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6, Page 64
Exercise 1: Prove that
_
0
sin(x
2
)dx =
_
0
cos(x
2
)dx =
2
4
.
These are the Fresnel integrals. Here,
_
0
is interpreted as lim
R
_
R
0
.
Solution. Let f(z) = e
iz
2
. We integrate f(z) around a circular sector of
radius R running from = 0 to
4
. Along the x axis the integral is
_
R
0
e
ix
2
dx.
Along the curved part we have z = Re
i
and the integral is
_
/4
0
e
iR
2
e
2i
iRe
i
d = iR
_
/4
0
e
R
2
sin(2)
e
i(+iR
2
cos(2))
d.
Finally, along the segment at angle
4
we have z = re
i/4
and the integral
is
_
0
R
e
r
2
e
i/4
dr. The total integral is zero since f is analytic everywhere.
As R , the integral over the third piece approaches
e
i/4
_
0
e
x
2
dx = e
i/4
2
=
2
4
2
4
i.
To estimate the integral over the curved piece, we used the fact that
sin(2)
4
for 0
4
; this follows from the concavity of sin(2).
Using this,
iR
_
/4
0
e
R
2
sin(2)
e
i(+iR
2
cos(2))
d
R
_
/4
0
e
R
2
sin(2)
e
i(+iR
2
cos(2))
d
= R
_
/4
0
e
R
2
sin(2)
d
R
_
/4
0
e
4R
2
/
d
=
4R
e
4R
2
/
/4
0
=
(1 e
R
2
)
4R
.
As R , this approaches zero and we are left with
_
0
e
ix
2
dx
2
4
2
4
i = 0.
Taking real and imaginary parts, we have
_
0
cos(x
2
)dx =
_
0
sin(x
2
)dx =
2
4
.
0
sin x
x
dx =
2
.
1
2
Solution. We integrate f(z) =
e
iz
z
around an indented semicircular contour
bounded by circles of radius and R in the upper half plane. The integrals
along the two portions of the real axis add up to
_
R
cos(x) +i sin(x)
x
dx +
_
R
cos(x) +i sin(x)
x
dx = 2i
_
R
sin(x)
x
dx
because cosine is even and sine is odd. The integral around the arc of radius
R tends to zero as R , by the Jordan lemma; since this lemma isnt
mentioned in the book, heres a proof for this specic case: On this arc,
z = Re
i
so the integral is
_
0
e
iRe
i
Re
i
iRe
i
d = i
_
0
e
Rsin()
e
iRcos()
d.
The absolute value of this integral is at most
_
0
e
Rsin()
d = 2
_
/2
0
e
Rsin()
d
by symmetry. Now sin()
2
for 0
2
by the concavity of the sine
function, so this is at most
2
_
/2
0
e
2R/pi
d =
e
2R/pi
R
/2
0
=
(1 e
R
)
R
which tends to 0 as R .
Finally, the integral over the inner semicircle tends to i; this is an
immediate consequence of the fractional residue theorem, but since that
doesnt seem to be mentioned in this book either (gosh!), we can also see
it from the fact that
e
iz
z
=
1
z
+ O(1) as z 0, and since the length of the
semicircle is tending to zero, the integral over it approaches the integral of
1
z
over it, which is
_
0
1
e
i
ie
i
d =
_
0
1d = i.
Putting the pieces together and letting R and 0, we have
2i
_
0
sin(x)
x
dx i = 0
_
0
sin(x)
x
dx =
2
.
A
2
+B
2
, over an appropriate sector with angle
, with cos =
a
A
.
Solution. As indicated, we integrate f(z) = e
Az
around a circular sector
of radius R with 0 , where = cos
1
(
a
A
) is strictly between 0 and
3
2
. (Here we assume b ,= 0 since otherwise the integrals are trivially equal
to
1
a
and 0 respectively). The integral along the x axis is
_
R
0
e
Ax
dx
_
0
e
Ax
dx =
1
A
as R . To estimate the integral over the curved part we use the fact
that cos() 1
2
for 0
2
, which follows from the concavity of the
cosine in the rst quadrant. Then we have
_
0
e
ARe
i
Re
i
d
_
0
e
ARe
i
Re
i
d
= R
_
0
e
ARcos()
d
R
_
0
e
AR
e
2AR/
d
= Re
AR
2AR
e
2AR/
0
=
2A
_
e
AR(1
2
)
e
AR
_
.
Since 1
2
e
ax
e
ibx
dx +
1
A
= 0
_
0
e
ax
e
ibx
dx =
1
a +ib
=
a ib
a
2
+b
2
.
Comparing the real and imaginary parts, we have
_
0
e
ax
cos(bx)dx =
a
a
2
+b
2
and
_
0
e
ax
sin(bx)dx =
b
a
2
+b
2
.
2
=
_
e
x
2
e
2ix
dx.
4
Solution. Let = a +bi with a, b R. Then
_
e
x
2
e
2ix
dx
_
e
x
2
e
2ix(a+bi)
dx
=
_
e
(x
2
2bx)
e
2iax
dx
= e
b
2
_
e
(xb)
2
e
2iax
dx
= e
b
2
e
2iab
_
e
(xb)
2
e
2ia(xb)
dx
= e
b
2
e
2iab
_
e
u
2
e
2iau
du
= e
b
2
e
2iab
e
a
2
= e
(a+bi)
2
= e
2
.
is continuous.
Solution. Write f(z) as f(x, y) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) where u, v are real-valued
and z = x +iy. Then dz = x +idy so
_
T
f(z)dz =
_
T
(u(x, y) +iv(x, y))(dx +idy)
=
_
T
udx v dy +i
_
T
v dx +udy
=
__ _
v
x
+
u
y
_
dxdy +i
__ _
u
x
v
y
_
dxdy
= 0
by the Cauchy-Riemann equations. (The double integrals are, of course,
taken over the interior of T.)
Exercise 6: Let be an open subset of C and let T be a triangle whose
interior is also contained in . Suppose that f is a function holomorphic
in except possibly at a point w inside T. Prove that if f is bounded near
w, then
_
T
f(z)dz = 0.
5
Solution. Let
,
_
R
f(z)dz =
_
T
f(z)dz
_
f(z)dz = 0.
Thus,
_
T
f(z)dz =
_
goes to 0 as 0, so
_
(0)[ d.
Moreover, it can be shown that equality holds precisely when f is linear,
f(z) = a
0
+a
1
z.
Solution. By the Cauchy derivative formula,
f
(0) =
1
2i
_
Cr
f()
2
d
where C
r
is the circle of radius r centered at 0, 0 < r < 1. Substituting
for and adding the two equations yields
2f
(0) =
1
2i
_
Cr
f() f()
2
d.
Then
[2f
(0)[
1
2
_
[f() f()[
r
2
d
M
r
r
d
r
,
where
M
r
= sup
||=r
[f() f()[.
Letting r 1 yields the desired result.
Exercise 8: If f is a holomorphic function on the strip 1 < y < 1, x R
with
[f(z)[ A(1 +[z[)
, for all x R.
Solution. For any x, consider a circle C centered at x of radius
1
2
. Applying
the Cauchy estimates to this circle,
[f
(n)
(x)[
n!|f|
C
(1/2)
n
where |f|
C
= sup
zC
[f(z)[. Now for z C, 1 + [z[ 1 + [x[ + [z x[ =
3
2
+[x[ < 2(1 +[x[), so
[f(z)[ A(1 +[z[)
A2
(1 +[x[)
.
6
Hence, |f|
C
A2
(1 +[x[)
, so
[f
(n)
(x)[ n!2
n
A2
(1 +[x[)
= A
n
(1 +[x[)
with A
n
= n!2
n
A2
.
Exercise 9: Let be a bounded open subset of C, and : a holo-
morphic function. Prove that if there exists a point z
0
such that
(z
0
) = z
0
and
(z
0
) = 1
then is linear.
Solution. Let f(z) = (z +z
0
) z
0
for z z
0
. Then f(z) z
0
and
f is linear i is. Hence, we may assume WLOG that z
0
= 0. Expanding
in a power series around 0, we have (z) = z + a
2
z
2
+ . . . . Suppose a
n
is
the rst nonzero coecient with n > 1. Then (z) = z +a
n
z
n
+O(z
n+1
).
By induction this implies that
k
(z) = (z) = z +ka
n
z
n
+O(z
n+1
);
the base case k = 1 has been established, and if it is true for k it follows
that
k+1
(z) = (z+ka
n
z
n
+O(z
n+1
))+a
n
_
z +ka
n
z
n
+O(z
n+1
)
_
n
+O
_
_
z +ka
n
z
n
+O(z
n+1
)
_
n+1
_
= z+(k+1)a
n
z
n
+O(z
n+1
).
Now let r > 0 such that z for [z[ r. By the Cauchy estimates,
k
_
(n)
(0)
n!|
k
|
r
r
n
where |
k
|
r
= sup
|z|=r
[
k
(z)[. But
k
(z) which is bounded, so
|
k
|
r
M for some constant M independent of n and k. Now (
k
)
(n)
=
kn!a
n
, so we have
kn!a
n
Mn!
r
n
a
n
M
kr
n
for all k. Letting k , we have a
n
= 0. Thus, there can be no nonzero
terms of order n > 1 in the power series expansion of , so is linear.
Exercise 11: Let f be a holomorphic function on the disc D
R0
centered at
the origin and of radius R
0
.
(a) Prove that whenever 0 < R < R
0
and [z[ < R, then
f(z) =
1
2
_
2
0
f(Re
i
)Re
_
Re
i
+z
Re
i
z
_
d.
(b) Show that
Re
_
Re
i
+r
Re
i
r
_
=
R
2
r
2
R
2
2Rr cos +r
2
.
(Hint.)
Solution.
