. Fig. 7.5 shows a control surface enclosed the rocket engine.

Since there is no inflow of air into the rocket engine, the initial velocity of the gases
before expansion in the nozzle is zero (C 0). The final velocity of gases after expansion
through the nozzle is C = Ce. Therefore the rate of change of momentum flux at the
nozzle exit is

The ambient pressure is acting on the entire control surface of the rocket engine. When
the pressure (Pc) at the exit of the nozzle is greater than the ambient pressure Pa. the net
pressure force acting on the rocket in the direction of motion is given by
.
see on page 18
Questions & Problems

1. The stagnation pressure and temperature of air at the entry of a nozzle are 5 bar and
500 K respectively. The exit Mach number is 2.0 where a normal shock occurs.
Calculate the following quantities before and after the shock: Static and stagnation
pressures and temperatures, air velocities and Mach numbers. What are the values of
stagnation pressure loss and increase in entropy across the shock?

2. A Mach-2 aircraft engine employs a subsonic inlet diffuser of area ratio 3. A normal
shock is formed just upstream of the diffuser inlet. The free-stream conditions
upstream of the diffuser are: P = 0.10 bar, T = 300 K. Determine
(a) Mach number, pressure and temperature at the diffuser exit.
b) Diffuser efficiency including the shock.
Assume isentropic flow in the diffuser downstream of the shock.

3. A supersonic nozzle is provided with a constant diameter circular duct at its exit.
The duct diameter is same as the nozzle exit diameter. Nozzle exit cross-section is
three times that of its throat. The entry conditions of the gas ( = 1.4, R=0.287 kJ/kg
K) are P= 10 bar, T = 600 K. Calculate the static pressure, Mach number and the
velocity of the gas in the duct:
(a) when the nozzle operates at its design condition,
(b) when a normal shock occurs at its exit, and
(c) when a normal shock occurs at a section in the diverging part where

4. A nozzle is designed for superheated steam ( = 1.3) with a pressure ratio P/Po
= 0.185; this operates at an off-design condition with a pressure ratio of 0.754.
Determine the area ratio (A/A*) at the section where the normal shock occurs. What are
the values of design and off-design Mach numbers at the nozzle exit?

5. (a) Explain how strong compression and expansion waves are formed in a
compressible fluid.
(b) Under what conditions a compression wave changes into a shock wave
c) Why are expansion shock impossible?
6 (a) Write down the four basic equations which satisfy the state points bcfore and after a
normal shock wave.
(b) Using the above equations prove that at the maximum entropy on the enthalpy-
entropy diagrams the Mach number is unity.
7.Starting from the energy equation for flow through a normal shock obtain the following
relations:

8.Explain how strong compression and expansion waves arc formed a compressible fluid.

9.Write down the four basic equations which satisfy the state points before and after a
normal shock wave.

10. Under what conditions a compression wave changes into a shock wave

11.Define Fanno flow.

12.Define Rayleigh flow.