Psychological Science

http://pss.sagepub.com/ The Importance of Nongenetic Influences on Romantic Love Styles: A Twin-Family Study
Niels G. Waller and Phillip R. Shaver Psychological Science 1994 5: 268 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00624.x The online version of this article can be found at: http://pss.sagepub.com/content/5/5/268

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Research Article
THE IMPORTANCE OF NONGENETIC INFLUENCES ON ROMANTIC LOVE STYLES: A Twin-Family Study Niels G. Waller and Phillip R. Shaver
University of California. Davis Abstract':"-Research in several disciplines reveals large individual differences in orientations to romantic love, yet the origins of the differences have been unclear. In this first behavior genetic study of romantic love, biometric model fitting reveals that in contrast to other personality and attitude domains, where genetic factors account for approximately 50% of the reliable variance and shared environment has little effect, individual differences in romantic love are due almost exclusively to environment. Moreover, the common family environment plays a sizable role in determining lm'e styles. a finding compatible with theories stressing the importance of family interactions in personality development. ward love. While studying a related topic, styles of infantparent attachment, researchers have repeatedly documented the causal influence of parental behavior but have failed, despite considerable effort, to uncover heritable differences in attachment style (Ricciuti, 1992; Yandell, Owen, Wilson, & Henderson, 1988). In this article, we report findings from the first behavior genetic study of adult love styles. The biological and cultural transmission of love styles was investigated using a large sample of adult twins and twin-family members. In the following two sections, we describe the measure of love styles, or love attitudes, administered to our sample and explain the biometric models used in the data analyses. We then report findings concerning the genetic and environmental influences on love attiAfter decades of neglect, science has become infatuated with. tudes, compare our results with those of an associated twin love. Love is currently being studied from the viewpoints of study of personality, and contrast the genetic and environmenmedical biology (Liebowitz, 1983; Money, 1980), evolutionary tal architecture of love attitudes with the determinants of other theory (Buss, 1988; Mellen, 1981), psychology (S.S. Hendrick kinds of attitudes. & C. Hendrick, 1992; Shaver & Hazan, 1993), linguistics (Kovecses; 1988, 1991), and anthropology (H.E. Fisher, 1992). From this work, one conclusion emerges repeatedly: Although WHAT ARE THESE THINGS CALLED LOVE? the capacity for love appears to be universal, the precise form love takes differs markedly across individuals. Some people Recent work on romantic love has focused on the multidibecome highly preoccupied, almost hysterical about love, mensional complexity of the phenomenon. Early formulations whereas others move calmly from extended friendship to warm by Hatfield and Walster (1978) distinguished passionate from romantic involvement. Some are highly devoted to a single ro- companionate love. Sternberg (1986) later proposed a threemantic partner, whereas others happily juggle several partners dimensional model of love involving passion, intimacy, and at a time. Social scientists have made impressive strides in commitment. More recently, Hazan and Shaver (1987) excharting this variation but still know relatively little about its tended Bowlby and Ainsworth's attachment theory to adult roorigins. In particular, no one has investigated the complemen- mantic relationships, and also proposed a three-dimensional tary roles of genes and the environment in the development and model. The work presented here employs a comprehensive sixexpression of love styles. dimensional model of love originally proposed by Lee (1973, There are reasons to suspect that individual differences in 1988) following a detailed interview study. Lee assigned Greek love styles-or love attitudes, as S.S. Hendrick and C. Hen- names to the six dimensions-Eros, Ludus, Storge, Pragma, drick (1992) also call them-are at least partly determined by Mania, and Agape-because he relied heavily on classical litheredity. Several studies have found correlations between love erature when interpreting the patterns in his interviews. We attitudes and personality traits that are known to be moderately obtained scores for the dimensions using the Love Attitudes heritable (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, & Segal, 1990; S.S. Scale (LAS) developed by C. Hendrick and S. Hendrick (1986) Hendrick & C. Hendrick, 1992). Moreover, other attitudes, on the basis of Lee's theory. such as vocational interests (Keller, Bouchard, Arvey, Segal, & Individuals who score high on Eros place considerable value Dawes, 1992), leisure-time interests (Waller, Lykken, & Telle- on love and passion, are self-confident, enjoy intimacy and selfgen, in press), social attitudes (Martin, Eaves, Heath, Jardine, disclosure, and fall in love fairly quickly. (Sample item: "My & Feingold, 1986), and even religiosity (Waller, Kojetin, Bou- lover and I were attracted to each other immediately after we chard, & Lykken, 1990), are now known to be prominently first met.") Those who score high on Ludus value the fun and influenced by genes. Nevertheless, environmental factors are excitement of romantic relationships, especially with multiple also likely to playa prominent role in shaping orientations to- alternative partners; they generally are not interested in mutual self-disclosure, intimacy, or "getting serious." (Sample item: Address correspondence to Niels G. Waller, Department of Psy- "I try to keep my lover a little uncertain about my commitment chology, University ofCalifomia. Davis. CA 95616; e-mail: ngwaller@ to him/her.") Individuals who score high on Storge value close ucdavis.edu. friendship, companionship, and reliable affection. Their roman-

