October 1999

Issued by the

Vol. 14 No. 2

Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia (GCP/RAS/154/NET)

Wood Energy in India

Contents
Fuelwood Issues for the Ninth Plan ............ Agenda to Increase Forest and Tree Cover: Implications for Woodfuel Supply .................... Biomass Energy in India Programmes and Policies ............................................................. IREDA: Lending to the Biomass Energy Sector .............................................................. Trends in Renewable Energy Supply and Use 3 4 6 7 8 New Directions for Wood Energy Systems in the 21st Century ............................................. 9 Social Costs and Benefits of the National Programme on Improved Chulha ................. 10 Surveying Trees Outside the Forest ............ 11 Fuelwood Collection and Trade as a Survival Strategy in Northwest Bengal ....................... 12 Wood Energy in Forestry Training ................ 14 Woodfuel in Bakeries in Bhopal .................... 15 Fuelwood Collection and Use and Mangrove on the East Coast ......................................... 16 Status of Biomass Fuel Briquetting .............. 18 Plantation Crop Residues as an Energy Source ........................................................... 1 9 Modern Applications of Wood Energy .......... 20 Womens Energy Needs and Problems in Rural India ............................................................... 21 Policy, Institutions and Networking: Indias Role in South Asia .................................................. 22 Wood Energy on the Web: India ................... 23

Colophon
Programme Information The Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia (RWEDP) aims to assist 16 developing countries in establishing and strengthening their capabilities to assess wood energy situations, plan wood energy development strategies and implement wood energy supply and utilization programmes. The programme promotes the integration of wood energy in the planning and implementation of national energy and forestry programmes. Wood Energy News The programmes newsletter, Wood Energy News addresses a wide variety of wood energy issues, such as woodfuel resources, woodfuel flows, wood energy planning and policies and wood energy technologies. Its purpose is to share information on wood energy with its subscribers. Suggestions, reactions or contributions are more than welcome, and dont forget to share your own experiences. Those wishing to obtain Wood Energy News can write to the RWEDP secretariat at: Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia (GCP/RAS/154/NET) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Fax: +66-2-280 0760 Phone: +66-2-280 2760 E-mail: rwedp@fao.org Internet: http://www.rwedp.org Project Members Dr W Hulscher Chief Technical Adviser Auke Koopmans Wood Energy Conservation Conrado Heruela Wood Energy Planning Tara Bhattarai Wood Energy Resources Joost Siteur APO/Wood Energy Planning Bert van der Plas APO/Information Systems Publications The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors alone and do not imply any opinion whatsoever on the part of the FAO.

Editorial
India is amongst the most advanced RWEDP member countries in terms of wood energy development. The country avails of specialized ministries, departments and other institutions addressing wood energyrelated matters, and has articulated policies and strategies with regard to the supply and conservation of woodfuels. The Government has incorporated woodfuel consumption data into national statistics and is implementing powerful national programmes on wood energy, some integrated into broader frameworks. Furthermore, numerous NGOs are active in the field of wood energy, the private sector is well equipped to play its part, and a wealth of studies analyze and document major issues. Last but not least, India has vast resources in terms of human capital, specialist knowledge, expertise and skills. Promising efforts are currently being made in India to inventorize wood resources outside the forests, which may eventually settle speculation about fuelwood gaps, and in educational programmes, subjects relating to wood energy are being strengthened. All of these elements will help India to fully realize the dual role of wood energy as a legitimate peoples fuel and as an environmentally sustainable modern energy option. This issue of Wood Energy News provides a brief overview of the major issues in India, complemented with interesting case studies and inspiring visions for the future. RWEDP requested eminent Indian experts to cover these subjects within the limits of just one page; which was, of course, almost impossible to comply with. We are most grateful to the authors for accepting the challenge and for together bringing into being an enlightening and thorough overview of wood energy issues in India. Our sincere thanks also go to Pradeep Chaturvedi, a tireless advocate of renewable energy, who coordinated the preparation of this issue.

Cover: Forest in India

Programme Focal Points

Bangladesh: Chief Conservator of Forests, Forest Dept; Industry and Energy Division, Ministry of Planning Bhutan: Director, Dept of Power; Joint Secretary, Forestry Services Division, Ministry of Agriculture Cambodia: Chief, Community Forestry Division, Dept of Forests and Wildlife; Secretary of State, Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy China: Deputy Director, Institute of Energy and Environmental Protection; Associate Professor, Institute of Forestry India: Inspector-General of Forests; Secretary, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources Indonesia: Director of Energy Development, Directorate General of Electricity and Energy Development; Director of Afforestation and Social Forestry Lao PDR: Director-General, Dept of Forestry Malaysia: Director-General, Forest Research Institute; Director-General, Economic Planning Unit, Prime Ministers Dept Maldives: Director, Agricultural Services Myanmar: Director-General, Forest Dept; DirectorGeneral, Energy Planning Dept Nepal: Director-General, Forest Dept; Executive Secretary, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat Pakistan: Inspector-General of Forests; Deputy Chief, Energy Wing, Planning and Development Division Philippines: Secretary, Dept of Energy; Secretary, Dept of Environment and Natural Resources Sri Lanka: Conservator of Forests, Forest Dept; Secretary, Ministry of Irrigation, Power and Energy Thailand: Director-General, Royal Forestry Dept; Director-General, Dept of Energy Development and Promotion Vietnam: Director, Forest Sciences Institute; Deputy Director, Institute of Energy

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Fuelwood Issues for the Ninth Plan

Dr N C Saxena
Future Demand
Recent surveys show that of total domestic fuel needs, 59.2 percent in rural areas and 35.5 percent in urban areas are being met from woodfuel. Three non-commercial energy sources wood, animal dung and agricultural residues still meet 95 percent of fuel needs of rural areas. Use of dung and agricultural waste is widespread in agriculturally prosperous regions with fertile soils and controlled irrigation, such as the Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and northern Bihar, but wood continues to be the main domestic fuel in less endowed and poorer regions. Patterns of energy use are changing in urban areas, with greater use of LPG and kerosene. It is, however, unlikely that fuelwood will be completely replaced, as poorer sections of the community may continue to lack the cash resources to purchase even minimal amounts of kerosene or LPG, or the appliances to make use of these fuels. In rural areas, improvements in income have brought little change in the ratio of bought to gathered fuelwood and dung cakes being used. Even with possible further improvement in the poverty situation during the periods of the Ninth and Tenth national five-year development plans (19972007), it is likely that many rural people will still prefer to use their time and energy to collect fuel for free rather than purchase it from the market. Where purchase of fuelwood is rising, the main factor is extreme deterioration of the natural environment (making non-commercial wood unavailable), rather than household prosperity. The poor in areas where this has happened, instead of switching up the energy ladder to modern fuels, are moving down it to inferior fuels like straw, leaves and twigs. Agricultural residues are unlikely to replace woodfuel to any significant degree, as only rich farmers produce them in sufficient quantities. Being a private resource, the poor have little access to them, especially in the context of monetization of the rural economy. Lastly, supplies of LPG are not sufficient to meet even urban demand, so LPG is not easily available to villagers. Kerosene is used in villages, but mainly for lighting. Its use as a cooking fuel is rare, and it is also not preferred in villages for heating. Since firewood is obtained practically free of cost, there is no inducement for rural people to shift. Thus their dependence on fuelwood is likely to continue during the Ninth Plan period and beyond. still do not help a large proportion of the rural population for whom fuelwood is scarce.

Potential for Production

The main unmet demand for fuelwood is from rural consumers in areas with few trees on public land or forests who do not have budget to purchase it. They will benefit if public lands are afforested. More trees planted on private land will be of only marginal benefit to them. Fuelwood gaps can thus be best met by planting trees on public lands which produce a lot of twigs and branches which can be gathered, and not through commercial production on farmlands. This has implication for technological choice in afforestation programmes. As regards the area of public land available for this tree planting, while there are only an estimated 12 million hectares of village land, there is at least three times this area of degraded forest land. Hence forest land must play the greater role in meeting fuelwood needs. There is plenty of sunshine and adequate rainfall in most parts of the country, which means trees can grow fairly fast. There are also sufficient funds for the forestry sector forestry sector funding during the Ninth Plan has increased to more than Rs 100 billion, as compared to Rs 40 billion during the Eighth Plan. Favorable environmental conditions and availability of financial support are buttressed by a change after 1988 in the policy

Price Changes
Fuelwood prices in India increased fast between 1970 and 1985, but have since stabilized. Figure 1 shows that the rise in fuelwood prices during the period 1989 97 was slightly less than the rise in the wholesale price index (WPI). In some regions where large amounts of eucalyptus is produced on farms, surplus eucalyptus logs sold on the market have large potential as sources of fuelwood. Apart from that, the greatest potential for supply of fuelwood at little opportunity cost is from shrubs such as prosopis (Prosopis juliflora) and lantana (Lantana camara) on degraded lands. These are not favoured species because of the presence of thorns in the case of prosopis and low density in the case of lantana. However, the lack of commercial interest means the poor have greater access to these shrubs. In many semi-arid regions, the natural spread of prosopis provides the poor with excellent fuelwood for both consumption and sale at almost zero opportunity cost. However, these positive developments (which are not connected with any government policy)

Figure 1: Comparison of Average Firewood Price and Wholesale Price Index between 1989 and 1997
250

200 165.78 149.55 150 138.02 130.99 100 100.00 110.26 119.93 139.71 151.18 157.49 178.52 179.66

193.18

200.40 193.00

173.04

WPI
50

FWP

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993 YEARS

1994

1995

1996

1997

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framework governing the management of forest lands, which is now more conducive to sustained development of woodfuel resources than previous frameworks. According to the new policy, the requirements for fuelwood, fodder and small timber of the tribals and other villagers living in and near the forests are now to be treated as the first call on forest produce. Equity of access and environmental considerations will be given more importance than mere earning of revenue.

The former, even if produced on public lands, are out of the reach of the rural poor they are marketed, and at best help the urban poor. The rural poor have access to only twigs and branches, which require labour-intensive collection. Secondly, it is recognized that twigs and branches as fuels are best made available to the poor through shrubs and bushes, and through lops and tops from large trees. It is also acknowledged that the objective of Community Forestry and Joint Forest Management (JFM) should be on producing twigs and branches and other locally desired species through micro-planning. This will also generate selfemployment for the poor through the gathering of goods for consumption.

Initiatives During the Ninth Plan

Several policy initiatives have been taken in the forestry sector since the launch of the Ninth Plan. Firstly, a distinction has been made between fuelwood from logs and fuelwood from twigs and branches.

