Reported speech - English Grammar

Statements 1) If the introductory sentence starts in the present (Susan says), there is no backshift of tenses in Reported speech. Example: Direct speech: Susan: "I work in an office." Reported speech: Susan says that she works in an office.

2) If the introductory sentence starts in the past (Susan said), there is often backshift of tenses in Reported speech. (see: Note) Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan said that she worked in an office.

Backshift of tenses from Simple Present Simple Past Present Perfect Past Perfect will Progressive forms am/are/is was/were has been had been had been was/were would Past Perfect to Simple Past

Backshift of tenses from Peter: "I work in the garden." Peter: "I worked in the garden." Peter: "I have worked in the garden." Peter: "I had worked in the garden." Peter: "I will work in the garden." Peter: "I can work in the garden." Peter: "I may work in the garden." Peter: "I would work in the garden." (could, might, should, ought to ) Progressive forms Peter: "I'm working in the garden." Peter: "I was working in the garden." Peter: "I have been working in the garden." Peter: "I had been working in the garden." If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well. Peter: "I worked in the garden yesterday." Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day before. Shifting of expressions of time Peter said that he had been working in the garden. Peter said that he was working in the garden. Peter said that he would work in the garden. Peter said that he could work in the garden. Peter said that he might work in the garden. Peter said that he would work in the garden. (could, might, should, ought to ) Peter said that he had worked in the garden. to Peter said that he worked in the garden.

this (evening) that (evening) today/this day these (days) now (a week) ago last weekend here next (week) tomorrow Note: In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true. John: "My brother is at Leipzig university." John said that his brother was at Leipzig university. or John said that his brother is at Leipzig university. or Mandy: "The sun rises in the East." Mandy said that the sun rose in the East. or Mandy said that the sun rises in the East. that day those (days) then (a week) before the weekend before / the previous weekend there the following (week) the next/following day

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CHAPTER 25. ADVERBS OF MANNER AND ADVERBS USED IN COMPARISONS

1. Adverbs of manner Adverbs of manner are the largest group of adverbs. Most adverbs of manner are closely related to corresponding adjectives. Although some words can be used as either adjectives or adverbs, in most cases, adverbs of manner are formed by adding ly to the corresponding adjectives. a. Spelling rules for adding ly In most cases, ly is simply added to the positive form of the adjective. For example: Adjective bad complete normal surprising Adverb of Manner badly completely normally surprisingly

i. Adjectives ending in ic However, when the adjective ends in ic, the syllable al is usually added before

the ly ending. For example: Adjective dramatic scientific specific Adverb of Manner dramatically scientifically specifically

ii. Adjectives ending in le When the adjective ends in le preceded by a consonant, the final e is usually changed to y, to form the ly ending. For example: Adjective favorable humble simple Adverb of Manner favorably humbly simply

When the adjective ends in le preceded by a vowel, in most cases, ly is simply added to the positive form of the adjective. For example: Adjective agile sole Adverb of Manner agilely solely

However, in the case of the adjective whole, the final e is removed before the ending ly is added: Adjective whole Adverb of Manner wholly

iii. Adjectives ending in ll When the adjective ends in ll, only y is added. For example: Adjective dull full shrill Adverb of Manner dully fully shrilly

iv. Adjectives ending in ue When the adjective ends in ue, the final e is usually omitted before the ending ly is added. For example: Adjective Adverb of Manner

due true

duly truly

v. Adjectives ending in y When the adjective ends in y preceded by a consonant, the y is usually changed to i before the ending ly is added. For example: Adjective busy easy happy Adverb of Manner busily easily happily

However, in the case of the adjectives shy and sly, ly is simply added to the positive form of the adjective: Adjective shy sly Adverb of Manner shyly slyly

When the adjective ends in y preceded by a vowel, in most cases, ly is simply added to the positive form of the adjective. For example: Adjective coy grey Adverb of Manner coyly greyly

However, in the case of the adjective gay, y is changed to i before the ending ly is added: Adjective gay Adverb of Manner gaily

See Exercise 1. It should be noted that while most adverbs which end in ly are adverbs of manner, other types of adverb may also end in ly. For instance, consequently and subsequently are connecting adverbs. The following are adverbs of frequency which are formed by adding ly to the corresponding adjectives. Adjective frequent rare Adverb of Frequency frequently rarely

usual

usually

b. Adverbs which do not use the ending ly The adverb of manner well appears unrelated to the corresponding adjective, good. Good and well both have the comparative form better and the superlative form best. Adjective good Adverb of Manner well