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tic relationships tend to evolve out of nonpassionate friendships. (Sample item: "It is hard for me to say exactly when our friendship turned into love.") Those high on Pragma are pragmatic, entering a relationship only if it meets certain practical criteria. (Sample item: "I considered what my lover was going to become in life before I committed myself to hirnfher. ") People who score high on Mania are desperate and conflicted about love. They yearn intensely for love but then experience it as a source of pain, a cause of jealousy, a reason for insomnia. (Sample item: "When things aren't right with my lover and me, my stomach gets upset.") Finally, those who score high on Agape are oriented more toward what they can give to, rather than receive from, a romantic partner. Agape is a selfless, almost spiritual form oflove. (Sample item: "I always try to help my lover through difficult times.") As measured by the LAS, Lee's six love-style dimensions are fairly independent; together, they define an almost infinite variety of possible combinations that can be used to characterize important differences among individuals in their approaches to love. This comprehensiveness is what made the measure especially suitable for studying the genetic and environmental influences on love styles. The phenotypic (i.e., observed) variance of a character is simply the sum of the additive genetic (Va), common environmental (Vc), and nonshared environmental (Ve) variance components (by convention, Ve also contains measurement error). These variance components are estimated in our design by minimizing the discrepancy between the observed and expected covariances among family members who differ in genetic relatedness. The expectations of the model are derived from genetic theory. Monozygotic (MZ) twins are genetic replicas of one another. They share 100% of their genes and thus all of their genetic effects. Dizygotic (DZ) twins, in contrast, share only 50% of their genes, on average. Consequently, they share only 50% of their additive genetic effects. These relations are formalized in the ACE model by specifying that the MZ covariance contains 100% of Va, whereas the DZ covariance contains 50% of Va only. Twins can also resemble one another for environmental reasons if they are exposed to trait-relevant, common environments. Common environmental influences are shared equally among co-twins irrespective of zygosity. For this reason, variance that is attributable to the common environment (Vc) increases both the MZ and the DZ covariances. Unique environmental influences are not shared between co-twins, and hence Ve does not contribute to twin resemblance. Table I summarizes the expectations for the ACE model under both rand~m and assortative mating, where assortative mating is defined as the nonrandom coupling of sexual partners. (This definition is important in the present context, because spouses' love styles are in fact correlated.) The ACE model provides an accurate description of the data structure for many psychological and behavioral traits (Jinks & Fulker, 1970; Neale & Cardon, 1992). For some traits, however, in defiance of the model, the MZ covariance is appreciably greater than twice the DZ covariance. This can occur when nonadditive genetic effects, such as within-loci (genetic dominance) or across-loci (genetic epistasis) allelic interactions, are important determinants of trait variation. Recent work on the genetic architecture of personality, attitudes, and certain psychopathological syndromes (Lykken, McGue, Tellegen, & Bouchard, 1992) indicates that such effects are significantly stronger than previously believed. With twins, it is possible to estimate the influence of genetic dominance-an important

BEHAVIOR GENETIC MODELS OF LOVE AlTITUDES

Several methods are available for estimating behavior genetic parameters from twin data (Jinks & Fulker, 1970; Neale & Cardon, 1992). In this study, we used multiple-group covariance structure >analysis (Heath, Neale, Hewitt, Eaves, & Fulker, 1989). When data meet the assumptions of the model (i.e., variables are normally distributed; all genetic and environmental effects are additive), this method provides maximum-likelihood estimates of the genetic and environmental parameters as well as a fit index that is distributed as a chi-square variate. The two models tested in our study are called the ACE and the ADE models. In the ACE model (Neale & Cardon, 1992), variation on a measured character putatively arises from three latent sources: an additive genetic factor, a; a common environmental factor, c, representing environmental influences that are shared among siblings, such as exposure to common parenting styles or common peer groups; and a nonshared environmental factor, e, that represents environmental influences unique to the individual.