And a last initiative under the Ninth Plan is greening of degraded forests. Some 15 million hectares of marginally degraded forests where adequate root stock exists can be tackled through aided natural regeneration, gap filling and enrichment planting under the JFM program. On another 15 million hectares devoid of root stock and self-regenerative capacity, green cover should be provided through short-gestation grasses, shrubs and bushes. This will ensure bringing vegetation cover on the completely barren lands in the quickest possible time, as well as providing fuelwood to the needy.

Dr Saxena is Secretary of the Planning Commission, Government of India

Agenda to Increase Forest and Tree Cover Implications for Woodfuel Supply
C P Oberai
India has low forest cover which is under high pressure. With only around one percent of the worlds forests, India has to sustain nearly 16 percent of the worlds human population and almost 15 percent of the worlds livestock. Effective management of forest resources is vital to promote ecological stability and provide food security to the people. India has 63.3 million hectares of forest land 19.27 percent of its total land area. According to estimates, some 80 percent of the countrys energy requirement is met from non-commercial energy sources, of which firewood is a major component. A study has shown that the annual firewood requirement in India in 1996 was 201 million tonnes, whereas availability from forests on a sustainable basis was only around 17 million tonnes. Similarly, total timber requirements in 1996 were 64 million m3 (54 million m3 non-industrial and 10 million m3 industrial), while sustainable availability from forests was only 23 million m3. It is estimated that by 2006, timber demand is likely to reach 82 million m3 while availability from forests will reach just 29 million m3. Unrecorded removal of timber, small wood and fuelwood from forests is also sizeable. pendence. The current afforestation rate is in the order of 1.2 million ha per year. With the pressures on forests due to uncontrolled and unsustainable removals and to grazing, only half of the 27 million ha is actually under standing plantation. Indias plantation programme received a fillip in the 1970s and 80s under externally-aided Social Forestry projects. However, as some of these projects have come to a close, the overall programme has declined sharply; some small components still continue under central and state schemes. (below 40 percent crown density), require planting. Thus it would be safe to set a target of about 60 million hectares for plantation activity.

People-oriented Forestry
To achieve this target, specific strategies will need to be adopted to address the different categories of land needing to be brought under forest or tree cover. Of total degraded forest land, about 15.5 million ha has natural root stock available, which may regenerate given proper protection and planting in the gaps. These are ideally suited for management under the Joint Forest Management system. Another 9.5 million ha is partially degraded with some natural rootstock, and another six million ha is highly degraded. These last two categories together constitute another 15.5 million ha, which requires careful treatment through technology-based plantation of fuel, fodder and timber species with substantial investment and technological inputs. The emphasis will be on: Fuelwood and fodder plantations to meet the requirements of rural and urban populations. Plantations of economically important species (through use of high-yielding clones) on refractory areas to meet the growing timber requirement. Supplementing the incomes of the

The National Forest Policy

The National Forest Policy of 1988 stipulates that the country should have a minimum of 33 percent of total land area under forest or tree cover. It recognizes the requirements of local people for timber, firewood, fodder and other non-timber forest produce as the first charge on the forests, while leaning heavily towards the need for forest conservation on the broad principles of sustainability and peoples participation. At 19.27 percent of total land area, the present level of forest cover in the country is far below the goal. Further enhancing the vegetation cover of the country is, therefore, crucial to human survival and sustainable development.

Land for Plantation Retrospect

Around 27 million ha of land in India has been put under afforestation programmes in the 50 years since the countrys indeEstimates place the recorded land area of India at 304 million ha, of which about 33 million ha of non-forest wasteland and 31.8 million ha of open and scrub forests

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tribal and rural poor through management and development of nontimber forest products. Developing and promoting pasture on suitable degraded areas. Promoting afforestation and development of degraded forests by adopting, through micro-planning, an integrated approach on a watershed basis. Suitable policy initiatives on rationalization of tree felling and transit rules, assured buy-back arrangements between industries and tree growers, technology extension, and incentives like easy availability of institutional credit etc., which will encourage people and institutions to undertake large-scale tree farming.

Forest Management. Each village situated in and around a forest area will have a Forest Development Agency. This agency will receive funds directly from various ministries and other sources in order to undertake afforestation and other rural developmental activities in a coordinated manner. 3. Institutional arrangements will be made for facilitating support through financial institutions to provide soft loans to farmers, cooperatives, forest development corporations and other organizations for rehabilitation of wastelands. The functioning of forest corporations will be streamlined to make them function as economically viable commercial units and to assist local entrepreneurs and farmers in preparation of technically viable afforestation proposals. 4. It is proposed that an Environmental Protection Fund for afforestation be created out of penalty payments collected from violations of environmental laws, cess imposed on polluting industries etc. An environmental awareness campaign and participatory management will be designed to make people act as green guards for forests and the environment. 5. Environmental education will be introduced as a compulsory subject in the curricula of schools and colleges. Integration of wood energy

subjects will be sharply focused in the curricula of training institutions in forestry and agriculture sectors. 6. All efforts will be made to obtain funds through externally aided projects under various bilateral and multilateral arrangements.

Forestry in the New Millenium

To sum up, tropical India, with its adequate sunlight, rainfall, land and labour, is ideally suitable for tree plantations. With the enhanced plan outlay for forestry sector and financial support from donor agencies, the country will be able to march ahead towards the target of 33 percent forest cover. Technology transfer within and amongst countries is an important issue, which merits the attention of the international community. The adoption of scientific practices and modern technologies in forestry, coupled with the active involvement of the people and voluntary organizations, should go a long way in arresting the rate of forest degradation and will substantially augment greening efforts. India aims to manage forests and natural resources properly to fulfil their social, economical and ecological roles.

Actions Envisaged
1. A National Forestry Action Programme (NFA) has just been drawn up and envisages afforesting 60 million ha of degraded lands over the next 20 years. The present level of investment in the forestry sector is rather low, in the order of Rs10,000 million (US$ 232 million). A quantum jump in financial allocation to the forestry sector is needed to increase the present afforestation targets from 1.2 million ha/year to about 3.0 million ha/year. 2. Focus in afforestation activities on government forests will be on Joint

Mr Oberai is Inspector General of Forests and Special Secretary, Ministry of Environment and Forests

Above left and right: regreening of degraded forest land in India

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Biomass Energy in India Programmes and Policies

Ajit K Gupta
Biomass holds considerable promise as a source of electricity in India. More than 540 million tonnes of crop and plantation residues are produced every year, a large portion of which is either wasted or used inefficiently. Conservative estimates indicate that about 16,000 MW of distributed power could be generated from these residues, even with the present utilization pattern and using only surplus biomass materials (estimated at about 150 million tonnes). Apart from providing much-needed relief from power shortages, power projects based on biomass would also open up new avenues for employment generation in our rural areas in collection, storage and handling of biomass materials. Each 5 MW biomass power project could generate at least 100,000 man-days per year of employment in rural areas. In view of the great potential of biomassbased power generation, the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES) has launched a comprehensive National Programme promoting all three possible routes for conversion of biomass to electricity: combustion only, cogeneration and gasification. tor joint venture partner, with a view to tapping the surplus power potential available. To improve the viability of cogeneration projects, the use of alternative biomass materials, such as cane trash, is also being promoted under a project of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the US Agency for International Development. This will increase potential for off-season power generation. A Programme Partnership Initiative involving leading consultancy groups is helping to accelerate finalization and financing of bagasse cogeneration projects. grated gasification-cum-gas turbine combined cycle technology. New programmes on biomass briquetting and power generation linked to energy plantations on waste lands are also being developed.

Other Projects
A major UNDP/GEF project on biomass power generation in India has been formulated which aims to remove the main barriers in the development of the biomass power sector in India. The project will cover bagasse or other biomass-based cogeneration projects, large biomass power projects and small-scale gasifier engine-based power projects. The total cost of the UNDP/GEF project is estimated at US$ 60 million. Besides projects under the technical assistance component, model investments projects equivalent to another 40 MW of exportable surplus capacity are proposed to be taken up under the UNDP/GEF project. There is a lack of authentic and precise estimates of the surplus biomass availability in India. This information could form a basis for long-term planning and policy in this area. To overcome this lacuna, a National Biomass Resource Assessment Programme is being implemented at the taluka level in different regions rich in biomass resources. Studies are to be undertaken in 500 talukas, and have so far been completed in 169. The findings will be augmented by additional inputs from GIS, satellite imagery and computer modelling, and will lead to the preparation of a biomass resource atlas for India. Cooking energy constitutes about 85 percent of our rural energy demand and has traditionally been met by biomass fuels such as firewood, agricultural residues and animal wastes. Under the National Programme on Improved Cookstoves, about 30 million cookstoves have so far been installed, which are helping to cut back and conserve fuelwood use. Energy plantations using appropriate fast-growing tree species have also been established on marginal lands to provide fuelwood for use in efficient cookstoves and biomass gasifiers. An innovative project called SUTRA (Sustainable Transformation of Rural Areas) is being implemented in two panchayats in Tumkur district of Karnataka. The objective of SUTRA is development of self reliance in rural areas by adoption of technologies for providing irrigation and

Combustion and Gasification

The combustion-only route for biomass conversion is also being actively promoted under the National Programme. Projects adding up to 37 MW capacity have been set up and 34 MW capacity is under implementation. In the area of small-scale biomass gasification, significant technology development work has made India a world leader in this area. Research and Development, testing and training activities are being undertaken at the premier research institutions and universities in the country. Local manufacturers and energy service companies (ESCOs) have also developed biomass gasifiers with potential outputs from a few kW up to 500 kW. A large number of installations for providing power to small-scale industries and for electrification of individual villages or groups of villages have been undertaken. A total capacity of 31 MW has so far been installed, mainly for stand-alone applications. A 5 x 100 kW biomass gasifier installation on Gosaba Island in the Sunderbans area of West Bengal is being successfully run on a commercial basis to provide electricity to the inhabitants of the island through a local grid. A 500 kW gridinteractive biomass gasifier, linked to an energy plantation, has also been commissioned recently under a demonstration project. Indigenously developed small biomass gasifiers have successfully undergone stringent testing abroad, and are now being exported not only to developing countries of Asia and Latin America, but also to Europe and the USA. Work is being initiated on advanced biomass gasification for development and application of new technologies such as biomass inte-

Cogeneration
Bagasse-based cogeneration for surplus power generation is of particular significance. It has been estimated that around 3,500 MW of additional power could be produced if all of the 430 sugar mills in our country switched over to modern techniques of optimum cogeneration. Optimum cogeneration, with its strong backward linkages, will automatically lead to upgradation of sugar manufacturing processes, thereby making sugar production itself more remunerative. The power so produced will not only be beneficial for the sugar mills, but will also benefit the cane growers, as mills will be in a position to pay more for the cane. Cogeneration projects of 134 MW surplus power capacity have been commissioned and another 195 MW of capacity is under implementation. Since a large number of sugar mills are in the cooperative and public sectors and do not have surplus capital for investment, an innovative joint venture model has been developed involving a private-sec-

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electricity in the villages through use of locally available biomass resources. Under the project, economically useful trees are also being grown. Electricity will be generated using locally available resources such as non-edible seed oil, biogas from seed starch, green compostable grass, and producer gas from dried agro-residues and wood waste, along with supplementary fuel to run the engines. The project will eventually become self-sustaining by collecting charges for irrigation and other energy services.

Policy Support
The spread of various renewable energy technologies, including biomass

power, is being aided by a variety of policy and support measures. The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Ltd (IREDA) was established by the MNES to finance renewable energy projects. Soft loans, concessional rates of import duty, exemption from other duties and taxes, and accelerated depreciation benefit to commercial users are some of the fiscal and promotional incentives available through IREDA. To encourage power generation from renewable energy, 15 states have announced policies for commercial nonconventional energy-based power projects. Utilities are accordingly providing remunerative power purchase agreements (PPAs) and arrangements

for wheeling and banking, third party sale and buy-back of power from these projects. In Indias Ninth Five Year Development Plan (19972002), added impetus is being given to commercialization and development of entrepreneurship in all our programmes, and additional power generating capacity of 1,500 MW will be created from renewables, including 350 MW from biomass resources.

Mr Ajit Gupta is Adviser and Head of the Power Group, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources

IREDA: Lending to the Biomass Energy Sector

Dr V Bakthavatsalam
Affordable financing is one of the most important factors inhibiting the use of renewable energy in industry, especially at the small user level. The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency, IREDA, was created in March 1987 to promote and develop NRSE (new and renewable sources of energy) technologies. One of the ways IREDA seeks to boost the momentum of the development and large-scale adoption of NRSE technologies is through finance, providing an alternative to the conventional banking approach. with credit, initially on concessionary terms but progressively approaching commercial rates, as the technology gains wider acceptance. By financing new ventures in renewable energy, IREDA helps create performance track records for NRSE technologies, thus facilitating their transition from novelty status to mainstream acceptance. During its first 12 years of operation IREDA has pledged resources for 1,126 renewable energy projects, to the tune of over Rs 26 billion. In 19992000, and for the rest of the Ninth Five Year Plan (19972002) IREDA will continue its emphasis on biomass technologies. The past decade has seen a wealth of programmes, in India and elsewhere, on bimoass energy research, development, demonstration, extension, market development and commercialization. A good deal of useful experience has been gained and we are now in a better position to evaluate with authority various biomass energy technologies and their prospects for the future.

IREDAs General Financing Norms Assistance: Up to 80% of project cost and up to 90% of equipment cost 015% Maximum three years Maximum 10 years

Interest: Moratorium: Repayment period:

The IREDA Experience

IREDAs institutional model is unique, even at the global level. IREDAs mission is to be a pioneering, participantfriendly and competitive institution for financing and promoting self sustaining investment in energy generation from renewable sources and energy efficiency for sustainable development. A major role of IREDA is to provide renewable energy users and producers With the right policy environment and adequate institutional and financing mechanisms, IREDA believes biomass energy technologies will find and occupy their rightful market niche. Biomass technologies have the potential to become an integral part of the energy systems of India and of the rest of the developing world. IREDA invites all concernced to participate in this global movement for renewable energy.

IREDAs achievements in bioenergy applications

Sector No. of Projects Installed Capacity 252.00 MW 40.75 MW 953,407 m3/day 1450.8 t/day

Dr Bakthavatsalam is Managing Director of IREDA

Biomass/Bagasse Cogeneration 19 Biomass Power Generation 6 Biogas 64 Biomass Briquetting 31

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Trends in Renewable Energy Supply and Use

Pradeep Chaturvedi
India started nationally planned economic development in 1952. Soon after, in 195354, a comparison of trends in energy supply and use was carried out. Only a small base of commercial sources of energy existed when India gained freedom. Since then, a large proportion of the population has continued to depend on non-commercial energy sources to meet its energy demands: in rural areas all energy demands; in urban and semi-urban areas at least a part of cooking energy demands. Non-commercial energy supply in India consists mainly of fuelwood, agro-residues and dungcakes.

Table1: Renewable Energy Potential, Achievement and Target

Source/System Potential Achievements (up to 31/3/98) 2.67 million 26.29 million 105 MW 28 MW 436,000 m2 (xx) 970 MW 151 MW 3.75 MW 3.75 MW Ninth Plan Targets (19972002) 1.26 million 19.6 million 22 MW 2.5 MW 250,000m2 (xx) 1,200 MW 175 MW 300 MW 50 MW

Biogas Plants (nos) Improved Woodstoves(nos) Biomass Gasifier Solar Photovoltaic Solar Water Heating Systems Wind Power Small Hydropower Biomass Power Power from Municipal Waste

12 million 120 million 17,000 MW 30 m m2 (x) 20,000 MW 10,000 MW 1,700 MW 1,700 MW

(x) m m2 represents million square metres of solar panel collector area. (xx) m2 represents square metres of solar panel collector area. Source: Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002), Planning Commission, Government of India.

Trends in Energy Supply

Fuelwood accounts for around 65 percent of total non-commercial energy use in the household sector. In absolute terms, consumption of fuelwood was estimated at 161.4 million tonnes in 199697. Combined consumption of dungcake and crop residues over the same period was estimated at 88.6 million tonnes. The Planning Commission has projected, on the basis of end-use analysis and income elasticities, that primary energy requirement is likely to increase from 374 million tonnes of oil equivalent (in 1996 7) to around 475500 mtoe in 200102, the end of the Ninth Plan. This represents an annual growth rate of 4.9 percent. The share of commercial energy in this total is likely to increase from 66 to 75 percent, while the share of non-commercial sources falls from 34 to 25 percent. However, in absolute terms, consumption of non-commercial energy will remain at almost the same level as in 199697. and bio-mass gasifier power systems; supply of solar lantems to unelectrified households; use of solar water heating systems; and rural energy programmes such as the National Project on Biogas Development; the National Programme on Improved Cookstoves; and production of energy from industrial and agricultural waste. This initiative helped the Ministry of Nonconventional Energy Sources (MNES) to achieve results much better than the target set for the period 199297. However, current utilization of renewables is still considered to be far below potential. Therefore the Government proposed to undertake the following steps during the Ninth Plan period (19972002): i. Change the structure of the existing programmes so that they move away from being subsidy-driven towards gradual commercialization of noncommercial energy sources.

Government Initiatives
In 1992, the Government launched a twopronged renewable energy initiative for implementation during the Eighth Plan, consisting of: i. Generation of grid-quality power from wind energy, small hydro-power, bioenergy and solar energy.

ii. The Rural Energization Programme, promoted through stepping up of electrification of villages through standalone photovoltaic lighting systems

Figure 1: Changes in Pattern of Primary Energy Supply

400 350

Primary Energy Supply (mtoe)

300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Non-commercial Commercial

ii. Gradually phase out subsidies in socially oriented programmes like biogas, improved high efficiency woodstoves, biomass and solar photovoltaics. iii. Strengthen research and development into, and commercialization of, non-conventional energy sources.

Meeting Future Fuelwood Demand

By the end of Ninth Plan period, total fuelwood demand is projected to be about 200 million tonnes. Of this, 102 million tonnes is expected to come from forests and 98 million tonnes from non-forest

1953-4

1960-1

1970-1

1980-1

1990-1

1996-7

Year

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sources. The sustained yield of 18 million tonnes per year from forests leaves a gap of 84 million tonnes per year. To cover this deficit, efforts are being made to grow fuelwood plantations on degraded forest and wastelands. Filling the gap will require plantations on at least 20 million hectares of wasteland. Experimental results show that such wastelands can be

planted at a cost of Rs 25,000 per hectare. If five million hectares yielding 20 million tonnes of extra fuelwood per year is planted in the next Plan period, it will require investment of Rs 125,000 million. Indias Rural Energy Programme has so far resulted in efficient utilization of woodfuels and substitution of woodfuels

by biogas. Studies carried out by the National Council of Applied Economic Research and other institutions have confirmed the same.

Mr Chaturvedi is Secretary General of the Indian Association for the Advancement of Science, Delhi

New Directions for Wood Energy Systems in the 21st Century

Prof. Jyoti K Parikh
What will be the role of wood energy in India in the 21st century? Woodfuel met almost 100 percent of energy demand in the 19th century; by the end of the 20th, that share has fallen to 22 percent. Will this decline simply continue, or does wood energy have a future in India? This paper looks at some factors and recent developments which define future prospects for wood energy supply. ing trees fix atmospheric carbon through photosynthesis and is therefore considered to be climate friendly. In light of these factors, what new directions can we take regarding wood energy supply? Two roles wood energy might play in the future are: a) a fuel source for the poor (through sustainable practices); and b) a renewable energy supply at industrial scale, using a range of new, efficient applications. 4,500 hectares of revenue wasteland (Parikh and Reddy, 1997). However, use of woodfuel obtained in this way can only be considered sustainable if the health impacts of pollution are avoided through raising awareness, and use, of appropriate stoves, ventilated kitchens and other cleaner technologies.

New Applications
The second category of approaches for wood energy are those based on new applications for power generation and other industrial, commercial and transportation purposes. For example, wood-based power generation could sequester carbon. The Global Environment Facility has funded a demonstration project in Brazil featuring a 30 MW integrated gas turbine power plant running on wood chips from plantations. It is suggested by Nakicenovic et al (1995) that this may be the major use of woodbased systems, if carbon sequestration has to be carried out on a large scale. In addition, it is also essential to develop a comprehensive strategy for biomass that includes both wood and other biomass fuels. An integrated biomass strategy can consider all aspects of the process, from land-use through to end-use applications, so as to give cost-effective solutions which respond to local needs and resources.

Fuel for the Poor The Next Century

As incomes increase and environmental awareness gains ground, it is necessary to review our objectives and measures for promoting wood energy systems. The following factors need to be taken into consideration: Traditionally, wood energy supply systems are within the informal sector, which means no efforts are made to plan for development, investment and management for sustainable supply. Its collection often adds to the burden of women and can be at the cost of deforestation, soil erosion and loss of biodiversity. Land regeneration programmes are sustainable only when they are environmentally sound, sustainable, socially acceptable, financially viable, economically feasible and participated in by the people. They can increase the productivity of degraded common lands and boost the rural economy, and as they are highly labour intensive, they can also help alleviate rural poverty through employment. A combination of land management practices, including effective soil and water conservation and tree and other plantation, can regenerate the degraded lands. However, appropriate financial commitments and new and innovative institutional and legal mechanisms are necessary. A Tree Growers Co-operative Society (TGCS) pilot project started as early as 1986, and since then tree growers cooperatives have been formed in 389 villages in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. By the end of 19945, these societies had planted trees on about

With rising income levels, people tend to prefer convenient and clean commercial fuels, such as kerosene, LPG and electricity, when available. Indoor air pollution due to woodfuels can cause severe health impacts for women, children and senior citizens confined to households. Woodfuel supply is sometimes obtained through highly unsustainable practices. Too much time is consumed to gather it. If purchased in the markets, it is usually not good value for money. Despite these factors, millions of poor people in India will continue to depend on wood energy for the first two decades of the 21st century or even longer. Efforts are being made globally to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions resulting from burning fossil fuels. Wood energy can be carbon-neutral grow-

References
N Nakicenovic, Arnulf Grubler and Alan McDonald (eds), Global Energy Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995 Jyoti Parikh and B Sudhakara Reddy (eds), Sustainable Regeneration of Degraded Lands through Peoples Participation, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co Ltd, New Delhi, 1997

Prof. Parikh is Senior Professor at the Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai

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Social Costs and Benefits of the National Programme on Improved Chulha

Dr I Natarajan
The National Programme on Improved Chulha (NPIC) was started towards the end of 1985 under the Governments Minimum Needs Programme. The programmes targets are population groups considered weak, both socially and economically. After a slow start, the programme picked up momentum and during the last few years an average of 1.5 million chulha (cookstoves) have been installed annually. Recently, the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), at the instance of the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources, undertook a socio-economic cost-benefit analysis of the NPIC. A brief description of the methodology adopted and a summary of the findings of this study are presented below. tenance and used 13 man-days of family labour annually for fuel collection and preparation. lion chulhas would thus be Rs 873 million (US$ 20.3 million).

Social Benefits Fuel Savings

The major benefit of improved chulha is their fuel efficiency. The NCAERs evaluation survey showed that on average, an improved chulha user saves 1.7 litres of kerosene, 177 kg of dung cakes, 303 kg of wood and 28 kg of crop residues over the lifetime of the stove. That means that the 1.6 million chulhas installed in 199596 should have saved 2.72 million litres of kerosene, 283,000 tonnes of dung cakes, 480,000 tonnes of wood and 12,000 tonnes of crop residues. Savings in kerosene are valued at border* prices, with a foreign exchange premium of 25 percent. The survey revealed that practically all the households diverted the dung they had saved to their fields as manure. Thus the long-term replacement value of dung cake can be taken as the value of the nutrients contained in them. Most of woodfuel used in rural areas is gathered, rather than bought, by households. Saving of fuelwood mean less pressure on tree resources and less time and energy spent in collection. This is a benefit to the community at large and its social value perhaps is more than the market value of the wood saved. To be on the conservative side, this report estimates the value of the wood saved at the prevailing market prices in rural areas. The value of fuel saved on the above basis for each chulha comes to Rs 545.5 (US$ 12.68). The total for all the 1.6 milHouseholds with improved chulha also save time on collection of fuel and on cooking and cleaning of utensils (as the improved chulhas direct heat energy more efficiently and produce less smoke). The housewife saves an average of around 20 days a year on this count. Thus, the net saving on man-days is around seven per chulha per year. The opportunity cost of this labour is taken as zero, as opportunities for other gainful employment normally do not exist in rural villages. However, it should be recognized that this saving of labour has social benefits, as it it releases the housewife from drudgery and enables her to attend to her children or get much-needed rest. There are also other benefits associated with the use of improved chulha beyond the socio-economic sphere, such as reducing the incidence of eye and respiratory diseases among family members, particularly women and children. The environmental benefits are less emission of smoke and greenhouse gases due to more efficient combustion in the chulha, along with conservation of resources.These are difficult to assign a monetary value, so they were left out of the cost-benefit analysis.

Programme Costs
The costs of the NPIC can be divided into capital investments and recurring costs. Capital investments are shared by the Government and the beneficiary households. Recurring costs are borne entirely by beneficiary households; they cover repair and maintenance. The Government provided Rs 156 million (US$3.6 million) to the NPIC in 199596 for installation of 1.6 million improved chulhas. Almost half of this amount was subsidy paid to beneficiary households. From the data collected in the several evaluation studies done by NCAER, it has been found that on top of the subsidy, households spend an average of about Rs 131 (US$ 3.00) to purchase and install a chulha. Thus, in the year 199596, beneficiary households spent about Rs 210 million for installation of new chulhas. The total capital investment in improved chulhas in 199596 was thus Rs 365.6 million (US$ 8.5 million). In addition to these fixed costs, households must repair and maintain the chulhas. This involves regular coating with dung and cleaning of the chimney. Households must also spend time on cutting logs and/or crop residues to appropriate size for use in the improved chulha. According to the surveys, each household with an improved chulha spends an average of eight rupees on repairs and main-

The Analysis
The net benefit per chulha, as calculated above, comes to Rs 537.5 per year. However, the mortality rate of chulha is high. Surveys suggest that on average 30 percent of of all improved chulhas in use become non-operational each year. This means the flow of benefits over time would decrease. Further, future benefits must be discounted at the social discount rate. This

* This is the landed value of any commodity imported into the country

Table: Present Value of Net Benefits of NPIC

Social Discount Rate 10% Net benefits, (Rs. million) Fixed costS (Rs. million) NPV (Rs. million) Benefit-cost ratio IRR (%) 2,183.00 366.00 1,817.00 5.97.00 201.90 12% 2,125.00 366.00 1,759.00 5.81 201.90

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rate should normally be the real interest rate prevalent in the economy. In 199596, the prime lending rate after adjusting for inflation was around 10 percent. However, for the present analysis, two discount rates are used: 10 percent and 12 percent. The net present value and the benefit-cost ratio are worked out using these two rates in the table above.

What we find is that the benefit-cost ratio is impressive, at almost 6:1. This despite the fact that the chulhas at present are working well below their theoretical potential. And of course to this we must add the unquantified benefits. The internal rate of return, at more than 200 percent, is also very high.

It is abundantly clear from the above analysis that the NPIC is a sound programme, both financially and socially. It should therefore continue to be a key component of the Governments energy conservation strategy.

Dr Natarajan is Chief Economist at NCAER, Delhi

Surveying Trees Outside the Forest

Dr V N Pandey
Growing trees is an age old practice, ingrained in Indias cultural ethos. Cultivated trees have long been an integral part of our farming system. Trees growing outside forests are important sources of fuelwood, fodder, food, timber and other useful products, largely used up by local communities. The role of these trees in soil and water conservation, rural economy and, in a wider context, in biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration and environmental improvement is of paramount importance. A national Social Forestry programme was launched in the 1970s, promoting popular participation in planting of trees on non-forest community and private land by motivation, guidance and assistance. The central idea was to raise trees for fuelwood, small timber and fodder so as to obviate the pressure on the natural forests and also to protect agricultural fields against wind and fulfil recreational needs. The 1980s saw extensive areas planted under this programme. survey looks at all standing trees in the study areas, with the exception of trees in forests and trees in urban areas, grown primarily for environmental and recreational purposes. The sampling design, field formats and data processing methodology were developed by FSI. Four states were originally chosen for the survey: Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal.

Methodology
While recognition of the importance of trees outside forests (TOF) has been growing since the launch of the Social Forestry programme and before, there is still no comprehensive study on the availability of wood from TOF. The absence of systematic information means that TOF resources tend to be ignored in framing of policies and in national planning and management of forest and tree resources. Against this backdrop, the Forest Survey of India (FSI) is undertaking a survey to assess the availability of wood in TOF. The The survey uses stratified random sampling, taking the village as sampling unit. Pilot surveys were undertaken in 1991 to test the formats and definitions and to ascertain sample size the number of villages needing to be surveyed in order to obtain a reliable picture of the number of TOF in a state and their growing stock (wood volume). The necessary distribution of villages to be surveyed in different districts was worked out by proportional allocation based on the non-forest area of the district. Sample villages within a district were selected randomly.

Classification of Trees
The survey counts and measures all trees with a diameter of 10cm and above in the selected villages. Planted trees are classified into eight categories:

Railwayside trees: a good source of free non-forest fuelwood

Farm forestry: trees growing naturally or planted in small patches upto 0.1 ha in an area; Village woodlot: naturally growing or planted trees on village community land; Plantations: compact plantation covering an area of more than 0.1 hectares on private/government land except village community; Roadside plantations; Railwayside plantations; Canalside plantations; Pondside plantations; Others (trees not falling in any of the above categories).

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All tree species are recorded. Data on important species is analysed individually, while the remaining species are grouped together as other species. A ratio estimate is applied to estimate the number of trees and growing stock. The results are compiled by district.

The Survey in Haryana

The first phase of the survey focussed on the state of Haryana. Haryana is in the northwest of the country and has a geographic area of 4.42 million ha and nonforest area of 4.36 million ha. It was selected because of the reported success of the Social Forestry programme in the state. The Haryana survey took place between 1991 and 1995. A total of 219 villages, spread over all of Haryanas 12 districts (there are now 19) were surveyed. From the survey data, the estimated total number of trees outside forest in Haryana is 54,984 million, spread over 4.36 million hectares), or 12.6 trees per hectare. The

total standing volume of wood in TOF is estimated to be 10.30 million m 3, or 2.36 m3/ha. Among the important tree species found were Acacia nilotica, Eucalyptus spp ., Dalbergia sissoo , Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora spp., Populus spp., Acacia tortilis , Azadirachta indica and Mangifera indica. These constituted about 80% of tree volume, while the other 20% was made up of other species. The greatest share of trees, some 41%, was under farm forestry. Village woodlots accounted for the next-largest share (23%). These were followed by roadside plantation (13%), block plantation (11%) and canalside plantation (9%). The contribution of the remaining categories was marginal, at just 3%. When these figures are compared to the availability of growing stock in natural forests, which is estimated to be 1.41 million m3, it can be seen that the standing volume of TOF is roughly seven times that of natural forest. This in itself demonstrates the importance of TOF.

A prosopis tree grows on wasteland

Survey Progress
The survey of TOF has been extended beyond the four original sites to take in a number of other states around the country. Survey work is currently under way in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Age and area have been added as new parameters, particularly for farm forestry, village woodlots and block plantation. This will be useful in assessing the periodic availability of wood from such sources. In addition to the information already gathered, some other key aspects need to be analysed, among them the end use of the wood, its likely periodic availability, utilization patterns, and trade and marketing. Such a database would be immensely useful in policy formulation and in planning and management of this vital resource.

Trees dont just grow in forests

Dr Pandey is Joint Director of the Forest Survey of India

Fuelwood Collection and Trade as a Survival Strategy in Northwest Bengal

Dr Ram Prasad, Dr Parodyut Bhattacharya and Dr Bharati Joshi
and trade acts as a safety net for many of these displaced people, who often arrive in Northwest Bengal with almost nothing. A case study on Forests and Displaced People: Woodfuel Collection and Trade as a First-step Survival Strategy was recently undertaken by the Indian Institute of Forest Management, an autonomous institute under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. This RWEDPsponsored study was aimed at understanding the regional peculiarities of woodfuel flow in the chicken neck, and to document

The narrow chicken neck region of Northwest Bengal (see map right) is surrounded by a number of other Indian states along with three neighbouring countries: Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. Its situation means that Northwest Bengal plays host to a large number of both legal and illegal migrants, driven from their homes by both natural disasters and man-made problems. Fuelwood collection

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the impact of the migrants on the areas forests, with special reference to fuelwood production, collection and marketing and related issues.

Methodology
A combination of methods were used in the case study, including surveys, interviews, focus group discussions and participatory rural appraisal. The study covered three districts: Cooch Bihar, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri. Some eight different questionnaires and checklists were used to guide primary data collection at household, village and market levels. A total of 255 household respondents in 55 villages of five forest divisions and 18 forest ranges were surveyed.

Results
Fuelwood emerged as the most important wood product in the three districts, with more than 70 percent originating in state forests. The study indicated that more than 200,000 people enter 11,879 km2 of forests in Northwest Bengal every day, collecting up to 120 kg of fuelwood per week per household. Fuelwood business was found to be the main source of income for 10 percent of rural households in the three study districts, and accounted for about 45 percent of their cash income. Around 72,000 tons of fuelwood per week, some 45 percent of total fuelwood supply in the study area, is monetized, traded in the primary and secondary markets of Northwest Bengal. Of the more than 700,000 rural people engaged in fuelwood trade in the study area, around 36 percent are migrants who depend on fuelwood collection and sale as the major source of household income. The largest proportion (53 percent) are from Bangladesh, attracted to this part of West Bengal by the prospect of earning cash from selling fuelwood. Fuelwood trade remains the main occupation among this group. Around 0.1 million Bangladeshis in the area contribute more than

Fuelwood gatherers in Northwest Bengal

15 percent of the illegally removed fuelwood on the market. The socio-economic impacts of the migration and fuelwood trade include: There are few trees on non-forest areas, traditional woodlots or private plantations in Baikunthapur and Darjeeling forest divisions, putting extra pressure on forest resources. However, in the forest-deficient Cooch Bihar Social Forestry Division, fuelwood is either derived from traditionally managed home gardens or is purchased on the market. Non-monetized or free fuelwood supply in Baikunthapur and Darjeeling is derived illegally and destructively from local forests, through progressive debarking and girdling. Primary collectors systematically fell both young and mature trees using hand axes and sickles. An armed Forest Protection Force deployed by the Forest Department has been unsuccessful in stopping the destruction. The local population is so desperate to obtain fuelwood from the forests that there are frequent conflicts between communities and the Forest Department. This has exacerbated souring relations between the two partners in the Joint Forest Management initiative.

Accelerated supply to the flourishing illegal fuelwood market; Social heterogeneity and consequent demographic distortion; Encroachment on public and community lands due to the low land-to-person ratio; and Irreversible damage to natural forests from unsustainable demands for fuelwood.

The labour forces of the tea gardens in Jalpaiguri are responsible for a large proportion of the demand for fuelwood that is currently being met from forest resources. This has been exacerbated by the withdrawal by the Forest Department of the regular quota of fuelwood alloted to tea gardens .

Impact on Women
Distances travelled and time taken for fuelwood collection have increased over the years, and with them the time and effort needed for more sustainable gathering of forest residues for free household fuel. This has added to rural womens workload. Furthermore, the easy availability of free or cheap woodfuels, coupled with the low or non-availability of alternative fuels and cooking technologies, mean women continue to use traditional wood-fuelled chulhas that release a lot of smoke. Long exposure to indoor pollution results in

Fuelwood Dependence in the Study Districts

District Total Population (in millions) 2.8 1.3 2.17 Forest Area (in km2 and % of total area) 1,580 (25.4%) 1,445 (45.9%) 32 (0.9%) % of Households Exclusively Dependent on Fuelwood 86% 88% 20%
Source: Field Surveys

Jalpaiguri Darjeeling Cooch Bihar

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diseases among rural women and their infants, who always stay close to them.

Recommendations
This case study emphasizes the need for viable and effective strategies for the promotion of alternative fuels and green technologies in Northwest Bengal. These initiatives need to be backed up with appropriate incentives to wean local people

away from earning quick cash from selling forest-derived fuelwood, whose availability appears to be the strongest disincentive for them switching over to cleaner and greener alternatives. Forestry and energy sector programmes need to be integrated into those of other sectors to bring about holistic development of the area. It is also recommended that the existing Joint Forest Management institutions in

the area be revitalized and their energy channelled to tackle fuelwood problems.

Dr Prasad is Director, and Drs Bhattacharya and Joshi are faculty members, of the Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal

Wood Energy in Forestry Training

P B Gangopadhyay
6) Silvicultural Systems; The subject of forest management is addressed by various forestry training institutions in India and is also a part of the forestry education system in agricultural universities. Training of the different levels of foresters is particularly important in India because more than 95 percent of forest is owned and managed by the Government. The existing forestry training pattern encompasses a large number of multidisciplinary subjects, addressing fuelwood conservation, production, flow and marketing. Besides the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy, which trains top-ranking Indian Forest Service (IFS) officers, there are three state forest service colleges, six forest rangers colleges, 25 foresters training schools and 37 forest guards training schools in the country which provide professional forestry training to state-level executives. There are also 25 agricultural universities and 212 agricultural colleges which offer forestry-related degrees at undergraduate level and a few at postgraduate level. The Indian Forest Service training follows a regularly updated syllabus. Conservation, flow and utilization of wood energy are covered in the following subjects: 1) Overview of Forestry; 2) Forest Ecology; 7) Systematic Botany; 8) Forest Management; 9) Working Plan; 10)Forest Harvesting and Wood-based Industries; 11)Environmental Conservation; and 12)People and Forests. Even though the present curriculum has wide coverage of issues related to wood energy, more specific focus is needed on the issue. The syllabi of SFS colleges, rangers colleges, foresters and forest guard schools also cover fuelwood topics in the same pattern as the IFS training curriculum, but not in such depth. More requisites for improved training on wood energy-related issues are development of appropriate training materials, exchange of faculty and training materials between institutions and training of trainers. Networking amongst the various institutions offering forestry training needs to be strengthened. Research applications currently do not get adequately integrated in the training curricula. Due to a lack of adequate emphasis on wood energy issues, there is a shortage of reliable wood energy resource and consumption figures. Sustained-yield forest systems can not only offer woodfuel but can also act as carbon sinks, recycling greenhouse gases, and generate employment. This aspect also needs to be emphasized in forestry training. Hence not only forestry training curricula needs a stronger focus on wood energy but all the related sectors also need to be aware of this issue. In the search for alternative energy sources, this traditional energy source should not be ignored or undermined. Fuelwood issues need not be brought in as a free-standing subject, but could easily be strengthened or introduced within the existing subjects.

Policy is needed to include provisions for smooth movement of fuelwood. Resource data related to fuelwood eeds to be generated using modern technologies.

Shortfalls in Training
Some shortfalls in current wood energy training are:

Lack of coverage of trends in clean energy consumption using modern technology and other non-conventional energy sources substituting fuelwood. Quantification of fuelwood needs to be more clearly brought out. Yield tables with specific fuelwood output need to be prepared. The role of fuelwood in meeting the effects of global warming needs to be given more coverage in environmental conservation.

3) Forest Mensuration; 4) Soil Conservation and Land Management; 5) Silvicultural Practices;

Mr Gangopadhyay is Director of the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy

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Woodfuel in Bakeries in Bhopal

Ass. Prof. N B Majumdar
Commercial bakeries and brick kilns remain the most popular and established non-domestic uses of wood energy in India. However, while wood-fired brick kilns are in steady decline, bakeries continue to use fuelwood at much the same levels. around 60 units of electricity if all done in an electric oven. At the industrial rate of Rs 3.17 per unit of electricity, this costs Rs 190.2 (US$4.42) per day. At the commercial rate (Rs 5.10 per unit), the daily cost is Rs 306 (US$7.10). As not all bakeries are eligible for the industrial rate (which depends largely on their location), the difference in energy costs can be quite substantial. 3. Electric and diesel ovens are easy to operate thanks to the better temperature control. Wood-fired ovens, on the other hand, require skilled manual labourers; though there is no shortage of these in Bhopal and its vicinity. 4. Availability of fuelwood is not a problem in this area. Large and medium bakeries purchase fuelwood from contractors and occasionally from retailers. Small bakeries, due to lack of storage space, are compelled to purchase it in small quantities, invariably from retailers. The flow of fuelwood from the source to the bakeries is shownin Figure 1. Babul (Acacia nilotica) is the most sought after wood species due to its high calorific value. The next most popular are Dhaoda (Anogcisum latifolia) and Satputa ( Dalbergia panniculata ). These are cheaper than Babul but are inferior as fuels. The ideal girth class is 25 to 45 cm, at which size the logs can be used straight away. Logs of larger girth have to be split, demanding more time and expenditure, while thinner logs burn too quickly.

The Scenario
Bhopal, the capital of the central Indian province of Madhya Pradesh, with an estimated population of around 14 lakh (1.4 million, houses 125 or so bakeries. Only four of these can be categorized as large operations (see Table 1), enjoy smallscale industry status and hold district industry centre licenses. They produce breads and toasts (breads dried in the oven) for consumption not only in Bhopal but also in adjoining areas such as Obedullaganj, Mandideep, Vidisha, Wasoda and Itarsi. Of the rest, 20 can be called medium sized. They have a wider range of products, including various kinds of cakes and biscuits, are known for value-added quality products and normally maintain showrooms. The rest of the bakeries can be categorized as small and very small, operating at a primary level and producing only toasts for local consumption.

ergy for a large number of the small and very small bakeries. This brings us to the obvious question of the advantages and disadvantages of using fuelwood, and also the underlying reasons that make fuelwood a prime energy option for a large number of bakeries: 1. Using fuelwood requires traditional ovens, with an inner lining constructed of fire bricks to retain heat for a longer time. Wood is ignited and left burning in the chamber for three to four hours. This produces charcoal, which is kept inside the chamber while the trays of breads are placed inside for baking. The initial investment for this type of oven is Rs 12,000150,000 (US$280 3,500) depending on capacity and the quality of the inner lining. Electric or diesel ovens of similar or greater capacity would cost Rs 300,000700,000 (US$7,00016,000). 2. The energy costs of fuelwood ovens are also much lower than those for the other two fuel options. A medium-sized bakery consumes about one quintal (hundredweight or 122 pounds) of wood per day, costing Rs 140170 (US$3.304.00). The same work uses

Wood as Fuel
Three energy sources are commonly used in Bhopals bakeries: woodfuel, electricity and diesel. Diesel is the newest of these. One interesting feature of fuel use is that even the large-sized bakeries have not completely stopped using woodfuel. Some of them in fact simultaneously run traditional wood-fired and sophisticated diesel and/or electric ovens. At the other extreme, wood is the only source of en-

Small Bakeries
The situation of small bakeries is the most precarious, as their choice of fuel is quite limited. They are obliged to use fuelwood

Table 1: Characteristics of Bakeries in Bhopal

Type of Bakery Large Medium

Nature of Plant Semi automatic Manual

Flour Used per Day 1,8003,500 kg 500800 kg

Fuel D+W+E D+W+E

Dependence on Fuel Options 50% diesel and electric 50% diesel and fuelwood 5% totally fuelwood 5% totally diesel 25% only electric 65% electric + fuelwood 100% fuelwood

Consumption Capacity of Oven (wood) 150180 kg/12 hr 90100 kg/12 hr

Small

Manual

6090 kg

7080 kg/12 hr

D: diesel, W: fuelwood, E: electricity

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Typical Daily Production Costs in a Small Bakery Item Cost (in Rs)
1 bag (90 kg) flour 10 kg sugar 2 kg oil 4 labourers Fuelwood (1 quintal) Total 780 58 400 400 150 1,543.00

An association of bakeries was constituted in 1989, during a severe crisis in flour supplies. However, the association no longer exists, so there is now practically no forum for bakeries to take up their concerns with the relevant authorities. Fuelwood now accounts for a substantial 10 percent of the production costs of the small bakeries (see left). If they can obtain concessionary supplies from public sector depots, these production costs

could be reduced, albeit marginally, giving them a greater chance of survival and success.

The author wishes to express deep gratitude to the bakery owners of Bhopal for sparing their valuable time and sharing information. N B Majumdar is Associate Professor at the Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal

Figure 1: How Bakeries Obtain Fuelwood

because of the cheaper initial investment and running costs; they are also bound to purchase it from retailers due to lack of storage space, but this means they cannot get the lower rates available in bulk purchasing. During the rainy season, using fuelwood can become problematic. At the same time, these small bakeries face steep competition from their larger competitors. Without showrooms, gaining a reputation and marketing on the strength of their own name is more difficult.

Forest Dept Depot

Private Owners (growers) Contractors

Retailers

Large and Medium Bakeries

Small Bakeries

Fuelwood Collection and Use and Mangrove on the East Coast

S Sankaramurthy
Mangroves are intertidal forests that shelter coastal lands from cyclonic storms and erosion, enhancing production of various fishery resources and thereby providing livelihood support to millions of people in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Various socio-economic and physical factors as well as geomorphological processes are causing mangroves on both the east and west coasts of India to become degraded, bringing considerable hardship to coastal communities. Not least among the pressures on the mangroves is excessive and unsustainable exploitation for firewood, timber and grazing land. A project of the M S Swaminathan Research Foundation in Chennai is attempting to mobilize and develop institutions at village level to address the various problems affecting the mangroves and to evolve site-specific participatory systems for sustainable management of these important natural resources. These institutions involve local forestry departments, local communities, voluntary organizations and panchayats. In the initial stages of the project, a benchmark socio-economic survey was conducted in a few representative villages using or dependent on local mangroves. Data was collected on fuelwood sources and use in the villages. The results are given in the table opposite.

Interventions
Through the village-level institutions, the project attempts to minimize extraction of mangrove wood for fuel or house construction in order to halt the process of degradation and minimize disturbance of the mangrove habitat. Village-level microplans address these concerns through: Promotion of alternative fuelwood resources in village homesteads, on common lands and on encroached edges of mangrove forests found no longer suitable for re-establishment of mangrove but suitable for non-mangrove fuelwood, fodder and timber species. Degraded mangrove areas, especially in Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh, due to geomorphological changes and altered hydrological conditions, have many patches in which it may not be possible to restore mangrove. Local forestry departments are being persuaded to raise fuelwood plantations on such patches, to meet village fuelwood requirements and thereby reduce pressure on the remaining mangroves. The project is also trying to convince the for-

In Tamilnadu, because of the scant availability of wood in the mangroves and the abundance of Prosopis juliflora on local wastelands, collection of fuelwood from mangroves is very low 64 percent of rural fuelwood comes from wild wasteland prosopis. Use of mangrove for fuelwood is much higher in the Mahanadhi delta in Orissa and in Andhra Pradesh, where mangroves are easily accessible. In and around the villages in Krishna, Andhra Pradesh, prosopis is abundant. However, because of the thorns prosopis bears, villagers prefer to use mangrove wood for both fuel, for reinforcement of the mud walls in their houses, and for fences.

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estry departments to extend suitable joint forest management practices to the mangroves, so that the benefits from these fuelwood plantations can be shared by the participating communities and the forestry departments. In Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, abandoned shrimp farms can also be utilised for fuelwood plantations. Fuelwood resources in homesteads and wastelands within the village will considerably reduce the time and drudgery involved in fuelwood collection, especially for women engaged in fuelwood collection. Encouraging growth of prosopis on degraded areas around mangrove forest and on other wasteland, to minimize pressure on scarce mangrove resources. Prosopis shrubs can withstand repeated cuts and prosopis wood is a very efficient fuelwood. Extraction for fuelwood of prosopis colonizing mangroves could also effectively arrest further colonization. Such efforts through this project have already started to yield results in the coastal villages of Andhra Pradesh, where households have switched over to collection and use of prosopis wood instead of mangrove. Encouraging use of fuel-efficient cookstoves to minimize consumption of fuelwood. Both this project and the ecodevelopment projects of local forestry departments are arranging supply of such stoves.

Mangrove: an important coastal resource

Table 1: Survey Results

Villages in and around Mangrove Forest in: Pichavaram Tamilnadu Data on Muthupet Tamilnadu Krishna Andhra Pradesh Godavari Andhra Pradesh Mahanadhi Orissa

Average daily household consumption (kg) % of households using wood from mangroves % of households in which women are fuelwood gatherers Major sources of fuelwood used in the village % of total consumption: Purchase/vendors Own sources Village commons & mangroves Avge time spent on fuelwood gathering per day % of households: < 1 hour 12 hours > 2 hours

4.80

4.40

4.00

4.00

6.37

13

37

43

97

79

20

40

80

66

34 29 24

27 20 64

} 34 66

} 34 66

33 97

Mr Sankaramurthy is Project Director of the Project on Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove Conservation and Management, at the M S Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai

47 44 9

40 60

100

1 99

100

Vol. 14 No. 2, October 1999

page 17

Status of Biomass Fuel Briquetting

Prof. P D Grover
It is well established that briquetted biomass is a convenient, efficient and clean solid fuel; yet its use is so far minimal compared to its great potential. This poor utilization is basically down to economics. So long as the cost of the requisite inputs of raw material, power and briquetting machinery remains high making briquettes more expensive than locally available alternatives like coal and wood and users can circumvent emission standards, briquettes will not find their due place. However, with rising transport costs, shortages of wood and other fuels, and increasing demand due to industrialization, briquettes are becoming economical and finding a market in specific locations, particularly where users are conscious of the negative environmental impacts of burning loose biomass or fossil fuels. For example, briquettes are popular in Europe as luxury fuels for traditional fireplaces, largely because recycling of woodwaste is considered environmentally friendly.

A biomass briquetting plant in action

1980s was followed quickly by debacle. This was mainly due to the low quality of indigenously produced ram press briquetting machines, and to mismanagement by the first generation of briquetting entrepreneurs. Around 90 percent of the machines were scrapped. It is an indication of briquettes potential that the industry has not only survived but has lately picked up momentum. Users and authorities are beginning to realize the value of briquettes. Between 1987 and 1999, 32 ram press briquetting plants were established with funding from the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Ltd (IREDA), with a total sanctioned loan of Rs 158 million (US$ 3.7 million). Out of the 150 ram press machines (capacity 500750 kg/hr) installed, about 60 machines, or 4045 plants, are still in operation. Although the present success rate paints a slightly brighter picture for biomass briquetting in India, there are still many shortfalls, and capacity utilization of the machines is low. The successes have mainly been due to the demand for briquettes and experience gained in manufacturing and maintenance of machines. There are about five manufacturers in the country making briquetting machines, but each of them has different quality standards and price structures. There is thus an urgent need to draw up standards for briquetting machines, and this process has already been initiated by the Government. Coffee husk, groundnut shells, mustard stalks and sawdust are still considered the most suitable raw materials for briquetting. Increasingly, press mud, a waste product from sugar mills, is being used, and the briquettes made with it are partially substituting coal in some local brick kilns. Coir pith and bagasse are the least used due to their relatively high moisture content. Presently none of the plants are using rice husk.

Production
Biomass briquettes are manufactured by two technologies: ram press or extrusion through a 55 to 90 mm diameter screw press. The screw press briquettes have a central hole of about 10 mm diameter, which provides additional surface area and facilitates complete and efficient combustion. Screw press briquettes are also more homogeneous, with better crushing strength, and are therefore preferred to ram press briquettes. In the past, screw pressing consumed 2530 percent more power than ram pressing. However, with the latest techniques, the power consumption in screw pressing is now comparable with ram pressing: in the range of 3845 kwh per tonne of finished briquettes. Briquettes have made little impact in the domestic sector. Furthermore, mediumized industries situated in agricultural areas are switching over to direct burning of agro-residues in boilers, mostly deploying fluidized bed technologies. Accordingly, briquettes have found a niche in small-scale industries using conventional stationary grate boilers, brick making, potteries and similar industries.

Conclusions
Even though Japan had 638 screw press briquetting plants as early as 1962, screw press technology is still not established in India. This is mainly due to the excessive cost of imported machines and the large-scale failure of machines manufactured locally. Steps are needed to produce these machines with proper material specifications, in technical collaboration with overseas manufacturers. In the final analysis, biomass briquetting can only fulfil its full potential for positive environmental impact through largescale production of the far superior screw press briquettes.

Prospects
The introduction of biomass briquetting in India with much fanfare during the early

Prof. Grover recently retired as Head of the Chemical Engineering Department at the Indian Institute of Technology in Delhi, and has now founded CMS Energy Consultants, also in Delhi

page 18

Wood Energy News

Plantation Crop Residues as an Energy Source

Dr C Palaniappan
Plantation crops, which include tea, coffee, cardamom, rubber and cashew nuts, are important sources of foreign exchange for India. The majority of plantation crops are grown by small-scale farmers with landholdings smaller than 10 hectares, mainly in hilly and woody areas. Processing of plantation crops which usually means drying often requires a high energy input, whether electrical, thermal or human. The thermal energy for processing is mainly derived from fuelwood, in fewer cases from coal or oil. The crop residues husks, empty fruit bunches, trees that have passed their useful life can also sometimes be used as fuel. In this case they are mostly used to provide energy for crop processing. Below is a comparison of the fuel potentials of some common plantation crop residues, particularly those available in sufficient quantities to be used outside crop processing. The coffee husk has potential for power generation using gasification. Gases obtained in this way can be utilized to run a diesel genset in dual-fuel mode. The major constraint is that the harvesting period for coffee is only 60 days in the year, while the processing stage may run for another 60 days. This means basing a year-round industrial operation on coffee residues is not possible. Presently, most of the wet coffee residues are used as manure. However, many small-scale industries, such as flour or dhall mills, use coffee husk as fuel. Coffee husk is also used at domestic level to meet day-to-day heat needs. Shade trees are grown along with coffee plants, and side loppings from these are often given as domestic fuel for coffee labourers living in the fields. The three to four tonnes of fuelwood yielded by shade trees on one acre of coffee plantation can meet the cooking and bathing fuel needs of a two-person family for about a year.

Rubber
Once the latex of the rubber tree has been rolled into sheets, it also needs to be dried and smoked, largely in smokehouses with low thermal efficiency. Wood from no longer productive rubber trees was, until fairly recently, used as fuel. Now, with chemical treatment, it can be more profitably used in the furniture industry.

Tea
Tea, being a monoculture crop, does not support any tree canopy. Usually a few fuelwood trees are grown in the tea gardens, and these are mainly used as fuel for tea drying. The tea bushes are pruned once every two or three years. The green prunings are put back into the soil as fertilizer, while the bigger pieces of wood are taken to the processing factory for fuel. The plantation labourers also receive some part of the woody prunings for fuel for their own requirements. Tea processing uses one of two methods: orthodox or the newer CTC. CTC, which is now widespread, uses waste ground tea dust as a mixer with the fresh crushed green leaves, so no residues are available in the tea factory. Some plantation companies, like Tata Tea, are even cultivating their own dedicated fuelwood plantations to meet the thermal energy requirements in tea processing.

Cardamom
The green cardamom, known as the Queen of Spices, is grown in lush green forests. Most cardamom plantations are run by small farmers. Drying, which involves reduction of the cardamom pods moisture content from 85 to 10 percent, is done in smokehouses. The fuel for these smokehouses usually comes from side loppings and dead trees in the cardamom field. The efficiency of many smokehouses is very low, meaning a lot of fuelwood is wasted. Cardamom residues have no potential as fuels: due to the high costs involved, all the residues from cardamom drying, including the dust, are used in some way.

Coffee
Coffee is processed by one of two methods. In the dry method, the entire coffee fruit is dried directly. The outer skin dries out to form a husk, which is then removed mechanically by hulling. In the wet process, this outer skin is removed by mechanical pulping of the ripe fruit. The mucilage layer surrounding the coffee bean is removed by natural fermentation or other methods. The process leaves roughly half the original weight of the coffee cherry in husks and other residues.

Cashew
Cashew nut, which grows on the bottom of the cashew fruit, is an important horticultural product. During the processing of cashew nuts, which involves drying, storing, roasting, shelling, conditioning, peeling, grading and packing, nearly 50 percent of the input becomes residues. Having high calorific value, these cashew residues are a preferred fuel in some very small-scale rural industries.

Potentials
Of the plantation crops reviewed here, only cashew and coffee produce residues in the form of husks which are generally used as energy sources beyond crop processing. However, of the two, coffee husk is not widely used because of its short seasonal availability.

Fuelwood trees growing in a tea garden

Dr Palaniappan is General Secretary of the Planters Energy Network

Vol. 14 No. 2, October 1999

page 19

Modern Applications of Wood Energy

Prof. P D Grover
It is estimated that more than half of the total energy consumption in many Asian countries is accounted for by biomass energy. Even if rising standards of living may drive a progressive shift towards modern fuels, the fact remains that demand for wood is increasing in India and many other developing countries. In order to maintain sustainable supplies of fuelwood, it is imperative that steps are taken to reduce consumption through improvements in conversion efficiency in biomass fuel applications. heat transfer to direct maximum heat into the end use and prevent its dissipation into the atmosphere. One more major and potentially ecofriendly application of biomass gasification is in power production, where the hot gases are used to drive turbines. Systems are being developed even up to the 50 MW range, using gas turbines with combined cycles. One of the major constraints, however, is the need to eliminate tar. Current methods are being replaced by thermal cracking of tar-laden gases, using dolomite as a catalyst.

Improved Stoves
Wood energys foremost application in India is in cooking. Around 28.5 million improved cookstoves have so far been disseminated (against estimated potential of 120 million). Each of these stoves can save fuel equivalent to 210 kg of coal per year. Therefore their dissemination should continue and performance should be further improved by incorporating stage combustion techniques.

Cogeneration
At industrial level, cogeneration appears the most practical route for efficient utilization of wood energy. Cogeneration is particularly important for agro and food processing industries like sugar, rice and paper, where both power and steam are needed. More than 80 percent efficiency can be achieved using circulating fluidized boilers, even with notoriously problematic rice husk. During charcoaling of wood, up to 60 percent of the energy in the wood is wasted as a result of the production process. If harnessed, this waste energy can be utilized for drying of feed or other thermal applications. This can also improve the yields of charcoal, provide another energy source and, most importantly, prevent the escape of greenhouse gases. The costs and availability of alternative energy sources make it inevitable that wood and other biomass fuels will continue to meet much of Indias energy demand. However, the range of new, cleaner technologies available mean that it need not be a problem. In fact, with technologies achieving near-100 percent combustion and Indias favourable climate, wood and biomass fuels represent a cheap and clean energy option for India.

Using Woodfuel
Woodfuel can be utilized in three ways: combustion, pyrolysis (for liquid fuels and charcoal), and gasification (for thermal and power applications and for production of methanol). Modern applications tend to concentrate on maximum efficiency through complete combustion or energy conversion of wood and efficient utilization of heat. When wood combusts, it decomposes into combustible volatiles and solid char. The hot volatiles mix with air and catch fire to give gaseous (flaming) combustion. The solid char burns with surface (glowing) combustion. Complete combustion means that both volatiles and char are completely oxidized. One modern technique, known as stage combustion, involves thermally cracking the volatiles by contact with hot surfaces or burning charcoal prior to combustion. Modern applications also have efficient

Gasification
Modern gasifiers can provide clean combustible gases with 8085 percent efficiency. Gasifiers are suitable to replace conventional woodstoves for institutional cooking, being both convenient and making fuel savings of up to 40 percent. However, they are too large and expensive for single household use. Wood energy is important in the drying of agrciultural and forest products like tea, coffee, spices and copra. By incorporating downdraft gasifiers with efficient gas cleaning systems, the gases can be burnt cleanly. Hot flue gases can be further filtered through ceramic micro-filters to eliminate contaminants and then used directly for drying. This modern method eliminates the use of an expensive and inefficient flue-gas-toair heat exchanger and increases the drying efficiency by 6070 percent or more. Biomass gasifiers can also be used for firing of, tiles, ceramic products and bricks.

Biomass Power Capacity in India (as of 31/3/98)

State Andhra Pradesh Gujarat Haryana Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Punjab Tamilnadu Uttar Pradesh Karnataka Total Total installed capacity (MW) 199697 199798 4.0 9.0 10.0 38.5 33.5 6.5 8.0 1.0 69.0 41.5 Capacity under implementation (MW) 10.5 0.5 5.0 12.0 14.0 27.5 50.0 119.5
Source: MNES Annual Report

A 12 MW biomass power project in Tamilnadu

page 20

Wood Energy News

Womens Energy Needs and Problems in Rural India

Dr P Venkata Ramana
Rural lifestyles in India, like in many South and Southeast Asian countries, are largely dependent on subsistence agriculture. Poverty alleviation and improving the quality of life are still major challenges, even after half a century of Indian self-rule. These challenges are particularly urgent in the case of women, who traditionally have had lower status than men in rural society. The role of women in the rural energy system, which is dominated by the household sector and biomass fuels, is a major illustration of this gender bias.

Woodfuel and Health

The other serious problem faced by women is exposure to air pollution (in the form of smoke, CO, CH4, N2O, NMHC, etc., which are also greenhouse gases) from burning biomass. These cause health problems among women and children. Several studies have been conducted in different parts of India and elsewhere which link eye and chest-related diseases to biomass pollution. Acute respiratory problems, among the main culprits of infant mortality in India, are to some extent linked to indoor biomass pollution. There is evidence to suggest that where regular biomass fuels are not easily available, women have to resort to inferior fuels like weeds, roots and shrubs, which lead to smokier conditions in the kitchen. Another possible health-related consequence of poor access to fuels is less food being cooked, the impact of which will be felt most strongly by women, who usually get the least nutritious food in the family.

poor, this has serious implications for childrens education, home entertainment, etc. Use of kerosene and other oils also brings a fire hazard.

Exclusion from Decision-making

In spite of the fact that women are thus the collectors, processors, users and principal managers of domestic energy, they have no role in decision-making on types of fuel, stove etc. used in the household. Even in formal intervention programmes such as biogas and improved cook stoves, no role has been set out for women. In fact, the somewhat less than effective performance of these interventions so far (2.7 million biogas plants and 25 million improved cookstoves disseminated, reaching less than 10 percent of households and saving five percent of the fuelwood consumed) has been attributed, inter alia, to the absence of a conspicuous role for women in managing them. Decentralization of rural energy planning and implementation, and empowerment through local capacity building, is the way to go. Legislative efforts in India following the 73rd Amendment to the Indian Constitution, which is aimed at decentralization and enhancing the role of women in public administration, offer critical opportunities for enhancing the role of women in making domestic energy choices.

Woodfuel Collection
The biomass energy system comprising wood-based fuels, crop residues and animal dung is largely non-commercial. Women, and in many cases children, collect fuel at zero cost from various sources like public and private forests, other public lands and homesteads.1 In addition, they often have to process the collected fuel (e.g. chopping firewood and preparing dung cakes). Thus the time women invest in fuel collection and processing, in addition to fetching drinking water, has a significant opportunity cost in terms of time that could be spent in other activities. (However, opportunity costs vary between regions depending on the extent to which women participate in productive activities like farm labour.) In recent times, excessive pressure on biomass resources leading to their degradation has increased the burden on women, as they are forced to walk longer distances and spend more time in fuel collection. Several studies in the last decade have shown that in many remote areas of India and other developing countries, women have to walk anything up to 10 km and spend three to four hours every day in fuel collection and processing.

