Jazz

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Chapter 2
Rhythm in Jazz Performance
II.
RHYTHM in JAZZ PERFORMANCE

The rhythmic language is the main element that distinguishes jazz from the European musical traditions. Jazz music borrowed many things from European musical traditions (major/minor harmonic systems, scales and pitch sets, instruments) but jazz has drawn much of its rhythmic heritage from the African culture. A single chapter could never begin to cover all the aspects of rhythm in musical performance. This chapter will touch on rhythmic concepts that are unique and prevalent in improvised and composed jazz performances. A basic understanding of rhythmic notation, relationships of note values, ability to accurately read and write simple rhythms is assumed. For more background, there are many other sources for basic rhythmic concepts and notation.
POLYRHYTHMS
No attempt will be made here to thoroughly explain the inner workings of an African drum ensemble, but some generalizations will be helpful for understanding certain aspects of jazz rhythm. In an African drum ensemble there are many different pulses occurring at once, making the music polyrhythmic. One role in the band may be to play a primary pulse on a cowbell, something we could write in Western notation as quarter notes. These quarter notes can be subdivided into two eighth notes. Another role is to suggest a second pulse which could be notated as a dotted quarter, which can be divided into three eighth notes. The two pulses will continue throughout the piece. There will probably be other pulses introduced including half note triplets, and their subdivisions of quarter note and eighth note triplets. 2.1 Polyrhythms
Soloist
. . . . . . c> > > > > > > > > >
Pulse #3
c c> . c
>
> . J
> .
> > >
Pulse #2
Pulse #1
> J
> > . > . J
As a piece progresses, individuals may improvise rhythms suggesting combinations of the pulse; for awhile suggesting the quarter note pulse, and other times suggesting the dotted quarter pulse. The emphasis of one or the other pulse is suggested by the use of accents. These polyrhythms are probably
Jazz Theory Resources
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recognized now as being a part of more than just jazz, as they have permeated the American and World pop music.
SWING EIGHTH NOTE

Defining a swing eighth note is to define the indefinable. As with all the material written about jazz, the real meaning is in the playing, listening and the experience. Nowhere is this more true than understanding the eighth note feel. In the European tradition, the pulse can be divided into two or into three. Quarter notes are usually divided into two even eighth notes, or three eighth notes as in a triplet. When dividing a quarter note in a swing feel into a subdivision of two, the two notes are rarely of equal value. The first eighth note in a swing feel typically has a longer duration than the second eighth note. Even eighth notes have the ratio 1:1. A dotted eighth note followed by a sixteenth note has a ratio of 3:1 and this is too much of a difference to create a convincing pair of swinging eighth notes. The jazz eighth note ratio is more commonly explained as a ratio of 2:1, as in a triplet figure with the first two eighths tied. 2.2
1:1
Different ratios of subdivision:
3:1
2:1
Some research has been done using a computer system to time the relationship between the first and second notes in the improvisations of artists like Oscar Peterson, Sonny Stitt, John Coltrane, Miles Davis and many others. The results were tabulated and the average ratio was in the neighborhood of 58:42. This ratio can be rounded to 60:40 and then reduced to 3:2. 3:2 can be conventionally notated: 2.3
3:2
Subdivision with 3:2 ratio:
.
5
3:2
This study was fascinating but it offered little help for the aspiring young jazz musician. The 3:2 ratio is difficult to read and even more difficult to teach. The best way to understand the jazz swing feel is to listen to hours of great musicians playing jazz. A close examination reveals many different concepts from one player to the next and even from one player within a single performance. There will be times when the eighths notes are perfectly even, others where they will be more like the dotted rhythms, others may fall in that indefinable area between the 3:2 and 2:1 ratios. What makes the music swing is not just the ratio of eighth notes, but the combination of forward drive, swing eighth notes, well placed accents and articulations.
The best way to understand the jazz swing feel is to listen to hours of great musicians playing jazz. What makes the music swing is not just the ratio of eighth notes, but the combination of forward drive, swing eighth notes, well placed accents and articulations.
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ACCENTS & ARTICULATIONS

Anyone who has practiced European art music has at one time practiced scales, being careful not to accent any notes, making long, smooth legato lines up and down their instruments. Classical music performance demands the refined, lyrical, legato line be performed with no accents so musicians must practice in order to perform it correctly. Part of the African music tradition is the use of irregular and sometimes unpredictable accents. The accents are a way of bringing out the polyrhythmic character of the music. The irregular accents should not be mistaken for haphazard. The music may be in march time, while the accents played by the improviser may suggest a meter or combinations of meters that actually extend over the measure line. If a line of eighth notes is played with no accents, the polyrhythmic character is lost. I heard a pianist complimenting another pianist saying he could play all the Oscar Peterson lines, but without the accents, and this, to him made him the better player. I think they both missed the point. Heavy irregular accents are part of the tapestry of jazz music. In order to play Mozart, the objective is to play smooth lines without accents. To play jazz convincingly, you must learn to control accents, not randomly, but as a part of suggesting the polyrhythmic nature of jazz. In the European model of a common time measure, beats one and three are the strong beats with beat one being the stronger of the two. Beats three and four are the weaker beats. From the influence of African rhythmic traditions, in some music, the opposite is true: beats two and four get more of an emphasis. A traditional jazz band will play four quarter notes in a row and beats two and four will get slightly more of an accent than beats one and three. Quarter notes will usually be played short regardless of their location in the measure. 2.4 Short quarter notes:
. c
^ J J
^ J
Watch a jazz musician count off a tune. Usually he will snap his fingers on beats two and four to establish the tempo and then count, One - (snap) - two - (snap) - one - TWO - three - FOUR. This emphasizes the back beat rather than the traditional strong downbeats one and three. Many jazz musicians set their metronome to click on two and four to simulate this accent. Try this rhythmic test. Sing the tune Hit the Road Jack while clapping your hands. You are probably clapping on beats two and four, and not on beats one and three. Hit the Road (clap) Jack (clap)... The accented upbeats are not limited to the pulse but also effect the subdivisions of the pulse. Eighth notes will get a slight accent on the upbeat rather than the downbeat. Players will achieve this by slurring the upbeat to the downbeat. Horn players will tongue the upbeats and slur to the downbeats. Guitarists may pick the upbeat and hammer the finger or slide to the downbeat. String players must change the bow on an upbeat rather than the downbeat as they may have been accustomed.
> > > > &c
2.5
Accented upbeats:
Many jazz lines end on an upbeat and these notes should be accented. Remember, that to accent a note it must be louder than the surrounding notes. Often this means playing the surrounding notes softer. It is hard to play a line with all loud notes and then play a note with an accent. Making the surrounding notes softer will help the accented note stand out.
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Lines that end on short notes on the upbeat should are usually played short and accented and will often be notated with a ^ symbol. 2.6 End on short accent:
^ c
do ba do DAHT

do ba
^
do DAHT
^
do ba do DAHT
Long notes on the upbeat at the end of lines should also be played with an accent. 2.7 End on long accent:
> c
do ba do DAH