Table 1. Expected covariances among family members for additive and nonadditive biometric models Expected covariance Random mating Covariance Monozygotic Dizygotic Spouse Additive model
Va 1I2Va

Assortative mating Additive model

Va 1I2Va(l

Nonadditive model
Va 1I2Va

Nonadditive model
Vc Va 1I2Va(l

+ +

Vc Vc

+ +

Vd 1/4Vd

+ +

Vc 112 m) mVp

+ +

Vd 112 m) mVp

1I4Vd

Note. Va = variance due to additive genetic effects; Vc = variance due to shared environmental effects; Vd = variance due to genetic dominance; 11 2 = heritability; m = phenotypic spousal correlation; Vp = phenotypic variance.

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Romantic Love
source of. nonadditive genetic variance-using a twin design known as the ADE model. In the ADE model, variation on a metrical character also arises from three latent sources: an additive genetic factor, a; a dominance genetic factor, d,o and a nonshared environmental factor, e (with twin data alone, estimates of c and d cannot be obtained simultaneously). MZ twins share 100% of their genetic raw material and consequently share 100% of their genetic interactions. DZ twins, in contrast, share only 25% of their gene pairs, on average, and thus share only 25% of their dominance deviations. As illustrated in Table 1, the MZ covariance in this model represents all of the additive and nonadditive genetic variance, whereas the DZ covariance is influenced by one half of the additive genetic and one fourth of the dominance genetic variance only. When sexual partners are assortatively mated, the expectations for the ACE and ADE models must be modified because, in this situation, siblings can share more than 50% of their genes. R.A. Fisher (1918) derived the necessary expectations for the case when sexual partners choose each other on the basis of phenotypic resemblance. We believe that Fisher's model is appropriate for love attitudes because, in contemporary society, most individuals exercise considerable choice in the mating game. The modified expectations for the ACE and ADE models under phenotypic assortative mating are summarizec.l in Table I. Notice that siblings share more than 50% of their additive genetic deviations when both m, the spousal correlation, and Jr, the narrow-sense heritability (defined as the ratio of additive genetic variance, Va, to total phenotypic variance, Vp), "are greater than zero. In the analyses reported here, the ADE model was tested when the DZ correlation was less than one half of the corresponding MZ correlation. Using the equations in Table 1, variance components for the ACE and ADE models were estimated in our study by minimizing the discrepancy between the observed and modelimplied covariance matrices for the MZ and DZ twins and their spouses via GAUSS (APTECH, 1991) optimization routines. The following function was minimized over groups:
g
= 14.84, range = 69) and 36.79 (SD = 16.00, range = 60) years at time of testing. The average age of the spouses was 44.37 years (SD = 14.19, range = 63). Couples had been married from 2 to 62 years, with a median duration of 12 years. Zygosity testing of the twins indicated that 345 twin pairs were monozygotic and 100 pairs were dizygotic. Zygosity diagnosis for twin classification was determined using a questionnaire that has yielded 95% classification accuracy in similar twin surveys (Cohen, Dibble, Grawe, & Pollin, 1975; Sarna, Kaprio, Sistonen, & Koskenvuo, 1978; Lykken, Bouchard, McGue, & Tellegen, 1990).

MEASURES
As part of a larger battery of personality and attitude tests, all subjects completed a biographical and zygosity questionnaire, the LAS (C. Hendrick & S. Hendrick, 1986), and the Inventory of Personal Styles (IPS; Lykken et aI., 1990). The LAS is a 42-item attitude scale that was designed to measure the six love styles of Lee's (1973) theoretically derived, multi dimensional model of love. Each love style is measured by seven items. Respondents are instructed to rate the items on a 5-point Likert scale that ranges from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." The IPS is a brief, 33-item measure of the II personality traits measured by the much longer Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (Tellegen & Waller, in press). The 11 personality traits have been studied intensely in previous behavior genetic twin studies (Tellegen, Lykken, Bouchard, & Wilcox, 1988). Subjects are instructed to rank themselves on a 5-point scale in comparison to other persons of their own age and gender.

