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UNIT I
FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGN
UNIT I
FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
Engineering is mostly concerned about satisfying human needs. A designer may have a picture of a
particular item or component in his mind. To make that idea into a real product, certain activities need to be
carried out. These activities are collectively known as the design process. Design may be defined as
follows.
Definition of Design:
Design is nothing but a series of activities to gather all the information necessary to realize the designer s
idea as a real product.
as shown below.
1. Recognition of need:
This refers to the reasoning why the new product has to be designed. In other words, it
refers to the condition that has made us to go for a new design.
2. Definition of problem:
In this stage, the problem is clearly defined by its specifications. Specifications arc input
and output quantities, characteristics and dimensions of the space required, feed and
speed to be given etc.
3. Synthesis:
Synthesis is a creative process present in every design. Once all the elements are defined
for a particular problem, the relationship between them has to be established. Synthesis is
the process of taking the elements of the concept and arranging them in proper order,
sized and dimensioned in a proper way.
Analysis refers to find out whether the system satisfies the requirements.
By optimization, we see that the system performs in the best possible way. If the present
system is not giving optimized performance, the synthesis part has to be again carried
out till the optimum performance is achieved.
Evaluation is the final proof that the system is successfully designed. This usually
involves testing in laboratory or real conditions.
Presentation refers to communicating the design to others. This should be done in such
a way that the system s components and working are clearly understood by all.
As it was seen earlier, designing consists of various phases. Computer Aided Design
(CAD) refers to the use of a computer in the design process so that we get an optimum
design at a lesser time. Basically, various tools are used in CAD. Use of these tools in the
CAD process is shown in a diagram given below.
CAD TOOLS
As shown in the fig, the basic concepts of geometric modeling and computer graphics are
to be applied to our advantage the design process.
These include the basic theory of computer graphics, representation of curves and other
geometric entities mathematically and their presentation.
Geometric modeling:
This includes surface, wire frame and solid modeling of parts. Various packages are used
for geometric modeling.
Design tools:
Beside the above design tools form a constituent of CAD. Those are used for analysis and
evaluation purposes and include codes, computer programs etc.
Advantages of CAD:
1. Improved productivity.
3. Reduced lead-time.
5. Reduced wastages.
OPTIMUM DESIGN
best possible result. If the first design is not satisfactory, further modifications are to be
carried out till the best performance is obtained. This is 1mo as the process of
optimization.
Definition of Optimization :
1. Optimization by evolution:
This refers to the optimization by an attempt to improve upon existing similar design.
2 Optimization by intuition:
Intuition is knowing what to do but without knowing the reason of doing it. it s a kind of
flash in mind . By intuition also, optimization can be obtained.
This is the usual situation in modem engineering design. Here, it is assumed that the first
feasible design is not necessarily the best. The design model is exercised for a few
iterations in the hope of finding an improved design.
Strength:
This refers to the ability of a material to resist external load without breaking.
2 Toughness:
3. Stiffness:
etc.
S. Elasticity:
Properly of the material to regain its original shape alter deformation when external
forces are removed.
6. Plasticity:
The property of material, which retains deformation produced under load permanently.
7. Malleability:
8. Resilience:
Property of the material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads.
9. Creep:
This refers to a slow and permanent deformation when a part is subjected a constant
stress for a long duration.
10. Ductility:
Ductility refers to the ability of the material to be drawn into thin wires.
Detailed list of physical properties of various materials may be got from tables of PSGDB
(Page 1.1 1.20)
Load refers to any external force acting on a machine part. Depending on the nature and
value, load may be classified as follows.
If a load does not change in its magnitude or direction, it is considered as steady load.
If the load changes either in magnitude or direction or both, it is called as live or variable
load.
I Shock load:
4. Impact load:
1.7. STRESSES
If a load acts on a body, the body will produce resisting force equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction. The ratio of this resisting force to the cross sectional area of the
body is known as stress .
Types of stresses:
Stresses may fall into various types. They arc explained in this section.
Static stress:
This refers to the stress, which does not change in magnitude or in
direction.
Varying stress:
Varying or alternate stress refers to the stress in which magnitude or direction or both are
changing.
Following are the types of variable stress.
(i) Completely reversed or cyclic stresses:
Stresses which change from one value of tension to the same value of compression
is known as completely reversed or cyclic stresses.