do ba
>
do DAH
>
do ba do DAH
Upbeat dotted quarter notes lead to a downbeat and should be accented. 2.8 Accented upbeat:
. . > & c .
DAH dot dot
. . . b> J
dot dot do DAH
^
DAHT
The upbeats of a jazz line generally get accented, but the shape of the line is the most important thing to consider when determining accents. The top notes of a line and any changes of direction call for an accent. The resulting accents will often suggest another pulse and help create the polyrhythms inherent in jazz. In the following example (which is closely related to a favorite line of Charlie Parker) the top notes of the line should receive an accent. These accents create a counter-rhythm to the four quarter notes per measure. The resulting rhythm is a series of dotted quarter notes. This kind of accenting is often called bopping the top of the lines.
The shape of the line is the most important thing to consider when determining accents.
2.9 Bopping the top:
&c
> 3 > > > > > ^ # j b # # n b # b
Many of the tunes used for jazz improvisations are show tunes, and are often written with very simple melodic rhythms. Jazz improvisers will almost never play the melody the way it is written in sheet music. Often, the first improvements made by a jazz improviser are to the melodic rhythms. Important notes
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which typically land on the downbeat will be moved ahead to the upbeat. The anticipation pushes the melody forward, and calls attention to the more common upbeat accents. While some notes are played earlier, others are delayed, and others may be hurried along to make up for differences. Here is a five-note melodic idea as it may appear on sheet music. 2.10a Square melody
&c
2.10b
And here are a number of ways a jazz musician may alter the rhythms to jazz them up. Delaying the first note, anticipating the final note. 2.10c Anticipating beats three and one.
> j. . c &
2.10d More anticipation.
. > > c &

2.10e Downbeat followed by upbeats.
>j > c &

2.10f 3 down, 2 up.
. > c j & j
2.10g Starting with upbeat.
. . > c & j
2.10h
&c
2.10c
. > ^ j .
Delayed by a beat and the rest hurried along.
Using a repeated note (iteration).
>j > > ^ &c

2.10j
^ ^ c &
Ending on a downbeat preceded by an accented dotted quarter.
. . > j c & .
Long notes, any value from a dotted quarter note and above, are usually played forte-piano ( ). There may be a slight crescendo at the end of the note into either the cut-off or the next melodic pitch. This is
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more prevalent in ensemble work than in improvisation and will vary in intensity depending on the ensemble. In early baroque music, articulations and phrase markings were not included. The player was expected to know how to phrase and articulate in the style. The same is true for much of the music written for jazz bands. The jazz musicians were expected to see the notes and interpret them in a jazz style. Probably few of the earlier jazz musicians thought a great deal of exactly what things went in to making the music sound like jazz, relying on their ears to imitate and govern their decisions. In a rehearsal recently, a seasoned professional was reluctant to provide verbal details on how to articulate certain unmarked passages. He then played the passages for the younger players. He expressed surprise at playing quarter notes short and playing all the long notes forte-piano. For him this was just part of how to make it sound like jazz. Historically, this and many other aspects of jazz have been learned and passed on aurally: learning by imitating the master. This underscores another major difference in the European and African cultures. The European tradition of learning involves the written page. The African oral tradition depends on the master/apprentice approach. There are no African drumming etude books in the African drum tradition. Most contemporary music published for jazz ensembles includes all articulation markings, in part due to the large education market. While this might insure a more accurate performance of the composers ideas, there is still no substitute for listening to the style and imitating. One disadvantage to reading charts with all articulations written in is the students never develop the critical skills to make the appropriate articulations and phrasing decisions themselves. There is no substitute for the aural experience.
There is no substitute for the aural experience.
RHYTHMIC ROLES
For a basketball, baseball or soccer team to be successful, each member must understand their role and its relationship to the rest of the team. This is also true in the African drum ensemble and the jazz rhythm section. What follows is some general guidelines for the roles and responsibilities within the jazz rhythm section. With any jazz performance, depending on the players, the historical period and the time of night, these lines of demarcation may be clear or deliberately obscured. Determining the basic roles will help in understanding the foundation and help to understand the deviations from the norm. The pulse is generated from two parts of the rhythm section: the ride cymbal and the bass. The ride cymbal pattern can be many variations of quarter and eighth note combinations, but fundamentally has to supply the quarter note pulse. Without the solid pulse as a foundation there can be no subdivision of that pulse. The bass player locks in to that quarter note pulse and walks a quarter note accompaniment. The backbeat is emphasized by the drummers hi-hat closing on beats two and four. The bass player may slightly emphasize the backbeat by accenting two and four with the hi-hat. Once these roles are established, the subdivisions can be easily felt. The drummer may add a pair of eighth notes on the back beats creating what is generally considered the jazz ride pattern. This may be only a point of departure for many great jazz drummers. The pair of eighth notes may shift and in doing so imply time signatures other than 4 4 . Within an eight measure phrase you may hear:
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2.11 Ride cymbal pattern implying multiple mixed meters:
The bass player adds to this by playing subdivisions between his quarter notes. Often these notes are muffled or ghosted. These little spit notes have more importance as rhythm than pitch. 2.12 Bass line with ghosted spit notes:
b c n b n b b n b
In a rock beat, the bass drum has the role of providing the pulse while the snare has the backbeat. In a swing feel, the pulse is played by the ride cymbal while the hi-hat plays the backbeat. That leaves the snare drum to accent other rhythmic figures. Some possible snare drum combinations include: 2.13 Charleston rhythm:
c .
Anticipation of beats one and three: 2.14 Anticipated accompaniment rhythm:
c J J
A combination of Charleston rhythm displaced and on the beat: 2.15 Combination accompaniment rhythm:
c J
The guitarist and pianist can reinforce the snare drum rhythms shown in 2.13-2.15. The use of combinations of quarter note and dotted quarter rhythms add to the polyrhythmic character. Listen to some of the great jazz rhythm sections and how they develop the rhythmic interplay while accompanying (comping for) a soloist. The rhythm sections of the Miles Davis Quintet from the 1950s with Philly
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Joe Jones on drums, Paul Chambers on bass, and either Red Garland or Wynton Kelly on piano provide excellent listening models. Ex. 2.16 represents possible accompaniment figures which could be played by the guitarist or pianist and maybe also the snare drum using rhythms from ex. 2.13-2.15. It is unlikely that all would decide to play the same figures without prior planning. The structural places in a piece will usually be anticipated with an upbeat of four accent. In the blues, this may occur at the end of four measure phrases as shown below. 2.16 Possible comping patterns for Blues:
& c .
1
F7
& . & .
B 7
b J
Gm7
. J J # G 7/B A 7 D7 Gm7 F7 . J J J J J J J C7 F7 D7 Gm7 C7 | . . | J J J
B 7
b .
F7
Cm 7
b J J J
F7
B 7
There are times when long streams of dotted quarter notes may be superimposed over the common time groove. Listen particularly to the rhythm sections of the John Coltrane Quartet where Elvin Jones on drums and McCoy Tyner on piano play streams of dotted quarter rhythms over the steady common time bass lines. Ex. 2.17 illustrates the dotted quarter rhythm over the last four measure of the blues. 2.17 Last four measures of Blues:
Gm9 D 13 C9sus4 C13 G 13 Fm aj7
b j . &b c bb ... ?b c n
... .
j j j b b n . b . # .. n b b b
D7 13
# b9
Gm9
C13
G 13
F13
bbb ... b . b
The Miles Davis Quintet rhythm sections of the early 1960s with Ron Carter on bass, Tony Williams on drums and Herbie Hancock on piano stretched the boundaries of polyrhythms more than ever before, creating great waves of rhythmic dissonance between the drums and piano and the steady pulse from the bass. This group has recorded some trio and quintet material together in the 1970s and 1980s. When listening to them stretch rhythmic boundaries, note how often the eight measure phrase served as a guidepost for resolving rhythmic dissonances. The bass drum in contemporary jazz is usually used to accent major structural points or strong accents in the music. It is rare in modern playing to hear the bass drum play the four on the floor four beats per measure on a swing feel. The jazz improviser, as the improviser in the African drum ensemble, plays a variety of rhythms over the top of the rhythm section. The basic rhythmic currency for swing improvisation is the swing eighth, but rhythmic variety is created in a number of ways. Accent groupings of two eighth notes correspond to the quarter pulse while accent groupings of three eighth notes refers to the secondary dotted quarter
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pulse. A jazz improviser, having established the eighth note, will use any combination of other subdivisions and rhythmic units. I often ask, when standing in front of a student band, Who keeps the time in the band. Almost everyone in the band will point at the drummer. It is everyones job to keep the time. A drummer cannot fix the bad time played by one, much less sixteen other musicians. When I was a young novice player, I sat in with an outstanding bass player and drummer. They did not swing nearly as well when I played with them. It was clearly not them, but me. It was a valuable learning experience. A saxophone student in an improvisation class once complained that the rhythm section was not keeping good time and would occasionally play wrong chords. The next time through the tune I stopped the rhythm section and allowed the saxophone to play an unaccompanied chorus. He could not keep the time or the changes by himself. It pointed out something to all of the class: keeping time and the chords was everyones responsibility. We practiced a drill for a few rehearsals to gain control of these elements. Every one played one chorus with accompaniment and one without until we all could make it through the form keeping the time and playing the chord changes convincingly. Drummers learned to play the tune and keep the form on their solos.
HARMONIC RHYTHM in JAZZ PERFORMANCE

