Green Materials Selection for Automobiles

Christine Bogaerts Sarah Kelly Amol Parulekar Ryan Smith

Agenda
Background and motivation Introduction to materials Green materials selection Conclusions Questions

Auto Emissions

[Keoleian, 1997]

Fuel Economy Trends

[Keoleian, 1997]

Solutions
Alternative fuel vehicles Improved emission control Reduction in vehicle use VEHICLE WEIGHT REDUCTION

Opportunities for Weight Reduction

Use of alternative materials such as lightweight metals, plastics, and composites

[Maxwell, 1994]

Trends in Materials Use

Decreased steel use Increased plastics, composites, and lightweight metals use Reduced toxic materials Increased recyclability

Trends in Plastics Use in the Automotive Industry

[Maxwell, 1994]

Objective
Reduce vehicle emissions and improve fuel economy by reducing the weight of the vehicle, taking into consideration the recyclabilty and cost of the selected materials

Introduction to Materials

Material Alternatives for Use in Automobiles

Aluminum Titanium Magnesium Plastics Composites Glass

Relative Properties of Metals, Composites, and Plastics

[Maxwell, 1994]

Aluminum
Abundant: Found in bauxite, Al is the 3rd most abundant element on the planet. Light and strong: 1/3 of steel, with similar strength properties Currently used: Airplane wings, housing Recyclability: Already massively recycled Cost: Slightly more expensive than steel, but not unreasonable; manufacturing is energy intensive and expensive

Aluminum
Does not rust Has a higher strength to weight ratio than that of steel Absorbs energy in the same manner as steel in crashes, which guarantees the same safety as that of steel Aluminum responds to high stress in a predictable manner, which is useful in engineering crash zones

Aluminum
Each kg of aluminum that replaces steel can save a net 20 kg of CO equivalents Recovering and re-melting aluminum automotive scrap saves 95% of the greenhouse gas emissions associated with emissions from primary metal production The average car in 1997 contained 35% more aluminum than one made in 1994 58% of the total amount of aluminum in 1996 vehicles - 900 million kg - comes from recycled aluminum

Titanium
Lightweight Makes strong alloys Corrosion resistant Far too costly Extremely expensive to recycle

Magnesium
When alloyed in Al, is even lighter Easily shaped Can withstand high stresses Its expense limits its use to very important applications Not very corrosion resistant Shavings are combustible

Plastics
Plastics are composed of HC polymer molecules and additives Polymers are long chain molecules Thermoplastics
secondary bonds are weak and become weaker as temperature increases polymer becomes softer and easier to mold at elevated temperatures shaping is reversible example: polypropylene

Plastics
Thermosets
cross-linked polymers that cannot be reversibly unshaped after curing strength is not temperature dependent have better mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties more difficult to recycle example: epoxy

Properties of Concern in Plastics Use

Temperature stability Flammability Chemical resistance Resistance to friction and wear Strength Resistance to UV degradation Dimensional stability

Advantages of Plastics Use

Lightweight Economical
Lower raw material costs Fewer number of parts

Potential for styling and coloration Functional design Reduced maintenance Corrosion resistant

Disadvantages of Plastics Use

Paintability
High temperature Adhesion Performance Appearance

Abrasion resistance Repair of surfaces Potential for heat distortion

Chemical resistance Flammability Performance problems due to poor material selection and design Compatibility with automotive industry practices

Methods of Plastic Forming

Injection molding Extrusion Blow molding Vacuum and pressure forming Reaction injection molding (RIM) Resin transfer molding (RTM) Forming glass mat thermoplastics (GMT)

Typical Percentages of Plastics Used in Automobiles

[Maxwell, 1994]

What is a Composite Material

Working definitions:
Combinations of different, distinct materials that, when combined, retain their character and can be physically identified.
Matrix and reinforcement

Often exhibit bulk properties superior to either constituent material

Superior is a relative description and is based on the end-use of the composite system

Why Investigate Composites?

