Chapter 16 - Respiratory System

1. Respiration has four main goals. What are they?

Organs of the System

-Nose/Nasal Cavity Bone and cartilage give the nose structure externally and internally. Nasal cavity is a hollow space behind the nose. -Divided into two sides by the nasal septum. 2) Bones that curl off from the sides of the nasal cavity are called _________________ -These bones split each side of the cavity into smaller and smaller passageways and support the mucus membrane (increase of surface area). Nasal cavity is thickly coated with a mucus membrane and a network of blood vessels. When air passes the membrane, the blood from the body warms the air before it travels further down the respiratory tract. 3) What else does the mucus membrane do beyond provide lubrication?

-Paranasal Sinuses These are air filled spaces in multiple places of the skull, including the maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones.

4) What is the purpose of having paranasal sinuses?

-Pharynx 5) Whats the purpose of the pharynx? Recall digestion.

**The system is split between the pharynx and the larynx into two groups: the upper respiratory tract (pharynx and above) and the lower respiratory tract (larynx and beyond).** -Larynx Located just below the pharynx and at the top of the trachea, the larynx is an enlargement of the airway. -Consists of muscle and cartilage network, the epiglottis and the hyoid bone. 6) What muscle does the hyoid bone support? _______________________

Voice Box located in the larynx -Misnomer: not a box. -Two pairs of vocal folds, horizontal collection of muscle and connective tissue covered in mucus membrane. 7) Upper vocal folds and lower vocal folds, one of them produces sound while the other does not. Which one makes sound?

-Air is forced between the sound making vocal folds making them vibrate side to side sound waves! -The shape of the pharynx, oral cavity and the tongue determine how the waves propagate from the mouth. More tension on the muscles makes a high pitch, more air makes a louder sound. -Normal breathing, a triangular slit called the glottis is open and the vocal folds are relaxed. During swallowing, the false vocal folds (the ones that dont produce sound) close the glottis as well as the epiglottis.

-Trachea Windpipe Flexible tube that descends anterior to the esophagus into the thoracic cavity and splits into left and right bronchi. Mucus membrane with goblet cells line the inner walls to filter the air and trap particles from entering the air passage. The membrane moves the debris up to the pharynx to be swallowed. 8) The trachea must always be kept open, but the esophagus does not have this requirement. What does the trachea have that the esophagus doesnt to fix this problem?

9) Another problem arises when the esophagus has to expand to accommodate food when swallowing. What allowance does the structure from question 8 leave to allow the esophagus to expand? (keep in mind the position of the trachea and the esophagus)

-Bronchial Tree The branching of the airway once the trachea splits into two sides. Structurally similar to the trachea, with less and less cartilage to support the tube as they diminish in size. -As the cartilage disappears, more and more smooth muscle wraps around the bronchial tree tubing Primary branch: first branch in the tree, right and left bronchi 10) Each bronchus divides into smaller and smaller tubes (secondary, tertiary, etc) until eventually the small tubes for air flow are so small they are called something else. What are they called? __________________________ These branches keep dividing until they meet with alveolar ducts. -Alveoli

The alveolar ducts lead directly to alveolar sacs, thin-walled pouches which contain microscopic sacs called alveoli. -Figure 16.8 from your book. Alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries to allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse through the simple squamous epithelial membrane. 11) Which gas enters the lungs via diffusion at the alveoli? _______________________

-Lungs Humans have two (ideally), separated from each other by the mediastinum medially and separated from the rest of the lower body by the diaphragm and thoracic cage. Each lung mostly fills the space on its side, suspended by the bronchi and major blood vessels which enter the lung on the medial side. 12) One lung is smaller than the other. Which one is it, and why?

Serous membranes: -Visceral pleura attaches directly to each lung surface -Parietal pleura visceral pleura folds and becomes the parietal pleura; forms part of the mediastinum, lines inner wall of the thoracic cavity -Pleural cavity POTENTIAL space between visceral pleura and parietal pleura, but is not significant; has a thin film of serous fluid for lubrication

Right lung has three lobes; left lung has two.

The bronchial branches that support and supply each lung also are connected to blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, meaning a lung actually contains air passages, alveoli, blood and lymphatic vessels, connective tissues, smooth muscle fibers and nerves. CRASH COURSE BREAK Mechanism of Breathing -Inspiration Inhalation. The only reason air comes into the lungs is because of atmospheric pressure. -Lungs dont pull air in; lungs are actually pretty useless without the diaphragm because the lungs do not have enough muscles to expand and contract. At rest, there is a normal pressure both inside and outside the body. At sea level, the pressure equals 760 mm of mercury. -The pressure on every part of the body, inside and out, is about the same during rest. Pressure inside the lungs and alveolar sacs has to decrease in order for air to come in. -Pressure gradient: ALWAYS high to low to reach equilibrium. 13) What muscle mainly contracts to increase the volume of the lungs and decrease the air pressure inside the lungs? ____________________________ Chest wall muscles also contract, the external inter costal muscles between the ribs pull the sternum up and out to allow for greater expansion of the lungs. Now the volume of the lungs and thoracic cavity is at its greatest, the air pressure is at its lowest, and air had been forced into the lungs to compensate for the pressure difference. Pleural membranes also play a role here: -Any separation between the pleural membranes causes low pressure in the space which then pulls the membranes back together.