Harmonic rhythm is the rhythm of the harmonic changes. If chords change every two beats, the harmonic rhythm is half-notes. If chords change every four beats, the harmonic rhythm is whole notes. There is a variety of harmonic rhythm in jazz performances and not all of it corresponds to the meter or to where it is written on the page. If there is one chord per measure in 4 4 , we expect the bass to play the root of the chord on beat one, corresponding to where the chord symbol is notated on the page. The pianist or guitarist may anticipate each chord symbol playing the changes on the upbeat of four. This is part of the polyrhythmic energy of a jazz rhythm section. The melody or improvised solo may play with the bass, with the accompaniment instruments, anticipate the changes even more, or delay the resolution into the next measure. It is important to remember this when analyzing written solos. We confine the written notes of a line to measures for reading ease, but the harmonic implications are not always confined to those measures. The vertical alignment of notes may often seem senseless, but when viewed in the larger harmonic scheme the soloists may have anticipated or suspended the melodic material of one chord over another chord. This is not unique to jazz; church hymnals and music from all style periods are full of suspensions and anticipations. Jazz suspensions may involve several notes. Do not fall into the trap of labeling everything by its vertical arrangement. Music is heard and conceived in a linear manner and should be studied in the same way.
Music is heard and conceived in a linear manner and should be studied in the same way.
Below is an example of how different harmonic rhythms may be suggested in a jazz performance. The discrepancy created by the different players making the chord changes occur at different times is a large part of what makes the jazz performance interesting. The rhythmic and melodic pieces sometimes agree and sometimes clash, creating waves of consonance and dissonance. A chord chart may show the harmonic rhythm as whole notes: Dm7 for four beats, G7 for four beats and C major 7 for eight beats. The bass player may directly follow the chord chart playing the roots of the chords on the downbeats as shown. The pianist or guitarist may anticipate or delay the changes. In the example below, the pianist anticipates the Dm7, delays the G7, and anticipates the C major 7. A soloist has more freedom and may anticipate or delay a great deal when creating his lines. The trumpet line begins the Dm7 on the upbeat, and the 3-5-7-9 arpeggio of the Dm7 begins on the fourth beat and spills over into the G7 measure. G7 is clearly heard on the third beat with a 3-5-7-b9 arpeggio and again the
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line spills into the next measure before coming to rest on the C major, a half note later than the chord chart suggests. Being aware that all music is experienced in linear time will help in understanding the necessity of linear and not strictly vertical analysis of music. 2.18 Harmonic rhythm discrepancies in jazz performance:
G7 Cm aj7 b J b # G7 Cmaj7 Dm 7 . | . J J J J J Dm 7 G7 Cmaj7 # b Dm7
Trumpet
&c &c ?c
Piano
Bass
THE LARGER VIEW: FORM as RHYTHMIC STRUCTURE

Many music theory books include a rhythmic subdivision chart showing the whole note subdivided into two halves, the halves into quarters, and so on down to sixteenths or maybe thirty-second notes. It is better to begin with something larger than the whole note for an overview of rhythmic subdivision. A whole note is a small unit of time in relationship to the entire piece, so a better place to begin may be with the entire piece. The first line (1.) of the graph below, represents entire piece from beginning to end, Imagine that the entire piece represents one unit of time, which will be five minutes for the sake of this discussion. The second line (2.) shows the piece divided into five choruses or repetitions of an AABA form. Each chorus represents a subdivision of the original time unit. Most of the jazz standard tunes used as vehicles for improvisation fall into one of the following forms: BLUES: usually 12 measures, sometimes 16 or 24 measures. AABA: all usually 8 measures in length. The second and last A section may be slightly different than the first. The second A may lead to the B, and the last A provides some closing material. (Example AABA tune: I Got Rhythm) ABAB 1 : all usually 8 measures in length. The second B may be slightly different than the first. The first B leads back down to the second A, where the second B provides some closing material. (Example ABAB tune: Just Friends) (More will be discussed regarding form and its relationship to harmonic analysis in a later chapter.) By zooming in on one chorus (3.), a subdivision of the original unit, its own subdivision is revealed. Each chorus is further subdivided into four eight measure phrases labeled AABA. Zooming in another power at (4.) reveals the A section further subdivided into eight different measures. This eight measure phrase can be heard as four two measure phrases or two four measure phrases. It is important to be able to hear and respond musically within these larger units of time, not just the smaller units of note values within a measure.
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2.19 1.
Large form rhythmic subdivision:
ENTIRE PIECE
2. CHORUS I (AABA form) CHORUS II (AABA form) CHORUS III (AABA form) CHORUS IV (AABA form) CHORUS V (AABA form)
3.
A
8 measure phrase
A
8 measure phrase
B
8 measure phrase
A
8 measure phrase
4. 2 measure phrase 2 measure phrase 4 measure phrase
The eight measure fragment (4.) from the previous graph can be divided into one-measure segments. The single measure is represented by the whole note in the graph below. This single measure in 2.20 must be viewed in the larger scope as a subdivision of an eight measure phrase (4.) which is a part of a thirty-two measure AABA form (3.) which may repeat several times to create the entire piece (1. & 2.) With this larger perspective, the discussion of the whole note chart showing the note values and relationships is appropriate. 2.20 Single measure rhythmic subdivision
w
3
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Seasoned improvisers and composers sense and feel larger units of time. An improviser learns to feel an entire thirty two measure form. Sometimes a musician will improvise several times through the form, sensing one hundred and twenty eight measures, building his ideas to a logical conclusion. A improviser may learn to feel a thirty-two measure form as one unit of a four-chorus improvisation. Within each form, the eight measure phrase is shaped by all members of the band. In fact, just as a beginning musician can tell the difference between beats one and four, an experienced jazz musician senses the difference between the first A and the last A of an AABA form. With this perspective knowing where beat three is in a measure is analogous to knowing where the B section is in an AABA form. The B is the third beat of the form, the form being an augmentation of the measure. This takes some time to master, as any beginning improviser who has lost the form will attest. To continue this example, say the jazz performance of this piece lasts for five minutes (the Entire Piece). The band plays the melody of the song for the first minute (Chorus I: AABA). The alto sax improvises over the form for a minute (Chorus II), followed by the trumpet (Chorus III), and the piano (Chorus IV). The band plays the melody again at the end (Chorus V). The entire piece being subdivided into five parts makes the jazz performance very much like the five paragraph paper form as shown below: Jazz Performance Statement of the melody: Introduces the form and themes on which the band will improvise. Alto solo: The alto player expresses his version of the melody and harmony. Trumpet solo: The trumpet player expresses his version of the melody and harmony. Piano solo: The piano player expresses his version of the melody and harmony. Restatement of the melody: Reminds the listener of original themes. Five Paragraph Paper Introductory paragraph: Tell them what you are going to tell them. Paragraph One: Discuss one aspect of the subject. Paragraph Two: Discuss another aspect of the subject. Paragraph Three: Discuss another aspect of the subject. Closing paragraph: Tell them what you told them.
PLACEMENT of the NOTES