RESULTS
Our first analysis examined the phenotypic structure of the LAS. In the combined sample, scores on the six love scales were essentially uncorrelated with one another, as intended by C. Hendrick and S. Hendrick (1986), with the average absolute pair-wise correlation being only .12 (the highest correlation was .33, between Eros and Agape). Because of the relative independence of the love attitudes, univariate biometric analyses were performed on the individual love scales. Before conducting these analyses, however, we examined further the phenotypic characteristics of the scales. Descriptive statistics and familial correlations for the six love scales are summarized in Table 2. Scores on the scales range theoretically from 1 to 5, with lower scores indicating stronger endorsement of the love attitudes. For five of the scales in our sample, the means and standard deviations are similar to those reported in previous studies (C. Hendrick & S. Hendrick, 1986). The one difference concerns Mania. Apparently, our community-dwelling subjects are less Manic than the mostly college-aged research subjects who have been studied in previous love attitudes research. The partial correlation between age and Mania in our sample (with the linear effects of gender partialed from the data) is .15, indicating either a slight tendency for people to become less Manic with age or the presence of small cohort differences in our sample
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F = L(Ng/N)[lnIEgl + tr(SgE;-I) - InlSgl - pl,

g=1

where N g is the sample size for group g,o Eg denotes the modelimplied covariance matrix for group g,o Sg equals the observed covariance matrix for group g,o p equals the number of estimated parameters; In equals the logarithmic function; IAI equals the determinant of matrix A; and tr equals the trace operator. Because twins are correlated perfectly for age, and same-sexed twins for gender, the linear, quadratic, and interactive effects of age and gender were partialed from the raw data (McGue & Bouchard, 1984) prior to the biometric analyses.

SUBJECTS
Our combined sample included 890 adult twins and 172 spouses from the California Twin Registry. The 338 female and 107 male twin pairs in our study had average ages of 34.98 (SD

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Love Attitudes Scale

Love style Eros Ludus Storge Pragma Mania Agape Mean 2.09 3.85 2.18 3.13 3.18 2.36

PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Niels G. Waller and Phillip R. Shaver

Table 2. Descriptive statistics and familial correlations for the six styles measured by the Correlation Monozygotic .16 .18 .18 .40 .35 .30
b

SD
0.69 0.74 0.71 0.84 0.77 0.78

a reliabilitya

Dizygotic .14 .30 .12 .32 .27 .37

Spouse .36 .08 .22 .29 -.01 .28

.76 .73 .70 .78 .71 .81

Note. N = 345 monozygotic, 100 dizygotic, and 172 spouse pairs. aStandardized alpha (a) with linear and quadratic effects of age and gender partialed. bLinear and quadratic effects of age and gender partialed from the correlations.

(note that low scores on the LAS denote high trait levels). The average reliability estimate (a; Cronbach, 1951) of .75 indicates that love attitudes can be measured reliably by brief self-report questionnaires. These reliabilities are similar to the test-retest reliabilities (after a 4- to 6-week interval) reported in C. Hendrick and S. Hendrick (1986). Notice that there are significant correlations between cotwins and between twins and their spouses on several love attitudes. Moreover, in contrast to other psychological variables (Eaves, Eysenck, & Martin, 1989; Martin et aI., 1986; Waller et aI., 1990), the MZ correlations are not uniformly higher than the DZ correlations. This surprising, and very unusual, finding suggests that genes are not important determinants of attitudes toward romantic love. Rather, the common environment appears to play the cardinal role in shaping familial resemblance on these dimensions. (Biometric results presented later support these conclusions.) Notice also that couples are positively correlated on four of the six love attitudes: Eros, Storge, Pragma, and Agape. Interestingly, spouses do not resemble one another on Ludus and Mania (Davis & Latty-Mann, 1987, and S.S. Hendrick, C. Hendrick, & Adler, 1988, obtained similar results). One interpretation of these results is that when both partners avoid commitment (Ludus), or when both partners are dependent and jealous (Mania), it is particularly difficult to maintain a relationship. To see whether the spouse correlations might be due to attitude convergence rather than assortative mating, we regressed the absolute difference-scores between spouses on Eros, Storge, Pragma, and Agape on marriage duration for the 172 couples. None of the regressions were statistically significant, indicating that convergence over the course of marriage cannot account for the positive spouse correlations. Moreover, failure to find spouse convergence in love attitudes cannot be attributed to low statistical power. Marriage duration accounts for no more than 1% of the variation in spouse difference-scores in our sample. The results from the biometric analyses of the six love scales are summarized in Table 3. Notice that the conclusions from the maximum-likelihood estimation are consistent with impressions of the data based solely on correlations. Genetic factors account for very little variance on these scales. Specifically, herVOL. 5, NO.5, SEPTEMBER 1994

