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Killer whale
[1]
Transient killer whales near Unimak
Island, eastern Aleutian Islands,
Alaska
Size comparison to an average human
Conservation status
Data Deficient (IUCN 3.1)
[2]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Suborder: Odontoceti
Family: Delphinidae
Genus: Orcinus
Killer whale
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Orca whale)
The killer whale (Orcinus orca), also referred to as the orca whale or
orca, and less commonly as the blackfish, is a toothed whale belonging
to the oceanic dolphin family. Killer whales are found in all oceans, from
the frigid Arctic and Antarctic regions to tropical seas. Killer whales as a
species have a diverse diet, although individual populations often
specialize in particular types of prey. Some feed exclusively on fish,
while others hunt marine mammals such as sea lions, seals, walruses,
and even large whales. Killer whales are regarded as apex predators,
lacking natural predators.
Killer whales are highly social; some populations are composed of
matrilineal family groups which are the most stable of any animal
species.
[5]
Their sophisticated hunting techniques and vocal behaviors,
which are often specific to a particular group and passed across
generations, have been described as manifestations of culture.
[6]
The IUCN currently assesses the orca's conservation status as data
deficient because of the likelihood that two or more killer whale types
are separate species. Some local populations are considered threatened or
endangered due to prey depletion, habitat loss, pollution (by PCBs),
capture for marine mammal parks, and conflicts with fisheries. In late
2005, the "southern resident" population of killer whales that inhabits
British Columbia and Washington state waters were placed on the U.S.
Endangered Species list.
Wild killer whales are not considered a threat to humans,
[7]
although
there have been cases of captives killing or injuring their handlers at
marine theme parks.
[8]
Killer whales feature strongly in the mythologies
of indigenous cultures, with their reputation ranging from being the souls
of humans to merciless killers.
Contents
1 Taxonomy and evolution
1.1 Common names
1.2 Types
2 Description
3 Life cycle
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Fitzinger, 1860
[3]
Species: O. orca
Binomial name
Orcinus orca
(Linnaeus, 1758)
[4]
Orcinus orca range (in blue)
Synonyms
Orca gladiator
Orcinus citoniensis fossil, an extinct
species of the same genus, Museo
Capellini di Bologna
4 Range and habitat
4.1 Population
5 Feeding
5.1 Fish, reptiles and invertebrates
5.2 Mammal prey
5.3 Birds
6 Behavior
6.1 Social structure
6.2 Vocalizations
6.3 Intelligence
7 Conservation
8 Relationship with humans
8.1 Indigenous cultures
8.2 "Killer" stereotype
8.3 Modern Western attitudes
8.4 Whaling
8.5 Captivity
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Taxonomy and evolution
Orcinus orca is the only recognized extant species in the genus Orcinus,
one of many animal species originally described by Linnaeus in 1758 in
Systema Naturae.
[9]
Konrad Gessner wrote the first scientific description
of a killer whale in his "Fish book" of 1558, based on examination of a
dead stranded animal in the Bay of Greifswald that had attracted a great
deal of local interest.
[10]
The killer whale is one of 35 species in the oceanic dolphin family,
which first appeared about 11 million years ago. The killer whale
lineage probably branched off shortly thereafter.
[7]
Although it has
morphological similarities with the pygmy killer whale, the false killer
whale and the pilot whales, a study of cytochrome b gene sequences by
Richard LeDuc indicated that its closest extant relatives are the snubfin
dolphins of the genus Orcaella.
[11]
Common names
English-speaking scientists most often use the term "killer whale",
[12]
although the term "orca" is increasingly
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Some examples of variations
in killer whales
used. Killer whale advocates point out it has a long heritage. Indeed, the genus name Orcinus means "of the
kingdom of the dead",
[12]
or "belonging to Orcus".
[13]
Ancient Romans originally applied orca (plural orcae) to
these animals, possibly borrowing it from the Greek u, which referred (among other things) to a whale
species. Since the 1960s, orca has steadily grown in popularity; both names are now used. The term orca is
preferred by some to avoid the negative connotations of "killer",
[14]
and because, being part of the family
Delphinidae, the species is more closely related to other dolphins than to whales.
[15]
They are sometimes referred to as blackfish, a name used for some whale species, as well. Grampus is a former
name for the species, but is now seldom used. This meaning of grampus should not be confused with the
Grampus genus, whose only member is Risso's dolphin.
[16]
Types
The three to five types of killer whales may be distinct enough to be considered
different races,
[17]
subspecies, or possibly even species.
[18]
The IUCN reported
in 2008, "The taxonomy of this genus is clearly in need of review, and it is
likely that O. orca will be split into a number of different species or at least
subspecies over the next few years."
[2]
In the 1970s and 1980s, research off the
west coast of Canada and the United States identified the following three types:
Resident: These are the most commonly sighted of the three populations
in the coastal waters of the northeast Pacific. Residents' diets consist
primarily of fish
[19]
and sometimes squid, and they live in complex and
cohesive family groups called pods.
[20]
Female residents characteristically
have rounded dorsal fin tips that terminate in a sharp corner.
[21]
They visit
the same areas consistently. British Columbia and Washington resident
populations are amongst the most intensively studied marine mammals.
Researchers have identified and named over 300 killer whales over the
past 30 years.
[22]
Transient: The diets of these whales consist almost exclusively of marine mammals.
[19][21]
Transients
generally travel in small groups, usually of two to six animals, and have less persistent family bonds than
residents.
[23]
Transients vocalize in less variable and less complex dialects.
[24]
Female transients are
characterized by more triangular and pointed dorsal fins than those of residents.
[21]
The gray or white
area around the dorsal fin, known as the "saddle patch", often contains some black colouring in residents.
However, the saddle patches of transients are solid and uniformly gray.
[21]
Transients roam widely along
the coast; some individuals have been sighted in both southern Alaska and California.
[25]
Transients are
also referred to as Bigg's killer whale in honor of Michael Bigg. The term has become increasingly
common and may eventually replace the transient label.
[26]
Offshore: A third population of killer whales in the northeast Pacific was discovered in 1988, when a
humpback whale researcher observed them in open water. As their name suggests, they travel far from
shore and feed primarily on schooling fish.
[27]
However, because they have large, scarred and nicked
dorsal fins resembling those of mammal-hunting transients, it may be that they also eat mammals and
sharks.
[28][29]
They have mostly been encountered off the west coast of Vancouver Island and near the
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Type C killer whales in the
Ross Sea: The eye patch
slants forward.