7
(a) Starting with the RHS,
1
2
_
2
0
f(Re
i
)Re
_
Re
i
+z
Re
i
z
_
d =
1
4
_
2
0
f(Re
i
)
_
Re
i
+z
Re
i
z
+
Re
i
+ z
Re
i
z
_
d
=
1
4
_
2
0
f(Re
i
)
_
2
Re
i
Re
i
z
1 + 1
2 z
z Re
i
_
d
=
1
2i
_
2
0
f(Re
i
)
iRe
i
d
Re
i
z
+
1
2
_
2
0
f(Re
i
)
z
z Re
i
d
=
1
2i
_
2
0
f(Re
i
)
iRe
i
d
Re
i
z
+
1
2
_
2i
0
f(Re
i
)
iRe
i
Re
i
R
2
/ z
d.
The rst integral is equal to f(z) by the Cauchy integral formula, and
the latter is equal to zero since
f()
R
2
/w
is analytic on and inside the
circle of radius R.
(b) By straightforward calculations,
Re
i
+r
Re
i
r
=
Rcos() +r +iRsin()
Rcos() r +iRsin()
=
(Rcos() +r +iRsin())(Rcos() r iRsin())
(Rcos() r)
2
+R
2
sin
2
()
=
R
2
cos
2
() r
2
+R
2
sin
2
() +i(stu)
R
2
2Rr cos() +r
2
=
R
2
r
2
R
2
2Rr cos() +r
2
+ (imaginary stu).
z
=
1
4
_
2
x
2
+
2
y
2
_
so if we let g = 2
u
z
, then
g
z
= 2
z
z
u = 0. Hence g is holomorphic.
By Theorem 2.1, F with F
= g. Then
Re(F)
z
=
1
2
F
z
=
1
2
g =
u
z
by
Proposition 2.3 on page 12, so Re(F) diers from u by a constant u
0
.
Then if f(z) = F(z) u
0
, f is holomorphic and Re(f) = u.
(b) By Exercise 11,
u(z) +iv(z) =
1
2
_
2
0
_
u(e
i
) +iv(e
i
)
_
Re
_
e
i
+z
e
i
z
_
d
so
u(re
i
) =
1
2
_
2
0
u(e
i
)Re
_
e
i
+re
i
e
i
re
i
_
d
=
1
2
_
2
0
u(e
i
)Re
_
e
i()
+r
e
i()
r
_
d
=
1
2
_
2
0
u(e
i
)
1 r
2
1 2r cos( ) +r
2
=
1
2
_
2
0
P
r
( )u(e
i
)d.
n=0
c
n
(z z
0
)
n
is equal to 0. Prove that f is a polynomial.
Solution. First, we prove the following lemma:
Lemma 1. Let S C be a subset of the plane with no accumulation points.
Then S is at most countable.
9
Proof. For each x S, since x is not an accumulation point of S, r
x
> 0
such that B
rx
S = x. Then B
rx/2
(x) : x S is a disjoint family
of open sets; since each contains a distinct rational point, it is at most
countable. But this set is bijective with S, so S is at most countable.
Now suppose that f is not a polynomial. Then none of its derivatives can
be identically zero, because if f
(n)
were identically zero, then f
(k)
would be
zero for k n and f would be a polynomial of degree n 1. Since the
derivatives of f are entire functions that are not everywhere zero, the set of
zeros of f
(n)
has no accumulation points, so it is at most countable by the
lemma. The set of zeros of any derivative of f must then be countable since
it is a countable union of countable sets. But by hypothesis, every point
z C is a zero of some derivative of f, since if f(z) =
c
n
(z z
0
)
n
and
c
k
= 0, then
d
k
dz
k
f(z)
z0
= 0. Since C is uncountable, this is a contradiction,
so f must be a polynomial.
Exercise 14: Suppose that f is holomorphic in an open set containing the
closed unit disc, except for a pole at z
0
on the unit circle. Show that if
n=0
a
n
z
n
denotes the power series expansion of f in the open unit disc, then
lim
n
a
n
a
n+1
= z
0
.
Solution. By replacing z with z/z
0
, we may assume WLOG that z
0
= 1.
Now let be an open set containing
D such that f is holomorphic on
except for a pole at 1. Then
g(z) = f(z)
N
j=1
a
j
(z 1)
j
is holomorphic on for some N and a
1
, . . . , a
N
, where N is the order
of the pole at 1. Next, we note that must contain some disk of radius
1 + with > 0: the set z : [z[ 2 is compact, so its image under
the map z [z[ is also compact and hence attains a lower bound, which
must be strictly greater than 1 since the unit circle is contained in . Now
since g converges on the disk [z[ < 1+, we can expand it in a power series
n=0
b
n
z
n
on this disk, and we must have b
n
0. (This follows from the
fact that limsup
bn+1
bn
< 1 when the radius of convergence is greater than
1.) Now for [z[ < 1, we have
n=0
a
n
z
n
=
N
j=1
a
j
(z 1)
j
+
n=0
b
n
z
n
.
Using the fact that
1
(z 1)
j
=
(1)
j
(j 1)!
d
j1
dz
j1
1
z 1
=
(1)
j
(j 1)!
s=0
(s +j 1)!
s!
z
s
for [z[ < 1,
10
we can write
n=0
a
n
z
n
=
s=0
_
_
N
j=1
(1)
j
a
j
(j 1)!
(s +j 1)!
s!
_
_
z
s
+
n=0
b
n
z
n
a
n
= P(n) +b
n
where P(n) is a polynomial in n of degree at most N1. Here the rearrange-
ments of the series are justied by the fact that all these series converge
uniformly on compact subsets of D. Since b
n
0,
an
an+1
lim
P(n)
P(n+1)
= 1.
(Every polynomial P has the property that
P(n)
P(n+1)
1 since if the leading
coecient is c
k
n
k
,
P(n)
P(n+1)
cn
k
c(n+1)
k
= (1
1
n+1
)
k
1.)
Exercise 15: Suppose f is a non-vanishing continuous function on
D that is
holomorphic in D. Prove that if
[f(z)[ = 1 whenever [z[ = 1,
then f is constant.
Solution. Dene
F(z) =
_
_
_
f(z) [z[ 1
1
f(
1
z
)
else.
Then F is obviously continuous for [z[ < 1 and [z[ > 1; for [z[ = 1 we
clearly have continuity from the inside, and if w z with [w[ > 1, then
1
w
1
z
= z and F(w) =
1
f(
1
w
)
1
f(z)
= f(z) = F(z). Hence F is
continuous everywhere. It is known to be holomorphic for [z[ < 1. For
[z[ > 1 we can compute
f
z
= 0; alternatively, if is any contour lying in
the region [z[ > 1, let
is a contour lying in the region [w[ < 1 and excluding the origin from its
interior (since the point at innity does not lie within ), so
_
F(z)dz =
_
1
f( w)
dw
w
2
= 0
since
1
w
2
f( w)
is analytic on and inside
z=n
sin(z) = i(e
in
+e
in
) = 2ie
in
,= 0
so the zero is of order 1. Finally, the residue at n of
1
sin(z)
is
lim
zn
(z n)
1
sin(z)
=
1
cos(n)
=
(1)
n
by LHopitals Rule.
Exercise 2: Evaluate the integral
_
dx
1 +x
4
.
Where are the poles of
1
1+z
4
?
12
Solution. Since 1 + z
4
= (z )(z
3
)(z
5
)(z
7
) where =
1+i
2
is a primitive 8th root of unity, the poles of
1
1+z
4
are at ,
3
,
5
, and
7
, of which and
3
are in the upper half plane. The residues may be
calculated in various ways; the easiest is to note that if
1
f
has a simple
pole at z
0
, the residue is
1
f
(z0)
. This follows from the observation that
if f(z) = (z z
0
)h(z), then f
(z
0
) = h(z
0
). In this case, the residues of
interest are
Res(f; ) =
1
4
3
=
5
4
and
Res(f;
3
) =
1
4
=
7
4
which add up to
5
+
7
4
=
2
4
i.
Now if we integrate f(z) =
1
1+z
4
along a semicircular contour C
R
of radius
R, the Residue Theorem guarantees that
_
C
R
f(z)dz = 2i
_
2
4
i
_
=
2
.
Since [1 +z
4
[ [z[
4
1, the integral over the curved part is at most
R
R
4
1
,
which tends to zero as R . Hence
_
dx
1 +x
4
=
2
.
cos x
x
2
+a
2
dx =
e
a
a
, for a > 0.
Solution. Let f(z) =
e
iz
z
2
+a
2
. We integrate f around a semicircular contour
of radius R in the upper half plane. Along the curved part of the semicircle,
we note that [e
iz
[ 1 for z in the UHP, so [f(z)[
1
|z
2
+a
2
|
1
R
2
a
2
. Hence
the integral over the curved part is at most
R
R
2
a
2
0 as R . Hence
_
f(z)dz = 2i
zUHP
Res(f; z).
The residues of f are z = ai, so the only pole in the UHP is at ai with
residue
lim
zai
(z ai)
e
iz
(z ai)(z +ai)
=
e
a
2ai
.
Hence
_
f(z)dz =
e
a
a
. Taking the real parts of both sides,
_
cos x
x
2
+a
2
dx =
e
a
a
.
13
Exercise 4: Show that
_
xsinx
x
2
+a
2
dx = e
a
, for all a > 0.
Solution. Im getting rather fed up with the fact that this book doesnt even
mention the Jordan lemma, so here it is, taken from page 216 of Gamelin
(in Gamelins lingo this is actually a corollary to Jordans lemma):
Lemma 2 (Jordans Lemma). If
R
is the semicircular contour z() =
Re
i
, 0 , in the upper half-plane, and P(z) and Q(z) are polynomials
with deg Q(z) deg P(z) + 1, then
lim
R
_
R
P(z)e
iz
Q(z)
dz = 0.