One deficiency of the standard notation system is its inability to show minute variances in placement of individual notes. A simple line composed of eighth notes can be played in different ways depending on the placement of those notes in relationship to the pulse. Different players will, in varied musical settings, play slightly ahead of, right on top of, or slightly behind the actual pulse. These variances in the hands of mature players give life to the performance. In younger players it may be an underdeveloped sense of time, and they actually may be rushing or dragging the pulse. There are some players who consistently play slightly ahead of the beat which can give the music a forward drive. They are not necessarily rushing the beat, but just pushing it ahead by playing on top of the beat. There are other players who, no matter how the rhythm section is playing around them seem to play their notes squarely in the middle of the pulse. Others can artfully play just behind the band, creating at once a laid-back feeling and a tension from the pull created by the rhythmic discrepancy between the soloist and the rest of the band. Anyone who has heard music created on computers and quantized to perfect rhythmic units knows how inhuman perfection sounds. The push-pull inaccuracies are part of the life-blood of the music. But do not throw your metronomes away quite yet. Mature players gain a great sense of where the pulse is and adapt to musical situations. They can shift from playing ahead to playing behind, always knowing where the actual pulse is. To be able to play around the pulse effectively and convincingly, one has to know where that pulse is. A beginning improviser should practice playing with a metronome and develop a strong sense of pulse before attempting to play around that pulse.
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A beginning improviser should practice playing with a metronome and develop a strong sense of pulse before attempting to play around that pulse.
SYNCOPATION STUDIES
The eighth note is the basic unit of currency for jazz, but it is the groupings of the eighth notes that create the rhythmic business. Syncopation is created by a shift of the accent in a musical passage, where beats that were normally weak may now be accented. Typically in the European model, within a quarter note pulse, every other eighth note is on an accented down beat. By accenting every third eighth note, a shift will occur contradicting the basic pulse. This is the most fundamental type of syncopation used in jazz: the dotted quarter pulse (grouping of three eighth notes) against the quarter note pulse (grouping of two eighth notes). This is one of the many rhythmic characteristics borrowed from African culture. In jazz performances, the polyrhythms usually fit into the eight bar phrases defined by the forms of many show and pop tunes which are the basis for so much of the jazz literature. Much of the syncopated dissonance with the primary pulse is resolved after four or eight measures. There are thirty-two eighth notes in a four measure phrase which divides into sixteen even quarter note beats. Thirty-two is not divisible by three (the dotted quarter pulse) without a remainder of two. The jazz improviser/composer uses mixtures of threes (dotted quarter pulse) and twos (quarter pulse) to create the cross-rhythms associated with jazz. The dotted quarter note imposition can occur anywhere in the measure and can be articulated in many ways. In the following example, the dotted quarter rhythm occurs on beat one. It is shown with four different articulations: long-long, long-short, short-long, and short-short. This rhythm is typically called the Charleston Rhythm. 2.21 Different articulations of the Charleston Rhythm
c .
A dotted quarter note is equal to three eighth notes, and three can be expressed as 3, 2 + 1, 1 + 2 and 1 + 1 + 1. In musical notation that would be a dotted quarter (3), a quarter and an eighth (2 + 1), and eighth and a quarter (1 + 2), and three individual eighth notes (1 + 1 + 1). In many musical passages where the dotted quarter pulse Charleston Rhythm is implied, it may be divided into any of these combinations: 2.22 Variations of the Charleston Rhythm
c .
(3)
(2 + 1)
(1 + 2)
(1 + 1 + 1)
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Negative space is implied space created by a positive image. Below are four black boxes (positive space). The negative space, a white cross, is also clearly visible and important to the image. 2.23 Negative space
Visual artists depend on the recognition of negative space. The concept of negative space is also important in music. Any pitches that are played (positive space) may imply other pitches that are not played. A certain pitch may be stressed by playing a number of pitches around that pitch that point to that pitch, while never actually playing the pitch. This type of manipulation is one thing that creates dramatic interest in the music. As with pitches, any rhythm that is played (positive space) may imply a rhythm not played (negative space). The dotted quarter Charleston Rhythm is shown on the top line repeated over a four measure phrase, creating a constant dotted quarter pulse against the quarter note pulse. The bottom line in the following examples shows the rhythm of the notes that are not being played by the top line. The bottom line is then the negative space of the top line. Try dividing the class into two sections. Have one section tap the top lines and the other tap the bottom lines on this and following examples. Switch every four measures. 2.24 Dotted quarter Charleston Rhythm extended over four measure phrase shown with implied negative space rhythms:
c .
. J
. J
c J J J
J J J
This may sound like a mathematical game, and it can be, but here are some musical examples that occur frequently and naturally. Dexter Gordon, in a blues improvisation, and Dave Brubeck both used the negative space rhythm from ex. 2.24. 2.25
b . & b c j b j
. b j
bX
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2.26
J J &c
The dotted quarter rhythm from ex. 2.24 can be displaced by an eighth note creating the following line shown with positive and negative rhythms. 2.27 Dotted quarter rhythm displaced and extended over four measure phrase shown with implied negative space rhythms:
c .
. J
c J
J J J J
Duke used the negative rhythm from ex. 2.27 in the piece It Dont Mean a Thing if it Aint Got That Swing. 2.28
j .
b &b c J
J J J
It appears at this point that if you use these syncopated rhythms, you will be playing either The Charleston, or It Dont Mean a Thing if it Aint Got That Swing!
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The dotted quarter rhythm from ex. 2.24 can be displaced by a quarter note creating the following line shown with positive and negative rhythms. 2.29 Dotted quarter rhythm displaced and extended over four measure phrase shown with implied negative space rhythms:
. J
. J
c J J J J
You can see the negative rhythm from ex. 2.29 in the following melody composed by Sonny Rollins. 2.30
& c j #
b n b n J J J
b .
The next stage in developing a sense for these rhythms involves understanding the subdivision of the dotted quarter notes. As discussed previously and shown below, the dotted quarter note equals three eighth notes which can be expressed as 3, 2 + 1, 1 + 2 and 1 + 1 + 1. 2.31 Variations of the dotted eighth note Charleston Rhythm
c .
(3)
(2 + 1)
(1 + 2)
(1 + 1 + 1)
More musical rhythmic material can be created by substituting combinations of the variations to the dotted quarters in ex. 2.24, 2.27, 2.29. In the following several examples, every other dotted quarter value is substituted with another combination of a quarter and an eighth (2 + 1), and eighth and a quarter (1 + 2), or three individual eighth notes (1 + 1 + 1). Changing the rhythm will also change the implied negative space rhythm. 2.32 Ex. 2.24 with the pattern: (2 + 1), 3, (2 + 1), 3, etc.
. J
. J
c J J J
J J J
26
Chapter 2
2.33
Ex. 2.27 with the pattern: (2 + 1), 3, (2 + 1), 3, etc.
c . J J c J
2.34
. J J J J J
J J
. J J J
J J J
c . J
. J
. J
c J J J J
2.35 Ex. 2.24 with the pattern: (1 + 2), 3, (1 + 2), 3, etc.
c . J c
. J
If you are singing along, you probably noticed that the negative space to ex 2.35 resembles the Dizzy Gillespie tune Salt Peanuts. 2.36
&c
b
Salt
b
Salt
Pea nuts
Pea nuts
Chapter 2
27
2.37
c . J c J J
2.38
. J
J J J J J J J J
c .
. J
. J
2.39
Ex. 2.24 with the pattern: (1 + 1 + 1), 3, (1 + 1 + 1), 3, etc.
c . J c
. J
2.40
c . J c J
. J J
. J
J J J
28
Chapter 2
2.41
c . J
. J
. J
A musician
involved in the creation of music needs several rhythmic skills including: a strong sense of pulse and its subdivision a strong sense of any secondary polyrhythmic pulses and their subdivisions the ability to aurally recognize and create music using rhythmic material the ability to visually recognize and interpret rhythmic material in written music
Singing and tapping the rhythmic examples in this chapter will help develop the rhythmic independence, the aural and visual recognition needed to read, invent and interpret rhythmic musical material.
SYNCOPATION in the JAZZ WALTZ