itable differences account for none of the variance in Ludus and Agape, and only a smidgen of the variance in Eros, Storge, and Pragma. Mania is the only love style in which heredity plays an important role. In contrast, for many of the scales, common environmental influences account for sizable portions of the reliable variance. For example, Vc accounts for just over 30% of the variance in Pragma and Agape, and from 7% to 20% of the variance in the remaining scales. After correcting for unreliability, these estimates are appreciably higher. The findings from this first behavior genetic analysis of adult love styles are remarkable for two reasons. First, we know of no personality domain in which genetic factors play such a small role in determining trait variation. As demonstrated in dozens of twin studies (reviewed in Eaves et aI., 1989; Tellegen et aI., 1988), the heritability of virtually all measured personality dimensions hovers around .50. Second, we are aware of no attitude domain in which genetic factors play such a small role (Martin et aI., 1986; Waller et aI., 1990). Whether love styles are

components for the six styles measured by the Love Attitudes Scale
Variance component Love style Eros Ludus Storge Pragma Mania Agape
Va Vc Ve
III

Table 3. Genetic and environmental variance

x2
7.48 10.08 5.96 1.90 1.46 7.90

.Il

.05 .00

.08 .17 .00

.10 .20 .07 .31 .18 .32

.85 .80 .82 .61 .65 .68

.42 .09 .21 .29 -.02 .32

.19 .07 '.31 .86 .92 .16

environmental variance; III = estimated spousal correlation. The ADE model was not tested with the data on love attitudes because the dizygotic correlations were not less than one half of the corresponding monozygotic correlations.

Note. N = 345 monozygotic, 100 dizygotic, and 172 spouse pairs. Va = variance due to additive genetic effects; Vc = variance due to shared environmental effects; Ve = nonshared

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Romantic Love conceptualized as personality traits or as attitudes, they are unique from a behavior genetic standpoint. The unusual pattern of findings for love attitudes is not likely a result of unrepresentative sampling. Table 4 reports the familial correlations and scale reliabilities for the II personality dimensions of the IPS. As noted earlier, these dimensions have been examined in previous twin studies (Tellegen et al., 1988) and have been found to be moderately heritable. Consistent with previous twin studies of personality, the MZ correlations in Table 4 are uniformly higher than the corresponding DZ correlations, and for most traits there is little evidence of assortative mating. Moreover, on many dimensions, the MZ correla,tions are substantially higher than the DZ correlations. This overall pattern indicates that genetic factors account for a sizable portion of the variance on the personality dimensions. A stronger indication is provided by the biometric analyses summarized in Table 5. When the MZ correlation in a twin study is appreciably greater than twice the DZ correlation, it is often advisable to fit an ADE model to determine whether nonadditive genetic effects account for trait variation. Inspection of the correlations in Table 5 reveals that the MZ correlation is greater than twice the DZ correlation for 10 of the personality scales-specifically, for all the scales except Traditionalism. We therefore fit both ACE and ADE models for 10 of the 11 scales. The results of these analyses were consistent with those of previous behavior genetic studies of personality. Heritable factors account for approximately 35% to 40% of the observed variance, and from 40% to 60% of the reliable variance, on the 11 personality dimensions (Eaves et al., 1989; Loehlin & Nichols, 1976). Moreover, common environmental effects account for none of the trait variance in 10 of the 11 personality scales. These findings are virtually identical to those reported previously by Tellegen et al. (1988) in a twin study of similar personality traits. Thus, the absence of genetic effects in the analyses of love attitudes cannot be attributed to atypicality of our sample.