Tailor properties for intended use
Increase relative strength and/or stiffness Reduce weight

Ease of manufacture Eliminate electrical conductivity Provide EMI shielding Reduce cost

Materials for Composite Use

Reinforcement: Fibers/Fabrics, Particles
Provide primary load-carrying capability Carbon (Graphite), Kevlar (Aramid), Glass, Polyethylene, Silicon Carbide (SiC)

Matrix: Polymers, Metals, Ceramics

Maintains reinforcement orientation, protects from the environment and distributes loads Epoxy Resins, Nylon, Polypropylene, Aluminum, Magnesium, Carbon

What Composites Do We Use?

Decision Based Upon:
End-use of composite Cost considerations Long-term stability Energy absorption Manufacturing equipment available Available forms of material

Methods of Composite Forming

Wet Layup Vacuum Bag Forming / Oven Cure Vacuum Bag and Autoclave Forming / Curing Resin Transfer Molding Long Parts with Uniaxial Reinforcement Compression Molding Nominally Flat / Optimized Parts Filament Winding Axial Symmetric Parts

Use of Glass in Vehicles

Windshield / Windows Headlamp lenses Mirrors Bulbs

Overall ~2.8% (42kg of 1532kg) of average vehicle weight

Advantages/Disadvantages of Glass
High density relative to polycarbonate alternatives Superior scratch resistance Existing manufacturing infrastructure

Windshield Construction
Heat-treated safety glass with polyvinyl butyral coating Ease of tinting (sun-shield and darkening) Heaviest single glass component in vehicle Glass and polyvinyl butyral coating both recyclable but currently at a high cost

Green Materials Selection

What Are the Areas for Weight Reduction?

System Body Chassis Powertrain Fuel/Other Total Mass [kg] 515 500 395 60 1470

Body and Chassis

Where Are the Greatest Areas for Weight Reduction?

System Body Chassis Powertrain Fuel/Other Total Mass [kg] 515 500 395 60 1470

Steel Composition

[SAE, 1998]

The Frame [Chassis]

What is the frame? Leaner design methods Replace the steel

Leaner Design
Using design optimization programs Lost foam casting Unibody construction

Unibody
Many pieces are formed into one Currently being used by the Ford Escape and assorted Mazda vehicles Advantages
Cheaper Lighter

Disadvantages
More difficult to repair More difficult to manufacture

But who says we have to use steel?

Alternatives to Steel Frames

Titanium
Light, strong, but too expensive to recycle

Magnesium
Lighter than Al alloys, not corrosion resistant

Polymers
Strong, easy to shape, difficult to recycle

Aluminum

We Arent the Only Ones

Acura NSX
All Aluminum body/suspension

Audi A-8
Aluminum chassis/suspension

Audi Aluminum Technologies

The A-12 concept turned into the A-2

More Reasonable Aluminum Car

Audi A-8

Weight Reduction
If 80% of the 500 kg of steel is replaced by aluminum, using relative densities, we can calculate the new mass:

2.7[density Al ] .2 500[kg ] + .8 500[kg ] 7.88[density steel ] = 240[kg ]

500-240= 260kg reduction

Cost Impact
2.7[density Al ] 2.2lb $1.40 $.35 .8 = $315 500[kg ] 7.88[density steel ] 1kg 1lb
However, every 10% reduction in mass means a 6% increase in fuel efficiency. Assuming a vehicle life of 100,000 miles, initial fuel efficiency of 20 mpg and a gasoline price of $1.50, the consumer still saves $400.

What about the Body?