Queen Charlotte Islands. Offshores typically congregate in groups of 2075, with occasional sightings of
larger groups of up to 200.
[30]
Currently, little is known about their habits, but they are genetically
distinct from residents and transients. Offshores appear to be smaller than the others, and females are
characterized by dorsal fin tips that are continuously rounded.
[21]
Transients and residents live in the same areas, but avoid each other.
[31][32][33]
The name "transient" originated from the belief that these killer whales were
outcasts from larger resident pods. Researchers later discovered transients are
not born into resident pods or vice versa. The evolutionary split between the two
groups is believed to have begun two million years ago.
[34]
Genetic data indicate
the types have not interbred for up to 10,000 years.
[35]
Other populations have not been as well studied, although specialized fish-
eating and mammal-eating killer whales have been distinguished elsewhere.
[36]
Separate populations of fish-eating and mammal-eating killer whales have been
identified around the United Kingdom.
[37][38]
Fish-eating killer whales in
Alaska
[39]
and Norway
[40]
have resident-like social structures, while mammal-
eating killer whales in Argentina and the Crozet Islands behave more like
transients.
[41]
Three types have been documented in the Antarctic. Two dwarf species, named
Orcinus nanus and Orcinus glacialis, were described during the 1980s by Soviet
researchers, but most cetacean researchers are skeptical about their status, and linking these directly to the types
described below is difficult.
[18]
Type A looks like a "typical" killer whale, a large, black and white form with a medium-sized white eye
patch, living in open water and feeding mostly on minke whales.
[18]
Type B is smaller than type A. It has a large white eye patch. Most of the dark parts of its body are
medium gray instead of black, although it has a dark gray patch called a "dorsal cape"
[42]
stretching back
from its forehead to just behind its dorsal fin. The white areas are stained slightly yellow. It feeds mostly
on seals.
[18]
Type C is the smallest type and lives in larger groups than the others. Its eye patch is distinctively slanted
forwards, rather than parallel to the body axis. Like type B, it is primarily white and medium gray, with a
dark gray dorsal cape and yellow-tinged patches. Its only observed prey is the Antarctic cod.
[18]
Type D was identified based on photographs of a 1955 mass stranding in New Zealand and six at-sea
sightings since 2004. It is immediately recognizable by its extremely small white eye patch, shorter than
usual dorsal fin, and bulbous head (similar to a pilot whale). Its geographic range appears to be
circumglobal in subantarctic waters between latitudes 40S and 60S. And although nothing is known
about the type D diet, it is suspected to include fish because groups have been photographed around
longline vessels where they reportedly prey on Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides).
[43][44]
Types B and C live close to the ice pack, and diatoms in these waters may be responsible for the yellowish
coloring of both types.
[18][45]
Mitochondrial DNA sequences support the theory that these are recently diverged
separate species.
[46]
More recently, complete mitochondrial sequencing indicates the two Antarctic groups that
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The dorsal fin and saddle patch of a
resident killer whale in the
northeastern Pacific Ocean: It may be
either an adult female, or a juvenile of
either sex.
eat seals and fish should be recognized as distinct species, as should the North Pacific transients, leaving the
others as subspecies pending additional data.
[47]
Research is ongoing into the genetic relationships among killer whale types, and whether these types represent
deep evolutionary trends. For example, mammal-eating killer whales were long thought likely to be closely
related to other mammal-eating killer whales from different regions, but genetic testing refuted this
hypothesis.
[48]
Description
A typical killer whale distinctively bears a black back, white chest and
sides, and a white patch above and behind the eye. Calves are born with
a yellowish or orange tint, which fades to white. It has a heavy and
robust body
[49]
with a large dorsal fin up to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall. Behind the
fin, it has a dark grey "saddle patch" across the back. Antarctic killer
whales may have pale grey to nearly white backs. Adult killer whales are
very distinctive and are not usually confused with any other sea
creature.
[50]
When seen from a distance, juveniles can be confused with
other cetacean species, such as the false killer whale or Risso's
dolphin.
[51]
The killer whale's teeth are very strong and covered in
enamel. Its jaws are a powerful gripping apparatus, as the upper teeth
fall into the gaps between the lower teeth when the mouth is closed. The
front teeth are inclined slightly forward and outward, thus allowing the
killer whale to withstand powerful jerking movements from its prey
while the middle and back teeth hold it firmly in place.
[52]
Killer whales are the largest extant members of the dolphin family. Males typically range from 6 to 8 metres (20
to 26 ft) long and weigh in excess of 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons).
[53]
Females are smaller, generally
ranging from 5 to 7 m (16 to 23 ft) and weighing about 3 to 4 tonnes (3.0 to 3.9 long tons; 3.3 to 4.4 short
tons).
[53]
The largest male killer whale on record was 9.8 m (32 ft), weighing over 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons;
11 short tons), while the largest female was 8.5 m (28 ft), weighing 7.5 tonnes (7.4 long tons; 8.3 short tons).
[54]
Calves at birth weigh about 180 kg (400 lb) and are about 2.4 m (7.9 ft) long.
[55][56]
The killer whale's large
size and strength make it among the fastest marine mammals, able to reach speeds in excess of 30 knots
(56 km/h).
[57]
The skeleton of the killer whale is of the typical delphinid structure, but is more robust.
[58]
Its
integument, unlike that of most other dolphin species, is characterised by a well-developed dermal layer with a
dense network of fascicles of collagen fibers.
[59]
Killer whale pectoral fins are large and rounded, resembling paddles. Males have significantly larger pectoral
fins than females. At about 1.8 m (5.9 ft) the male's dorsal fin is more than twice the size of the female's and is
more of a triangular shapea tall, elongated isosceles trianglewhereas hers is shorter and more curved.
[60]
Males and females also have different patterns of black and white skin in their genital areas.
[61]
Sexual
dimorphism is also apparent in the skull; adult males have longer lower jaws than females, and have larger
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An adult male killer whale with its
characteristic tall dorsal fin swims in
the waters near Tysfjord, Norway
occipital crests.
[59]
An individual killer whale can often be identified from its dorsal fin and saddle patch. Variations such as nicks,
scratches, and tears on the dorsal fin and the pattern of white or grey in the saddle patch are unique. Published
directories contain identifying photographs and names for hundreds of North Pacific animals. Photographic
identification has enabled the local population of killer whales to be counted each year rather than estimated,
and has enabled great insight into lifecycles and social structures.