It should be noted that in addition to being used as an adverb, the word well can also be used as an adjective with the meaning healthy. The adjective well is most often used as a predicate adjective. e.g. Well used as an Adjective: I hope you are well. Well used as an Adverb: He did well on the examination. In the first example, well is a predicate adjective, modifying the pronoun you. In the second example, well is an adverb of manner, modifying the verb did. The following table gives examples of adverbs of manner, location, time and frequency which have the same forms as the corresponding adjectives. Adjective fast hard little loud much straight Adjective far high low near wide Adjective early first late long Adjective daily Adverb of Manner fast hard little loud or loudly much straight Adverb of Location far high low near wide Adverb of Time early first late long Adverb of Frequency daily

monthly weekly yearly

monthly weekly yearly

See Exercise 2. It should also be noted that there are several adjectives ending in ly which have no corresponding adverbs: friendly likely lively lonely silly ugly When it is desired to use one of these words to modify a verb, an adverb phrase of manner may be used. In the following examples, the adverb phrases are underlined. e.g. He behaved in a friendly manner. They acted in a silly way. The following table gives examples of pairs of adverbs which are closely related, but which have different meanings. Adverbs With and Without ly Endings Adverb hard high late near wide Meaning with effort opposite of low opposite of early opposite of far opposite of narrow Adverb hardly highly lately nearly widely Meaning scarcely very; very well recently almost commonly

The meanings of these adverbs are illustrated in the following examples. e.g. I worked hard. I have hardly enough time to finish. He threw the ball high into the air. He is highly successful in what he does. The class began late. The weather has been cold lately.

I held my breath as the squirrel crept near to get the nuts. I have nearly finished reading the book. I opened the door wide. That theory is widely believed. c. The differing functions of adjectives and adverbs When an adverb differs in form from a corresponding adjective, it is necessary to distinguish between the functions of adjectives and adverbs in order to determine which form should be used in a given situation. Whereas adjectives modify nouns, pronouns, and expressions which serve the same grammatical functions as nouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs. i. Adjectives which modify nouns compared with adverbs which modify verbs The following examples illustrate the distinction which must be made between adjectives which modify nouns and adverbs which modify verbs. The adjectives and adverbs are printed in bold type, and the words which are modified are underlined. e.g. Adjective: It has been a quiet afternoon. Adverb: The afternoon passed quietly. Adjective: She is a good musician. Adverb: She plays the flute very well. In the first pair of sentences, the adjective quiet modifies the noun afternoon, whereas the adverb quietly modifies the verb passed. In the second pair of sentences, the adjective good modifies the noun musician, whereas the adverb well modifies the verb plays. In informal English, adjectives are sometimes used to modify verbs. e.g. She plays good. In this example, the adjective good is used to modify the verb plays. However, this use of adjectives is considered to be grammatically incorrect. See Exercise 3. ii. Adjectives which modify nouns compared with adverbs which modify adjectives The following examples illustrate the distinction which must be made between adjectives which modify nouns and adverbs which modify adjectives. e.g. Adjective: a large wooden building

Adverb: a largely wooden building Adjective: conspicuous dark clouds Adverb: conspicuously dark clouds In the first pair of phrases, the adjective large modifies the noun building, and the adverb largely modifies the adjective wooden. Thus, the phrase a large wooden building has the meaning a big wooden building, whereas the phrase a largely wooden building has the meaning a building mostly made of wood. In the second pair of phrases, the adjective conspicuous modifies the noun clouds, and the adverb conspicuously modifies the adjective dark. Thus, the phrase conspicuous dark clouds means that the clouds themselves are noticeable; whereas the phrase conspicuously dark clouds means that the darkness of the clouds is noticeable. See Exercise 4. iii. Predicate adjectives which modify the subjects of verbs compared with adverbs which modify verbs As pointed out previously, certain verbs, called linking verbs, can be followed by predicate adjectives. A distinction must be made between predicate adjectives which modify the subjects of linking verbs, and adverbs which modify verbs. A few linking verbs, such as the verb to be, can be followed by predicate adjectives, but cannot be modified by adverbs of manner. In the following examples using the verb to be, the nouns which are modified are underlined. e.g. He is happy. The wind was strong. In these examples, the predicate adjectives happy and strong modify the subjects he and wind. However, there are several verbs which can be used either as linking verbs followed by predicate adjectives, or as non-linking verbs modified by adverbs of manner. The following examples illustrate the use of the verb to appear as a linking verb and as a non-linking verb. e.g. Linking Verb: His uncle appeared kind. Non-linking Verb: His uncle appeared punctually at ten o'clock. In the first example, kind is a predicate adjective which modifies the noun uncle. In the second example, punctually is an adverb of manner which modifies the verb appeared.