Body Material Alternatives

Composites
Reduce mass by 65%, maintain level of safety Extremely expensive (McLaren F1), hard to recycle
Kevlar
Light, high stiffness, non-conductive Expensive, degrades under UV light

Aluminum
Increasing material consistency Higher repair/replacement costs

Plastics
Lighter, easier to manufacture, recyclable Complete retooling of manufacturing, more expensive

Plastic Bodies
Plastic panels are considerably more resistant to damage Remove painting step Surface finish is comparable to metals with superior corrosion resistance Thermoplastics lend themselves to recyclability

We Arent the Only Ones

Saturn

Fiero

Weight Reduction
If 80% of the 515 kg of steel is replaced by polypropylene, using relative densities, we can calculate the new mass:

1.14[density PP] .2 515[kg ] + .8 515[kg ] 7.88[density steel ] = 165kg

515-165= 350 kg reduction

Cost Impact
1.14 2.2lb $3.50 $.35 ) 0.8 (515[kg ] = $415 1lb 7.88 1kg
However, every 10% reduction in mass means a 6% increase in fuel efficiency. Assuming a vehicle life of 100,000 miles, initial fuel efficiency of 20 mpg and a gasoline price of $1.50, the consumer still saves $535.

Bottom Line
By constructing the body from plastic and the frame from aluminum, we save a total of 610 kg The material cost increase of this will be $730 When the benefits of the lightweight material and increased fuel economy are factored in, the consumer saves $935

Powertrain
Engine Transmission

Engine Design Considerations

Low weight and high power-weight ratio Low fuel consumption Low exhaust emission values Good sound-absorbing and sound-insulating characteristics Positive contribution to axle load distribution

Cylinder Head - Functions

Seals the tops of the cylinders Provides the spark plugs access to the combustion chamber Mounting for the valve train components Provides ports, seats ad guides for the intake and exhaust valves Supports the intake and exhaust manifolds

Engine Block - Functions

Foundation of the engine Contains cylinder bores for the pistons Contains oil passages for reducing friction, heat and wear of engine parts Mounting surfaces for the camshaft, crankshaft, cylinder head, transmission, engine mounts and various other engine components

Engine Block and Head

Traditionally made from cast iron or steel Switching over to aluminum Concern of metal fatigue due to mechanical or thermal stress cycling
ICA Castings uses a specific casting method developed by Comalco that results in aluminum with higher strength and ductility

Plastic BRITE project We chose aluminum - plastic is a possibility in the future

Engine Block and Head

Specific examples of aluminum use include: Mercedes-Benz AGs 3.2LV6s Honda Accord Nissan Maxima Toyota Camry GMs GenIII, 5.7L Corvette

Oldsmobiles 2001 Aurora Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird

BRITE Program
Basic Research in Industrial Technology in Europe Ford and companies in France, Germany, Holland and the UK Central metal core, outer walls of reinforced thermosets Engine performed well on road, quicker warm-up, lower exhaust emission, quieter running Over 10% weight savings compared with aluminum, over 30% savings compared with steel Cost reduction in composite raw materials and processes necessary before large scale production possible

BRITE Engine Project

Intake Manifolds
Intakes air to the engine Power generated dependant on mass flow Plastic allows increased component integration, resulting in savings in manufacturing costs Internal surfaces of plastic manifold can be made extremely smooth, which improves performance Lower thermal conductivity leads to quicker engine warm-up, hotter running, and lower hydrocarbon emissions

Plastic Intake Manifolds

Plastic Intake Manifolds

Nylon PA 66 Reinforced with 35% glass fibers Produced by standard injection molding e.g. Ultramid nylon from BASF, manufactured
by Siemens Automotive
weighs 6 pounds first used in 1990 BMW 6-cylinder engines

Engine Covers
Cosmetic showroom Protect smaller components, particularly electrical circuitry, from dirt and damage Hostile environment Reinforced PA or PP e.g. Mercedes engine cover in glass fiber reinforced PA 66

Nylon Engine Covers

Nylon Engine Covers

DSM Engineering Plastics Akulon ReCap
Nylon 6 material, comprised of 25% post-consumer waste