-The water molecules in the fluid also attract the walls of the membrane together because of its property of adherence (think a wet coverslip on a microscope slide). -So when the intercostals muscles move so do the visceral and the peritoneal pleura, pulling the lungs open. The inner surface of the alveoli cause a problem: -Inside the alveoli the water molecules actually create surface tension, making it difficult for the alveoli to stay inflated or collapse them entirely. -This is bad. -Luckily, special cells in the alveoli secrete a lipoprotein mixture called surfactant. It is secreted continuously and helps the alveoli stay inflated, most especially when the volume of the lungs is low. Deep breaths come from a more forceful contraction of the diaphragm and intercostals muscles, along with help from the pectoralis major and the sternocleidomastoid to pull the thoracic cage up and out. 14) Think about when a newborn has to breathe for the first time. Is it easier or harder to take that first breath? Why?

**Bonus: How much more or less energy does a newborn use to take that first breath, compared with the breaths it will take throughout its life?

-Expiration Exhalation. The force for exhalation comes from elastic recoil of the muscles and tissues, as well as from surface tension. Basically, it is the reverse of inspiration. -As the diaphragm lowered for the inhale, it compressed the organs of the abdominopelvic region; when the diaphragm

begins to relax for the exhale, these organs elastically force themselves back into their original shape. -This action aides to push the diaphragm back up. -The same process is occurring with the intercostals muscles and the thoracic cage, letting the lungs return to the original shape. -Meanwhile, the surface tension between the linings of the alveoli decreases the diameter of the alveoli, forcing air out of them. -The pressure inside the lungs has become greater than the air pressure outside, causing a rush to fix the equilibrium. 15) Is expiration an active or a passive process?

-Nonrespiratory movements Any air movement in addition to breathing, usually resulting from reflexes. Cough conscious or not; air forced through the glottis from the lungs to clear lower respiratory tract Sneeze unconscious; clears upper respiratory tract; air forced at high speeds through the nose (~200 mph!) Laughing and crying taking a breath and releasing it in short bursts Hiccup involuntary spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm; no known purpose or function Yawning aides with respiration by forcing a deeper breath; not all alveoli are inflated, brain triggers yawning response to make sure they dont collapse -Air Volume and Capacities Many terms, all fairly simple: -Respiratory cycle: one inhalation and the accompanying exhalation -Tidal volume: volume of air that enters or leaves during one inhale or exhale

-Resting tidal volume: 500 mL -Inspiratory reserve volume: forced inhalation, the extra air added to the resting tidal volume (maximum volume ~3000 mL) -Expiratory reserve volume: forced exhalation, extra air beyond the normal tidal volume exhaled (up to 1100 mL) -Residual volume: even after the most forceful exhalation, 1200 mL still remain in the lungs -Vital capacity: inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + expiratory reserve capacity = 4600 mL -Inspiratory capacity: tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume = 3500 mL (maximum amount of air a person can inhale after a resting exhalation) -Functional residual capacity: expiratory reserve volume + residual volume = 2300 mL (volume of air that remains in the lungs after a resting exhalation) -Total lung capacity: vital capacity + residual volume = 5800 mL Gas Exchange and Transport -Diffusion Occurs across the respiratory membrane of the alveoli. Travel of molecules across a membrane with no energy involved. Partial pressure: amount of pressure each kind of gas in a mixture contributes to the total pressure exerted by the gas mixture. -Proportional to concentration Because of differences in the concentrations of O2 and CO2 in the blood and the alveoli, the gases swap places.

-Oxygen transport 98% of O2 that diffuses across the alveolar membrane and dissolves in the blood binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells. -Rest dissolved in plasma The pressure of O2 is high in the lungs, so the O2 molecules readily bind to the hemoglobin, forming oxyhemoglobin. The chemical bonds are instable however, so the pressure of O2 decreases and O2 detaches from hemoglobin to dissolve in nearby cells. More O2 is released as the blood concentration of CO2 increases to accommodate for heavy movement. Hypoxia: deficiency in O2 reaching tissue cells -Could be reduced arterial pressure of O2, diminished ability to transport the O2, inadequate blood flow, or molecular defect (cyanide poisoning) -Carbon dioxide transport Transported to lungs in one of three ways: -dissolved in plasma, -compound bound with hemoglobin, or -bicarbonate ion

Amount of CO2 that dissolved in plasma determined by partial pressure (higher the pressure of CO2 in tissues, the more will dissolve) 7% of CO2. Can bind to hemoglobin, on a different site from the oxygen binding site carbaminohemoglobin that decomposes quickly -Theoretically efficient, but it forms very slowly and loosely 23% Rest transported by bicarbonate ion. -Ions diffuse very quickly out of red blood cells and enter the plasma 70% When the CO2 rich blood get to the alveoli, the low pressure of CO2 in the alveoli stimulates the CO2 to diffuse across the membrane, and it is exhaled out of the body.