[62]
White killer whales occur sporadically but rarely among normal killer whales; they have been spotted in the
northern Bering Sea and around St. Lawrence Island, and near the Russian coast.
[30][63]
In February 2008, a
white killer whale was photographed 2 mi (3.2 km) off Kanaga Volcano in the Aleutian Islands.
[30][63]
Killer whales have good eyesight above and below the water, excellent hearing, and a good sense of touch.
They have exceptionally sophisticated echolocation abilities, detecting the location and characteristics of prey
and other objects in their environments by emitting clicks and listening for echoes.
[64]
Life cycle
Female killer whales mature at around age 15. They then have periods of
polyestrous cycling with noncycling periods of between three and 16
months. Gestation varies from 15 to 18 months. Mothers calve, with
usually a single offspring, about once every five years. In resident pods,
births occur at any time of year, although winter is the most common.
Mortality is extremely high during the first six to seven months of life,
when 3750% of all calves die.
[65]
Weaning begins at about 12 months
and completes by the age of two. According to observations in several
regions, all male and female killer whale pod members participate in the
care of the young.
[66]
Killer and pilot whales are the only nonhuman
species in which the females are known to go through menopause and live for decades after they have finished
breeding.
[67]
Killer whales are unique among cetaceans, as their heads become shorter as they age.
[59]
Females breed until age 40, meaning on average they raise five offspring. The lifespans of wild females average
50 years, with a maximum of 8090 years.
[68]
Males sexually mature at the age of 15, but do not typically
reproduce until age 21. Wild males live around 29 years on average, with a maximum of 5060 years.
[68]
One
male, known as Old Tom, was reportedly spotted every winter between the 1840s and 1930 off New South
Wales, Australia. This would have made him up to 90 years old. Examination of his teeth indicated he died
around age 35,
[69]
but this method of age determination is now believed to be inaccurate for older animals.
[70]
One male known to researchers in the Pacific Northwest (identified as J1) was estimated to have been 59 years
old when he died in 2010.
[71]
Captive killer whale lifespans are typically significantly shorter, usually less than
25 years; however, numerous individuals are alive in their 30s, and a few have reached their 40s. In many
instances, the lifespans of killer whales depend on the will of the animal.
[72][73]
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A killer whale leaps out of the water
when swimminga behaviour known
as porpoising
Range and habitat
Killer whales are found in all oceans and most seas. Due to their enormous range, numbers, and density,
distributional estimates are difficult to compare,
[74]
but they clearly
prefer higher latitudes and coastal areas over pelagic environments.
[75]
Systematic surveys indicate the highest densities of killer whales (>0.40
individuals per 100 km) in the northeast Atlantic around the Norwegian
coast, in the north Pacific along the Aleutian Islands, the Gulf of Alaska
and in the Southern Ocean off much of the coast of Antarctica.
[74]
They
are considered "common" (0.200.40 individuals per 100 km) in the
eastern Pacific along the coasts of British Columbia, Washington and
Oregon, in the North Atlantic Ocean around Iceland and the Faroe
Islands. High densities have also been reported but not quantified in the
western North Pacific around the Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, Kuril
Islands, Kamchatka and the Commander Islands and in the Southern Hemisphere off the coasts of South
Australia, Patagonia, off the coast of southern Brazil and the tip of southern Africa. They are reported as
seasonally common in the Canadian Arctic, including Baffin Bay between Greenland and Nunavut, and around
Tasmania and Macquarie Island.
[74]
Information for offshore regions and tropical waters is more scarce, but
widespread, if not frequent, sightings indicate the killer whale can survive in most water temperatures. They
have been sighted, for example, in the Mediterranean, the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Mexico and the Indian
Ocean around the Seychelles.
[74]
Probably the largest population lives in Antarctic waters, where they range up to the edge of the pack ice and
are believed to venture into the denser pack ice, finding open leads much like beluga whales in the Arctic. In
contrast, killer whales are seasonal summer visitors to Arctic waters, where they do not approach the ice pack.
With the rapid Arctic sea ice decline in the Hudson Strait, their range now extends deep into the northwest
Atlantic.
[76]
Migration patterns are poorly understood. Each summer, the same individuals appear off the coasts of British
Columbia and Washington. Despite decades of research, where these animals go for the rest of the year remains
unknown. Transient pods have been sighted from southern Alaska to central California.
[77]
Resident killer
whales sometimes travel as much as 160 km (100 mi) in a day, but may be seen in a general area for a month or
more. Resident killer whale pod ranges vary from 320 to 1,300 kilometres (200 to 810 mi).
Occasionally, killer whales swim into freshwater rivers. They have been documented 100 mi (160 km) up the
Columbia River in the United States.
[78][79]
They have also been found in the Fraser River in Canada and the
Horikawa River in Japan.
[78]
Population
Worldwide population estimates are uncertain, but recent consensus suggests an absolute minimum of
50,000.
[2][30]
Local estimates include roughly 25,000 in the Antarctic, 8,500 in the tropical Pacific, 2,2502,700
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A killer whale skeleton
Tail-slapping in Vestfjorden, Norway
Resident (fish-eating) killer whales:
The curved dorsal fins are typical of
off the cooler northeast Pacific and 5001,500 off Norway.
[80]
Japan's Fisheries Agency estimated 2,321 killer
whales were in the seas around Japan.
[81][82]
Feeding
Killer whales hunt varied prey; however, different populations or species
tend to specialize and some can have a dramatic impact on certain prey
species.
[83]
For example, some populations in the Norwegian and
Greenland sea specialize in herring and follow that fish's autumnal
migration to the Norwegian coast. Other populations prey on seals.
Salmon account for 96% of northeast Pacific residents' diet. About 65%
of them are large, fatty Chinook.
[84]
Chum salmon are also eaten, but
smaller sockeye and pink salmon are not a significant food item.
[85]
Depletion of specific prey species in an area is, therefore, cause for
concern for local populations, despite the high diversity of prey. On
average, a killer whale eats 227 kilograms (500 lb) each day.
[86]
Because some killer whales prey on large whales and sharks, they are considered to be apex predators. They are
sometimes called the wolves of the sea, because they hunt in groups like wolf packs.
[87]
Fish, reptiles and invertebrates
Fish-eating killer whales prey on around 30 species of fish, particularly
salmon, herring, and tuna. In New Zealand, rays are killer whales' most
frequent prey,
[88]
and they have also been observed hunting sharks
(particularly makos, threshers and smooth hammerheads). Squid and sea
turtles are also taken.