Stanyl High Flow

Flame retardant 4/6 nylon marketed as a high-strength, cost-saving replacement for liquid crystal polymer

Akulon Ultraflow
Glass fiber-reinforced nylon 6 offering energy savings in injection molding applications

Transmission
Bearing cages
surrounds and spaces ball bearings Glass reinforced PA 66

Clutch components
Several small parts; little effect on weight Though, plastic components can be very effective and cost-saving Nylon PA 66

Clutch hydraulics
Fluid reservoirs of injection molded PP

Transmission
Gear shift mechanisms
Nylon-based composite (PTFE, silicon, glass fiber)

Drive shaft
Continuous fiber reinforced composite Reduced noise and vibration, weight reduction e.g. Renault Espace reinforcing fibers were 75% carbon and 25% glass

Weight Reduction
Mi = original mass of head and block (as steel) cteel = 7.86 Mg/m3 Al = 2.7 Mg/m3 Mreduction = Mi [1-(Al / steel)] = 0.66 Mi 66% Weight Reduction Mi = original mass of intake manifolds (as steel) cteel = 7.86 Mg/m3 PA 66 = 1.14 Mg/m3 Mreduction = Mi [1-(PA 66 / steel)] = 0.85 Mi 85% Weight Reduction Mi = original mass of engine cover (as PA 66) PP = 0.9 Mg/m3 PA 66 = 1.14 Mg/m3 Mreduction = Mi [1-(PP / PA 66)] = 0.21 Mi 21% Weight Reduction

Suspension
Front and rear upper control arms Steering knuckles Springs

Suspension Control arms

Is the main link between the vehicle frame and the wheels acts as a hinge to allow the wheels to go up and down independently of the chassis Traditionally made of steel Front upper control arm
Hot-forged aluminum

Rear upper control arm

Stamp-forged aluminum

e.g. Aluminum used on Mercedes ML320 SUV

Suspension Steering Knuckles

Connects the control arms to the wheel assembly Traditionally made of steel Switching to aluminum e.g. Aluminum used on 1998 Camaro/Firebird

Suspension Leaf Spring

Holds the axle beam in place Traditionally made from steel Continuous fiber composites have large longitudinal strength and modulus Lack of acceptance some technical problems, but main cause is lack of cost incentives

Weight Reduction
Mi = original mass of control arms (as steel) cteel = 7.86 Mg/m3 Al = 2.7 Mg/m3 Mreduction = Mi [1-(Al / steel)] = 0.66 Mi 66% Weight Reduction Mi = original mass of steering knuckles (as steel) cteel = 7.86 Mg/m3 Al = 2.7 Mg/m3 Mreduction = Mi [1-(Al / steel)] = 0.66 Mi 66% Weight Reduction Mi = original mass of leaf springs (as steel) PP = 0.9 Mg/m3 composite = 1.5 Mg/m3 Mreduction = Mi [1-(composite / steel)] = 0.80 Mi 80% Weight Reduction

Fuel Tank

Fuel Tank
The material used for the fuel tank should:
be chemically resistant be acceptable for use at high pressures be acceptably impact resistant

Steel has typically been used to construct fuel tanks, but steel is heavy and susceptible to corrosion Plastics or composites are a much more lightweight alternative

Weight Reduction
Assuming the fuel tank was initially constructed of steel, and all of the weight will be converted to polypropylene: Mi = original mass of fuel tank (as steel) steel = 7.88 Mg/m3 PPGF30 = 1.14 Mg/m3 Mnew = Mi(PPGF30 / steel) = Mi(1.14/7.88) = 0.145 Mi Mreduction = Mi-0.145Mi = 0.855 Mi 86% Weight Reduction

HVAC Systems

Components of HVAC Systems

Radiator Water tanks Fluid expansion tanks Fans Radiator surround

HVAC Systems

(1) engine, (2) radiator, (2a) top water tank, (2b) bottom water tank, (3) fan, (4) thermostat, (5) water pump, (6) expansion tank, (6a) filling socket [Renz,1984]