The verbs below can be used either as linking or non-linking verbs: to appear to feel to look to smell to taste to become to grow to remain to sound to turn

If the subject of the verb is to be modified, a predicate adjective is required after such verbs; whereas if the verb is to be modified, an adverb is required. In the pairs of examples below, the verbs to grow, to look and to turn are used first as linking verbs followed by adjectives, and then as non-linking verbs modified by adverbs. The adjectives and adverbs are printed in bold type, and the words which are modified are underlined. e.g. Adjective: As he became old, he grew slow at remembering dates. Adverb: The tree grew slowly. Adjective: They looked anxious. Adverb: We looked anxiously up the street. Adjective: The weather turned cold. Adverb: She turned coldly away from the salesman. In these examples, the predicate adjectives slow, anxious and cold modify the subjects he, they and weather; whereas the adverbs of manner slowly, anxiously and coldly modify the verbs grew, looked and turned. See Exercise 5.

2. Adverbs used in comparisons a. The formation of comparative and superlative forms of adverbs It should be noted that many adverbs, such as sometimes, never, here, there, now, then, first, again, yesterday and dail y have no comparative or superlative forms. i. Adverbs used with More and Most Most adverbs used in comparisons, including those formed from corresponding adjectives by adding the ending ly, form the comparative with

the word more, and the superlative with the word most. For example: Positive Form carefully easily frequently slowly softly Comparative Form more carefully more easily more frequently more slowly more softly Superlative Form most carefully most easily most frequently most slowly most softly

ii. Adverbs used with the endings er and est Adverbs which have the same positive forms as corresponding adjectives generally also have the same comparative and superlative forms as the corresponding adjectives. For example: Positive Form early fast hard high late long low near straight Comparative Form earlier faster harder higher later longer lower nearer straighter Superlative Form earliest fastest hardest highest latest longest lowest nearest straightest

The adverb of time soon also uses the endings er and est: Positive Form soon Comparative Form sooner Superlative Form soonest

It should be noted that adverbs formed by adding ly to one-syllable adjectives are sometimes used with the endings er and est. e.g. We walked slower and slower. They sang the softest. However, in modern English, it is generally considered to be more correct to write: We walked more and more slowly. They sang the most softly. iii. Irregular adverbs The irregular adverbs have the same comparative and superlative forms as the corresponding irregular adjectives:

Positive Form badly far little much well

Comparative Form worse farther or further less more better

Superlative Form worst farthest or furthest least most best

b. Positive forms of adverbs used in comparisons The constructions employed when adverbs are used in comparisons are very similar to those employed when adjectives are used in comparisons. i. The construction with As ... As When used in making comparisons, the positive form of an adverb is usually preceded and followed by as. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples. as + positive form + of adverb fast slowly brightly as

I can run He moves Her eyes shone

as as as

as you can. as a snail. as stars.

If desired, an adverb may be placed before the first occurrence of as: adverb + as + positive form + of adverb I can run Her eyes shone twice almost as as fast brightly as

as you can. as stars.

ii. Ellipsis Ellipsis is often employed in comparisons using adverbs. For instance, in the second half of such comparisons, instead of repeating the verb, the first auxiliary may be used, or the verb may be omitted entirely. In the following examples, the words which would usually be omitted are enclosed in square brackets. e.g. I can run as fast as you can [run]. He moves as slowly as a snail [moves]. Her eyes shone as brightly as stars [shine]. c. Comparative forms of adverbs used in comparisons

i. The construction with Than When used in making comparisons, the comparative form of an adverb is usually followed by than. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples. comparative form + of adverb He can swim She sings farther more beautifully than

than than

I can. her sister does.