The majority of the music played by jazz musicians is in common time, four beats to the measure. Jazz musicians do have a version of the waltz that goes beyond oom-pah-pah. The syncopation principle is the same. If the primary pulse is a quarter note, the secondary pulse is a dotted quarter. Three quarter notes per measure defines the waltz. A superimposition of two dotted quarters creates the feeling of 6 8 meter with the first dotted quarter on beat one, the second on the upbeat of two. Displacing the two dotted quarters by and eighth note puts a dotted quarter on the upbeat of beat one and another on beat three. All three rhythms are shown in ex. 2.42. It may help to hear the combination of dotted quarter rhythms by singing Who parked the car? as shown.
2.42
Jazz Waltz
3 . &4 ... parked car? ?3 . 4 . Who 3 the 4
.. .. parked car? . . Who the
.. .. ..
Chapter 2
29
POLYRHYTHMS in PERFORMANCE
All of the discussion of possible rhythmic variations and superimpositions are meaningless and merely mathematical games without understanding and recognizing their place in musical performance. Many ask, after studying the previous material, how to get these ideas into their own playing. It is beneficial to study several examples from jazz performances to see how great jazz artists incorporate polyrhythms in their improvisations and compositions. Several examples have already been shown from Dexter Gordon (ex. 2.25), Dave Brubeck (ex. 2.26), Duke Ellington (ex. 2.28) and Sonny Rollins (ex. 2.30). To learn language or a craft of any kind, the proven method is to study the masters. To develop individual vocabulary within that craft one must borrow from the vocabulary of those masters. This may seem contradictory to develop individual vocabulary by borrowing from others. What one does with the borrowed material is what separates mimicking and parroting from true personal development. I composed a blues that used nothing but Parker lines, stolen to show students ways to develop ideas from borrowed material. I called the piece Ornithelestes which means literally Bird-stealer. Anyone who plays jazz is just that, whether they intended to or not, as Parker, the Bird, has influenced so many jazz improvisers. The following example is created with a line borrowed from Parker that has a different conclusion added. Beginning with the pick-up notes, the melodic accents are based on the dotted quarter pulse shown creating a secondary pulse to the primary quarter note pulse of the bass line. 2.43 Line similar to Charlie Parker line:
&c ?c
>j 3 > > > > > ^ # b # # n b # b

Gm 7 C7
b n
b n
The superimposed dotted quarter note pulse need not be constant. Shifting between combinations of quarter and dotted quarter groupings makes this improvised line by Miles Davis interesting. The implied divisions are shown above the line for reference. 2.44
. > > &b c J
. . > J
Clifford Brown used the dotted quarter note pulse to break up an otherwise straight forward eighth note line. The idea began in the second complete measure and for the two measures Brown implied 3, (2 + 1), 3, (2 + 1), 3, and 2 before continuing the line with eighth notes. This idea recurred in many forms throughout this solo.
30
Chapter 2
2.45
&b c
3 b b b b . J
j j b . J
& b b n b b
Displaced accents are created by odd combinations of twos and threes and give the music the excitement and unpredictability that makes listening challenging and interesting. Parker, in the melody to Au Privave began with suggested dotted quarter groupings and slipped in a pair of displaced quarter notes in the ex 2.46 below. Parker continued the play on the dotted quarter note in mm.5-6 of the same piece, shown in ex. 2.47. 2.46
j & b c # j
2.47
b & b c n . J J
A pair of superimposed dotted quarter rhythms are sequenced in this improvised example from Charlie Parker. 2.48
3 b c j j b &
3 b j j
Chapter 2
31
In the first two measures of this improvisation, Parker emphasized the downbeats one and three by coming to rest on chord tones and using notes with longer values. The second two measures had no melodic motion as Parker just drew attention to the rhythmic superimposition of dotted quarter values. 2.49
j & b c # n .
j .
Parker achieved a balance between on the beat and off the beat material, with a sense of when to give the listener the expected and when to give the unexpected.
In the melody to the blues tune Billies Bounce, Parker imposed a long passage of dotted quarter displaced accents. Ex. 2.50 shows the first three measures of the melody. Ex. 2.51 shows the accents implied by the entire melody. Parker was inventive and dramatic in the development of his rhythmic ideas. Parker achieved a balance between on the beat and off the beat material, with a sense of when to give the listener the expected and when to give the unexpected. Reducing the melody of Billies Bounce to rhythmic notation alone helps to focus on the rhythmic development. Parker used strings of dotted quarter note superimpositions beginning on beat three of m.1, labeled (a). It occurred in the exposition of this idea in mm.1-3, (a) overlapped itself several times. After so many dotted quarter notes, one would expect the first note of m.6 to be on beat two, but instead, Parker played it earlier on the upbeat of beat one creating a second motive (b) which is really a variation of motive (a). Parker then returned to the first rhythmic motive beginning on the third beat of m.6. Motive (a) returned beginning on the upbeat of beat three in m.8. Motive (b) returned on the downbeat of m.10 followed by the overlapping motive (a) in mm.11-12. The chart in ex. 2.51 does not show all the notes of the melody, simply the accents suggested by the melody. 2.50
&b c
j n #
32
Chapter 2
2.51
Rhythmic outline of implied melodic accents:
c
1
.
b.
a.
a.
J
2
.
a.
3
a.
. .
a.
J
6
J
a.
10
b.
. J J
11
a.
.
12
A sense of mixed meter is created in ex. 2.52 by the assortment of irregular accents. These three mea4 6 sures could have been notated as one measure of 6 8 followed by a measure of 4 , another measure of 8, 2 and finally a measure of 4. Of course, Parker was not thinking of notational questions when he conceived of this line.
2.52
b & b c n
# b n #
Wes Montgomerys live recording of Impression is a lesson in creating rhythmic expectations, developing them, and adding surprising twists and turns. On the recording you can hear members of the band laugh at the way Montgomery set up a rhythmic idea only to turn it upside down or sideways just when 4 they had it figured out. Ex. 2.53 is essentially a 3 4 idea played over the 4 measures. The idea was completed and reset at the end of the eight measure phrase, where he began again.
2.53
fast swing
Dotted half-note accents:
> > > > > > c & etc. > > > > > . &
Montgomery used the dotted quarter note implying resolved at the end of the eight measure phrase.
3 8
over 4 4 . Again the conflict of the two pulses was
Chapter 2
33
2.54
Dotted quarter-note accents:
&c
fast swing
. J
j j . . j . . J . J
. j
j j & j . . .
The repeated notes of ex. 2.55 make the focus of this idea clearly rhythmic. It is related to the rhythm in ex. 2.53 but resolved the conflict at the end of every four rather than eight measure phrase. In the solo, Montgomery developed this idea over an AABA form and eventually developed the four quarter note measure and elicited a surprised response from the band. 2.55
k > k > k > k > c & k > k > k > k k k k k > & #
fast swing
k k k k b ketc. >
Groupings of notes implying other pulses do not have to last for several measures to be interesting. There are countless examples of steady eighth note lines interrupted briefly with groupings like the ones from this Carl Fontana improvisation.
2.56
Dotted quarter-note accents:
&c
j j b b
Subdivision of a quarter note is not limited to a pair of eighth notes. Any number of combinations occur. Dividing the pulse into three or triplets provides another opportunity for cross rhythms. Any combination of triplets divided evenly or unevenly in relationship to the pulse may be found in jazz improvisations.
34
Chapter 2
2.57
3
Groupings of triplet subdivision

3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 c
This is a common blues idea played by thousands of guitarists in blues bars. It may be wickedly difficult to try to read figures like this but once heard, they are easily recognized. 2.58
F7
Blues triplet clich
3 3 3 c b b b b n b & 3
In 4 4, the metrical division is typically pairs or groups of four eighth notes. Ordering those eighth notes into groups of three can create the cross rhythms and syncopated polyrhythms. When the pulse is subdivided into triplets, notes are grouped into threes. In order to create the rhythmic dissonance and cross rhythms with triplets, then the notes must be grouped into pairs or fours. Herbie Hancocks groupings of triplets into sets of four in ex. 2.59 suggested half-note triplets or a 3 2 measure imposed in the space of a 4 4 measure. Freddie Hubbard, on the same recording used similar rhythmic ideas at this point in Dolphin Dance. 2.59 Polyrhythms
3 3 3
B pedal
b b b b # n b b c b &
3
3 3
3 3
&
b
3
b b n 3 3 3
3
G7
Cm
6 3 Grouping eighths into three note sets in 3 4 time may suggest an imposition of 8 over the 4 meter as shown on the top line of ex. 2.60. Grouping the eighths into four note groupings takes the syncopation over the 3 measure line into the next measure, and may suggest 3 2 meter over the 4 . This is traditionally called hemiola and is shown on the second line of ex. 2.60. A common misconception is that all syn3 copation is hemiola, but traditionally it is the implication of a 3 2 measure over two 4 measures, particu-
Chapter 2
35
larly at cadential points. This idea was used frequently in Baroque music. Ex. 2.61 is an example of hemiola at a cadential point from a piano sonata from the classical period composed by Mozart. 2.60 Metric equivalents:
3 4 . 3 4 3 4
2.61
6 3 8 over 2
over
3 4
# 3 & 4 ?# 3 4
Three different divisions of 3 4 time are suggested in the melodic excerpt below, In mm.1-2, 3 gested, mm.3-4 suggests 2 time and mm.5-6 suggests 6 8 time. 2.62
F 7
3 4
Mozart: Piano Sonata in G major, K.283
time is sug-
Bert Ligon: View From the Bridge

B 13 9
&3 4
1
b b b
E maj7
J n .
b b .
j b
b .
D 7
G13 9
Cmaj7
& n .
5
b .
Bill Evans was an artist who could play a waltz, make it swing and yet never suggest 3 4 time. In ex. 2.63, 6 Evans used hemiola, the half note implied over the 3 4 meter. Later in the same solo, Evans suggested 8 meter as in ex. 2.64. 2.63 Hemiola:
A7
Dm7
&3 4
j # # # #
Gm 7
36
Chapter 2
2.64
Dotted Quarter Superimposition
B bmaj7 E7 Am 7 3 & 4 # J
Many jazz waltzes are played fast; much faster than the dancers would want at a wedding party. A fast waltz can transform itself into a slower medium swing by something called metric modulation. In ex. 2.65 the relationships are shown between the two meters. In 3 4 meter, the rhythm section may begin to play series of dotted quarters and the rhythmic pattern shown on the top line. At the beginning of a new section or new eight bar phrase, they may switch to 4 4 meter where the dotted quarter becomes the new quarter note, the top line rhythm becomes the typical ride pattern. Two measures of the 3 4 becomes one 3 measure of the 4 . In order to get back to , the band may suggest quarter note triplets which, at the mod4 4 ulation point, become the quarter note of the original 3 meter. 4 2.65 Metric modulations between
3 4
and
4 4
3 4 . 3 4 . 3 4
. .
q.q
c c
3 3 c
Michael Brecker used another modulation idea on his piece Escher Sketch, a Tale of Two Rhythms. The ride pattern (shown in 12 remained constant. What changed was the other 8 ) began the piece and 4 rhythmic parts which alternately suggested 12 or the on two 8 4 meter. When the snare entered it played 4 and four of the 4 meter, making the original ride pattern the syncopated figure shown in the measures. 4 4 The syncopated figure was created by groupings of 3, (2 + 1) repeated, and began again every three measures. 2.66 Metric Modulation
12 . . . . xx c . . . . 16 J J J J
Herbie Hancock is an artist with an amazing command of cross rhythms and over the bar-line phrasing. In ex. 2.67, Hancock began with the rhythm shown in ex. 2.27 (in sixteenths rather than eight notes), emphasizing dotted eighth notes over the quarter note pulse. In mm.4-8, the emphasis changed to quarter notes with groupings of four sixteenth notes. In mm.9-11, every fourth sixteenth was accented, but the accent was displaced, making the quarter note accent displaced by one sixteenth note. In mm.11-12, Hancock accented two then three sixteenth notes and managed to come out, resolving the rhythmic conflict on the downbeat of m.13. The accents (shown above mm.11-12) created the 3:2 type rhythm discussed in ex. 2.3, expanded and played over the measure line.
Chapter 2
37
2.67
Extensive Cross-rhythms
j .
j j j j j j . . . . . .
j j j j j . . . . .
j .
&c
1
> # # & 5 ` ` ` ` ` ` ` j j j j j j j . . . > > b b > > > b> # > > b #> n # > > > > > #> n b n &
9
> > > > > > # &

12
j .
j j .
j j .
Not all cross rhythms are created by groupings of three eighth notes over the 4 Combinations 4 measures. 4 of two and three note groupings create interesting cross rhythms. Hancock divided two 4 measure into 2 + 3 + (3 + 3) + 3 + 2 in the rhythmic ostinato foundation for Maiden Voyage. 2.68
?c
D9sus4
. J
What is the drummer doing with his ride cymbal while the soloists are playing so many polyrhythms? Other polyrhythms may be implied that correspond or contradict the metric implications of the tune and the soloist. If played with sensitivity, while never losing sight of the actual pulse and meter, it can create a swirling, intense forward drive while actually involving fewer notes. Less can be more. Jack DeJohnnette never played the textbook ride pattern over the first chorus of Keith Jarretts solo on the standard from which this was transcribed. He did play four quarters in a row later in the first chorus, but
38
Chapter 2
not until m.18. Here is the first eight measure phrase with some of the polyrhythmic implications indicated by the smaller notes above the staff. These patterns can be found in ex. 2.27, 2.33 and 2.37. 2.69 Polyrhythmic Ride Pattern:
c J J J
1 2
J
3
J
4
J J
.
J
5 6
J J
7 8
J
9
CLAVE BEAT
The Clave beat is a rhythm which uses combinations of two and three eighth note groupings to create a syncopated pattern. The clave beat and its variations are extremely significant to the structure of some Latin music. The clave may not be as structurally significant as it is in some Latin music, but occurs frequently in jazz, pop, and funk styles. There are two basic clave beats (3-2 clave and a 2-3 clave) and then several variations. The 3 and 2 do not refer to groupings of eighth notes, but to the number of notes played in a measure. The 3-2 clave has three notes played in the first measure and two in the second. The 2-3 clave is the reverse of the 3-2. 2.70 3-2 Clave: 2-3 Clave:
c .. .
.. ..
..
A good way to get the feel of the clave beat is to play the clave beat with one hand, the negative space rhythms in the other. Try reversing the hands and alternating four measure phrases after a few times. Playing in the holes, or the negative space helps to space the notes correctly. 2.71 3-2 Clave with two hands: 2-3 Clave with two hands:
j j . . . . . c . . . .. J J J J J J J J LH
RH
Another good way to practice the clave beat (or any of the rhythms discussed) is to alternate the right and left hand playing the clave beat with accents. Again, playing all the notes in the measure helps reinforce the steady subdivision and helps sense the correct spacing.
Chapter 2
39
2.72
3-2 Clave with two alternating hands:
2-3 Clave with two alternating hands:
RH LH
> > > > > > > > c .. > .. .. > ..
There are several variations of the basic 3-2 and 2-3 clave beats. One or more of the notes may be shifted forward or backward by an eighth note. As with the original version, practicing playing with two hands will help integration and precision in playing these rhythms. In ex. 2.73, the second of the notes on the 2 side is shifted by an eighth note. The subdivisions of the two measures is 3 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 for the 3-2 clave and 2 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 2 for the 2-3 clave. 2.73 3-2 Clave variation a: 2-3 Clave variation a:
c .. .
. J
.. ..
. J
..
Ex. 2.74 shifts the first of the notes on the two side forward by on eighth note. The subdivision of the two measures is 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 2 for the 3-2 clave, and 1 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 2 for the 2-3 clave. 2.74 3-2 Clave variation b: 2-3 Clave variation b:
c .. .
.. .. .
..
The following variations are created by delaying the last note on the 3 side combined with all three versions of the 2 side. 2.75 3-2 Clave variations c, d, & e: 2-3 Clave variations c, d, & e:
c .. . .. . .. .
. J . J . J
J J . J
.. .. .. ..
. J
. . .
. J . J . J
.. J .. J .. J
. J
.. .. .
The clave is a structural building block of many Latin styles of music, and while not structurally as significant, does occur frequently in swing and jazz styles. Charlie Parker used the 3-2 variation b several times on Moose the Mooch. Ex. 2.76 shows the opening two measures establishing the clave. Ex. 2.77 shows mm.15-16, the two measures preceding the bridge, and ex. 2.78 show the last two measures of the piece.
40
Chapter 2
2.76
3-2 Clave
b &b c J J
2.77 3-2 Clave
3 # J
b &b c
2.78
j j
3-2 Clave
j J # n
b & b c b J
3
J 3
The 2-3 clave with the same variation b can be heard in the next two quite different examples. Ex. 2.79 is the pre-Jay Leno theme for the Tonight Show, Heres Johnny, written by Paul Anka and Johnny Carson. The second is the bass ostinato from Herbie Hancocks Chameleon . Chameleon may not look like the same rhythm as it is written with sixteenths and eighths rather than eighths and quarters. 2.79 TV theme:
& c .
2.80
Classic Funk Bass line:
?c
. . b . >j . . . b . b >j . . . . b >j . . . J b . b n J . . . . b n b . b n .
Chapter 2
41
ODD METERS
Odd meters have occasionally become fashionable, but the majority of the music played when jazz mu3 sicians get together is still in 4 Hancock, John McLaughlin, and others have 4 and 4 . Hank Levy, Herbie 7 7 11 1 5 21 come up with music in a variety of meters including 5 , and 4 4 8 , 8 , 16 , and even 8 . As odd as these meters seem, they are all created by different combinations of twos and threes in a measure. One of the more famous odd time signature jazz compositions is Paul Desmonds Take Five, played by the Dave 5 Brubeck Quartet. The 4 measure is much like a jazz waltz with an extra two beat answer. If you sing who 5 parked the car? for a jazz waltz, add the answer I did to hear a 4 groove like Take Five. 2.81 Ostinato
b 5 .. j & b bbbb 4 E bm 7 ? b b b 5 .. bb b 4 J
MIXED METERS
b B m7
j E bm 7 J
b B m7
.. ..
Some jazz compositions are created using a variety of meters within phrases, and others where the meters may shift at different structural points in the form. Few of these compositions work their way into the mainstream of jazz literature and are rarely called casually at jam sessions. This is more a reflection of their complexity and intricacy rather than any lack of musical merit. The following is an example of a 4 2 mixed meter piece. The piece floats on an ostinato moving from 3 4 to 4 to 4 . The ostinato could have 9 been written in 4 but the mixed meter notation assists visualizing the metric subdivision. The piece shifts 4 3 6 from this ostinato to other meters including: 3 4 and 4, 8 and 8. 2.82 Bert Ligon: River Journey
. &3 4 .. ... ?3 4 ..
j 4 . 4 ... # 4 J 4 J
2 4
# 2 4
.. ..
What has endured more than the practice of improvising in mixed meters is the practice of playing in 3 4 and 4 4 which allows the soloist and the rhythm section the freedom to imply all combinations of mixed meters over the top. Syncopation is not confined to a predetermined grouping or mixed meter.
42
Chapter 2
RHYTHMIC READING & DICTATION EXERCISES

Most of the rhythms discussed in this chapter probably sound familiar. They occur naturally in the improvisation of most students. The beginning student, however, will not be in control of the development of these rhythms or possibly even recognize their possibilities upon hearing them. I have heard several young rhythm sections experiment with polyrhythms intuitively and fail. Possibly a drummer will suggest the dotted quarter pulse over the quarter note, another may go with him and before they know it, the have lost the fundamental pulse and cannot get back. They should continue to experiment, but sometimes a little understanding, knowledge and practice can greatly help the intuition. Many beginning students have trouble notating and reading the notation of these complicated rhythms. Practicing singing, tapping and correctly writing these rhythms will help insure success when confronted with complicated rhythms appearing on the page or in improvisations. Practicing and understanding the rhythms will help with visual and aural recognition, and help the musician reach the true meaning of the performance of the music. The following exercises look at a simple polyrhythms and their variations. They should be practiced in several ways: Read them in time with a metronome either tapping or singing do or dot with the figures. Tap the lines with one hand and tap the negative space with another Tap your hands alternating RLRL and use accents to play the rhythm exercises Compose one-part rhythm pieces using excerpts from the rhythm exercises and have class perform Compose two-part rhythm pieces using excerpts from the rhythm exercises and have class perform Sing or tap the rhythms and have individuals improvise in the two measure rests Use the rhythm exercises for class dictation For understanding and recognizing sixteenth note rhythms, transpose selected or all exercises to sixteenths and practice as before
4 Exercise 2.1 begins with a dotted quarter pulse imposed over two measures of 4 . The first and alternating dotted quarter notes are replaced with a quarter and eighth note creating a (2 + 1) + 3 rhythm in the second line. The first and alternating dotted quarter notes are replaced with an eighth and a quarter creating a (1 + 2) + 3 rhythm in the third line. The first and alternating dotted quarter notes are replaced with three eighth notes creating a (1 + 1 + 1) + 3 rhythm in the fourth line.
Chapter 2
43
Exercise 2.1
c . J
. . J J
. J
. J J
. J
Exercise 2.2: Exercise 2.1 displaced by one eighth note.
. . . J J . J J
. J J J J J . J J J J
Exercise 2.3: Exercise 2.1 displaced by two eighth notes.
c . . J J . J
. J . J
Exercise 2.4: Exercise 2.1 displaced by a half note.
. . J J
. J
. J
. J
44
Chapter 2
Exercise 2.1 was based on replacing the first and every other dotted quarter by another combination equal to three. Exercise 2.5 replaces the second dotted quarter value and every other one with another combination. The first line begins 3 + (2 + 1), the second 3 + (1 + 2), and the third, 3 + (1 + 1+ 1). Exercise 2.5
c .
J J J
. J J J . J J
. J
Exercise 2.6: Exercise 2.5 displaced by one eighth note.
c .
. J
. J
Chapter 2
45
Exercise 2.7: Exercise 2.5 displaced by two eighth notes.
. J J .
J J J
Exercise 2.8 is based on exercise 2.1. In this exercise every dotted quarter note is replaced by a combination of 2 + 1. The second line is displaced by an eighth note and the third by a quarter note. Exercise 2.8
c J J J
J J
Exercise 2.9 is also based on exercise 2.1. In this exercise every dotted quarter note is replaced by a combination of 1 + 2. The second line is displaced by an eighth note and the third by a quarter note. Exercise 2.9
c J J J J J J
The possible combinations of 3 for a dotted quarter note (2 +1, 1 + 2, and 1 + 1 + 1), the possible displacements on any beat or upbeat in the measure, and combinations with quarter note values create a nearly infinite number of rhythms. Familiarization with these exercises will help create rhythmic confidence and inspire more experimentation.
46
Chapter 2
These rhythms in exercise 2.10 are found in many funk, pop, Latin and jazz tunes. The eighth note pairs are placed every three beats. The three beat rhythm shown above the eighth note line is the augmentation of the dotted quarter notes in exercise 2.1.
Exercise 2.10
. c .
Much of the music written in pop, funk and Latin styles is written with sixteenth note subdivision. Well rounded musicians need to be adept at reading and writing these rhythms. The dotted quarter superimposition becomes a dotted sixteenth in the following exercise. Exercise 2.11 is the rhythmic diminution of exercise 2.1. It is recommended that all of the previous rhythmic reading and dictation exercises be rewritten in their diminished form to facilitate the reading of sixteenth note subdivisions.
Exercise 2.11
c . . . . J
. .
Chapter 2
47
The first set of exercises was based on the superimposition of dotted quarter notes over 4 4 time. The clave beat is another rhythm pattern to which combinations of 2 + 1, 1 + 2, and 1 + 1 + 1 can be substituted for the dotted quarter notes. Some variations are shown below. Exercise 2.12: Variations of the 3-2 & 2-3 clave.
. J
. J J . J J
. J . J
. J
J J
OTHER SUGGESTED EXERCISES

Transcribe rhythms from jazz performances, Latin and pop music. Analyze the combinations of twos and threes. Experiment with displacement by eighth notes and quarter notes. Take simple rhythms from speech patterns and notate. Experiment with displacement by eighth notes and quarter notes. Take simple rhythms created with quarter and eighth notes and rewrite using eighth and sixteenth notes. Practice reading and recognizing the same rhythms written in any form. Take the previous exercises and rewrite using sixteenths and eighth notes. Take the previous exercises and notate and practice reading the negative space rhythms.
48
Chapter 2
READING EXERCISES
Here are several exercises using a mixture of rhythms. Try singing or tapping these rhythms while tapping a steady beat with your other hand or foot. Be sure to practice with the metronome and practice a variety of tempos. Reading Exercise 2.1
J J
J J .
J w
Reading Exercise 2.2
. J
J .
J J
J J
Chapter 2
49
J .
J J
. J
c J
J J . .
. J J
J .
J . J
50
Chapter 2
c .
. J .
. c . . . . J J . J . . J
c .
. .
. J
Chapter 2
51
c J J . . J .
. . . . J J J . . J . . J
c . J
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Rhythm in Jazz Performance

RHYTHM in JAZZ PERFORMANCE

> > >

> > . > . J

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

SWING EIGHTH NOTE

Different ratios of subdivision:

Subdivision with 3:2 ratio:

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

ACCENTS & ARTICULATIONS

> > > > &c

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

> 3 > > > > > ^ # j b # # n b # b

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

. > > c &

>j > c &

Using a repeated note (iteration).

>j > > ^ &c

Ending on a downbeat preceded by an accented dotted quarter.

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

There is no substitute for the aural experience.

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

2.11 Ride cymbal pattern implying multiple mixed meters:

Anticipation of beats one and three: 2.14 Anticipated accompaniment rhythm:

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

. J J # G 7/B A 7 D7 Gm7 F7 . J J J J J J J C7 F7 D7 Gm7 C7 | . . | J J J

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

HARMONIC RHYTHM in JAZZ PERFORMANCE

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

THE LARGER VIEW: FORM as RHYTHMIC STRUCTURE

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

Large form rhythmic subdivision:

4. 2 measure phrase 2 measure phrase 4 measure phrase

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

PLACEMENT of the NOTES

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

Ex. 2.27 with the pattern: (2 + 1), 3, (2 + 1), 3, etc.

Ex. 2.29 with the pattern: (2 + 1), 3, (2 + 1), 3, etc.

Jazz Theory Resources

Rhythm in Jazz Performance

Ex. 2.27 with the pattern: (1 + 2), 3, (1 + 2), 3, etc.

Ex. 2.29 with the pattern: (1 + 2), 3, (1 + 2), 3, etc.