Radiator
The radiator cools the engine The material used for the radiator should:
be chemically resistant be acceptable for use at high temperatures have a high thermal conductivity

Copper has typically been used to construct radiators, but copper is heavy Aluminum is a much more lightweight alternative
some sacrifice in thermal conductivity weight reduction compensates for thermal conductivity loss (a larger volume of Al than Cu will be needed to achieve same thermal conductivity, but the larger volume will still have less mass)

Weight Reduction
Assuming the radiator was initially constructed of copper, and 80% of the weight will be converted to aluminum: Mi = original mass of radiator (as copper) Cu = 8.3 Mg/m3 Al = 2.7 Mg/m3 Mnew = 0.2(Mi) + 0.8Mi(Al / Cu) = 0.2Mi + 0.8Mi(2.7/8.3) = 0.46 Mi Mreduction = Mi-0.46Mi = 0.54 Mi 54% Weight Reduction

Water Tank
The water tank(s) provide cooling water for the radiator The material used for the water tank should:
be acceptable for use at high temperatures be able to easily install/integrate into HVAC system be able to withstand changes in pressure

Polypropylene was selected to construct the water tank(s)

Fluid Expansion Tanks

The fluid expansion tanks provide room for the expansion of coolant as it heats, provides reserve storage volume, and degases coolant The material(s) used for the fluid expansion tanks should:
be non-reactive with engine coolant be able to withstand high pressure be acceptable for use at high temperatures be resistant to pressure fatigue and stress cracking

Polypropylene was selected to construct the fluid expansion tanks

Fans
Fans provide air flow to the radiator and engine The material used for the fans should:
have long term strength under dynamic stress be acceptable for use at high temperatures not deform during lifetime

Fans typically have been constructed of aluminum and steel Polypropylene was selected to construct fans
fan blades can be designed to compensate for high temperatures and dynamic loading increase thickness of blade include a support rib for each blade

Radiator Surround
The radiator surround guides air from the radiator to the fan increasing fan efficiency The material used for the radiator surround should:
be acceptable for use at high temperatures

Polypropylene was selected to construct the radiator surround

Weight Reduction
Assuming the HVAC components were initially constructed of steel, and 80% of the weight will be converted to polypropylene: Mi = original mass of HVAC (as steel) steel = 7.88 Mg/m3 PPGF30 = 1.14 Mg/m3 Mnew = 0.2(Mi) + 0.8Mi(PPGF30 / steel) = 0.2Mi + 0.8Mi(1.14/7.88) = 0.316 Mi Mreduction = Mi-0.316Mi = 0.684 Mi 68% Weight Reduction

Glass

Windshield and Windows

Alternatives in non-abrasive environments a possibility Glass is recyclable and separable from the polyvinyl butyral coating
Trials involving replaced windshields showed concept is valid

Expense lies in transportation of waste glass

Alternatives to Glass
Polycarbonate (Lexan) is lighter than glass yet less scratch resistant Possible use in side and rear windows where road debris is less of a concern and curvature of window is less severe Windshield and headlamps too susceptible to abrasion and road debris damage Weight reduction could approach ~20kg

Conclusions

Weight Reduction Summary

Component Frame Body Engine Block and head Intake manifolds Engine cover Suspension Control arms Steering knuckles Leaf springs Other Fuel Tank Radiator HVAC Glass Percent Weight Reduction 52 68 66 85 21 66 66 80 86 54 68 47

This Sounds GreatSo Why Isnt It Happening??

It isslowly Steel lobby Industry is slow to change New materials would require retooling of assembly process/supply chain

The Future? Hypercar

120 mpg BMW performance No emissions Uses UL composites for bodies Low drag Hybrid propulsion

Materials Composition in a Typical Car and in a Hypercar

[Keoleian et al., 1997]

Questions??