[89]
While salmon are usually hunted by an individual or a small group of
individuals, herring are often caught using carousel feeding; the killer
whales force the herring into a tight ball by releasing bursts of bubbles
or flashing their white undersides. They then slap the ball with their tail
flukes, either stunning or killing up to 1015 fish at a time. The herring
are then eaten one at a time. Carousel feeding has only been documented
in the Norwegian killer whale population and with some oceanic dolphin
species.
[90]
Killer whales can induce tonic immobility in sharks and rays by holding
them upside down, rendering them helpless and incapable of injuring the
whale. Some sharks suffocate within about 15 minutes while the whale
holds them still, because these sharks need to move to breathe. In one
incident filmed near the Farallon Islands in October 1997, a female
killed a 34-metre (9.813 ft) long great white shark,
[91]
apparently after
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resident females.
Killer whale hunting a Weddell seal
swimming with it upside-down in her mouth and inducing tonic
immobility in it. She and another pod member ate the shark's liver and
allowed the rest of the carcass to sink.
[92]
In July 1992, two killer whales attacked, killed and fed on an 8-metre (26 ft) long whale shark, Rhincodon
typus, in the waters off Bahia de los Angeles in Baja California.
[93]
Mammal prey
Killer whales are very sophisticated and effective predators. Thirty-two cetacean species have been recorded as
killer whale prey, from examining either stomach contents, scarring on the prey's body, or feeding activity.
Groups even attack larger cetaceans such as minke whales, gray whales, and rarely sperm whales or blue
whales.
[36][94][95][96]
Hunting large whales usually takes several hours. Killer whales generally choose to attack young or weak
animals, instead. However, a group of five or more may attack a healthy adult. When hunting a young whale, a
group chases it and its mother until they wear out. Eventually, they separate the pair and surround the calf,
preventing it from surfacing to breathe, drowning it. Pods of female sperm whales sometimes protect
themselves by forming a protective circle around their calves with their flukes facing outwards, using them to
repel the attackers.
[97]
Rarely, large killer whale pods can overwhelm even adult female sperm whales. Adult
bull sperm whales, which are large, powerful and aggressive when threatened, and fully grown adult blue
whales, which are possibly too large to overwhelm, are not believed to be prey for killer whales.
[98]
Other marine mammal prey species include nearly 20 species of
seal, sea lion and fur seal. Walruses and sea otters are less
frequently taken. Often, to avoid injury, killer whales disable their
prey before killing and eating it. This may involve throwing it in the
air, slapping it with their tails, ramming it, or breaching and landing
on it.
[99]
Sea lions are killed by head-butting or after a stunning
blow from a tail fluke. In the Aleutian Islands, a decline in sea otter
populations in the 1990s was controversially attributed by some
scientists to killer whale predation, although with no direct
evidence.
[100]
The decline of sea otters followed a decline in
harbour seal and Steller sea lion populations, the killer whale's
preferred prey,
[Note 1][102]
which in turn may be substitutes for their original prey, now decimated by industrial
whaling.
[103][104][105]
In steeply banked beaches off Pennsula Valds, Argentina, and the Crozet Islands, killer whales feed on South
American sea lions and southern elephant seals in shallow water, even beaching temporarily to grab prey before
wriggling back to the sea. Beaching, usually fatal to cetaceans, is not an instinctive behavior, and can require
years of practice for the young.
[106]
"Wave-hunting" killer whales spy-hop to locate Weddell seals, crabeater
seals and leopard seals resting on ice floes, and then swim in groups to create waves that wash over the floe.
This washes the seal into the water, where other killer whales lie in wait.
[107][108]
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Killer whales have also been observed preying on terrestrial mammals, such as deer and moose swimming
between islands off the northwest coast of North America.
[101]
Killer whale cannibalism has also been reported
based on analysis of stomach contents, but this is likely to be the result of scavenging remains dumped by
whalers.
[109]
One killer whale was also attacked by its companions after being shot.
[36]
Although resident killer
whales have never been observed to eat other marine mammals, they occasionally harass and kill porpoises and
seals for no apparent reason.
[110]
Birds
Killer whales in many areas prey on several bird species, including penguins, cormorants and gulls.
[111]
A
captive killer whale at MarineLand discovered it could regurgitate fish onto the surface, attracting sea gulls, and
then eat the birds. Four others then learned to copy the behavior.
[112]
Behavior
Day-to-day killer whale behavior generally consists of foraging, travelling, resting and socializing. Killer
whales are frequently active at the surface, engaging in acrobatic behaviors such as breaching, spyhopping, and
tail-slapping. These activities may have a variety of purposes, such as courtship, communication, dislodging
parasites, or play. Spyhopping, a behaviour in which a whale holds its head above water, helps the animal view
its surroundings.
[113]
Resident killer whales swim with porpoises, other dolphins, seals, and sea lions, which are common prey for
transient killer whales.
Social structure
Killer whales are notable for their complex societies. Only elephants and higher primates, such as humans, live
in comparably complex social structures.
[66]
Due to orcas' complex social bonds and society, many marine
experts have concerns about how humane it is to keep these animals in captive situations.
[114]
Resident killer
whales in the eastern North Pacific have a particularly complex and stable social grouping system. Unlike any
other mammal species whose social structure is known, residents live with their mothers for their entire lives.
These societies are based on matrilines consisting of the matriarch and her descendants which form part of the
line, as do their descendants. The average size of a matriline is 5.5 animals.
[115]
Because females can reach age 90, as many as four generations travel together. These matrilineal groups are
highly stable. Individuals separate for only a few hours at a time, to mate or forage. With one exception, the
killer whale named Luna, no permanent separation of an individual from a resident matriline has been
recorded.
[115]
Closely related matrilines form loose aggregations called pods, usually consisting of one to four matrilines.
Unlike matrilines, pods may separate for weeks or months at a time.
[115]
DNA testing indicates resident males
nearly always mate with females from other pods.
[116]
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Killer whales, like this one spotted
near Alaska, commonly breach, often
lifting their entire bodies out of the
water.
Multimedia relating to the orca
Clans, the next level of resident social structure, are composed of pods with similar dialects, and common but
older maternal heritage. Clan ranges overlap, mingling pods from
different clans.
[115]
The final association layer, perhaps more arbitrarily defined than the
familial groupings, is called the community, and is defined as a set of
clans that regularly commingle. Clans within a community do not share
vocal patterns.
[Note 2]
Transient pods are smaller than resident pods, typically consisting of an
adult female and one or two of her offspring. Males typically maintain
stronger relationships with their mothers than other females. These
bonds can extend well into adulthood. Unlike residents, extended or
permanent separation of transient offspring from natal matrilines is
common, with juveniles and adults of both sexes participating. Some males become "rovers" and do not form
long-term associations, occasionally joining groups that contain reproductive females.
[117]
As in resident clans,
transient community members share an acoustic repertoire, although regional differences in vocalizations have
been noted.
[118]
Vocalizations
See also: Whale sound
Like all cetaceans, killer whales depend heavily on underwater sound for orientation, feeding, and
communication. They produce three categories of sounds: clicks, whistles, and pulsed calls. Clicks are believed
to be used primarily for navigation and discriminating prey and other objects in the surrounding environment,
but are also commonly heard during social interactions.
[30]
Northeast Pacific resident groups tend to be much more vocal than transient groups in the same waters.
[119]
Residents feed primarily on Chinook and chum salmon, species that are insensitive to killer whale calls
(inferred from the audiogram of Atlantic salmon). In contrast, the marine mammal prey of transients hear well
underwater at the frequencies used in killer whale calls.
Transients are typically silent, probably to avoid alerting their mammalian prey.
[119]
They sometimes use a
single click (called a cryptic click) rather than the long train of clicks observed in other populations. Residents
are only silent when resting.
All members of a resident pod use similar calls, known collectively as a dialect. Dialects are composed of
specific numbers and types of discrete, repetitive calls. They are complex and stable over time. Call patterns and
structure are distinctive within matrilines. Newborns produce calls similar to their mothers, but have a more
limited repertoire.
[118]
Individuals likely learn their dialect through contact with their mother and other pod
members.
[120]
For instance, family-specific calls have been observed more frequently in the days following a
calf's birth, which may help the calf learn them.
[121]
Dialects are probably an important means of maintaining
group identity and cohesiveness. Similarity in dialects likely reflects the degree of relatedness between pods,
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A killer whale plays with a ball of ice,
soon after a researcher had thrown a
snowball at the whale.
with variation building over time.
[122]
Researchers have not determined whether calls have particular meanings or are associated with specific types of
activity. Resident dialects contain seven to 17 (mean = 11) distinctive call types. Transient dialects are much
different, having only four to six discrete calls, none of which they share with residents. All members of the
North American west coast transient community express the same basic dialect, although minor regional
variation in call types is evident. Preliminary research indicates offshore killer whales have group-specific
dialects unlike those of residents and transients.
[122]
Intelligence
Main article: Cetacean intelligence
Killer whales have the second-heaviest brains among marine mammals
[123]
(after Sperm whales, which have
the largest brain of any animal). They can be trained in captivity and are often described as intelligent,
[124][125]
although defining and measuring "intelligence" is difficult in a species whose environment and behavioral
strategies are very different from those of humans.
[125]
Killer whales imitate others, and seem to deliberately teach skills to their
kin. This is most strikingly seen when killer whales deliberately beach
themselves to catch seals. Off Pennsula Valds, adults sometimes pull
seals off the shoreline, and then release them again near juvenile whales,
allowing the younger whales to practice the difficult capture technique
on the now-weakened prey. Off the Crozet Islands, mothers push their
calves onto the beach, waiting to pull the youngster back if
needed.
[99][126]
People who have interacted closely with killer whales offer numerous
anecdotes demonstrating the whales' curiosity, playfulness, and ability to
solve problems. For example, Alaskan killer whales have not only
learned how to steal fish from longlines, but also have overcome a
variety of techniques designed to stop them, such as the use of unbaited lines as decoys.
[127]
Once, fishermen
placed their boats several miles apart, taking turns retrieving small amounts of their catch, in the hope that the
whales would not have enough time to move between boats to steal the catch as it was being retrieved. A
researcher described what happened next:
"It worked really well for a while. Then the whales split into two groups. It didn't even take them an
hour to figure it out. They were so thrilled when they figured out what was going on, that we were
playing games. They were breaching by the boats."
Craig Matkin
[127]
In other anecdotes, researchers describe incidents in which wild killer whales playfully tease humans by
repeatedly moving objects the humans are trying to reach,
[128]
or suddenly start to toss around a chunk of ice
after a human throws a snowball.
[129]
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The type C killer whale has two-toned
gray colouring, including a dark
"dorsal cape", in body areas where
most killer whales have solid black
colouring. Research is ongoing into
whether one or more killer whale
types is a distinct species in need of
protection.
An adult female and her calf
The killer whale's use of dialects and the passing of other learned behaviours from generation to generation
have been described as a form of culture.
[130]
"The complex and stable vocal and behavioural cultures of sympatric groups of killer whales
(Orcinus orca) appear to have no parallel outside humans and represent an independent evolution
of cultural faculties."
[6]
Conservation
In 2008, the IUCN changed its assessment of the killer whale's
conservation status from conservation dependent to data deficient,
recognizing that one or more killer whale types may actually be
separate, endangered species.
[2]
Depletion of prey species, pollution,
large-scale oil spills, and habitat disturbance caused by noise and
conflicts with boats are currently the most significant worldwide
threats.
[2]
Like other animals at the highest trophic levels, the killer whale is
particularly at risk of poisoning from accumulation of toxins, including
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
[131]
European harbour seals have
problems in reproductive and immune functions associated with high
levels of PCBs and related contaminants, and a survey off the
Washington coast found PCB levels in killer whales were higher than
levels that had caused health problems in harbour seals.
[131]
Blubber
samples in the Norwegian Arctic show higher levels of PCBs, pesticides
and brominated flame-retardants than in polar bears. When food is
scarce, killer whales metabolize blubber for energy, which increases
pollutant concentrations.
In the Pacific Northwest, wild salmon stocks, a main resident food source, have declined dramatically in recent
years.
[2]
On the west coast of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, seal and sea lion populations have also
substantially declined.
[132]
In 2005, the United States government listed the southern resident
community as an endangered population under the Endangered Species
Act.
[30]
This community comprises three pods which live mostly in the
Georgia and Haro Straits and Puget Sound in British Columbia and
Washington. They do not breed outside of their community, which was
once estimated at around 200 animals and later shrank to around 90.
[133]
In October 2008, the annual survey revealed seven were missing and
presumed dead, reducing the count to 83.
[134]
This is potentially the
largest decline in the population in the past ten years. These deaths can
be attributed to declines in Chinook salmon.
[134]
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The last known AT1 pod offspring,
AT3, swimming in Resurrection Bay
Scientist Ken Balcomb has extensively studied killer whales since 1976; he is the research biologist responsible
for discovering U.S. Navy sonar may harm killer whales. He studied killer whales from the Center for Whale
Research, located in Friday Harbor, Washington.
[135]
He was also able to study killer whales from "his home
porch perched above Puget Sound, where the animals hunt and play in summer months".
[135]
In May 2003,
Balcomb (along with other whale watchers near the Puget Sound coastline) noticed uncharacteristic behavior
displayed by the killer whales. The whales seemed "agitated and were moving haphazardly, attempting to lift
their heads free of the water" to escape the sound of the sonars.
[135]
"Balcomb confirmed at the time that
strange underwater pinging noises detected with underwater microphones were sonar. The sound originated
from a U.S. Navy frigate 12 miles (19 kilometers) distant, Balcomb said."
[135]
The impact of sonar waves on
killer whales is potentially life-threatening. Three years prior to Balcomb's discovery, research in the Bahamas
showed 14 beaked whales washed up on the shore. These whales were beached on the exact day U.S. Navy
destroyers were activated into sonar exercise.
[135]
Of the 14 whales beached, six of them died. These six dead
whales were studied, and CAT scans of the two of the whale heads showed hemorrhaging around the brain and
the ears, which is consistent with decompression sickness.
[135]
Another conservation concern was made public in September 2008 when Ottawa decided it was not necessary
to enforce further protections (including the Species at Risk Act in place to protect endangered animals along
their habitats) for killer whales aside from the laws already in place. In response to this decision, six
environmental groups sued the federal government in Vancouver, Canada, claiming killer whales were facing
many threats on the British Columbia Coast and the federal government did nothing to protect them from these
threats.
[136]
A legal and scientific nonprofit organization, Ecojustice, led the lawsuit and represented the David
Suzuki Foundation, Environmental Defence, Greenpeace Canada, International Fund for Animal Welfare, the
Raincoast Conservation Foundation, and the Wilderness Committee.
[136]
Many scientists involved in this
lawsuit, including Bill Wareham, a marine scientist with the David Suzuki Foundation, noted increased boat
traffic, water toxic wastes, and low salmon population as major threats, putting approximately 87 killer
whales
[136]
on the British Columbia Coast in danger.
Noise from shipping, drilling, and other human activities is a significant
concern in some key killer whale habitats, including Johnstone Strait and
Haro Strait.
[137]
In the mid-1990s, loud underwater noises from salmon
farms were used to deter seals. Killer whales also avoided the
surrounding waters.
[138]
High-intensity sonar used by the Navy disturbs
killer whales along with other marine mammals.
[139]
Killer whales are
popular with whale watchers, which may stress the whales and alter their
behavior, particularly if boats approach too closely or block their lines of
travel.
[140]
The Exxon Valdez oil spill adversely affected killer whales in Prince
William Sound and Alaska's Kenai Fjords region. Eleven members
(about half) of one resident pod disappeared in the following year. The spill damaged salmon and other prey
populations, which in turn damaged local killer whales. By 2009, scientists estimated the AT1 transient
population (considered part of a larger population of 346 transients), numbered only seven individuals and had
not reproduced since the spill. This population is expected to die out.
[141][142]
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Haida sculpture by Bill Reid
Relationship with humans
Indigenous cultures
The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast feature killer whales
throughout their history, art, spirituality and religion. The Haida regarded killer
whales as the most powerful animals in the ocean, and their mythology tells of
killer whales living in houses and towns under the sea. According to these
myths, they took on human form when submerged, and humans who drowned
went to live with them.
[143]
For the Kwakwaka'wakw, the killer whale was
regarded as the ruler of the undersea world, with sea lions for slaves and
dolphins for warriors.
[143]
In Kwakwaka'wakw and Nuu-chah-nulth mythology,
killer whales may embody the souls of deceased chiefs.
[143]
The Tlingit of
southeastern Alaska regarded the killer whale as custodian of the sea and a
benefactor of humans.
[144]
The Maritime Archaic people of Newfoundland also had great respect for killer
whales, as evidenced by stone carvings found in a 4,000-year-old burial site at
the Port au Choix National Historic Site.
[145][146]
In the tales and beliefs of the Siberian Yupik people, killer whales are said to
appear as wolves in winter, and wolves as killer whales in
summer.
[147][148][149][150]
Killer whales are believed to assist their hunters in driving walrus.
[151]
Reverence is
expressed in several forms: the boat represents the animal, and a wooden carving hung from the hunter's
belt.
[149]
Small sacrifices such as tobacco are strewn into the sea for them.
[151]
Killer whales were believed to
have helped the hunters even when in wolf guise, by forcing reindeer to allow themselves to be killed.
[150]
"Killer" stereotype
Main article: Killer whale attacks on humans
In Western cultures, killer whales were historically feared as dangerous, savage predators.
[152]
The first written
description of a killer whale was given by Pliny the Elder circa AD 70, who wrote, "Orcas (the appearance of
which no image can express, other than an enormous mass of savage flesh with teeth) are the enemy of [other
whales]... they charge and pierce them like warships ramming."
[153]
Of the very few confirmed attacks on humans by wild killer whales, none have been fatal.
[154]
In one instance,
killer whales tried to tip ice floes on which a dog team and photographer of the Terra Nova Expedition was
standing.
[155]
The sled dogs' barking is speculated to have sounded enough like seal calls to trigger the killer
whale's hunting curiosity. In the 1970s, a surfer in California was bitten, and in 2005, a boy in Alaska who was
splashing in a region frequented by harbor seals was bumped by a killer whale that apparently misidentified him
as prey.
[156]
Unlike wild killer whales, captive killer whales are reported to have made nearly two dozen attacks
on humans since the 1970s, some of which have been fatal.
[157][158]
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Male killer whale depicted in St
Mary's in Greifswald, Germany,
1545
[10]
In 2002, the orphan Springer
was successfully returned to
her family.
Competition with fishermen also led to killer whales being regarded as
pests. In the waters of the Pacific Northwest and Iceland, the shooting of
killer whales was accepted and even encouraged by governments.
[152]
As an indication of the intensity of shooting that occurred until fairly
recently, about 25% of the killer whales captured in Puget Sound for
aquaria through 1970 bore bullet scars.
[159]
The U.S. Navy claimed to
have deliberately killed hundreds of killer whales in Icelandic waters in
1956.
[160][161]
Modern Western attitudes
See also: Killer Whales in popular culture
Western attitudes towards killer whales have changed dramatically in recent decades. In the mid-1960s and
early 1970s, killer whales came to much greater public and scientific awareness, starting with the first live-
capture and display of a killer whale known as Moby Doll, a resident harpooned off Saturna Island in 1964.
[152]
So little was known at the time, it was nearly two months before the whale's keepers discovered what food
(fish) it was willing to eat. To the surprise of those who saw him, Moby Doll was a docile, nonaggressive whale
that made no attempts to attack humans.
[162]
Between 1964 and 1976, 50 killer whales from the Pacific Northwest were
captured for display in aquaria, and public interest in the animals grew. In the
1970s, research pioneered by Michael Bigg led to the discovery of the species'
complex social structure, its use of vocal communication, and its extraordinarily
stable mother-offspring bonds. Through photo-identification techniques,
individuals were named and tracked over decades.
[163]
Bigg's techniques also revealed the Pacific Northwest population was in the low
hundreds rather than the thousands that had been previously assumed.
[152]
The
southern resident community alone had lost 48 of its members to captivity; by
1976, only 80 remained.
[164]
In the Pacific Northwest, the species that had
unthinkingly been targeted became a cultural icon within a few decades.
[133]
The public's growing appreciation also led to growing opposition to whale
keeping in aquaria. Only one whale has been taken in North American waters
since 1976. In recent years, the extent of the public's interest in killer whales has
manifested itself in several high-profile efforts surrounding individuals.
Following the success of the 1993 film Free Willy, the movie's captive star
Keiko was returned to the coast of his native Iceland. The director of the International Marine Mammal Project
for the Earth Island Institute, David Phillips, led the efforts to return Keiko to the Iceland waters.
[165]
In 2002
the orphan Springer was discovered in Puget Sound, Washington. She became the first whale to be successfully
reintegrated into a wild pod after human intervention, crystallizing decades of research into the vocal behavior
and social structure of the region's killer whales.
[136]
The saving of Springer raised hopes that another young
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The killer whale named Old Tom
swims alongside a whaling boat,
flanking a whale calf. The boat is
being towed by a harpooned whale
(not visible here), near Eden,
Australia.
Lolita, at the Miami Seaquarium, is
one of the oldest whales in captivity.
killer whale named Luna, which had become separated from his pod, could be returned to it. However, his case
was marked by controversy about whether and how to intervene, and in 2006, Luna was killed by a boat
propeller.
[166]
Whaling
The first records of commercial hunting of killer whales date to the 18th
century in Japan. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the global
whaling industry caught immense numbers of baleen and sperm whales,
but largely ignored killer whales because of their limited amounts of
recoverable oil, their smaller populations, and the difficulty of taking
them.
[116]
Once the stocks of larger species were depleted, killer whales
were targeted by commercial whalers in the mid-20th century. Between
1954 and 1997, Japan took 1,178 killer whales and Norway took
987.
[167]
Over 3,000 killer whales were taken by Soviet whalers,
[168]
including an Antarctic catch of 916 in 197980 alone, prompting the
International Whaling Commission to recommend a ban on commercial
hunting of the species pending further research.
[167]
Today, no country
carries out a substantial hunt, although Indonesia and Greenland permit
small subsistence hunts.
Killer whales have helped humans hunting other whales.
[169]
One well-known example was in Eden, Australia,
including the male known as Old Tom. Whalers more often considered them a nuisance, however, as they
would gather to scavenge meat from the whalers' catch.
[169]
Some populations, such as in Alaska's Prince
William Sound, may have been reduced significantly by whalers shooting them in retaliation.
[17]
Captivity
Main article: Captive killer whales
The killer whale's intelligence, trainability, striking appearance,
playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at
aquaria and aquatic theme parks.
[170]
From 1976 to 1997, 55 whales
were taken from the wild in Iceland, 19 from Japan, and three from
Argentina. These figures exclude animals that died during capture.
[170]
Live captures fell dramatically in the 1990s, and by 1999, about 40% of
the 48 animals on display in the world were captive-born.
[170]
Organizations such as the World Society for the Protection of Animals
and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society campaign against the
practice of keeping them in captivity. In captivity, they often develop
pathologies, such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 6090% of captive
males. Captives have vastly reduced life expectancies, on average only living into their 20s.
[Note 3]
In the wild,
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females which survive infancy live 50 years on average, and up to 7080 years in rare cases. Wild males who
survive infancy live 30 years on average, and up to 5060 years.
[171]
Captivity usually bears little resemblance
to wild habitat, and captive whales' social groups are foreign to those found in the wild. Critics claim captive
life is stressful due to these factors and the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild killer
whale behavior.
[172]
Wild killer whales travel up to 160 kilometres (100 mi) each day, and critics say the
animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity.
[124]
In a 2011 CNN Justice news article, Bill Mears and Tom Cohen wrote about a lawsuit that PETA (People for
the Ethical Treatment of Animals) pursued against SeaWorld. PETA filed a "20-page complaint [which] asks
the U.S. District Court in Southern California to declare that the five whales Tilikum, Katina, Corky, Kasatka,
and Ulises are being held in slavery or involuntary servitude in violation of the 13th Amendment."
[173]
PETA
claims the 13th amendment technically does not state it applies only to human animals.
[173]
Ric O'Barry and
two former SeaWorld trainers supported PETA in moving forward with this lawsuit.
[173]
Legal cases in state
and federal courts dealing with animal cruelty tend to be based on human actions solely because animals cannot
actually be prosecuted or actively participate as plaintiffs and defendants on trial.
In 1970, a killer whale, later named Lolita, was captured from the Puget Sound waters, and has since been
performing at Miami Seaqurium for more than 40 years. During these four decades, celebrities, children, and a
Washington governor have campaigned to free Lolita.
[174]
One of the Lolita supporters is Howard Garret, a
cofounder of the nonprofit Orca Network located on Whidbey Island, Wash.
[174]
Garret believes Lolita has a
strong memory of her life and her family in her former natural habitat. The Miami Seaquarium argues Lolita's
interaction and dependence on her human caregivers supersedes her natural survival instincts, thus she would
not survive on her own in the wild.
[174]
They also argue human and boat activity, as well as pollution, are
serious threats to killer whales. In December 2011, supporters offered $1 million dollars
[174]
to have Lolita
freed from the Miami Seaquarium. After campaign and financial efforts to free Lolita were denied by the Miami
Seaquarium, activists are suing the federal government in federal court in Seattle with the argument that Lolita
should have been protected when other southern region orcas were listed as endangered species in 2005.
[174]
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) deems it illegal to "harass, harm, pursue, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture,
or collect" to any species put on the list.
[175]
The Miami Sequarium did not wish to comment on the lawsuit,
instead it released a statement highlighting Lolita's life in captivity as active, healthy, and well cared for.
[174]
One plaintiff in the lawsuit, Carter Dillard, chief counsel for the Animal Legal Defense Fund, suggested Lolita
should be moved to a larger "sea pen" home, where she would be able to swim farther distances and interact
with other killer whales.
[175]
In February 2010, 40-year-old SeaWorld Trainer Dawn Brancheau was killed by a 12,300-lb male
[165]
killer
whale named Tilikum. The fatal event occurred after a show called "Dine with Shamu" at SeaWorld's Shamu
Stadium in Orlando, Florida. The Orange County sheriff's spokesman Jim Solomons stated Brancheau slipped
and fell into the 35-foot-deep tank, where one of the killer whales fatally injured her.
[176]
However, other
witnesses maintain Brancheau was violently grabbed and attacked by the killer whale. Lori Miller, who
attended the show at SeaWorld prior to the death of the trainer, spoke on "Larry King Live", saying the trainers
had a hard time getting the killer whales to perform.
[176]
Captives occasionally act aggressively towards
themselves, their tankmates, or humans, which critics say is a result of stress.
[157]
A spokesperson for PETA
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commented on this incident and referred to it as "a tragedy that didn't have to happen."
[176]
Before Brancheau's
death, two other trainers were involved in incidents with killer whales at SeaWorld. In 2006 during a show at
the Shamu Stadium, a trainer was seriously injured after being grabbed by a whale and held underwater.
[176]
In
1999, Daniel Dukes, age 27, sneaked into the park after closing, and his body was later discovered on Tilikum's
back.
[175]
An examination of the body found multiple wounds, contusions, and abrasions. The coroner
determined that the man had died from drowning and hypothermia.
[177][178]
See also
List of whale and dolphin species
Marine biology
List of whale vocalizations
Ingrid Visser (researcher)
Notes
1. ^ According to Baird,
[101]
killer whales prefer harbour seals to sea lions and porpoises in some areas.
2. ^ In the northeast Pacific, three communities of fish-eating killer whales have been identified: the southern community
(one clan, three pods, 90 killer whales as of 2006), the northern community (three clans, 16 pods, 214 killer whales as of
2000), and the south Alaskan community (two clans, 11 pods, 211 killer whales as of 2000).
3. ^ Although there are examples of killer whales living longer, including several over 30 years old, and two captive orcas
(Corky II and Lolita) are in their mid-40s.
References
1. ^ Mead, J. G.; Brownell, R. L., Jr. (2005). "Order Cetacea" (http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/browse.asp?id=14300074).
In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. Mammal Species of the World (http://www.google.com/books?
id=JgAMbNSt8ikC&pg=PA723) (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 723743. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0.
OCLC 62265494 (//www.worldcat.org/oclc/62265494).
2. ^
a

b

c

d

e

f
Taylor, B. L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S. M., Ford, J., Mead, J. G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade,
P. & Pitman, R. L. (2008). 'Orcinus orca' (http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/15421). In: IUCN 2008. IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
3. ^ "Orcinus Fitzinger, 1860" (http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?
search_topic=TSN&search_value=180468). Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
4. ^ "Orcinus orca (Linnaeus, 1758)" (http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?
search_topic=TSN&search_value=180469). Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
5. ^ Ford, Ellis & Balcomb 2000, p. 12
6. ^
a

b
Rendell, Luke, and Hal Whitehead (2001). "Culture in whales and dolphins"
(http://whitelab.biology.dal.ca/lr/bbs.htm). Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24 (2): 309324.
doi:10.1017/S0140525X0100396X (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X0100396X). PMID 11530544
(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11530544). Retrieved 2010-03-07.
7. ^
a

b
Carwardine 2001, p. 19
8. ^ Reuters http://www.reuters.com/video/2012/07/26/footage-shows-killer-whale-attack-at-sea?videoId=236665315
|url= missing title (help).
9. ^ (Latin) Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum
characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I (http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#3) (10th ed.).
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characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I (http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#3) (10th ed.).
Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 824.
10. ^
a

b
Zum Wal in der Marienkirche (http://www.marien-greifswald.de/Wal.657.0.html) (in German). St. Mary's Church,
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Ford, John K. B.; Ellis, Graeme M. (2006). "Selective foraging by fish-eating killer whales Orcinus orca in British
Columbia" (http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v316/p185-199/). Marine Ecology Progress Series 316: 185.
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Whales. Madeira Park, B.C.: Harbour Publishing. ISBN 1-55017-426-6.
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Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press. ISBN 0-89658-545-X.
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Volume II, part 3 (http://www.archive.org/details/mammalsofsov231996gept). Washington D. C.: Smithsonian
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Further reading
Hoyt, Erich. 1998. Orca: The Whale Called Killer, Camden House Publishing, ISBN 978-0-920656-25-9
Kirkevold, B. C.; J. S. Lockard (1986). Behavioral Biology of Killer Whales. Alan R. Liss. ISBN 0-8451-3100-1.
5/9/13 9:13 PM Killer whale - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Page 28 of 28 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orca_whale
External links
Orca-Live (http://www.orca-live.net) Orcas in Johnstone Strait, British Columbia
Salish Sea Hydrophone Network (http://orcasound.net) Listen live to orcas in Washington State, U.S.
Keep Whales Wild (http://www.keepwhaleswild.org/)
Killer whale devours great white shark (http://www.gadling.com/2011/03/27/killer-whale-devours-great-
white-shark/)
Killer whale photos (http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/killerwhale_photos.htm)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Killer_whale&oldid=554302272"
Categories: IUCN Red List data deficient species Arctic cetaceans Cetaceans of Australia
Fauna of the Atlantic Ocean Fauna of the Pacific Ocean Killer whales Megafauna of Africa
Megafauna of Australia Megafauna of Eurasia Megafauna of North America
Megafauna of South America Oceanic dolphins Predators Monotypic mammal genera
Fauna of the Crozet Islands Animals described in 1758 Marine mammals of Hawaii
Mammals of Western Sahara
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