DISCUSSION
In contrast to other attitude dimensions and personality traits, romantic love styles are not strongly influenced by heritable factors. When we performed a biometric analysis of the six dimensions oflove style assessed by the LAS, we found that genetic factors account for almost none of the individual differences on these dimensions. Moreover, in stark contrast to findings from previous twin studies of attitudes and personality traits, shared environmental effects playa substantial role in determining both trait variation and family resemblance on attitudes toward romantic love. These results suggest that shared experiences, not shared genes, account for similarities in love attitudes. And the correlations between spouses' love styles, which we showed cannot be attributed to attitude convergence, indicate that love attitudes influence mate selection. Previous studies (S.S. Hendrick & C. Hendrick, 1992) have shown that the combination of partners' love styles affects relationship satisfaction and stability. Hence, an orientation toward romantic love that may have been learned during childhood can eventually affect outcomes of adult relationships. The strength of this chain of events is quite surprising given that the LAS refers primarily to a specific relationship, not to a mental average across relationships. The twins in our study showed similarities in orientations to adult romantic love, similarities attributable in part to previously shared environments, even though they were describing love relationships (usually long-term marriages) with different partners. Why would love styles but not other personality traitsincluding traits such as Stress Reaction in Table 4-that are correlated with love style dimensions be due to shared environment rather than genetic factors? Love styles are inherently relational. Unlike simple emotions or emotional dispositions (e.g., aggression, alienation) and individual personality traits (e.g., control, absorption), which are related to heritable variation in brain processes, love styles may be learned during early

Table 4. Familial correlations and reliabilities for 11 personality dimensions Personality dimension Wellbeing Social Potency Achievement Social Closeness Stress Reaction Alienation Aggression Control Harmavoidance Traditionalism Absorption Correlation Monozygotic .38 Al 043 .38 040 .37 .19 .30 .35 047
.34
a

Dizygotic .09 .16 .01 .08 .10 .04 -.05 .07 040

Spouse .04 .05 .08

a reliabilityb

.13

-.04 -.07

.26 .17 -.03

.81 .76 .75 .80 .77 .81 .69

.13

.77
.64
.68 .66

.13

.26 .12

Note. N = 345 monozygotic, 100 dizygotic, and 181 spouse pairs. aLinear and quadratic effects of age and gender partialed from the correlations. bStandardized alpha (n) with linear and quadratic effects of age and gender partia1ed.

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Table 5. Genetic and environmental variance components for 11 personality dimensions Variance component Personality dimension Wellbeing Social Potency Achievement Social Closeness Stress Reaction Alienation Aggression Control Harmavoidance Traditionalism Absorption Genetic Environmental

Va
.37 .16 .39

Vd
.21

Vc
.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .29

Ve
.63 .63 .61 .60 .58 .57 .63 .62 .62 .65 .65 .82 .82 .71 .68 .67 .54

m
.03 .04 .05 .05 .09 .09 -.05 -.04 -.07 -.07 .26 .26 .16 .16 -.03 -.02

x2
4.97 4.67 6.52 5.26 8.29 7.39

AI .14 .36 .00 .38 .00 .34 .08 .18 .02 .28 .00 .32 .00 .17 .33 .16

.00

040
.29 .37 .38 .27 .16 .29 .33

.64

.72

.13

.14 .28 .12 .12

6.77 6.10 10.96 10.35 7.30 7.17 6.89 4.88 7.02 6.14

6048 3.64

.26 .39 .14 .19 .26 .60 .24 .30 .05 .07 .20 .21 .23 .22 .29 .79 .73 .77

042 046

043

2041

.18

.00

.67 .66

2.80 2.53

Note. N = 345 monozygotic, 100 dizygotic, and 181 spouse pairs. Va = variance due to additive genetic effects; Vd = variance due to genetic dominance; Vc = variance due to shared environmental effects; Ve = nonshared environmental variance; 111 = estimated spousal correlation. For each personality dimension, the top row shows the variance components for an additive biometric model, whereas the bottom row shows the variance components for a nonadditive biometric model.
familial or shared extrafamilial interactions and subsequently played out in romantic relationships. These orientations to love are due in part to unique experiences (with parents, peers, adolescent and adult lovers, etc.), as indicated by the variance associated with the unshared environment; but they are also due to shared environment-perhaps sharing parents and making similar observations of parents' relational styles.
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