Proof. By concavity, sin
2
for 0
2
. Hence
[e
iRe
i
[ = e
Rsin
e
2/
for 0
2
, and
_
0
e
Rsin
d = 2
_
/2
0
e
Rsin
d 2
_
/2
0
e
2R/
d =
R
(1 e
R
) <
R
.
Since [dz[ = R, this implies
_
R
[e
iz
[[dz[ < . Since
|P(z)|
|Q(z)|
= O(
1
R
),
_
R
P(z)e
iz
Q(z)
O(
1
R
)
R
e
iz
dz
O(
1
R
) 0.
f(z)dz = 2i
zUHP
Res(f; z).
The poles of f are at z = ai; the residue at ai is
lim
zai
(z ai)
e
iz
(z ai)(z +ai)
= aie
a
2ai =
e
a
2
.
Hence
_
f(z)dz = ie
a
; taking imaginary parts,
_
xsinx
x
2
+a
2
dx = e
a
.
e
2ix
(1 +x
2
)
2
dx =
2
(1 + 2[[)e
2||
for all real.
14
Solution. First, we note that if > 0, substituting u = x reveals that
_
e
2ix
(1 +x
2
)
2
dx =
_
e
2i(u)
(1 +u
2
)
2
(du) =
_
e
2iu()
(1 +u
2
)
2
du
so that we may assume WLOG that 0. We integrate f(z) =
e
2iz
(1+z
2
)
2
along a semicircular contour of radius R. Since [e
2iz
[ 1 for z UHP
and 0, the integral over the curved part is at most
2R
(R
2
1)
2
0. Hence
_
f(z)dz = 2i
zUHP
Res(f; z).
The only pole in the UHP is at z = i; because this is a double pole, the
residue is
lim
zi
d
dz
(z i)
2
f(z) = lim
zi
(2i(z +i) 2)e
2iz
(z +i)
3
=
(2 4)e
2
8i
.
Hence
_
e
2ix
(1 +x
2
)
2
dx = 2i
(2 4)e
2
8i
=
2
(1 + 2[[) e
2||
.
dx
(1 +x
2
)
n
+ 1
=
1 3 5 (2n 1)
2 4 6 (2n)
.
Solution. Let f(z) =
1
(z
2
+1)
n+1
. Then the pole of z in the UHP is at z = i;
because this is an (n + 1)-fold pole, its residue is
1
n!
lim
zi
d
n
dz
n
1
(z +i)
n+1
=
1
n!
lim
zi
(n 1)(n 2) . . . (2n)
1
(z +i)
2n+1
=
1
n!
lim
zi
(1)
n
(2n)!
n!
1
z +i
2n+1
=
(1)
n
(2n)!
(n!)
2
1
(2i)
2n+1
=
(2n)!
(2
n
n!)
2
1
2i
=
1 3 5 (2n 1)
2 4 6 (2n)
1
2i
.
Integrating f around a semicircular contour of radius R, the integral over
the curved part is bounded by
R
(R
2
1)
n+1
0, so
_
f(z)dz = 2iRes(f; i) =
1 3 5 (2n 1)
2 4 6 (2n)
.
a
2
1
d
dz
4z
i(z +a +
a
2
1)
2
= 2i lim
za+
a
2
1
4(a +
a
2
1 z)
i(z +a +
a
2
1)
3
= 2i
8a
i(2
a
2
1)
3
= 2a(a
2
1)
3/2
.
a
2
b
2
if a > [b[ and a, b R.
Solution. Again, we convert into a contour integral around the unit circle
by substituting z = e
i
:
_
2
0
d
a +b cos
=
_
C
dz/iz
a +b
_
z+1/z
2
_
2
=
_
C
2dz
i(bz
2
+ 2az +b)
= 4Res
_
1
bz
2
+ 2az +b
;
a +
a
2
b
2
b
_
= 2
1
2bz + 2a
z=
a+
a
2
b
2
b
= 2
1
2
a
2
b
2
=
a
2
b
2
.
2
Arg(sin(z)) <
2
. Then
Arg(2i) +Arg(e
iz
) +Arg(sin(z)))
Arg(f(z)) = Arg(2i) +Arg(e
iz
) +Log(sin(z))
Log(f(z)) = Log(2i) +Log(e
iz
) +Log(sin(z))
= log 2
2
i +iz +Log(sin(z))
where Log is the principal branch of the logarithm function, corresponding
to the principal branch Arg of the argument function.
Returning to our contour integral, we note that the two vertical pieces
cancel out by the periodicity of the sine function. Moreover, the integral
over the upper half of the rectangle approaches zero as Y since for
z = t + iY with 0 t 1, e
2iz
0 f(z) 1 log f(z) 0 as Y
. Whats more, the integrals over the quarter-circle indentations also
approach zero: Since f(z) z for z near 0, log f(z) log z so the integral
over the quarter-circle near zero is O([ log )[) 0. Similar analysis holds
near . Since Logf(z) is analytic on and inside our contour, we are left
with
_
1
0
Logf(z)dz = 0.
By our above comments concerning the branches of the logarithm, this
implies
0 =
_
1
0
_
log 2
2
i +iz +Log(sin(z))
_
dz = log 2 +
_
1
0
log sin(x)dx.
Hence
_
1
0
log sin(x)dx = log 2.
2
arg(z) <
3
2
. We integrate f(z) =
log z
z
2
+a
2
around an indented semicircle of radius R and indentation radius . The
integral around the outer curved part is O(
Rlog R
R
2
) 0 and the integral
17
around the indentation is O([ log [) 0. The integral along the axis is
_
R
log x
x
2
+a
2
dx +
_
R
log x
x
2
+a
2
dx
=
_
R
_
log x
x
2
+a
2
+
log(x)
x
2
+a
2
_
dx
= 2
_
R
log x
x
2
+a
2
dx +i
_
R
1
x
2
+a
2
dx
Letting R and 0 and using the fact that
_
0
dx
x
2
+a
2
=
1
a
arctan(x/a)[
0
=
2a
,
_
0
log x
x
2
+a
2
=
1
2
_
2i
zUHP
Res(f; z)
i
2
2a
_
.
The only pole in the UHP is at z = ai with residue
lim
zai
log z
z +ai
=
log(ai)
2ai
=
4a
+
log a
2ai
.
Hence
_
0
log x
x
2
+a
2
dx =
1
2
_
2i
_
4a
+
log a
2ai
_
i
2
2a
_
=
log a
2a
.
n=
1
(u +n)
2
=
2
(sinu)
2
by integrating
f(z) =
cot z
(u +z)
2
over the circle [z[ = R
N
= N + 1/2 (N [u[), adding the residues of f
inside the circle, and letting N tend to innity.
Solution. Just to be contrary, Ill use a square rather than a circle. (Actu-
ally, the reason is that my solution is ripped o from Schaums Outline of
Complex Variables, page 188.) Specically, let S
N
be the boundary of the
square lying inside the lines [x[ = N +
1
2
and [y[ = N +
1
2
in the complex
plane z = x +iy. When [y[ 1 we have
[ cot (x +iy)[ =
[e
ixy
+e
ix+y
[
[e
ixy
e
ix+y
[
[e
ixy
[ +[e
ix+y
[
[[e
ixy
[ [e
ix+y
[[
=
1 +e
2y
1 e
2|y|
1 +e
2
1 e
2
= C
1
.
Moreover, when [y[ 1 then x = (N +
1
2
) and
[ cot((x +iy))[ = [ cot
_
N +
1
2
+iy
_
[ = [ tanh(y)[ tanh
_
2
_
= C
2
.
Hence, [ cot z[ C on all such squares, where C = max(C
1
, C
2
) is a
universal constant. Since [
1
(z+u)
2
[ = O(
1
N
2
), and the length of the contour
is 8N + 4,
lim
N
_
S
N
cot(z)
(z +u)
2
dz = 0
by the ML estimate. The poles of f inside S
N
are at n, . . . , n with
residues
lim
zn
(z n) cos(z)
sin(z)(z +u)
2
=
cos(n)
(n +u)
2
lim
zn
z n
sin(z)
=
1
(n +u)
2
by LHopitals Rule, as well as the pole at u with residue
lim
zu
d
dz
(z +u)
2
cot(z)
(z +u)
2
= lim
zu
2
csc
2
(z) =
2
sin
2
(z)
.
By the Residue Theorem,
_
S
R
f(z)dz =
N
n=N
1
(z +u)
2
2
sin
2
(z)
.
19
As N , the LHS approaches zero and we have
N
n=N
1
(z +u)
2
=
2
sin
2
(z)
.
is continuous.
Solution.
21
(a) Since the closed unit disc is compact and [g[ is continuous, it attains a
maximum M on it. Similarly, [f[ is continuous and nonzero on the unit
circle, so it has a minimum value m. Then for <
m
M
, [f(z)[ > [g(z)[
on the unit circle, so f and f
of radius r. Then [f
[
r
on D N
r
for some
r
> 0, because
D N
r
is compact and [f
[ > 0 on D z
. Then for [
[ <
r
M
,
[f
(z) f
(z)[ = [
[[g(z)[ <
r
so f
(z) ,= 0 for z D N
r
. Hence
z
N
r
provided [
[ <
r
M
.
1
f(z)
1 for z
D by the maximum modulus principle. But then
[f(z)[ 1 for z
D, which contradicts the open mapping theorem.
(Pick any z with [z[ = 1; then f(
D) contains a neighborhood of f(z),
which includes points w with [w[ < 1 since [f(z)[ = 1.)