(ii) Fluctuating stresses:
Stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum of same nature
(Compressive or tensile) are called as fluctuating stresses.
(ii Repeated stress:
This refers to a stress, which varies fromzero to a maximum value
of same nature.
This is the maximum value of completely reversing stress that the standard
specimen can sustain for an infinite number of cycles without failure.
Approximate values of endurance limit for some metals are given
Endurance limit stress
S-N curve
S-N curve shows the relation between the fatigue stress and number of loading
cycles. From the S-N curve, it is possible to find the number of cycles corresponding to a
particular value of fatigue stress and vice- versa. For example, in the given S-N curve
corresponding to stress, Number of cycles is N and for 02, it is N corresponds to infinite
number of cycles (10 power 6 cycles) and this is called endurance limit From the S-N
curve, it is seen that as the value of stress is increased, number of cycles (life) is reduced.
Low cycle and high cycle fatigue:
Fatigue within 10 power 3 cycles is known as low cycle fatigue and at more cycles is
known as high cycle fatigue.
Basquin equation:
The straight-line position of S-N curve is approximated by an equation of Basquin which
is given as,
SOLVED PROBLEMS ON STATIC, VARYING AND COMBINED
STRESSES
Problem .
A steel column, square cross-section of 80mm it carries a load of 750 KN at an
eccentricity of 10mm in a plane bisecting the thickness. Find the maximum and minimum
intensities of stress in the section.
Given data:
Given data:
Problem .
A mild steel bracket is shown in figure. It is subjected to a pull of 5000N
acting at 450 to the horizontal axis. The bracket has a rectangular section whose
depth is twice the thickness Find the cross sectional dimensions of the bracket if
the permissible stress in the material is 50N/mm2.
IMPACT STRESSES
The stresses produced due to a momentary or falling load is known as impact stress. if
time of load application is less than one third 4 the lowest natural period of vibration of
the part it is called an impact load.
Let us assume that a bar of diameter d and length has a collar its base. A load W
falls from a height of on to the collar.
l is the deformation of the bar. Due to
the falling load, energy is gained. But at the
same time as the weight falls down,
potential energy is lost.
Equating these two,
Kinetic energy gained = Potential
energy lost.
SOLVED PROBLEMS ON IMPACT STRESSES
Problem.
An unknown weight falls from a distance of 15mm on to a collar rigidly attached to the
lower end of a vertical bar 2.5mm long and 500mm cross section. The maximum
instantaneous extension is 2mm. Find the corresponding stress and the value of the
weigh/falling. E=2x105/mm2
THERMAL STRESSES
Member is free to expansion contract due to temperature, no stress and strain will be
induced in the member. But hen the member is rigidly fixed at both ends so that the
change u length is prevented due to change in temperature, then stress will be induced in
the member. Such stress is called temperature stress or thermal stress. The corresponding
strain is called temperature strain or thermal strain.
Due to rise in temperature, a member tends to expand. But when it is fixed at its ends,
this expansion is prevented and thus the member is under compression .similarly due to
fall of temperature, the member tends to contract. When this is prevented, tension is
induced .
Determination of thermal stress and strain
Consider a bar is heated to a certain temperature, as shown in fig
Let, L = Original length of the bar.
T = Rise or fall in temperature.
a = Coefficient of linear expansion
E = Young s modulus of the material of the bar.
M = Change in length.
If the bar is free to expand, then the expanded length of the bar,
Change in length,
Residual stresses are those existing in a part when the part is free from internal
forces. They are also called as internal stresses (or) locked-in stresses. They are
developed due to the non-uniform plastic deformation of the body. Two types of
residual stresses are
1.Tensile residual stress
2. Compressive residual stress.
Generally, if the residual stress in the part is compressive, it will improve the
endurance limit. An operation such as shot peening, hammering and cold rolling
induces compressive stresses in parts and thus improves the endurance limit.
1.8. FACTOR OF SAFETY
In all designs, the working or design stress is to be kept lower than the maximum
stress. The ratio between maximum stress to working stress is known as factor of
safety.
Types of fracture:
1. Brittle fracture
2. Ductile fracture
3.
1. Brittle fracture:
In this type, crack growth influences the material to only a very little depth.
remaining material is not affected by the crack.
2. Ductile fracture:
In ductile fracture, large amount of plastic deformation is present to a higher
depth.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS.