29

Contents Sewerage
29.1 Introduction 29.1.1 Sewerage 29.1.2 Sewage 29.1.3 Disposal of stormwater and sewage 29.1.4 Statutory control Design of storm sewers 29.2.1 The Wallingford procedure 29.2.2 Modified Rational method 29.2.3 Pollution from storm runoff Sewage 29.3.1 29.3.2 29.3.3 29.3.4 29.3.5 Introduction Dry weather flow Storm sewage Design flow for sewage treatment works Pollution load 29/3 29/3 29/3 29/3 29/3 29/3 29/3 29/3 29/4 29/4 29/4 29/4 29/4 29/5 29/5 29/5 29/5 29/5 29/5 29/6 29/6 29/7 29/8 29/8 29/8 29/9 29/9 29/9 29/10 29/10 29/10 29/11

Sewerage and Sewage Disposal

Staff of Watson Hawksley, Consulting Engineers

29.7

Maintenance

29/11

Sewage treatment
29.8 Introduction 29.8.1 Characteristics of sewage 29.8.2 Sampling and analysis 29.8.3 Ease of treatment 29.8.4 Possible effects of industrial effluents Effluent disposal 29.9.1 Introduction 29.9.2 Effects of water pollution 29.9.3 Degree of treatment necessary 29/11 29/11 29/11 29/12 29/12 29/12 29/12 29/12 29/12 29/13 29/13 29/13 29/14 29/14 29/14 29/14 29/15 29/15 29/15 29/15 29/16 29/16 29/16 29/16 29/17 29/17 29/18 29/19 29/19 29/19 29/19

29.2

29.9

29.3

29.4

Design of sewerage systems 29.4.1 Introduction 29.4.2 The Colebrook-White formula 29.4.3 Design parameters 29.4.4 Sewer materials 29.4.5 Jointing materials 29.4.6 Structural design of nonpressure pipes 29.4.7 Structural design of pressure pipes 29.4.8 River crossings and submerged outfalls 29.4.9 Ancillary structures Pumping sewage 29.5.1 Introduction 29.5.2 Sewage pumping stations 29.5.3 Rising mains Construction 29.6.1 Introduction 29.6.2 Renovation of pipelines

29.10 Preliminary treatment 29.10.1 Introduction 29.10.2 Screening 29.10.3 Grit removal 29.10.4 Skimming, flocculation and preaeration 29.10.5 Flow/load balancing 29.10.6 pH control 29.10.7 Nutrient addition 29.11 Primary treatment 29.11.1 Sedimentation 29.11.2 Chemical treatment 29.11.3 Flotation 29.11.4 Septic tanks 29.12 Biological treatment 29.12.1 Introduction 29.12.2 Percolating filters 29.12.3 Rotating biological contactors 29.12.4 Activated sludge 29.12.5 Oxidation ponds 29.12.6 Anaerobic treatment 29.12.7 Fluidized beds 29.12.8 Final sedimentation

29.5

29.6

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29.13 Tertiary treatment 29.13.1 Introduction 29.13.2 Sand filters 29.13.3 Upward flow clarifiers 29.13.4 Microstrainers 29.13.5 Lagoons 29.13.6 Irrigation over grassland 29.13.7 Disinfection 29.14 Advanced treatment 29.14.1 Introduction 29.14.2 Chemical coagulation and flocculation 29.14.3 Ammonia stripping 29.14.4 Recarbonation 29.14.5 Granular activated carbon 29.14.6 Membrane processes 29.14.7 Ion exchange

29/19 29/19 29/19 29/19 29/20 29/20 29/20 29/20 29/20 29/20 29/20 29/20 29/20 29/21 29/21 29/21

29.15 Sludge treatment 29.15.1 Introduction 29.15.2 Character and amount of sludge 29.15.3 Screening 29.15.4 Sludge thickening 29.15.5 Anaerobic sludge digestion 29.15.6 Anaerobic sludge digestion 29.15.7 Sludge dewatering 29.15.8 Other sludge treatment processes 29.16 Sludge disposal 29.17 Intermediate technology References

29/21 29/21 29/21 29/22 29/22 29/23 29/23 29/23 29/24 29/24 29/25 29/26

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SEWERAGE 29.1 Introduction

29.1.1 Sewerage The function of a sewerage system is to convey domestic and industrial wastewaters, and runoff from precipitation, safely and economically to a point of disposal. Urban areas may be sewered by a combined system, a separate system, or a partially separate system. In a combined system, which is the most common in Britain, one network of sewers collects foul sewage and stormwater. In a separate system two sewer networks are used, one for foul sewage and the other for stormwater. A partially separate system is a compromise allowing some of the precipitation, e.g. from the backs of houses, to flow into the foul sewer; the second sewer carries the rest of the storm water. 29.1.2 Sewage The term 'sewage' is applied to the contents of sewers carrying the waterborne wastes of a community. The network of sewers in which the wastes are conveyed is known as the sewerage system. Domestic sewage is the discharge from water closets, sinks, baths, and washing machines in offices, schools, homes, factories, etc. Industrial effluent is the waterborne waste of industry. Infiltration is the unintended ingress of groundwater into the sewerage system. Foul sewage is a term commonly used for domestic sewage, but strictly includes any polluting wastewater, as distinct from stormwater. Storm sewage is foul sewage diluted by stormwater. It will readily be appreciated that combined and partially separate sewerage systems, carrying stormwater, must be designed for considerable variations in flow; in consequence it may be necessary to provide stormsewage overflows as discussed below. 29.1.3 Disposal of stormwater and sewage Runoff from precipitation, and certain other clean waters, is usually permitted by the pollution-control authorities to be discharged directly to the nearest watercourse. Wastewaters collected by sewerage systems are usually delivered to a works for treatment before disposal to an appropriate receiving water. In combined and partially separate systems it is usually possible to limit the amount of wastewater passed forward for full treatment; the excess flow of storm sewage may, before disposal, require a lesser degree of treatment or even none at all if it has been sufficiently diluted with rainwater. In the latter case, separation of storm sewage may be effected at the most appropriate location within the sewerage system, the overflowed portion of the storm sewage passing directly, or via the stormwater sewerage network, to an adjacent watercourse. Storm sewerage is needed to limit physical damage and financial loss caused by flooding. 29.1.4 Statutory control The discharge of wastewaters to surface and underground waters in Britain is governed by Part 2 of the Control of Pollution Act 1974. This calls for the consent of the controlling authority before any wastewater may be discharged to a receiving water or to a public sewer, or before any change may be made in an existing discharge. In England and Wales the control is exercised by the ten water authorities. In Scotland, discharge to receiving waters is subject to the consent of the ten river pollution prevention boards, while

discharge to public sewers comes under the regional and island councils. Normally, the consent will specify the quantity permitted and its quality. Industrial effluents, only, are subject to consent for discharge to sewer, and a reception and treatment charge will be made.

29.2 Design of storm sewers

29.2.1 'The Wallingford procedure' A manual of practice1 for the design and analysis of urban storm-drainage systems was published in 1981. This is known as the 'Wallingford procedure', and the five volumes not only describe the general procedure and choice of method of analysis and design, but also include maps of Britain with meteorological and soil data, and computer programs. In addition, one volume is devoted to the modified rational method, which is particularly suitable for small systems (not exceeding 100 to 150 ha in area or where pipe sizes are not larger than 600 to 1000mm diameter). 29.2.2 Modified Rational method This method is a development of the widely used Rational (or Lloyd-Davies) method; it gives the peak discharge from the equation: Q = 2.78CM (29.1) where Q is the peak discharge in litres per second; C is a dimensionless coefficient; / is the average rainfall intensity during the time of concentration in millimetres per hour; and A is the contributing catchment area in hectares. The coefficient C may be regarded as a combination of two separate coefficients - for volumetric runoff (Cv) and a dimensionless routing coefficient (Cr). The duration of a storm to give peak rate of flow in the sewer is assumed to be equal to the time of concentration of the system. This is the sum of the time of entry and time of flow through the longest route of the system to the point under consideration. In the detailed calculation it is necessary to consider the time of entry, which may vary from 3 to 10 min, according to size and slope of the catchment, and the severity of the storm. The Manual1 gives values for time of entry which are shown in Table 29.1. The smaller values are applicable to subcatchments of less than 200 m2 and with slope greater than 1 in 30, whilst the larger values are for subcatchments greater than 400 m2 with slope less than 1 in 50.

Table 29.1 Time of entry

Return period Time of entry (min) Small subcatchments 5 2 1 1 years years year month 3 4 4 5

Large subcatchments 6 7 8 10

The time of flow may be determined from pipe-full velocities obtained from design tables.2 For the design of new systems, trial determinations are necessary to find the approximate size and gradient of pipe or channel, generally at the natural slope of the catchment. The selection of the design return period is an economic, rather than a meteorological decision. Longer return periods

will lead to systems with greater capacities, providing a higher standard of drainage at greater cost. At one time, design was frequently based upon storm-return periods of 1 year; this is still satisfactory where surface flooding during storms of greater severity is acceptable. Where inhabited basements in buildings are at risk, a design return period of once in 50 years or even once in 100 years should be considered.3 As a first approximation for a 1- and 5-year return period, the rainfall intensities (mm/h) in Table 29.2 could be used. Average rainfall intensities for a specific location in Britain and for different return periods may be obtained from the Meteorological Office, Bracknell, or may be derived from a simple manual calculation, which is set out in the appendix to Volume IV of the Manual.1

Table 29.2
Time of concentration (min) 10 20 30 Rainfall intensity (mm/h) 1-year 35-40 23-25 18-20

5-year 60-65 40-42 33-35

usually defined as a period of 5 successive days and nights without measurable rain. Different values of DWF will be obtained in summer and winter, as a result of changes in infiltration caused by variation in the level of the water table, or domestic holidays, or changes in the industrial pattern of operation. The DWF of sewage in a sewer, on arriving at a sewage treatment works, is the sum of domestic flow, infiltration and industrial flow. Values for the average daily domestic water consumption should be ascertained from local records. A typical UK figure is 1851 per head-day but as little as 75 to 1001 per head day may be appropriate in developing countries, and 400 to 5001 per head day is often consumed in areas such as North America where air-conditioning, lawn watering, and automated car washes are in wide use. Values of infiltration are best determined from sewer gauging at night, when domestic flow is almost zero, and industrial discharges are also least in number, and thus more readily calculable or measurable. Typical values might be 15 0001 per day per kilometre of sewer and house connections, for average conditions (sewer partly above water table and partly below). Values of industrial discharge should be determined from metered records, or by reference to agreements with the local authority.

The volumetric runoff coefficient Cv may be defined as the proportion of the rain falling on the catchment which runs off into the storm-sewer system. The value is affected by whether the whole catchment (impervious and pervious areas) is considered, or the impervious areas alone. As a first approximation, if impervious areas alone are considered, the value of Cv could be taken as unity, although actual values may be within the range 0.6 to 0.9. The routing coefficient (Cr) might be expected to vary with the shape of the catchment but examination of data led to the recommendation1 of a constant value for Cr of 1.3 for both design and simulation. 29.2.3 Pollution from storm runoff Urban storm runoff will be polluted to a greater or lesser extent. Several comprehensive studies of this pollution have been made, and are referred to in the Manual,1 which includes a summary table to show the scale of the problem. Accidental spillage of contaminants, e.g. in a road accident, can cause danger to watercourses, especially since it is common practice to remove such spillage by hosing into the surface-water drains. Where the result of such an accident can be particularly serious, e.g. in contaminating a potable water supply, special protective measures may be necessary in the drainage design.

29.3 Sewage
29.3.1 Introduction The various types of sewage have been defined in section 29.1.2 above, and their polluting characteristics will be discussed in section 29.8 below. The current section is concerned with the volumes of flow for which the sewers must be designed, and with means for dealing with peak flows. It also looks at design flows for the treatment works. 29.3.2 Dry weather flow The dry weather flow (DWF) is the rate of flow of sewage (together with infiltration if any) in a sewer in dry weather,

29.3.3 Storm sewage Combined and partially separate sewers carry surface water in addition to the normal foul sewage. These sewers are designed to carry peak flows far in excess of the peak flow of foul sewage, when storms or long periods of heavy rainfall occur. It is not necessary or economical to treat the full peak flow conveyed by such sewers. Provided the sewage-treatment works, downstream of storm separation (see below), has adequate capacity to treat fully the maximum contributory rate of flow of foul sewage, without bypassing in dry weather, it has been found that the remainder of the peak combined or partially separate flow can be separated using a storm-sewage overflow. In the past it had been commonly assumed that dilution during storm periods would allow the excess storm flow to be bypassed to the nearest watercourse without serious detriment to its quality. This is not, however, the case and substantial pollution has been produced, not only from floating objects commonly seen caught by riverside bushes, but also because polluting sediments in the sewers are resuspended by the storm flush. No complete solution has yet been achieved, but a combination of a suitably designed storm overflow structure with a storage basin, from which the first flush can be returned to the foul sewer for later treatment, has produced an improvement. For small overflows (0.15 to 0.85 m3/s) storage-type overflows are suitable; control by throttle pipe and overflow weirs is preferred. At least manual screening of the overflow should be provided. For larger overflows only limited storage capacity is practicable, and design should be concentrated on avoiding overflow of the first storm flush. Control may be by throttle pipe, orifice, or flow regulator, and mechanically raked screens should be provided. The overflow must be set to operate at a predetermined rate of flow, designed to mitigate, so far as possible, the pollution discharged with the excess storm sewage. In Britain the overflow setting (Q 1 per day) is given by the former Ministry of Housing:4 2 = DWF+1360P+2, where P is the tributary population and E is the industrial effluent flow.

29.3.4 Design flow for sewage treatment works The volume of foul sewage flowing in the sewer, downstream of the last storm water overflow, will be approximately 6DWF. Not all of this can be fully treated, if the rainfall continues for long. It is recommended4 that 3 DWF is fully treated (no allowance being made for an increase of infiltration), the remainder being bypassed to storm tanks to receive gravity settlement. It is usual, after the storm has ceased, to pump the contents of the storm tanks back to the works inlet for full treatment. The rate of flow to the treatment works will vary over the day (and also weekly and seasonally, if the proportion of industrial effluent is substantial). 29.3.5 Pollution load The inlet works, tanks, pumps, etc. on a sewage treatment works must be designed to deal with the design flow discussed in the previous subsection. In addition, the treatment processes, especially the secondary biological stage, must be designed for the pollution load, which is not necessarily affected by the actual fluid flow in the sewerage system. It will be seen, from the discussion of sewage characteristics in section 29.8, that the principal parameter of pollution in domestic sewage is biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The BOD load may be readily calculated by multiplying the average DWF by the average BOD concentration. In the absence of suitable measurements, the values given in Table 29.3 may be used as a first approximation.

concentrate mainly on hydraulic calculations, selection of materials, and structural design of the sewer line. 29.4.2 The Colebrook-White formula Over past years many formulae have been developed for hydraulic design of pipes and channels. The equation derived by Colebrook in conjunction with White in 1939 is now regarded as the most satisfactory basis for hydraulic design. The Hydraulics Research Station at Wallingford has expressed the formula in tabular and graphical form more suited to the designer's needs.5 The tables and charts present flow rates (1/s), flow velocities (m/s) and hydraulic gradients for pipe sizes from 0.025 to 2.5 m diameter, and for roughness factors (&s) from 0.003 to 600 mm. Recommended roughness factors are listed. The tabulated factors 'good', 'normal' and 'poor' relate only to the standard of uniformity of the surface of the pipeline or conduit when clean and new (unless otherwise stated). In the case of short pipelines, extra allowances must be made for discontinuities such as changes in direction, sizes, junctions and valves. Pipelines and conduits may become fouled if not correctly designed and constructed. Physical fouling is caused by settlement of particulate matter in the invert; transport of biological matter present in wastewater results in sliming of pipeline surfaces below water, but both can be significantly reduced by maintaining high velocities. Grit need not be taken into consideration for new designs provided the pipeline has good selfcleansing characteristics. Storm sewers may normally be considered as being in a clean state, whereas foul sewers become slimed, and necessitate the use of a roughness factor higher than that for storm sewers. Generally, the factors diminish as the velocity increases; this feature also applies to sewage rising mains. Within a treatment works it is usual to assume that the main flow lines are 'sewers' until after the secondary stage of treatment. Gravity and pressure pipelines for sludge are special cases; friction factors will be dependent upon the characteristics of the sludge and may be up to 7 times that appropriate for sewage. 29.4.3 Design parameters Experience has shown that a flow velocity of at least 0.75 m/s once a day for an hour or so is usually sufficient to keep gravity wastewater sewers clean. Designing for a higher daily peak velocity will also allow the use of a lower ks factor and hence make possible decreased pipe size with improved conditions at minimum flow. Typical values for a concrete gravity slimed sewer are given in Table 29.4.

Table 29.3 Strength of sewage

Crude sewage (mg/1) weak medium strong BOD5 200 COD 350 SS 200 NH3-N 25 Org. N. 10 Chloride (Cl) 70 Org. C 140 350 600 350 35 15 100 210 550 950 500 60 20 130 300 Settled sewage (% removals on crude) 30-^0 30-40 50-70 15-20 3(MO

Hydraulic load and pollution load are important concepts in both the design of process units and treatment works, and in the determination of equitable charges to be applied to industrial users of sewers and sewage-treatment processes. The balance between industrial and domestic waste will be important for any given sewage. Whilst many industrial wastes can readily be treated in admixture with domestic sewage, some industrial effluents prove difficult in terms of proportion, temperature, or BOD: N ratio. The concept of treatability is examined in more detail in section 29.8.

Table 29.4
Velocity (m/s) 0.5-1.0 1.0-1.5 >1.5 Roughness k& (mm) 6.0 1.5 0.6

29.4 Design of sewerage systems

29.4.1 Introduction The design of sewerage systems calls for the optimization of the hydraulic, structural and constructional aspects to suit the drainage area. Very many factors affect this design and this section will A pumping main always runs full, and flow may be discontinuous. Thus the cleansing velocity must be regularly achieved and sustained for a period sufficient to scour any settled solids. Suggested minimum velocities are as shown in Table 29.5. Typical roughness factors for coated steel and iron sewagepumping mains are as shown in Table 29.6.

Table 29.5
Settling velocity (m/s) Probable particle size (any pipe diameter) 150mm pipe Grit up to 5.0 mm dia. 1.50 Sand up to 2.5 mm dia. 0.45
1.2 0.6

Pick-up velocity (m/s)

300mm pipe
1.5 0.6

600mm pipe
1.8 0.6

29.4.4.3 Ferrous Ductile iron is widely used for sewage-pumping mains up to 1.6m diameter. Steel pipes are less widely used, but are available in larger diameters. Their suitability for welding means that joints capable of taking tensile loads can be made, making steel pipes suitable for long sea outfalls, river crossings, etc. Corrugated steel pipes have been widely developed and used in the US, particularly for storm and surface-water culverts. As complete pipes they are available up to 3 m diameter and, in sections for assembly on site, they can be made in spans of 10 m or more. 29.4.4.4 Plastics There is a major distinction between thermoplastics, whose strength generally reduces markedly with temperature, and thermosetting resins (normally glass-fibre reinforced), whose strength falls much less with temperature. Both groups have very good chemical resistance, although this may be reduced when the pipe is stressed or strained. There are two main groups of thermoplastics: the polyolefins, which include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polybutylene (PB), and the vinyls, which include polyvinylchloride (PVC) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Polyethylene pipe is the most widely used of these for sewerage. It is available in medium and two main high-density forms (MDPE, HDPEl and HDPE2). As extruded pipe it is made in diameters up to 1.6m, suitable for pressures up to at least 12 bar at 2O0C. In helically welded form it is available up to 3m diameter for gravity sewers. Polypropylene is available up to 1.2m diameter, and for pressures to 15 bar (2O0C). Polybutylene is made up to 600mm diameter and 17 bar pressure (2O0C). Polypropylene and PB have better high-temperature properties than PE, and PB is probably the best of all thermoplastic pipe materials, having particularly good high-temperature strength, environmentalstress cracking resistance, abrasion resistance and low creep. All the polyolefin plastics can be welded by thermal fusion, making them suitable for the pulling of outfalls and river crossings and for the slip-lining of old pipelines. Of the vinyl-type thermoplastics PVC, in its unplasticized form, is the more common. It has been quite widely used since the late 1950s and its reputation has sometimes suffered as a result of its being the prototype for all plastic pipes. As a gravity sewer material, design can be carried out with confidence. For pressure applications it is important that the pipe should be derated not only for temperature, if appropriate, but also for fatigue effects where the pressure varies cyclically.6 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene pipes are available only up to 300 mm diameter. Pitch-fibre pipes, which may be regarded as plastics, are limited to the even smaller diameter of 200mm. Reinforced thermosetting resin pipes, variously known as GRP, FRP, RTRP, RPMP, etc. are now available in all sizes up to at least 4 m and for pressures up to at least 25 bar. For gravity and lowpressure applications the pipes often contain one or more layers of unreinforced sand and resin (RPM pipes). Pipes containing essentially only resin and glass fibre are known as GRP in Britain and FRP in the US. 29.4.5 Jointing materials Flexible joints for rigid pipelines normally employ a socket (bell) and spigot arrangement, or a double collar or sleeve assembly. Both these jointing systems rely on an elastomeric sealing ring or gasket to ensure watertightness. Natural rubber has been used successfully for such sealing rings, but, in certain circumstances, may deteriorate as a result of microbial attack.

Table 29.6 Velocity (m/s) 0.8-1.1 1.2-1.5 >1.5 Suggested ks factor (mm)
3.0 1.5 0.3

29.4.4 Sewer materials As usual, the selection of the most appropriate material is a compromise between first cost and service life. The costs of relaying, and of the upheaval caused during this process, are, however, so great that the first cost of the material cannot be the principal criterion for choice. The material chosen must resist aggression by the liquid being carried (or outside the sewer) and by matter in suspension, and also by-products of biological degradation (e.g. sulphide). It must also be strong enough to withstand the internal and external loads. The following materials are in common use. 29.4.4.1 Clay ware Clay pipes are suitable for nonpressure applications, and are not generally available in diameters greater than 1 m. Their chemical inertness fits them for aggressive chemical wastes and sewage at high temperatures. Their main drawback is brittleness. 29.4.4.2 Cementitious Pipes made from cementitious material are generally robust, reliable and relatively cheap. Unless expensive systems of protection are applied, however, such pipes are vulnerable to attack by sulphate in groundwaters, and to acid attack from industrial effluents or as a result of bacterial action in septic sewage. Unreinforced concrete is available up to 1.4 m diameter, and is suitable only for gravity flow. Reinforced concrete pipes are widely used for gravity sewers in temperate climates, in diameters up to 3 m; they can also be used for pressure pipelines up to about 4 bar. Polyvinylchloride liners have been developed to protect the inner wall from septic sewage. Prestressed concrete pipes have been used up to 7 m diameter, and are particularly suitable for pressure sewers. Asbestos cement pipes are widely available in diameters up to at least 2.5m, and for pressures up to 32 bar. More recently glass and steel fibres have been used to reinforce concrete pipes.

Work at the Water Research Centre in Britain7 has led to ethylene-propylene rubber and styrene-butadiene rubber being the preferred materials for ordinary sewer use. Where industrial effluents are present consideration of other synthetic rubbers may be necessary, in order to obtain the appropriate chemical resistance. 29.4.6 Structural design of nonpressure pipes Flexible joints and uniform beddings are used to minimize longitudinal bending moments, allowing structural design to consider only the two-dimensional case of the pipe crosssection. Two sources of loading are considered, that due to the backfill and that due to any surcharge loads on the surface. Backfill loads on all flexible pipes and on rigid pipes in trenches not wider than, say, 1.75 pipe diameters can be taken as the weight of the prism of soil vertically above the pipe. Rigid pipes in wider trenches may experience up to 1.5 times the 'prism load'. Surcharge loads are calculated according to Boussinesq, assuming a pattern of point loads due to vehicle wheels. Figure 29.1 shows the pressures at various depths, according to the usual British, American and German assumptions. Considerable care is required in the selection of factors of safety.8 Rigid pipes, e.g. clay, concrete and asbestos, are specified according to their crushing strength in a two- or three-edge lineload test. The load distribution and support provided by the bedding of a buried pipe enable it to carry a load greater than the test load by a factor (FJ known as the bedding factor. (See Figure 29.2 for design values of F1n.) A factor of safety of 1.25 is normally taken and the enhanced pipe strength (i.e. x Fm) must provide this. Flexible pipes (metal and plastic) should be specified according to their stiffness (E?/\2D\ where E is Young's modulus, / is thickness of pipe wall, and D is pipe diameter). Table 29.7 lists values of the elastic constants for flexible pipes. (It should be

Surcharge pressure (kN/m2)

Depth of cover (m)

US Railway (Cooper E-72) UK main road (BS 153 Type HB) German main road (DIN 1072, SLW 60) US road (H-20)

Figure 29.1 Pressures at various depths

noted that the Young's modulus of thermoplastic pipes reduces with time because of creep.) The structural design of flexible pipes involves ensuring that the pipe neither collapses (by buckling) under the external load nor deflects to such an extent that it loses too much crosssectional area, causes its joints to open or is overstressed or overstrained. Deflection is measured as percentage reduction of vertical diameter, and 5% deflection is normally regarded as the limit for loss of area or joint watertightness, with lower limits sometimes being imposed by stress or strain considerations. As for rigid pipes, the load-carrying capacity of flexible pipes is also influenced by the bedding. In this case it is the deformation modulus E of the bedding, in resisting the outward deflection of

Rigid Pipes
300 mm

Trench-bottom beds Flexible Pipes Filter fabric

Granular beds Rigid insert

Concrete beds Trench sheeting left in

E'from graph

'=(2 B + s )/3 ' = *B

E'=10MN/m2 '=14MN/m 2 Soil-cement beds

Granular beds Granular beds with inserts Figure 29.2 Bedding factors

Table 29.7 Elastic constants for flexible pipes

Material Ambient temperature Ambient temperature 2O0C 4O0C initial long-term initial long-term E (GPa) E (GPa)/(MPa) E (GPa) E (GPa)/(MPa) 0.320 0.025 4.1 0.435 0.030 2.0 0.465 0.040 3.0 0.760 0.050 3.0 0.345 0.250 6.6 1.500 0.500 5.5 2.650 1.250 7.4 165.0 165.0 150.0 200.0 200.0 85.0

where P1 is the design internal pressure, Pu is the ultimate pressure capacity of the pipe, and n is 1 for reinforced concrete pipes, 1/2 for asbestos-cement pressure pipes, 1/3 for prestressed concrete pipes. When designing flexible pressure pipes the stress or strain in the pipe wall, produced by the internal pressure, is added to the stress or strain induced by deflection, as indicated above. Such total stress or strain must not exceed the limit given in Table 29.7. Where flexible pressure pipes may be subjected to subatmospheric pressures, e.g. during surging following pump shutdown, the vacuum pressure should be added to the external pressure and the factor of safety against buckling rechecked using Equation (29.4) above. 29.4.8 River crossings and submerged outfalls For these types of installations the stresses and strains in the completed pipeline are seldom great. Because, however, they are often constructed by assembling long strings of pipes on land and then towing or pulling these into position, high stresses and strains may be set up during construction. These stresses and strains are likely to be due either to direct tension or to curvature of the pipeline as it passes over supports. The tensile loading depends on the pulling force involved in the particular method of construction. Thus, a maximum pulling load may be calculated, for given pipe properties, and this must be specified as not to be exceeded in construction. Curvature of the pipeline may occur both during construction and in its final position. The radius of curvature should not be less than a critical value, which will be governed by stress, strain or buckling. 29.4.9 Ancillary structures Other than pumping stations, which are dealt with elsewhere, the structures associated with underground drainage systems include manholes, drop chambers and storm water overflows. Sizing of these structures is controlled by their hydraulic design, and the need to provide adequate access for maintenance. Since they are often constructed below ground water level, concrete is usually required to overcome buoyancy, and thus becomes the basic structural material. It should be noted that, in hot climates, or where pumping mains discharge into manholes, hydrogen sulphide is often released, and severe corrosion of concrete manholes and chambers can occur. In these cases protective systems are required - either coatings applied to the concrete in situ or prefabricated linings such as PVC or GRP. Alternatively, chemical injection can be used to control the generation of sulphides.9 On pumping mains themselves, access chambers are required at air valves and washouts. Again, the possibility of hydrogen sulphide corrosion should be considered. Pumping mains should also be provided with means to resist the thrusts generated at changes of direction. Where flanged or welded joints are employed it may be possible for the thrusts to be resisted by the tensile-load capacity of the pipe. If this is not feasible, thrust blocks should be provided to transmit the thrust to a satisfactory foundation, e.g. the undisturbed ground at the side of a trench.10 Both gravity and pressure mains should be provided with anchorages, if laid to steep gradients, in order to prevent gradual sliding, permitted by closure of the joint gaps in the lower portion, leading to the disengagement of joints in the upper portion of the pipeline.

MDPE 0.600 0.090 6.3 HOPE 1 0.875 0.130 5.0 HDPE 2 0.800 0.120 6.3 PP 1.150 0.115 5.0 PB 0.425 0.380 7.6 ABS 1.650 0.550 7.5 PVC 2.790 1.350 12.3 D.IRON 165.0 165.0 150.0 STEEL 200.0 200.0 85.0

e (%)
* GRPf 17.5J40.0

e (%)
8.013.5 2.1-6.0 2.7-7.3 2.1-7.3

10.025.0

0.25 0.35 15.00.40 35.0

4.0-11.0 5.0-13.5 4.0-13.5

0.20 0.30 0.35

0.18 0.15 0.30

RPM

* 4.5-12.0 6.0-15.0 t 4.5-15.0 t

2.7-7.2 0.20 3.6-9.0 0.18 2.7-9.0 0.35

*ring tension

fing bending

tfcombined tension and bending

the sides of the pipe, which is used. Deflection is calculated as follows: Relative deflection (%) = F01 (g/fSg-) (29.2)

where FDL is deflection lag factor (increase in deflection with time - see Figure 29.3), PE is the external pressure (backfill+ surcharge) and 5p the pipe stiffness, as from Table 29.7. The deflections corresponding to stress or strain limits for the pipe material are calculated as follows: strain-limited deflection = eLD/Fct (29.3)

where eL is the limiting strain and FG the strain factor, which takes account of the geometry of the distortion, and for which a value of 6.0 can be taken for design purposes. Where stress limits apply, fJE may be substituted for eL in Equation (29.3),/L being the limiting stress. Design of flexible pipes to resist buckling involves ensuring that the critical pressure (PCR) which will cause the buried pipe to buckle, exceeds the actual external loading pressure by a suitable factor of safety. PCR = (V32*Sp) (1 - 3 x relative deflection) (29.4)

The value of relative deflection inserted in Equation (29.4) should be that calculated according to Equation (29.2). 29.4.7 Structural design of pressure pipes The circumferential tensile stresses set up in the pipe wall by the pressure within the pipe reduce the effective strength available to resist the external loads. With rigid pressure pipes the value of the crushing strength must be increased by a factor Fp given by Equation (29.5): F9=II(I-PJPJT (29.5)

Overall Modulus ' Material Gravel Coarse sand

Bedding Modulus ED 0 In terms of depth in metres (H) Compaction

Fine sand Material Peat Native Soil Modulus s Sand Silt Clay Gravel Rock

Figure 29.3 Modulus E' 29.5 Pumping sewage

29.5.1 Introduction Pumping sewage presents a particular problem in the need to handle the solids contained therein. It is common practice to assume that the smallest sewer within a sewerage system is 100mm diameter and therefore may pass solids of almost this size. Therefore pumps are specified as being capable of passing a 90-mm diameter sphere, and the inlet and discharge connections must not be less than 100mm diameter, and this is true for pumping mains. This limitation precludes satisfactory pumping at rates below about 151/s. The need to handle solids also dictates that end-suction single-stage pumps are used, thus limiting the possible head that can be generated to about 75 m. Sewage pumps are normally centrifugal or mixed-flow machines. In smaller sizes, submersible sewage pumps are manufactured. These pumps have a close-coupled, fully submersible electric motor fitted to the pump and are designed to be lowered into the sewage. If the flow rate required falls below 151/s, special devices are required. Various manufacturers can supply these and they depend either on comminuting the solids or on some method of handling solids without passing them through a pump (e.g. solids diverter (R) or compressed-air ejector). For lifting duties at sewage works large Archimedean screws are being increasingly used. These devices are suitable for lifting sewage, but not for feeding into pumping mains under pressure. Sewage sludges are of various consistencies. The ability of centrifugal sewage pumps to be used satisfactorily or the need to use positive displacement pumps are covered in a publication issued by the Water Research Centre.11 29.5.2 Sewage pumping stations Sewage and drainage installations differ from almost all others in one important point. This is that once the installation has been commissioned it is virtually impossible to close it down; sewage continues to flow in the sewers. All sewage installations must be designed with this in mind, particularly pumping stations. For whilst it may be possible to bypass a part of the treatment process, it may be essential to continue pumping in all circumstances. There are two facets of the need to maintain a pumping station so that it is continuously available for service or running. The first is that it should be possible for all routine maintenance, including major overhauls, to be carried out with the station operating, and the second is that machine breakdowns or other similar circumstances should be 'fail-safe'. The various ways of meeting these requirements underlie the remainder of this section. Sewage-pumping stations are almost always equipped with electrically driven automatic pumps, operated from level-measuring devices or switches in the reception sump, enabling them to operate without full-time pump attendants. The sump should be designed to allow easy flow to the pump suctions, and with sufficient benching to avoid undue settlement of solids.12 In major installations, two interconnecting sumps are often provided to enable either to be drained for cleaning or maintenance, without closing down the installation. Some intakes to sumps are fitted with screens. However, there are conflicting views on the fitting of screens. If screens are fitted there is the need to dispose of screenings; if they are not disposed of there is a risk of items reaching the pumps and blocking or damaging them. Current practice may follow either view. Major pumping stations are normally designed to be similar to that shown in Figure 29.4. Of particular note as being current good practice are the following features: (1) The pump casings are below the invert of the incoming sewer, thus ensuring that the pumps require no special priming equipment. (2) The nonreturn valves and the entries to the rising main are both horizontal, thus avoiding some of the problems caused by deposition of solids when the pumps are not running. (3) The electrical equipment is at a high level, thus obviating damage in the event of the pump well being flooded. It is also normal to fit automatic cellar-drainage pumps to this well. (4) Sufficient access and cranage is provided to ease maintenance as far as possible. Most designs provide access stairs to the pump well rather than ladders to encourage maintenance staff to inspect the machinery regularly.

fluids in that whenever the sewage therein becomes stationary, or falls to a low velocity, deposition of the solids will occur. To ensure that this deposition is not cumulative, it is good practice to design the pipeline so that a velocity at which solids are picked up is achieved on some occasion daily. This velocity should be at least 1 m/s. As in other systems, hydraulic surge will occur whenever the velocity in a sewage pipeline is changed. Suitable precautions should be taken to ensure that this surge does not generate a pressure which is likely to cause damage. The velocity of such hydraulic surges is materially lowered by any dissolved gases in the fluid;13 sewage normally contains gases. However, since on some occasions the system might be filled with water, the precautions taken should be effective with surge velocities both for water and for sewage.

29.6 Construction
29.6.1 Introduction Construction should aim to achieve the design objectives with the greatest economy. The choice of materials may make differing demands on the installation costs of buried pipelines. The achievement of the necessary pipe-bedding standard (see Figure 29.2) is crucial and, because of the greater dependence of flexible pipes on their bedding, may invalidate cost comparisons based on material prices only. The influence of trench width and native ground conditions on the design of flexible pipelines is ignored in many published 'design methods'. The information provided in Figure 29.2 is intended to remedy this situation, and shows how trench width, bedding material and its degree of compaction must be considered together. The data relating bedding moduli to the degree of compaction applied to various materials are based on empirical relationships obtained from a consensus of various published sources. Gravel beds are frequently preferred because they can achieve 90 to 95% MPD with minimal compaction. Where gravels are used they must be prevented from acting as groundwater drains, by the use of regular impermeable barriers, e.g. polyethylene sheeting. In some cases, e.g. where the native soil is fine sand or silt, it may be necessary to enclose the whole of the bedding in an impermeable membrane or filter fabric to prevent groundwater flows leaching out fine material and forming voids at the trench side. A high-modulus bedding material may, however, still not achieve a high overall modulus if the native soil is soft. The use of wide trenches will improve this, but may be impracticable for large-diameter pipes, in which case resort should be made to one of the special beddings. For all types of pipeline the provision of uniform support by the bedding is essential to prevent the development of unacceptably high shear forces or longitudinal bending moments. Where this cannot be achieved, e.g. where pipes are built into the walls of underground structures, in areas of mining subsidence or abrupt transitions from rock to soil, closely spaced mechanical joints should be specified. Flexible pipes are often supplied in long lengths, very long in the cases of welded steel or polyolefins, and the basic flexibility of the pipe may not be sufficient to accommodate differential settlements without the use of such flexible joints. Careful attention must be given to the manner of joining lateral sewers and house connections to main sewers.14 The Construction Industry Research and Information Association has recently issued an authoritative report on trenching.15 In the construction of above-ground pipelines, proper consideration must be given to possible thermal movements, and to even load distribution at supports. The construction of river and estuarine crossings, and of submerged outfalls, favours the use of materials which can be

KEY (1) Pump (2) Nonreturn valve (3) Isolating valves (4) Rising main (5) Drainage channel (6) Air release pipework (7) Intermediate shaft support Figure 29.4 Pumping station

(8) Overflow (9) Electric motor (10) Switchboard OD Overhead crane (12) Sewer inlet (13) Machinery access cover

The switchboard should be of such a design that individual pump starters, controls, etc. can be isolated for maintenance, whilst the board is live, and other pumps are running or available for service. The ability to continue to pump or bypass sewage under all circumstances is normally provided by several features. At least one standby pump will be provided, and will have suitable automatic controls for it to take over the duties of any pump which fails from whatever cause. The number of pumps provided will depend on the expected flow variation, length of pumping main, lift and other similar design parameters. The electricity supply may need to be secured, either by duplicating the connections to the public supply, or by providing standby generating plant within the pumping station, or both. Despite these precautions it is wise to provide a high-level overflow to avoid flooding if there is a total breakdown. The design of stations using close-coupled submersible sewage pumps is similar but normally rather simpler. It is not necessary to provide a building, so long as there is good access to the well containing the pumps, and the electrical switchgear is housed in a suitable weatherproof kiosk. 29.5.3 Rising mains Sewage-pumping mains differ from those containing most other

joined into long strings on land and then pulled into position. Steel and polyolefin plastics with welded joints are therefore often used. Glass reinforced plastic pipes, with hand lay-up overwrap joints, have also been successfully used in this manner, as also has prestressed concrete. 29.6.2 Renovation of pipelines The construction of new underground pipelines by trenching is expensive in established urban areas, not only in direct cost but also in the indirect costs of disruption. This has encouraged development of so-called 'nondisruptive' construction methods. The techniques which have received most attention are miniaturized tunnelling, and sewer renovation. Quite apart from the fact that many old urban sewers require renovation because they are structurally unsafe, construction based on renovation of the old sewer has the additional advantages that a pipeline route clear of other underground services is automatically provided, and also that all lateral connections are automatically located. Renovation techniques have been reviewed extensively by the Water Research Centre,16 which has adopted the following system of categorization: Type 1: Included in this category are lining systems which are bonded to the fabric of the old sewer so as to form a composite rigid structure. Examples are glass reinforced concrete segmental linings, and GRP segmented, or complete pipe, linings roughened to provide the required bond. Type 2: Lining systems in this category do not rely on the formation of a bond to the old sewer structure. The liner usually consists of a polyethylene pipe inserted by sliplining, a reinforced thermosetting resin liner, installed by inversion and cured in situ, or a plastic pipe liner formed by individual insertion of GRP or polyolefin pipes. As with Type 1 linings, the annulus is grouted, but no reliance is placed upon the formation of a bond, so that the liner is regarded as acting as a flexible pipe. Type 3: Linings of this type, thin-walled GRP or in situ resin, are not regarded as fulfilling any permanent structural role. Rather, they are considered as formwork left-in, with the annulus grout providing the structural element. Most of the renovation systems result in lateral connections being temporarily blocked, but several ingenious methods of reopening laterals have been developed, e.g. by remote cutting from the sewer, by remote cutting from the lateral or by 'minimum excavation' techniques from the surface. Pipe 'renovation' has developed to the stage that one technique, polyethylene pipe sliplining, can provide an increase in the diameter of the sewer. In a 1985 example, a 225mm diameter clay pipe was 'relined' with a 350mm diameter polyethylene pipe, inserted behind an impact mole which split the old pipe.

Since access arrangements in deep manholes should preclude the possibility of long falls, intermediate platforms are required. Since such platforms might interrupt full height vertical lifting, manholes on deep sewers should preferably have two surface access openings. It is essential to ensure proper ventilation of sewer systems to minimize the generation of hydrogen sulphide and to dispose of this and other toxic gases.

SEWAGE TREATMENT 29.8 Introduction

29.8.1 Characteristics of sewage Municipal sewage is mainly the wastewaters from homes, offices and shops, and, therefore, consists of human wastes and of the discharges of man's domestic activities. Many industries use large quantities of water, which must also be disposed of after use. In industrialized countries, a very large proportion of their industrial effluents is discharged to the municipal sewers, and treated with the domestic sewage; this may demand some pretreatment to ensure that it does not interfere with the normal treatment process (especially the biological stage) or with the disposal of sludge. A partial analysis of a typical British domestic sewage is given in Table 29.3. (The strength of sewage depends somewhat on the diet and other living habits of the contributory population, and markedly on the quantity of water used.) If this were to be discharged to an inland stream in quantity it would cause substantial pollution. The principal polluting matters in sewage are suspended solids (SS) and organic matter. The suspended solids would be unsightly, and, being at least partly organic, would reduce the dissolved oxygen in the receiving water. The organic matter is partly carbonaceous and partly nitrogenous. Both are oxidized by naturally occurring microorganisms in the receiving water, and so reduce the dissolved oxygen, which is essential for fish and other animal life in the water. Since we are primarily concerned with oxygen demand, carbonaceous organic matter is normally measured as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), the oxygen consumed in 5 days at 2O0C by microorganisms consuming the organic matter, or as chemical oxygen demand (COD), a purely chemical parameter which approximates to the ultimate oxygen demand. Nitrogen is commonly analysed in its various forms, and we are mainly concerned with ammoniacal nitrogen. This will be oxidised in the receiving water, and so will increase the oxygen demand. At high pH values, ammonia can also be poisonous to fish. It has been found, in Britain, that each person contributes the following pollution loads (grams per day): BOD 60, suspended solids 60, ammoniacal nitrogen 8. In the absence of more specific data, these values may be used to assess the pollution load to be removed in sewage treatment. 29.8.2 Sampling and analysis Before selecting the method of disposal, and the appropriate treatment of the sewage to permit disposal without pollution, it is necessary to sample and analyse the sewage. Sampling should usually be carried out over the full 24 h, since flow varies greatly over the day, and the individual samples must be bulked in such a way as to give a properly weighted representative sample. It is desirable that sampling should be carried out over the various seasons and in a range of weather conditions, but this is often not possible.

29.7 Maintenance
Given good design and construction, the correct choice of materials should reduce sewer maintenance to the clearance of occasional blockages. Although good hydraulic design should minimize blockages, the fact that they may never be completely avoided requires proper provision for maintenance to be included in the design. Easy and safe access for men and equipment is essential, but further consideration should be given to the possible need to extricate injured workers. Thus space for at least two men should be provided in all manholes, together with openings permitting unobstructed lifts to the surface.

The analyses should be carried out by the standardized methods,17'18 which have been laid down in the UK and US, and which are generally used throughout the world. Although suspended solids, oxygen demand and ammonia are the most important design parameters, it is essential, in these preliminary analyses, to seek also a wide range of substances that might cause danger or damage to sewer workers, to the sewerage system or to the treatment processes, and to ensure that these are at acceptable levels. For operational control the sewage works operator will analyse routinely (probably daily on the larger works) for SS, COD, and ammoniacal and oxidized nitrogen in the raw sewage and in the effluent after various stages of treatment. (Although it tells little about the biological effect of organic matter, COD is routinely used in place of BOD because the analysis for COD can be carried out in about 2 h as compared to 5 days for BOD.) 29.8.3 Ease of treatment The final method of disposal, and the proper degree of treatment to allow this without environmental nuisance, is discussed in the next section. It is important, at an early stage, to be able to estimate the ease, or otherwise, with which the pollution can be removed. Generally, much of the suspended solids in domestic sewage can be readily removed by gravity (sedimentation); in this process some 60% of the SS may be removed, with a consequent reduction in the BOD of about 30%. In normal sewage treatment the majority of the organic matter is removed from the aqueous stream by biological means during the secondary stage (see section 29.12). It is essential, therefore, to be able to assess the ease with which the organic matter can be oxidized, and to estimate the possible interference of toxic and other substances with the biological oxidation. Actual tests of the 'treatability' of an effluent may be made by bench- or pilot-scale tests, the latter being the more reliable. Often, however, such tests are not possible, and judgement must be based on experience. A crude estimate of 'treatability' in relation to a strictly domestic sewage may be obtained from the CODtBOD ratio. For raw domestic sewage this ratio is usually about 2; the organic matter in a wastewater will be more easily degraded biologically if this ratio is less than 2, and less easily broken down the more the ratio exceeds 2. The most easily degraded substances are broken down first and, in consequence, the COD: BOD ratio of the aqueous stream increases as it passes through biological treatment. 29.8.4 Possible effects of industrial effluents Many industries concerned with the manufacture and processing of food and drink use great quantities of water, and produce correspondingly large quantities of effluent. The pollution carried by such an effluent is of much the same nature as domestic sewage (mainly organic matter), and can also be treated by biological processes, some being more suitable than others. It is frequently very much 'stronger' than sewage, and due allowance must be made in design and operation. Other industries discharge a very wide range of substances into their effluents, and many of these can interfere with treatment processes. In such cases it is essential to pretreat the industrial effluent to remove or neutralize the interfering substance. The treatment of industrial effluents is far too extensive a topic to treat in an introductory chapter, and reference should be made to recent books.19 Discharge of dangerous or inhibitory wastes is controlled by local ordinance, and local regulatory authorities have wide powers in respect of consent to discharge, inspection, with-

drawal of consent, or the penalizing of offenders. Discharge to sewers of petrol or cyanides, for example, is forbidden for safety reasons. Discharge of inhibitory matter, such as certain metallic ions or phenol, has to be very closely controlled if treatment processes are not to be upset, and watercourses put at risk by contamination. Trade-waste control is thus an extremely important factor in the day-to-day operation of sewers and sewage treatment works.

29.9 Effluent disposal

29.9.1 Introduction A wastewater can be finally 'disposed of only into water, on to land and into the ground. The last of these is available in practice only for small quantities of hazardous materials that cannot be safely dealt with in any other way, e.g. into workedout salt mines. Until the early years of this century, discharge on to land (sewage farming) was the only method in Britain acceptable to the Local Government Board. Generally, now, however, sewage farming is of no more than historic interest, although the irrigation of growing crops with fully treated sewage is of great interest in parts of the world where water is short. This chapter is therefore largely concerned with the disposal of sewage into surface waters, and this section briefly considers the degree of treatment necessary to avoid danger, damage or nuisance resulting from such disposal. 29.9.2 Effects of water pollution Wastewaters may contain substances which are poisonous to man and to plant and animal life in the water; sewage ought not to hold such substances, and it is essential to ensure that toxic matters are not allowed to enter municipal sewers from industry. More important for municipal sewage are its power to use up the small amount of oxygen dissolved in the water, as the organic matter and nitrogen are oxidized by aqueous microorganisms, and the possible aesthetic effect of floating and suspended substances. Nitrogen is of significance in a number of ways. Organic and ammoniacal nitrogen are oxidized in the receiving water, and so also use up dissolved oxygen. The fully oxidized form (nitrate) in sufficiently high concentrations may cause methaemoglobinaemia in very young infants. Above all, nitrogen is a plant fertilizer, and its presence in water, especially in standing bodies of water, may promote undesirable weed growth. Sewage will, of course, also contain faecal microorganisms, and some of these may be pathogenic. In urban, industrialized communities the main protection against waterborne diseases is water treatment, with its accompanying disinfection. Nevertheless, as will be seen from Table 29.8, full normal sewage treatment reduces sewage bacteria very substantially. It is usual to treat sewage to remove, partly or fully, suspended solids, oxygen demand (measured as BOD or COD - see section 29.8) and nitrogen, to prevent the kinds of polluting effects mentioned in previous paragraphs. 29.9.3 Degree of treatment necessary The effects of pollution outlined in the previous section are closely related to the dilution available for the effluent discharged. The lower the dilution the greater will be the damage caused. For this reason it is usual to prescribe the quality of

Table 29.8 Removal efficiencies of sewage treatment

Percentage removal of SS BOD Bacteria Primary sedimentation Chemical precipitation Sedimentation + trickling filters +final sed. Sedimentation + activated sludge +final sed. Chlorination following full biological treatment 40-70 70-90 70-92 85-95 25-40 50-85 80-95 80-95 25-75 40-80 90-95 90-98 98-99

Table 29.10 Treatment of organic wastewaters

BOD (mg/l) < 500 500 + Method Single filtration or activated sludge Filtration with recirculation or alternating double filtration Extended aeration High-rate filtration (with recirculation) followed by percolating filters or ADF or activated sludge BOD loading 0.1 kg/m3-day 0.2 kg/kg MLSS-day 0.15 kg/m3-day 0.2 kg/m3-day

1000 1000-1500

0.05-0.15 kg/kg MLSS-day Up to 5 kg/m3-day 0.1 kg/m3-day 0.2 kg/m3-day 0.2 kg/kg MLSS-day

effluent required for discharge to various types of receiving water; some suggested values are shown in Table 29.9. The various methods of treatment that may be given to municipal sewage are indicated diagrammatically in Figure 29.5. The degree of removal that may be achieved by various combinations of treatment process is shown in Table 29.10. It may be seen, by considering Tables 29.9 and 29.10 in conjunction, that full primary, biological and final treatment will be necessary for discharge to inland rivers; nitrification followed by denitrification may be required, in addition, for low dilutions. Equally effective treatment is likely also to be necessary for discharge to lakes, together with, in some cases, removal of the other important plant nutrient, phosphorus. Preliminary treatment alone is likely to be sufficient for ocean discharge, although it may sometimes be desirable also to provide primary settlement. During full treatment not more than about one-third of the incoming pollution is converted to relatively harmless substances; the rest remains on the treatment works as solids for disposal (sludge). This is a major problem and expense in sewage treatment, and is discussed in sections 29.15 and 29.16.

1500+

Anaerobic treatment l-5kg/m3-day followed by one or two (depending on stages of aerobic degree of treatment removal) Oxidation ponds (multistage) anaerobic first stage 7000 kg/ha-day aerobic final stage 250 kg/ha-day

Any

damage to the plant, and to increase the reliability and efficiency of the treatment process. Those objectives are achieved by removal of large solids by screening, removal of grit, removal of oil and grease, balancing of flow and/or load, pH control, and nutrient addition. 29.10.2 Screening The quantity and nature of screenings vary, often substantially, between one plant and another. Relevant factors are social conditions and habits, industrial contributions, the type of sewerage system and the design of the screening plant. The following guidelines may be used to estimate quantities where there is no previous experience of local conditions. The volume of screenings depends more on the character of the sewage than on the bar spacing; average volumes for domestic sewage are in the range 1 to 3 m3 per day per 100 000 population. Where there is an industrial effluent, the nature of the industry may suggest the additional screening load. The peak hourly rate of screenings removed is likely to be 4 to 6 times the average, and with combined sewers the peak rate during a storm following a dry period may be 10 to 20 times the average. There are two basic approaches to handling large solids: (1) To comminute in the flow or to remove, disintegrate and return to flow. (2) To remove from the flow and dispose of elsewhere. Comminutors are clean, innoffensive and relatively trouble-free machines, which are normally left unattended. However, rags tend to be shredded rather than cut up and may 'ball up' in later treatment stages, and scum volumes are increased by comminution. Similar problems are encountered with disintegrators. The alternative of permanent removal and separate disposal of screenings is preferable in relation to the operation of the

29.10 Preliminary treatment

29.10.1 Introduction The principal objective of preliminary treatment is to protect subsequent treatment processes, by preventing blockage and

Table 29.9 Typical concentrations of pollution for discharge to various receiving waters (all values in mg/l, except pH)
Parameter Inland River dilution Estuary dilution more than 81 less than 8l
10 15 20 30 150 200

Open sea2

BOD SS Ammoniacal nitrogen pH

-3 2504

10 5-9

5-9

5-9

Notes: (1) With clean water. (2) The ocean outfall must be carried sufficiently far out to sea to ensure that pollution is not brought back to the bathing beaches, etc. The end of the outfall must be provided with a properly designed diffuser and be located in a sufficient depth of water to ensure thorough mixing and dilution before the effluent reaches the surface. (3) Not usual to specify a BOD limit. (4) A SS standard is not always specified, but it is always desirable that floating matter should be reduced to a practicable minimum.