(b) Let w
0
= f(z
0
) where [z
0
[ < 1 and [w
0
[ < 1. By Rouches theorem
again, f(z) and f(z) w have the same number of zeros for all w with
[w[ < 1. Since there exists a w (namely w
0
) for which f(z) w has a
zero, it has a zero for all w D. So the image of f contains D.
n=
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
22
where the series converges absolutely in the interior of the annulus. To
prove this, it suces to write
f(z) =
1
2i
_
Cr
2
f()
z
d
1
2i
_
Cr
1
f()
z
d
when r
1
< [z z
0
[ < r
2
, and argue as in the proof of Theorem 4.4, Chapter
2. Here C
r1
and C
r2
are the circles bounding the annulus.
Chapter 5.6, Page 153
Exercise 1: Give another proof of Jensens formula in the unit disc using the
functions (called Blaschke factors)
(z) =
z
1 z
.
Solution. We use the same proof as before to establish Jensens formula for
functions with no zeros in the unit disc. Now suppose f is analytic on the
unit disc and has zeros at z
1
, . . . , z
N
, counted with multiplicity. Then the
function
g(z) =
f(z)
1
(z)
N
(z)
is analytic on the unit disc and has no zeros, where we use the notation
k
(z) =
z
k
(z). Hence
log
f(0)
1
(0)
N
(0)
=
1
2
_
2
0
log
f(e
i
)
1
(e
i
)
N
(e
i
)
d
log [f(0)[
N
k=1
log [
k
(0)[ =
1
2
_
2
0
log [f(e
i
)[d
1
2
N
k=1
_
2
0
log [
k
(e
i
)[d.
Since
k
(0) = z
k
and
[
k
(e
i
)[ =
z
k
e
i
e
i
(z
k
e
i
)
= 1,
this becomes
log [f(0)[ =
N
k=1
log [z
k
[ +
1
2
_
2
0
log [f(e
i
)[
as desired.
Exercise 3: Show that if is xed with Im() > 0, then the Jacobi theta
function
(z[) =
n=
e
in
2
e
2inz
is of order 2 as a function of z.
23
Solution. Let = s +it with s, t R; by hypothesis, t > 0. Then
[(z[)[
n=
[e
in
2
[[e
2inz
[
n=
e
n
2
t
e
2|n||z|
= 1 + 2
n=1
e
n
2
t
e
2n|z|
= 1 + 2
4|z|/t
n=0
e
n
2
t+2n|z|
+ 2
n=4|z|/t+1
e
n
2
t+2n|z|
.
For n > 4[z[/t, n
2
t + 2n[z[ < n
2
t/2, so the second sum is less than
n=4|z|/t+1
e
n
2
t/2
n=1
e
n
2
t/2
= C
.
In the rst sum, there are at most 4[z[/t terms, each of which is at most
e
24|z|/t|z|
= e
8|z|
2
/t
, so we have
[(z[)[ C
1
+C
2
[z[e
C3|z|
2
for constants C
1
, C
2
, C
3
. This implies [(z[)[ C
e
B|z|
2+
for any > 0,
so has order at most 2.
Exercise 4: Let t > 0 be given and xed, and dene F(z) by
F(z) =
n=1
(1 e
2nt
e
2iz
).
Note that the product denes an entire function of z.
(a) Show that [F(z)[ Ae
a|z|
2
, hence F is of order 2.
(b) F vanishes exactly when z = int + m for n 1 and n, m integers.
Thus, if z
n
is an enumoration of these zeros we have
1
[z
n
[
2
= but
1
[z
n
[
2+
< .
Solution.
(a) Given z, let c >
1
t
and let N = c[z[|. Let
F
1
(z) =
N
n=1
(1 e
2nt
e
2iz
), F
2
(z) =
N
n=N+1
(1 e
2nt
e
2iz
).
24
Since e
2(N+1)t
e
2|z|
1
2
by our choice of N (assuming [z[ suciently
large), and since [ log(1 +y)[ 2[y[ for [y[
1
2
, we have
[ log F
2
(z)[ =
n=N+1
log(1 e
2nt
e
2iz
)
n=N+1
[ log(1 e
2nt
e
2iz
)[
n=N+1
2[e
2nt
e
2iz
[
2
n=N+1
e
2nt
e
2|z|
= 2e
2(N+1)t+2|z|
k=0
e
2kt
k=0
e
2kt
= C
so [F
2
(z)[ is bounded by a constant. Moreover, for any n,
[1 e
2nt
e
2iz
[ 1 +e
2|z|
2e
2|z|
.
Since F
1
is the product of N such terms, we have
[F
1
(z)[ (2e
2|z|
)
N
= 2
N
e
2N|z|
2
c|z|
e
2c|z|
2
e
c
|z|
2
for an appropriate choice of c
. Hence F
1
(and therefore F because
F = F
1
F
2
and F
2
is bounded) is of order at most 2.
(b) By Proposition 3.1 the product F(z) is zero exactly when, for some
integer n 1,
e
2(nt+iz)
= 1 z = int +m
for some integer m. Thus, if z
k
is an enumeration of these zeros,
1
[z
k
[
2+
<
25
by Theorem 2.1. However,
1
[z
k
[
2
=
m=
n=1
1
m
2
+t
2
n
2
=
2
6t
2
+ 2
m,n=1
1
m
2
+n
2
t
2
2
m,n=1
1
m
2
+n
2
t
2
2
_
1
_
1
1
x
2
+t
2
y
2
dxdy
=
2
t
2
_
1
_
1
1
x
2
+u
2
dxdu
=
2
t
2
_
2
0
_
1
1
r
2
rdrd
=
4
t
2
_
1
dr
r
= ,
where the rearrangement of the double sum is allowed because all
terms are nonnegative, and the sum-integral relation follows from the
fact that
1
x
2
+y
2
is decreasing in both x and y.
Exercise 8: Prove that for every z the product below converges, and
cos(z/2) cos(z/4) cos(z/8) =
k=1
cos(z/2
k
) =
sinz
z
.
Solution. First, to show that the product converges, we note that [1
cos(t)[ t
2
for suciently small [t[; this follows from the Taylor series
expansion for cosine. Thus, for large enough k we have [1 cos(z/2
k
)[
(z/2
k
)
2
= z
2
/4
k
, and since
1/4
k
converges, Proposition 3.1 guarantees
that
cos(z/2
k
) converges as well. Now let F(z) =
k=1
cos(z/2
k
). Using
the trigonometric identity sinz = 2 cos(z/2) sin(z/2) repeatedly, we have
sinz = 2 cos(z/2) sin(z/2)
= 4 cos(z/2) cos(z/4) sin(z/4)
= . . .
= 2
N
sin(z/2
N
)
N
k=1
cos(z/2
N
)
for each N = 1, 2, . . . . If we take the limit as N , the product ap-
proaches F(z), and since sin(t) t for small [t[, we end up with
sinz = zF(z) F(z) =
sinz
z
.
26
Exercise 9: Prove that if [z[ < 1, then
(1 +z)(1 +z
2
)(1 +z
4
) =
k=0
(1 +z
2
k
) =
1
1 z
.
Solution. We rst note that the product is convergent; indeed, it converges
uniformly on the compact subdisk [z[ R < 1 by Proposition 3.2 since
[z[
2
k
R
2
k
<
R
k
=
1
1 R
< .
We next prove by induction that
(1)
N
k=0
(1 +z
2
k
) =
2
N+1
1
j=0
z
j
.
The base case N = 0 is obvious. The inductive step is
N+1
k=0
(1 +z
2
k
) = (1 +z
2
N+1
)
N
k=0
(1 +z
2
k
)
= (1 +z
2
N+1
)
2
N+1
1
j=0
z
j
=
2
N+1
1
j=0
z
j
+z
2
N+1
2
N+1
1
j=0
z
j
=
2
N+1
1
j=0
z
j
+
2
N+2
1
j=2
N+1
z
j
=
2
N+2
1
j=0
z
j
.
Since a subsequence of a convergent sequence converges to the same limit,
lim
N
2
N+2
1
j=0
z
j
= lim
M
M
j=0
z
j
=
1
1 z
.
Thus, taking the limit of both sides of (1),
k=0
(1 +z
2
k
) = lim
N
N
k=0
(1 +z
2
k
) = lim
N
2
N+1
1
j=0
z
j
=
1
1 z
.
Exercise 11: Show that if f is an entire function of nite order that omits
two values, then f is constant. This result remains true for any entire
function and is known as Picards little theorem.
Solution. Suppose f is never equal to a. Then f(z)a is an entire function
which is nowhere zero; by Theorem 6.2 of Chapter 3, this implies f(z)a =
e
g(z)
for an entire function g. If f has nite order , then [g(z)[ [z[
,
which implies g is a polynomial. Every nonconstant polynomial takes on
27
all complex values, so either g is constant (in which case f is as well) or
it takes on every complex value, which implies e
g
takes on every nonzero
value and f takes on every value other than a.
(Note: In case its not obvious that [g(z)[ [z[
implies g is a polynomial,
write g(z) = p(z) +z
k
h(z) for a polynomial p, entire function h, and power
k > . Then h is entire and bounded, hence constant.)
Exercise 13: Show that the equation e
z
z = 0 has innitely many solutions
in C.
Solution. Suppose the equation has nitely many solutions a
1
, . . . , a
N
, where
we allow the possibility N = 0. Since e
z
z has order 1, Hadamards the-
orem tells us that e
z
z = p(z)e
az+b
for some constants a, b, where
p(z) =
N
n=1
(1 z/a
n
).
Now for the equation e
z
z = p(z)e
az+b
to be true for large real values
of z, we must have a = 1, and since e
b
is a constant we can rewrite this
as e
z
z = p(z)e
z
p(z) = 1 ze
z
, a contradiction. Hence e
z
z has
innitely many zeros.
Just for fun, lets also give a semi-constructive, real-variables proof. Let
z = x +iy; then the equation e
z
= z becomes
e
x+iy
= x +iy e
x
cos y +ie
x
siny = x +iy e
x
cos y = x and e
x
siny = y.
We will narrow our search to solutions with x, y > 0. In this case the above
equations are equivalent to the system of equations x
2
+y
2
= e
2x
,
y
x
= tany.
From this we see that y =
e
2x
x
2
and tan
e
2x
x
2
=
_
e
2x
/x
2
1.
This in turn implies
(2)
_
e
2x
x
2
= arctan
_
e
2x
x
2
1 +k
for some integer k. Now
e
2x
x
2
is equal to 1 at x = 0 and tends to
innity as x . On the other hand, for k 0 the right hand side of (2)
is greater than 1 at x = 0, but is bounded. Hence, the intermediate value
theorem guarantees at least one solution of (2) for each k = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Given any such solution x, we can let y =
e
2x
x
2
, and x +iy will be a
solution of e
z
= z.
Exercise 14: Deduce from Hadamards theorem that if F is entire and of
growth order that is non-integral, then F has innitely many zeros.
Solution. If F is entire and has nitely many zeros, Hadamards theorem
implies that F(z) = P
1
(z)e
P2(z)
for some polynomials P
1
and P
2
. But then
F would have order deg P
2
, an integer, because [P
1
(z)[ C
e
|z|
for any
> 0. Thus, if the order of F is not an integer, F must have innitely
many zeros.
Exercise 15: Prove that every meromorphic function in C is the quotient
of two entire functions. Also, if a
n
and b
n
are two disjoint sequences
having no nite limit points, then there exists a meromorphic function in
28
the whole complex plane that vanishes exactly at a
n
and has poles exactly
at b
n
.
Solution. Let f be a meromorphic function on C. Let a
n
be the poles of
f counted with multiplicity. By the Weierstrass product theorem, there
exists an entire function g with zeros exactly at a
n
. Then the product fg
is an entire function h, so f = h/g where h and g are both entire. Now
let a
n
and b
n
be two sequences with no nite limit points. Let F and G
be entire functions with zeros precisely at the a
n
and the b
n
, respectively;
such functions exist by the Weierstrass product theorem. Then the quotient
F/G has zeros exactly at the a
n
and poles exactly at the b
n
.
Exercise 16: Suppose that
Q
n
(z) =
Nn
k=1
c
n
k
z
k
are given polynomials for n = 1, 2, . . . . Suppose also that we are given a
sequence of complex numbers a
n
without limit points. Prove that there
exists a meromorphic function f(z) whose only poles are at a
n
, and so
that for each n, the dierence
f(z) Q
n
_
1
z a
n
_
is holomorphic near a
n
. In other words, f has prescribed poles and principal
parts at each of these poles. This result is due to Mittag-Leer.
Solution. (Solution adapted from Gamelin, Complex Analysis, p. 348.) Let
K
m
= B
m
(0) = z C : [z[ m. Let
f
m
(z) =
a
k
Km+1\Km
Q
k
_
1
z a
k
_
.
This is a nite sum, so f
m
is well-dened for z ,= a
1
, a
2
, . . . . By the Runge
approximation theorem (Theorem 5.7 of Chapter 2), there exist polynomials
g
m
(z) such that [f
m
(z) g
m
(z)[
1
2
m
on K
m
. Let
f(z) =
m=1
_
f
m
(z) g
m
(z)
_
.
This sum converges uniformly on compact subsets of C, by the Weierstrass
M-test. Hence f is well-dened on C and is meromorphic. Moreover, on
K
m
the tail
j=m
(f
j
(z) g
j
(z)) is analytic, whereas f
k
(z) g
k
(z) for
k < m has poles precisely at those a
j
in K
k+1
K
k
, with the prescribed
principal parts; thus, the poles of f lying in K
m
are precisely the a
k
within
K
m
, with the correct principal parts, for each m. Hence f has the desired
properties.
29
Chapter 5.7, Page 156
Problem 1: Prove that if f is holomorphic in the unit disc, bounded, and
not identically zero, and z
1
, z
2
, . . . are its zeros ([z
k
[ < 1), then
n
(1 [z
n
[) < .
Solution. By Jensens formula, we have for each R < 1
|z
k
|<R
log
R
z
k
=
_
2
0
log [f(Re
i
)[
d
2
log [f(0)[.
Because f is bounded, the right-hand side is bounded above by some con-
stant M as R varies. Suppose now we x R and let R
> R be variable.
We get
(3)
|z
k
|<R
log
z
k
|z
k
|<R
log
z
k
< M
since the rst sum is a partial sum of the second and all terms are positive.
Since the rst sum in (3) is nite, we can let R
1 and get
|z
k
|<R
log
1
z
k
M.
This is true for all R < 1, so letting R 1 we have
k
log
1
z
k
M.
(If all the partial sums are at most M, the innite sum is as well.) Now
1 x log x for all real x > 0, so
k
1 [z
k
[
k
log
1
z
k
M < .
n=1
_
1 +
s
n
_
e
s/n
= s
_
lim
N
e
s(
N
n=1
1/nlog N)
_
_
lim
N
N
n=1
_
1 +
s
N
_
e
s/n
_
= lim
N
sN
s
N
n=1
e
s/n
N
n=1
_
n +s
n
_
e
s/n
= lim
N
sN
s
N
n=1
_
n +s
n
_
= lim
N
s(s + 1) (s +N)
N
S
N!
.
2
= lim
n
2
2n
(n!)
2
(2n + 1)!
(2n + 1)
1/2
.
As a result, prove the following identity:
(s)(s + 1/2) =
2
12s
(2s).
Solution. Wallis product formula says
2
= lim
n
n
k=1
(2k)
2
(2k + 1)(2k 1)
.
31
Now
n
k=1
(2k 1)(2k + 1) =
n
k=1
(2k 1)
n
k=1
(2k + 1)
=
_
_
_
_
2n1
j=1
j
j odd
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
2n+1
j=1
j
j odd
_
_
_
_
= (2n + 1)
_
_
_
_
2n1
j=1
j odd
j
_
_
_
_
2
= (2n + 1)
_
_
_
_
(2n)!
2n
j=1
j
j even
_
_
_
_
2
= (2n + 1)
_
(2n)!
n
k=1
2k
_
2
= (2n + 1)
_
(2n)!
n!2
n
_
2
whereas
n
k=1
(2k)
2
= 2
2n
n
k=1
k
2
= 2
2n
(n!)
2
.
Hence
2
= lim
n
2
2n
(n!)
2
(2n + 1)
((2n)!)
2
(n!)
2
2
2n
= lim
n
2
4n
(n!)
4
(2n + 1)((2n)!)
2
= lim
n
2
4n
(n!)
4
(2n + 1)
((2n + 1)!)
2
and the result follows by taking square roots of both sides.
Using the result of Problem 1,
(2s)
(s)(s + 1/2)
= lim
s(s + 1) (s +n)
n
s
n!
lim
(s + 1/2) (s + 1/2 +n)
n
s+1/2
n!
lim
(2n + 1)
2s
(2n + 1)!
(2s)(2s + 1) (2s + 2n + 1)
= lim
s(s + 1/2)(s + 1)(s + 3/2) (s +n + 1/2)(2n + 1)
2s
(2n + 1)!
n
2s+1/2
(n!)
2
(2s)(2s + 1) (2s + 2n + 1)
= lim
2s(2s + 1) (2s + 2n + 1)
2
2n+2
(2n + 1)
2s
(2n + 1)!
n
2s+1/2
(n!)
2
2s(2s + 1) (2s + 2n + 1)
= lim
_
2n + 1
n
_
2s
_
2n + 1
n
(2n + 1)!
2
2n+2
(n!)
2
2n + 1
= 2
2s
2
1
4
_
2
= 2
2s1
32
Exercise 5: Use the fact that (s)(1 s) = / sins to prove that
[(1/2 +it)[ =
_
2
e
t
+e
t
, whenever t R.
Solution. Using the trigonometric identity sin( +/2) = cos(),
(1/2 +it)(1/2 it) =
sin(1/2 +it)
=
cos(it)
=
cosht
=
2
e
t
+e
t
.
Using the fact that (z) = ( z), which follows from the meromorphicity of
,
[(1/2 +it)[
2
= (1/2 +it)(1/2 it) =
2
e
t
+e
t
and the result follows by taking square roots of both sides.
Exercise 7: The Beta function is dened for Re() > 0 and Re() > 0 by
B(, ) =
_
1
0
(1 t)
1
t
1
dt.
(a) Prove that B(, ) =
()()
(+)
.
(b) Show that B(, ) =
_
0
u
1
(1+u)
+
du.
Solution.
(a)
()() =
__
0
x
1
e
x
dx
___
0
y
1
e
y
dy
_
=
_
0
_
0
x
1
y
1
e
(x+y)
dxdy.
Making the change of variables u = x + y, v =
x
x+y
, we have x = uv
and y = u(1 v), so
(x, y)
(u, v)
=
v u
1 v u
= u,
so
()() =
_
0
_
1
0
(uv)
1
(u(1 v))
1
e
u
udvdu
=
__
0
u
+1
e
u
du
___
1
0
v
1
(1 v)
1
dv
_
= ( +)B(, ).
(b) We make the change of variables u =
1
t
1, so t =
1
u+1
, 1 t =
u
u+1
,
and dt =
du
(u+1)
2
. Then
B(, ) =
_
1
0
(1 t)
1
t
1
dt
=
_
0
_
u
u + 1
_
1
_
1
u + 1
_
1
du
(u + 1)
2
=
_
0
u
1
u
+
du.
33
Exercise 9: The hypergeometric series F(, , ; z) was dened in Exercise
16 of Chapter 1. Show that
F(, , ; z) =
()
()( )
_
1
0
t
1
(1 t)
1
(1 zt)
dt.
Solution.
()
()( )
_
1
0
t
1
(1 t)
1
(1 zt)
dt
=
()
()( )
_
1
0
t
1
(1 t)
1
_
1 +
n=1
()( 1) ( n 1)
n!
(zt)
n
_
dt
=
()
()( )
_
B(, ) +
n=1
_
1
0
t
1
(1 t)
1
( + 1) ( +n 1)
n!
z
n
t
n
dt
_
= 1 +
n=1
()
()( )
B(n +, )
( + 1) ( +n 1)
n!
z
n
= 1 +
n=1
()(n +)
()(n +)
( + 1) ( +n 1)
n!
z
n
= 1 +
n=1
()( + 1) ( +n 1)()
()( + 1) ( +n 1)()
( + 1) ( +n 1)
n!
z
n
= 1 +
n=1
( + 1) ( +n 1)( + 1) ( +n 1)
n!( + 1) ( +n 1)
z
n
= F(, , ; z)
where the sum and integral can be interchanged because all terms are non-
negative; here we have used the identity (s + 1) = s(s) as well as the
properties of the beta function derived in Exercise 7. Since (1 w)
is
holomorphic for w in the plane slit along the ray [1, ), Theorem 5.4 of
Chapter 2 guarantees that the integral representation above is holomor-
phic for z in the same slit plane, yielding an analytic continuation of the
hypergeometric function.
Exercise 10: An integral of the form
F(z) =
_
0
f(t)t
z1
dt
is called a Mellin transform, and we shall write /(f)(z) = F(z). For
example, the gamma function is the Mellin transform of the function e
t
.
(a) Prove that
/(cos)(z) =
_
0
cos(t)t
z1
dt = (z) cos
_
z
2
_
for 0, Re(z) < 1,
and
/(sin)(z) =
_
0
sin(t)t
z1
dt = (z) sin
_
z
2
_
for 0 < Re(z) < 1.
34
(b) Show that the second of the above identities is valid in the larger strip
1 < Re(z) < 1, and that as a consequence, one has
_
0
sinx
x
dx =
2
and
_
0
sinx
x
3/2
dx =
2.
Solution.
(a) Let C
R
be the contour in the rst quadrant bounded by the quarter-
circles of radius R and 1/R and the axes. Let f(w) = e
w
w
z1
. In
evaluating this integral we will use the fact that [w
z1
[ C[[w[
z1
[;
this follows from writing z 1 = x + iy and w = Re
i
, from which
[w
z1
[ = R
x
e
y
CR
x
= C[[w[
z1
[ where C = e
/2|Im(z)|
. The
integral of f around the quarter-circle of radius 1/R tends to 0 since
[f(w)[ e
Re(w)
C[w[
Re(z)1
Ce
1/R
R
1
on this segment, where
= Re(z). The length of the segment is
2R
, so by the ML estimate the
integral is at most
Ce
1/R
2R
1 for 0
2
, so
_
/2
0
f(Re
i
)Re
i
d
_
/2
0
[f(Re
i
)Re
i
[d
CR
1
_
/2
0
e
Rcos
Rd
CR
_
/2
0
e
R(2/1)
d
= CR
e
R
e
2R/
2R
/2
0
= CR
2R
_
1 e
R
_
which tends to 0 as R since < 1. Now f is analytic on and
inside the contour, so were left with
0 =
_
0
e
t
t
z1
dt +
_
0
e
iu
(iu)
z1
idu
(z) =
_
0
(cos u i sinu)u
z1
i
z
du
i
z
(z) =
_
0
(cos u i sinu)u
z1
du
_
cos
_
z
2
_
i sin
_
z
2
__
(z) = /(cos)(z) i/(sin)(z).
For real z, we can compare real and imaginary parts to conclude that
/(cos)(z) = (z) cos
_
z
2
_
and /(sin)(z) = (z) sin
_
z
2
_
.
35
By analytic continuation, these relations both hold for z in the strip
0 < Re(z) < 1.
(b) The right-hand side of the above equation for /(sin) is analytic for
1 < Re(z) < 1 because the zero of sine cancels the pole of at the
origin. The left-hand side is also analytic on this strip by Theorem
5.4 of chapter 2; the integral converges near 0 because sint t and
converges at because Re(z) < 1. Hence, by analytic continuation,
/(sin)(z) = (z) sin
_
z
2
_
for 1 < Re(z) < 1.
Letting z = 0 we get
/(sin)(0) =
_
0
sint
t
dt = (0) sin
0
2
.
In order to evaluate the right-hand side we rearrange the functional
equation of to read
(1 s)
= (s) sin(s) = 2(s) sin(s/2) cos(s/2) (s) sin(s/2) =
2(1 s) cos(s/2)
.
This equals
2
when s = 0, so
_
0
sin t
t
dt =
2
.
Letting z = 1/2 in the Mellin transform,
_
0
sint
t
3/2
dt =
_
1
2
_
sin
_
4
_
= (2
)
_
2
_
=
2.
n=0
1
(s +n)
2
whenever s is a positive number. Show that if the left-hand side is inter-
preted as (
/)
, then the above formula also holds for all complex numbers
s with s ,= 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Solution. For positive s we can take the logarithm of the Hadamard fac-
torization
1
(s)
= se
s
n=1
_
1 +
s
n
_
e
s/n
to obtain
log (s) = log s +s +
n=1
_
log
_
1 +
s
n
_
s
n
_
.
Dierentiating,
d log (s)
ds
=
1
s
+ +
n=1
_
1
n +s
1
n
_
where the termwise dierentiation is justied because the dierentiated sum
converges uniformly on compact intervals for s. Dierentiating again,
d
2
log (s)
ds
2
=
1
s
2
+
n=1
1
(n +s)
2
=
n=0
1
(n +s)
2
.
36
The right-hand side denes an analytic function of s on the region s ,=
0, 1, 2, . . . because the sum converges uniformly on compact subsets of
this region. Moreover, for positive s the second derivative on the left is
equal to (
/)
n=1
e
nx
, we
have
_
0
x
s1
e
x
1
dx =
_
0
x
s1
n=1
e
nx
dx
=
n=1
_
0
x
s1
e
nx
dx
=
n=1
_
0
_
t
n
_
s1
e
t
dt
n
=
n=1
1
n
s
_
0
t
s1
e
t
dt
= (s)(s).
Here the sum and integral can be interchanged because all terms are non-
negative.
Chapter 7.3, Page 199
Exercise 1: Suppose that a
n
n=1
is a sequence of real numbers such that
the partial sums
A
n
= a
1
+ +a
n
are bounded. Prove that the Dirichlet series
n=1
a
n
n
s
converges for Re(s) > 0 and denes a holomorphic function in this half-
plane.
Solution. Using summation by parts,
N
n=1
a
n
n
s
=
A
N
N
s
N
n=1
A
n
_
1
(n + 1)
s
1
n
s
_
.
Taking the limit as N , the rst term on the right vanishes and
n=1
a
n
n
s
=
n=1
A
n
_
1
(n + 1)
s
1
n
s
_
.
To prove that this converges, we note that by hypothesis [A
n
[ M for
some constant M. Now
1
(n + 1)
s
1
n
s
_
n+1
n
1
st
s+1
dt
[(n + 1) n[ max
x(n,n+1)
1
st
s+1
1
n
+1
38
where = Re(s). Thus, the tails of the series are dominated by
n=N
M
n
+1
which converges, so the series converges. In addition, this shows that the
convergence is uniform on closed half-planes
0
> 0, so the series
denes a holomorphic function on the right half-plane.
Exercise 2: The following links the multiplication of Dirichlet series with the
divisibility properties of their coecients.
(a) Show that if a
m
and b
k
are two bounded sequences of complex
numbers, then
_
m=1
a
m
m
s
__
k=1
b
k
k
s
_
=
n=1
c
n
n
s
where c
n
=
mk=n
a
m
b
k
.
The above series converges absolutely when Re(s) > 1.
(b) Prove as a consequence that one has
((s))
2
=
n=1
d(n)
n
s
and (s)(s a) =
n=1
a
(n)
n
s
for Re(s) > 1 and Re(s a) > 1, respectively. Here d(n) equals the
number of divisors of n, and
a
(n) is the sum of the ath powers of
divisors of n. In particular, one has
0
(n) = d(n).
Solution.
(a) For = Re(s) > 1, the two sums on the left both converge absolutely
since
m=1
a
m
m
s
m=1
A
m
<
where A is a bound for [a
m
[. Thus, Fubinis theorem allows us to write
the product as the double sum
m,k
a
m
m
s
b
k
k
s
=
m,k
a
m
b
k
(mk)
s
where the terms can be summed in any order. In particular, we can
group them according to the product mk to obtain
n=1
m,k
mk=n
a
m
b
k
n
s
=
n=1
c
n
n
s
.
(b) If we let a
m
= b
k
= 1 for all k, m above, then c
n,k
=
mk=n
1 = d(n)
and we have
((s))
2
=
_
m=1
1
m
s
__
k=1
1
k
s
_
=
n=1
d(n)
n
s
.
Assuming Re(a) > 0 (which presumably was intended in the problem
statement) and Re(s a) > 1, we can replace s with s a in part (a)
39
and let a
m
= m
a
, b
k
= 1. The result is
(s)(s a) =
_
m=1
m
a
m
sa
__
k=1
1
k
sa
_
=
n=1
c
n
n
sa
=
n=1
n
a
c
n
n
s
where c
n
=
mk=n
m
a
=
1
n
a
mk=n
k
a
=
a
(n).
Exercise 3: In line with the previous exercise, we consider the Dirichlet series
for 1/.
(a) Prove that for Re(s) > 1,
1
(s)
=
n=1
(n)
n
s
,
where (n) is the Mobius function dened by
(n) =
_
_
1 if n = 1,
(1)
k
if n = p
1
p
k
, and the p
j
are distinct primes,
0 otherwise.
Note that (nm) = (n)(m) whenever n and m are relatively prime.
(b) Show that
k|n
(k) =
_
1 if n = 1,
0 otherwise.
Solution.
(a) Consider the nite product
N
n=1
_
1
1
p
s
n
_
.
Applying the distributive law, this is equal to
n=1
N
(n)
n
s
where
N
(n) =
_
_
1 n = 1
(1)
k
n = p
1
p
k
and 1, 2, . . . , k N
0 else.
Note that
N
(n) = (n)
N
(n) where
N
(n) = 1 if n has no prime fac-
tors larger than p
N
, and 0 otherwise. Hence, this sum is a (rearranged)
partial sum of
n=1
(n)
n
s
. Because this latter sum is absolutely con-
vergent for > 1, we can take the limit as N to obtain
1
(s)
=
n=1
_
1
1
p
s
n
_
=
n=1
(n)
n
s
.
An alternate proof uses the fact that
d|n
(d) = 0 for n > 1. One
way to establish this is as follows: Let p
1
, . . . , p
k
be the distinct prime
factors of n. For each j = 1, ,k, there will be
_
k
j
_
squarefree divisors of
40
n which have j distinct prime factors, and (d) = (1)
j
if d is any of
these divisors. Hence the sum of over all divisors is
k
j=0
_
k
j
_
(1)
j
= (1 1)
k
= 0
by the binomial theorem. Given this, we can use the previous exercise
to write
_
m=1
1
m
s
__
k=1
(k)
k
s
_
=
n=1
c
n
n
s
where
c
n
=
mk=n
(k) =
_
1 n = 1
0 else.
Thus,
(s)
n=1
(n)
n
s
= 1
n=1
(n)
n
s
=
1
(s)
.
(b) This was already proved in part (a) using the binomial theorem. Al-
ternatively, if (a) was established using the Euler product, then mul-
tiplying the series for and 1/ using Exercise 2 yields part (b) as a
result. Thus, one can use (b) (proved using the binomial theorem) and
Exercise 2 to establish (a), or one can use (a) (proved using the Euler
product) and Exercise 2 to establish (b).
(s) = 1
1
2
s
+
1
3
s
=
n=1
(1)
n+1
n
s
.
(a) Prove that the series dening
(s) converges for Re(s) > 0 and denes
a holomorphic function in that half-plane.
(b) Show that for s > 1 one has
(s) = (1 2
1s
)(s).
(c) Conclude, since
is given as an alternating series, that has no zeros
on the segment 0 < < 1. Extend this last assertion to = 0 by
using the functional equation.
Solution.
(a) We rewrite the series as
(s) =
n=1
_
1
(2n 1)
s
1
(2n)
s
_
.
41
Now
1
(2n 1)
s
1
(2n)
s
_
2n
2n1
d
dt
t
s
dt
_
2n
2n1
(s)t
s1
dt
= [s[
_
2n
2n1
t
1
dt
[s[(2n 1)
1
.
Since
n=1
[s[(2n 1)
1
converges for > 0 and converges uniformly on closed sub-half-planes
0
> 0, the series dening
denes a holomorphic function on
the right half-plane. (To complete the proof we should also note that
the individual terms
(1)
n+1
n
s
tend to 0.)
(b) For s > 1,
2
1s
(s) = 2
n=1
2
s
n
s
= 2
n even
1
n
s
and the absolute converge of the series for on closed half-planes
0
> 1 allows us to rearrange terms and obtain
(1 2
1s
)(s) =
n
1
n
s
2
n even
1
n
s
=
n
(1)
n+1
n
s
=
(s).
(c) I assume the problem statement intends to say 0 < s < 1 (i.e. s
real), since otherwise the zeros of in the critical strip would create a
contradiction. For real s the terms
_
1
(2n 1)
s
1
(2n)
s
_
are all strictly positive, so the sum cannot be zero. Taking the limit
of both sides of the equation
(s) = (1 2
1s
) as s 0, the left-hand
side becomes the alternating series
(0) = 1
1
2
+
1
3
= log 2,
so the right-hand side cannot be zero.
x
2
+
_
x
2
dt
(log t)
2
=
x
log x
2
log 2
+
_
x
2
dt
(log t)
2
.
We will estimate the latter integral in two pieces, one from 2 to
x
and one from
x to x. The graphs of the functions f(t) = (log t)
2
and g(t) =
(log
x)
2
x1
(t 1) both pass through the points (1, 0) and
(
x, (log
x)
2
; by concavity, f g for 1 t
x. Taking recipro-
cals,
1
(log t)
2
(
x 1)
(log
x)
2
1
t 1
_
x
2
1
(log t)
2
dt
_
x
2
(
x 1)
(log
x)
2
1
t 1
dt =
(
x 1) log(
x 1)
(log
x)
2
x
log
x
= O
_
x
(log x)
2
_
.
For the integral from
x to x it suces to approximate the integrand
by a constant:
_
x
x
dt
(log t)
2
(x
x)
1
(log
x)
2
x
_
1
2
log x
_
2
= O
_
x
(log x)
2
_
.
Putting the pieces together, we have
_
x
2
dt
log t
=
x
log x
2
log 2
+O
_
x
(log x)
2
_
=
x
log x
+O
_
x
(log x)
2
_
.
(b) Integrating by parts with the same substitution as above, we have
more generally
_
x
2
dt
(log t)
2
=
t
(log t)
k
x
2
+k
_
x
2
dt
(log t)
k+1
.
This plus an easy induction yields
Li(x) =
N
k=1
(k 1)!
t
(log t)
k
x
2
+
_
x
2
dt
(log t)
N+1
for each N = 1, 2, . . . . Evaluation at the lower terms yields a constant,
so we can write this as
Li(x) = C
N
+
N
k=1
(k 1)!
x
(log x)
k
+
_
x
2
dt
(log t)
N+1
.
43
We can estimate this integral in the same manner as before. By con-
cavity,
(log t)
N+1
(log
x)
N+1
x 1
(t 1) for 1 t
1
(log t)
N+1
x 1
(log
x)
N+1
1
t 1
for 1 t
_
x
2
dt
(log t)
N+1
x 1
(log
x)
N+1
_
x
2
dt
t 1
=
(
x 1) log(
x 1)
(log
x)
N+1
= O
_
x
(log x)
N+1
_
.
Also,
_
x
x
dt
(log t)
N+1
(x
x)
1
(log
x)
N+1
= O
_
x
(log x)
N+1
_
so that
_
x
2
dt
(log t)
N+1
= O
_
x
(log x)
N+1
_
Li(x) =
N
k=1
(k1)!
x
(log x)
k
+O
_
x
(log x)
N+1
_
.
) = w, then z and z
arg(z) is
harmonic on U and equals 0 on the positive real axis and 1 on the negative
real axis, the composition z
1
arg(F
5
(F
4
(F
3
(F
2
(F
1
(z)))))) is harmonic
on the rst quadrant and has the desired boundary values.
Exercise 9: Prove that the function u dened by
u(x, y) = Re
_
i +z
i z
_
and u(0, 1) = 0
is harmonic in the unit disc and vanishes on its boundary. Note that u is
not bounded in D.
Solution. The real part of an analytic function is harmonic, and
i+z
iz
is
analytic on the open unit disc, so u is harmonic in D. Moreover, on the
boundary points other than (0, 1), write z = cos +i sin; then
i +z
i z
=
cos +i(1 + sin)
cos +i(1 sin)
cos +i(sin 1)
cos +i(sin 1)
=
2i cos
cos
2
+ (1 sin)
2
is pure imaginary, so its real part is zero.
Exercise 10: Let F : H C be a holomorphic function that satises
[F(z)[ 1 and F(i) = 0.
Prove that
[F(z)[
z i
z +i
for all z H.
Solution. Dene G : D D by
G(w) = F
_
i
1 w
1 +w
_
.
45
Then G is holomorphic and G(0) = F(i) = 0. By the Schwarz lemma,
[G(w)[ [w[ for all w D. Then for any z H,
[F(z)[ =
G
_
i z
i +z
_
z i
z +i
f(z) f(0)
M
2
f(0)f(z)
[z[
MR
.
Solution. For z D, let g(z) =
f(Rz)
M
. Since Rz D(0, R), [f(Rz)[ M
so g(z) D. Thus g : D D and is holomorphic. Let = g(0) =
f(0)
M
.
Then
g : D D satises
(g(0)) = 0, where
(w) =
w
1 w
. By the
Schwarz lemma,
[
g()[ [[ ( D)
g()
1 g()
[[
f(0)
M
f(R)
M
1
f(0)
M
f(R)
M
[[
M
f(0) f(R)
M
2
f(0)f(R)
[[
f(0) f(z)
M
2
f(0)f(z)
[z[
MR
where z = R D(0, R).
Exercise 13: The pseudo-hyperbolic distance between two points z, w
D is dened by
(z, w) =
z w
1 wz
.
(a) Prove that if f : D D is holomorphic, then
(f(z), f(w)) (z, w) for all z, w D.
Moreover, prove that if f is an automorphism of D then f preserves
the pseudo-hyperbolic distance
(f(z), f(w)) = (z, w) for all z, w D.
(Hint.)
(b) Prove that
[f
(z)[
1 [f(z)[
2
1
1 [z[
2
for all z D.
Solution.
46
(a) Let
(z) =
z
1 z
.
Then it is easy to check that
(z) =
z +
1 + z
.
Now let g =
f(w)
f
1
w
. Then
g(0) =
f(w)
_
f
_
1
w
(0)
__
=
f(w)
(f (w)) = 0
and since g is the composition of three functions which map D into D,
so it also maps D into D. By the Schwarz Lemma, [g(y)[ [y[ for all
y D. In particular, if y =
w
(z) we have
[g(y)[ [y[
f(w)
(f(
1
w
(y)))
[
w
(z)[
f(w)
(f(z))
z w
1 wz
f(z) f(w)
1 f(w)f(z)
z w
1 wz
f(z) f(w)
1 f(w)f(z)
e
i
_
z
1 z
w
1 w
_
1 e
i
w
1 w
e
i
z
1 z
(zw)(1||
2
)
(1 z)(1 w)
(1||
2
)(1 wz)
(1 w)(1 z)
=
[z w[
[1 wz[
= (z, w)
so f preserves pseudo-hyperbolic distance.
47
(b) By a simple rearrangement,
(f(w), f(z)) (w, z)
[f(w) f(z)[
[1 f(w)f(z)
[w z[
1 wz
f(w) f(z)
w z
[1 f(w)f(z)[
1 wz[
.
Taking the limit as w z, we have
[f
(z)[
1 [f(z)[
2
1 [z[
2
[f
(z)[
1 [f(z)[
2
1
1 [z[
2
.
Exercise 14: Prove that all conformal mappings from the upper half-plane
H to the unit disc D take the form
e
i
z
z
, R and H.
Solution. Let g : H D be a conformal mapping. Let : D H be the
conformal mapping dened by
z = (w) = i
1 w
1 +w
.
As shown in section 1.1, is a conformal mapping with inverse w = (z) =
iz
i+z
. Then g : D D is a conformal automorphism of the disc, so by
Theorem 2.2 there exist R and D such that
g(z) = g
_
i
1 w
1 +w
_
= e
i
w
1 w
= e
i
iz
i+z
1
iz
i+z
= e
i
z(1 +) i(1 )
z(1 +) i(1 )
= e
i
z i
1
1+
z
1+
1+
+i
1
1+
= e
i
z
e
i
(z
)
= e
i
z
z
where = R, e
i
=
1+
1+
has unit length because conjugation
preserves norm, and = i
1
1+
H because = () and D.
Exercise 15: Here are two properties enjoyed by automorpisms of the upper
half-plane.
(a) Suppose is an automorphism of H that xes three distinct points on
the real axis. Then is the identity.
48
(b) Suppose (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) and (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) are two pairs of three distinct
points on the real axis with
x
1
< x
2
< x
3
and y
1
< y
2
< y
3
.
Prove that there exists (a unique) automorphism of H so that
(x
j
) = y
j
, j = 1, 2, 3. The same conclusion holds if y
3
< y
1
< y
2
or
y
2
< y
3
< y
1
.
Solution.
(a) By Theorem 2.4, there exist a, b, c, d R with ad bc = 1 and
(z) =
az +b
cz +d
.
Suppose xes x R. Then
x =
ax +b
cx +d
cx
2
+ (d a)x b = 0.
If c ,= 0 this equation has at most 2 distinct solutions; if c = 0 but
a ,= d it has only one. For it to have three or more both of these
conditions must fail, so c = 0 and a = d; the equation then becomes
b = 0, and the condition ad bc = 1 then implies a = d = 1, so
(z) =
z
1
= z.
(b) Let x
i
and y
i
be so chosen. The system of equations
ax
i
+b
cx
i
+d
= y
i
ax
i
+b = cx
i
y
i
+dy
i
, i = 1, 2, 3
can be written as the vector equation
ax c xy dy = b
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
,
where xy =
_
_
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
x
3
y
3
_
_
. We want to show that this equation has a unique
solution, up to multiplying a, b, c, d by a common factor. Consider
three cases:
(i) x, y, and xy are linearly independent. In this case,
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
can
be written as a unique linear combination of them, which yields
our solution for a, b, c, d and hence our automorphism of H.
(ii) x and y are linearly dependent, say y = x, where ,= 0. Then
1 1 1
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
x
3
y
3
1 1 1
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
2
1
x
2
2
x
2
3
(f(z))),
with
(f(z))) = f
1
_
_
i z
i +z
__
= f
1
_
iz
i+z
1
iz
i+z
_
= f
1
_
i +z i +z
i +z i + z
_
= f
1
_
(1 +)z +i( 1)
(1 + )z +i(1 )
_
= i
1
(1+)z+i(1)
(1+ )z+i(1 )
1 +
(1+)z+i(1)
(1+ )z+i(1 )
= i
(1 + )z +i(1 ) (1 +)z +i(1 )
(1 + )z +i(1 ) + (1 +)z +i( 1)
= i
( )z +i(2 )
(2 + + )z +i( )
=
bz + (a 1)
(a + 1)z b
where = a + bi. The determinant is b
2
(a
2
1) = 1 [[
2
,= 0,
so it can be made 1 by an appropriate scaling.
(c) Let R
(z) = e
i
z. Then g = R
f
= f
1
R
f f
1
f
= (f
1
R
f) (f
1
f)
is the composition of two Mobius transformations of determinant 1,
by parts (a) and (b); this is another Mobius transformation of deter-
minant 1, so were done.
(z
0
) ,= 0 i f preserves angles at z
0
.
Solution. If : [0, 1] C and : [0, 1] C are two curves passing through
z
0
with tangent vectors
and
and J
f
and
(0)[ > 1.
Suppose we begin with a Koebe domain /
0
and a sequence of expansions
f
0
, f
1
, . . . , f
n
, . . . , so that /
n+1
= f
n
(/
n
) are also Koebe domains. We
then dene holomorphic maps F
n
: /
0
D by F
n
= f
n
f
0
.
(b) Prove that for each n, the function F
n
is an expansion. Moreover,
F
n
(0) =
n
k=0
f
k
(0), and conclude that lim
n
[f
n
(0)[ = 1.
(c) Show that if the sequence is osculating, that is, r
Kn
1 as n ,
then a subsequence of F
n
converges uniformly on compact subsets
of /
0
to a conformal map F : /
0
D.
To construct the desired osculating sequence we shall use the automor-
phisms
= ( z)/(1 z).
(d) Given a Koebe domain /, choose a point D on the boundary
of / such that [[ = r
K
, and also choose D such that
2
= .
Let S denote the square root of
(0)[ = (1 +r
K
)2
r
K
.
(e) Use part (d) to construct the desired sequence.
Solution.
(a) Since f is a holomorphic injection, it is a homeomorphism, so it maps
/
0
to a simply connected domain. Let < r
K
and consider the image
52
under f of C(0, ). This curve is mapped to another curve all of
whose points are at least away from the origin; since the image
under f of /
0
is simply connected and includes the origin, it includes
the interior of this curve. In particular, it contains D(0, ). Thus,
D(0, ) / D(0, ) f(/). Taking suprema, r
f(K)
r
K
.
Since f is holomorphic on /
0
and f(0) = 0, we can write f(z) = zg(z)
on a neighborhood of 0, where g is holomorphic. Then f
(0) = g(0).
Now g ,= 0 since [g(z)[ =
|f(z)|
|z|
> 1 for z ,= 0 and g is continuous.
Thus, by the Minimum Modulus Principle applied to a small circle
near the origin, since [g[ > 1 on the circle, [g(0)[ > 1. (The Minimum
Modulus Principle is just the Maximum Modulus Principle applied to
1
g
, which is valid since g ,= 0 in the region under consideration.)
(b) Since each f
i
xes the origin, so does F
n
. Moreover, it is easy to
see by induction that [F
n
(z)[ > [z[ since [F
n
(z)[ = [f
n
(F
n1
(z))[ >
[F
n1
(z)[ > [z[ by the induction hypothesis. By the Chain Rule,
F
n
(0) = (f
n
F
n1
)
(0) = f
n
(F
n1
(0))F
n1
(0) = f
n
(0)F
n1
(0)
so by another easy induction we have F
n
(0) =
n
k=1
f
k
(0). However,
if we let = r
K0
/2, then D(0, ) /
n
for all n, so we can dene
G
n
(z) : D D by G
n
(z) = F
n
(z). Then by the Schwarz Lemma,
[F
n
(0)[ = [G
n
(0)[ < 1 [F
n
(0)[ <
1
.
Thus, the sequence [F
n
(0)[ is bounded above. This implies that
[f
k
(0)[ 1 as otherwise the product would be innite.
(c) Since each F
n
maps into D, the sequence F
n
is uniformly bounded.
By Montels theorem, there is a subsequence F
n
k
that converges uni-
formly on all compact subsets K /
0
. The limit function F : /
0
D
must be holomorphic because the uniform limit of holomorphic func-
tions is holomorphic (and /
0
is the union of its compact subsets).
Then F is injective by Proposition 3.5 (it cannot be constant because
then it would be everywhere zero, and for z / 0, [f
n
k
(z)[ > [z[
for all n [F(z)[ = lim[f
n
k
(z)[ [z[ > 0). Thus F is an injective
holomorphic function, hence a homeomorphism, so F(/
0
) is simply
connected. I claim that r
F(K0)
r
F
N
(K0)
for all N. To see this,
let < r
F
N
(K0)
. For n
k
N, if w C(0, ), then [F
n
k
(w)[ > .
This implies [F(w)[ . Hence F maps C(0, ) to a smooth closed
curve whose points are all at least from 0; since the image of F is
simply connected, it contains the image of this curve, so it contains
D(0, ). Taking suprema yields r
F(K0)
r
F
N
(K0)
. Since r
F
N
(K0)
1
as N , this implies r
F(K0)
1. Hence D(0, ) F(/
0
) for all
< 1, so F is surjective. So F is a conformal map from /
0
to D.