Class notes for ES912: Turbulent Flows Lecturer: Professor Robert M.

Kerr, Warwick Emphasis: Elementary modelling of turbulent ows including: Introduction Equations of incompressible and compressible ows. Conservation of energy and entropy in ideal systems Dissipation of kinetic energy Equations for Boussinesq convection and stratication Gravity waves in the Boussinesq approximation Sound waves Quantity Ideal property Non-ideal Reason Energy Conserved Decrease Dissipation Entropy Conserved Increases 2nd Law of Thermo

Energy conservation in Newtons laws with gravity. In general, if d dz mu = F (z ), and u = (1) dt dt the solution satises 1 mu2 + V = constant where V (z ) = dzF (z ) 2 (independent exercise: apply d/dt to this entire equation to regain (1) via dt[u{ d mu F (z )}] ) dt (2)

Dene: KE = Kinetic energy= 1 mu2 , P E = Potential energy= dzF (z ) 2 For gravity: F (z ) = mg , and P E = mgz 1 mu2 + mgz = constant 2 as z decreases, u increases Apply (2) to the incompressible Euler (Navier-Stokes) equations. u{ u 1 + (u )u = P + 2 u} t u=0 (3)

where u is the velocity, is the density, P is the pressure and is the kinematic viscosity. Take u inside brackets to get the energy equation 1 2 1 1 ( u ) + (u u2 ) = (uP ) + j ui j ui (j ui )2 } (4) t 2 2 where u = 0 has been used to create the divergences in the nonlinear and pressure terms, red is used to highlight the viscous or dissipation terms, and green is used to highlight the part of the viscous term that is a divergence, as explained below. The divergence terms all turn into surface integrals when the energy equation is integrated over volume and represent uxes into the domain. That is in general dV F = dS F which in 1D is the simple integral calculus relation
b a

du(x) dx = u(b) u(a) dx 2

Dissipation Recall what partial integration is:

b a

xdy = xy |b a

b a

ydx

In (4), the viscous term has been rewritten using partial integration dV u 2 u = dV ui j (j ui ) = dSj ui j ui dV (j ui )2 (5)

The dissipation in a turbulent uid is dened as = (j ui )2 then neglecting boundary eects, the kinetic energy equation (4) reduces to d dt 1 dV u2 = 2 dV 0 (6)

That is the kinetic energy is always decreasing. Where does that energy go? Thermal energy, heat Consider the compressible Navier-Stokes equations for an ideal -law gas, one where P V = nRT or P = RT and P = (constant)

where = 1.4 for a diatomic gas. The constant is a function of the ENTROPY S

Entropy is a measure of the disorder of a system. A parcel of uid can change pressure P , density and temperature T , but keep the same entropy S . This can be expressed by the following relations with respect to a reference state with P , and T . P = ( ) P P T = ( )/( 1) P T T = ( )1/( 1) T

A change where these relationships are obeyed so that S is constant is called isentropic. 3

Compressible Navier-Stokes equations u 1 + (u )u = P + 2 u + ( + )( u) t 3 (7)

where is the coecient of viscosity, or dynamic viscosity. The bulk viscosity will be assumed to be zero Mass continuity + (u) = 0 (8) t and the pressure equation, which can be converted into the heat equation P + (u )P = P ( u) + ( 1) + (k P ) t (9)

( u)ij ]2 where for a compressible uid = 2[eij 1 3 and eij = 0.5(i uj + j ui ). Energy is conserved by the total system and equals the kinetic energy 1 u2 and the density times the internal energy = (P/)/( 1) 2 1 H = u2 + P/( 1) 2 Entropy production comes from the last two terms in (9). Hydrostatic equilibrium and the Boussinesq approximation dp = g dz If T constant then from P = RT, = P RT so

dp g g = P and P = P exp z dz RT RT There is an approximately exponential decrease in pressure and density with height.

For small distances and small perturbations in pressure P = P + P and density = + the compressible Euler equations in a gravitational eld becomes u 1 P P + (u )u = P g z + 2 t
P because g = 0 and using 1/ 1/ /2

Now use = to get

T
P

and P = g

u 1 + (u )u = P gT t

and (u) = 0

1 where = (/T ) is the coecient of compressibility, which for an ideal gas is 1/T . Now add an equation for T

T dT + (u )T + w t dz

= 2 T

and one has the complete set of Boussinesq equations in the presence of a mean temperature gradient. The system will conserve 1 g 2 T } dV { u2 + 2 dT /dz neglecting the prefactor of . This can be divided into the kinetic energy and the potential energy in the standard fashion. It might seem odd to have the potential energy with a factor involving a derivative dT /dz . Two steps are needed to understand where this comes from. dV w(dT /dz ) yields terms only on the boundary, not locally. Therefore, we need a Lagrangian description.

We need a length scale to implement a Lagrangian description, and the only reference length comes from the inverse of the temperature derivative. Going back to the potential energy in a spring, we need to nd the equivalents of the spring constant and the displacement. 5