As is the case with comparisons using adjectives, comparisons using adverbs can be combined with phrases or clauses. e.g. She performs better in front of an audience than she does in rehearsal. They walked faster when they were on their way to school than they did when they were on their way home. In the first example, the two situations being compared are distinguished by the phrases in front of an audience and in rehearsal. In the second example, the two situations being compared are distinguished by the clauses when they were on their way to school and when they were on their way home. The use of ellipsis should be noted. In the first example, the auxiliary does is used instead of repeating the verb performs. In the second example, the auxiliarydid is used instead of repeating the verb walked. See Exercise 6. ii. Progressive comparisons The comparative forms of adverbs can be used in progressive comparisons. For adverbs with the ending er, the following construction is used: comparative form + of adverb e.g. The plane flew The team performed higher better and + comparative form of adverb higher. better.

and and

The meanings expressed in these examples can also be expressed as follows: e.g. The plane flew increasingly high. The team performed increasingly well. For adverbs which form the comparative with more, the following

construction is used: more + and + more + positive form of adverb He solved the problems more We visited them more and and more more easily. frequently.

The meanings expressed in these examples can also be expressed as follows: e.g. He solved the problems increasingly easily. We visited them increasingly frequently. iii. The construction with Less and Less A similar construction, employing the expression less and less, can also be used. The expressions less and less and more and more have opposite meanings. less + and + less + positive form of adverb He solved the problems We visited them less less and and less less easily. frequently.

The meanings expressed in these examples can also be expressed as follows: e.g. He solved the problems decreasingly easily. We visited them decreasingly frequently. See Exercise 7. iv. The construction with The ..., the ... Two clauses, each beginning with the, and each containing a comparative form of an adjective or adverb, can be used together in order to indicate a cause and effect relationship between two different things or events. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples. comparative The form of + adverb + or adjective The The more faster 1st part of comparative comparison, the form of + + adverb + or adjective they eat, we skated, the the fatter warmer 2nd part of comparison

they get. we felt.

The following are further examples of the use of this type of construction. In these examples, the comparative forms are underlined.

e.g. The more cleverly we hid the Easter eggs, the more enthusiastically the children searched for them. The more I scold her, the worse she behaves. As shown in the examples, in this type of construction the two clauses beginning with the must be separated by a comma. d. Superlative forms of adverbs used in comparisons i. The construction with The When used in making comparisons, the superlative form of an adverb is usually preceded by the. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples. the + superlative form of adverb highest best most sweetly of all the boys in the class. of all the teams in the league. of all the choirs I have heard.

He jumped Our team plays They sing

the the the

See Exercises 8 and 9. In the case of adverbs which form the superlative with the ending est, the superlative is sometimes preceded by a possessive adjective, instead of by the definite article, the. In the following examples, the possessive adjectives are printed in bold type. e.g. He ran his fastest. I did my best. ii. The construction with The Least Adverbs may also be preceded by the expression the least. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples. The words least and most have opposite meanings. the + least + positive form of adverb She speaks This bus runs the the least least loudly often. of all the children.

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Active / Passive Verb Forms

Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have "active forms" and "passive forms." You must learn to recognize the difference to successfully speak English.

Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active. [Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action] Examples:

Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action. [Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action] Examples:

Active / Passive Overview

Active Passive

Simple

Once a week, Tom cleans the house.

Once a week, the house is cleaned by

Present

Tom.

Present Continuous

Right now, Sarah is writing the letter.

Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah.

Simple Past

Sam repaired the car.

The car was repaired by Sam.

Past Continuous

The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store.

The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store.

Present Perfect

Many tourists have visited that castle.

That castle has been visited by many tourists.

Present Perfect Continuous

Recently, John has been doing the work.

Recently, the work has been being done by John.

Past Perfect

George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.

Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license.

Past Perfect Continuous

Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.

The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.

Simple Future
WILL

Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM.

The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.

Simple Future
BE GOING TO

Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.

Future Continuous
WILL

At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.

Future Continuous
BE GOING TO

At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John.

Future Perfect
WILL

They will have completed the project before the deadline.

The project will have been completed before the deadline.

Future Perfect

They are going to have

The project is going to have been

BE GOING TO

completed the project before the deadline.

completed before the deadline.

Future Perfect Continuous

WILL

The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

Future Perfect Continuous

BE GOING TO

The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

Used to

Jerry used to pay the bills.

The bills used to be paid by Jerry.

Would Always

My mother would always make the pies.

The pies would always be made by my mother.

Future in the Past

WOULD

I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.

I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.

Future in the Past

WAS GOING TO

I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.