Lighting
Another area of domestic energy use is lighting. Less than one third of rural houses have electrical supply, so instead traditional lamps using kerosene and vegetable oils are used. These are difficult and messy to handle, which is usally done by women. In fact, many rural areas have poor distribution of kerosene and other commercial fuels, which means households generally have to rely on more traditional fuels. As luminosity is

Dr Venkata Ramana is Programme Manager (renewable energy) at Winrock International, Delhi

1 Zero cost here means at no cost in cash or goods; it also suggests that an individual household is not concerned with the cost accruing to the society in the form of biomass denudation. Though no direct correlation between fuelwood use and deforestation has been clearly established, there is some evidence that, where biomass denudation is already pronounced due to other factors like industrial and agricultural demands, fuelwood use could exacerbate the problem of land degradation.

Women fuelwood gatherers in Northwest Bengal

Vol. 14 No. 2, October 1999

page 21

Policy, Institutions and Networking: Indias Role in South Asia

Pradeep Chaturvedi
It is projected that South Asia will remain heavily dependent on biomass well into the 21st century. Happily, ample local biomass supplies will be available to meet the projected demand. Dependence on forests for wood is falling, while availability from non-forest areas, mainly private land, is increasing through dedicated plantations. Interventions in the wood energy subsector are dictated by government policies on public resource management, fuelwood pricing, fiscal measures and financing. Such interventions have become all the more important with liberalization and privatization of the wood energy sector in South Asia. They need to be backed up with adequate institutional support and technically skilled manpower. mentation of the national renewables programme. The South Asian Association for Regional Coordination, SAARC, has a focus on energy, especially the role of renewables in rural areas. A number of projects and programmes in the region, funded by UNDP, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, emphasize capacity building in planning and implementation of energy programmes, including renewables. community lands, transportation and trading of wood. v) Price support mechanisms and fiscal measures.

Institutional Arrangements
i) Institutions involved in training on policy formulation and effective implementation. ii) Institutions involved in research and development necessary for the wood energy sector on production, conversion and utilization. Besides bilateral arrangements, some Indian institutions, like the Solar Energy Centre and National Botanical Research Institute, can serve as regional centres. iii) A Regional Renewable Energy Resource Centre for South Asia at the Solar Energy Centre at Gwal Pahari can promote networking with similar organizations, for resource data collection and sharing. iv) A Regional Energy Fund for South Asia can be set up to pool resources from multilateral, bilateral and private donor agencies to support bankable energy projects and to take action to mobilize investments for the wood energy projects.

A Role for India

By virtue of two decades of planning for renewables, India has attained a level of operation where renewable energy planning and implementation is on a par with that for other sources of energy. Corresponding institutional arrangement and networking arrangements have been developed to support it. This has been recognized and praised at several South Asian regional conferences (in Sri Lanka in 1997 and 1998, and in India in 1998). The possibility of India sharing its experiences and institutional set up has been discussed. Setting up a Regional Fund for Renewables Development is considered a major issue. India can play a significant role in providing frameworks for policy, institutional mechanisms and networking arrangements for sharing technical knowhow for the rest of South Asia, as follows:

Institutional Arrangements
India is the only country in South Asia that has a whole ministry dedicated to non-conventional energy sources. The MNES lays down policies for conversion and utilization of wood energy. In Bangladesh, the Ministry of Energy guides the national Energy Policy. In 1996, the policy recommended use of renewable sources in remote areas which will not have access to electricity or other commercial fuels in the near future. It also recommended setting up a Renewable Energy Technology Agency. In Nepal, the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat prepares the national energy policy, which covers renewables. The Ninth Five Year Plan (19972002) includes implementation of a programme for renewables. In Sri Lanka, the Ministry of Irrigation and Power lays down energy policy. It is currently putting emphasis on demonstration projects for renewables, including woodfuel. In Pakistan, renewables are under the Hydrocarbons Directorate. Little progress has been made in planning, demonstration and imple-

Networking
i) The Solar Energy Centre can establish a network with institutions in other countries to provide training relating to energy policy formulation, planning, project implementation, and management and operation of energy systems.

Policy and Planning

i) Energy planning and policy formulation, including the role of wood energy. ii) Decentralized local or village-level development planning based on natural resource accounting, including fuelwood and other biomass fuels. iii) Land use and tree cover policy for woody perennials interventions. iv) Rules and regulations relating to land ownership, tree holding, plantation and harvesting on private and

ii) An Apex Energy Industry Group can be set up with organizations like the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industries to strengthen regional cooperation by bringing efficiency and flexibility to bilateral and multilateral systems. RWEDP, as an umbrella organization, can play a crucial role in promoting these arrangements.

page 22

Wood Energy News

Wood Energy on the Web: India

A number of organizations, including several of the institutions mentioned in this issue of Wood Energy News, provide information about wood energy and related issues on the Internet. Below is an overview of some useful websites. At the RWEDP website, information about wood energy in India is available at http:/ /www.rwedp.org/c_ind.html. This page gives a brief overview of the wood energy situation, policies and programmes, and wood energy data in India and also refers to some useful publications. ation of land and forest resources in India. FSI maintains a website at http:// www.nic.in/envfor/fsi/fsi.html, which includes a number of FSIs publications. Another agency associated with the Ministry of Environment and Forests is the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA), which aims to prepare a cadre of forest managers to manage Indias forest resources. The academy also conducts training for the Indian Forest Service (IFS). More information about this academy and its activities is available at http://www.nic.in/envfor/ignfa/ignfa.html. The Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) is an autonomous institute of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Information about IIFM is available at http:/ /www.nic.in/envfor/iifm/. The ETA Team is the Energy Efficiency and Environment Group of the GTZ (German Technical Cooperation). The Team is involved in cleaner energy projects around the world, including India, Thailand and the Philippines in the RWEDP region. The ETA site, http://www.eta-team.com, contains information on ETA projects, including the Indian-German Energy Efficiency Project in Bangalore, Karnataka, which is being implemented by TERI although most of the project pages are still under construction. The site also contains a lot of other interesting material, including a discussion group, currently focusing on greenhouse gases. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) is a leading environmental NGO in India, whose field is sustainable natural resource management. Among its activities, CSE publishes Down to Earth magazine and compiles the Citizen's Reports on the state of India's environment. http://www.onewor ld.org//cse gives information on CSE's activities and campaigns and access to the archives of Down to Earth. It is also possible to order a range of CSE's publications, including the Citizen's Reports, via the site. Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development is based in the US but has field offices around the world, including India, China and the Philippines. Winrock's website at http://www. winrock.org, gives information about projects in renewable energy development and other areas related to agricultural development, Winrock's vision and strategies, downloadable versions of annual reports and a host of other services. Winrock International Indias Renewable Energy Project Support Office (REPSO) in Delhi has its own site at http:// www.renewingindia.org.

Governmental Organizations
The Indian Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) maintains a site at http://www.nic.in/mnes/, with information about their policies, programmes and activities. Biomass energy is a key issue in MNESs policy, and the site describes several programmes in this field, from improved cookstoves to biomass gasifiers. The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Ltd (IREDA) operates under the MNES and aims to promote and finance self-sustaining investment in renewable energy and energy efficiency. IREDAs activities in this area are dehttp:// scribed at their site, solstice.crest.org/staff/mpt/INDIA/ ireda.html. The site of the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests at http://www.nic.in/ envfor/welcome.html contains a database with maps of forest cover in all districts of India. The ministrys newsletter and a number of publications can also be viewed. The Forest Survey of India (FSI) is one of the offices associated with the Ministry of Environment and Forests and its main objective is to monitor the changing situ-

Others
The Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) maintains a site about its activities at http://www.teriin.org/. Visitors can view many of TERIs publications and a number of other energy information sources. The Biomass Users Network (BUN) is an international organization aiming to facilitate information dissemination, scientific and technical cooperation, and funding for demonstration projects in biomass production and utilization. More information about BUN is available at http:/ /www.energy house.com/bun/. UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank are the three implementing agencies of UNDPs Global Environment Facility (GEF). UNDP manages the Small Grants Programme on behalf of the GEF. One area of interest is energy, and biomass power generation projects in particular. More information is available at http:// www.gefweb.org.

Vol. 14 No. 2, October 1999

page 23

Publications
Woodfuel in the Philippines, Production and Marketing
being followed up with a series of nationallevel training courses on improved stove selection and dissemination. The report includes summaries of the three topic sessions on Wood Energy Situation, Policies and Strategies and Issues for Strengthening Wood Energy Programmes, and the participants conclusions and recommendations.

RWEDP Report No. 42

Wood Energy Planning, Policies and Strategies: National Workshop for the Philippines

RWEDP Report No. 43

Wood Energy Planning Study Tour in India

A report on the National Training Workshop on Integrating Woodfuel Production and Marketing in Forest, Agriculture and Tree Production Systems in the Philippines, 1931 July 1997 at Baguio City. The national training workshop was a follow-up to the Regional Training Workshop on Integrating Woodfuel Production into Agroforestry Extension Programmes, which took place in Bogor, West Java, Indonesia in April 1995. Its aim was to enhance understanding of government, nongovernment and private sector organizations about the role of agroforestry systems in woodfuel production. This report includes full texts of the technical papers presented at the workshop.

RWEDP Report No. 41

Overexploitation of wood resources for fuel and other uses and clearing of forests for agricultural land are some of the potential causes of serious problems in woodfuel supply, not to mention environmental degradation. Where there are few viable and affordable energy alternatives, these problems can be self-perpetuating. The answer is a coherent, informed policy on woodfuel, which can ensure supply for household users, generate employment and even lift wood to the status of a modern fuel. However, woodfuel supply problems are complex they depend not just on how much is available in an area, but also on peoples access to it, their attitudes and priorities, and local patterns of woodfuel trade. Woodfuel strategies and policies must be sensitive and responsive to local conditions, and should encourage participation by the woodfuel users and producers. The National Seminar Workshop on Wood Energy Planning, Policies and Strategies in the Philippines was held in Cebu City, Philippines, from 28 March to 2 April 1995. Its aim was to raise the capacity of people involved in all aspects of wood energy development, from public and private sectors, to assess wood energy situations and formulate effective policies, plans and strategies.

India is one of the few countries in the world that has addressed wood energy planning, policies and programmes in its national energy programme. As such it has much to offer other countries in terms of advice and experience on dealing with wood energy issues at the national level, and particularly in assessment and analysis of wood energy data, a prerequisite for planning. In late 1995, RWEDP helped to organize a study tour in India for decision makers in the energy planning units of each of the RWEDP member countries. The tour aimed to facilitate the exchange of information, knowledge and experience on wood energy issues among the participants and the hosts and to offer the participants a chance to gain first-hand experience of the various aspects of wood energy planning activities in India. This report on the study tour includes summaries of presentations given at seminars during the study tour and the tour participants conclusions and recommendations.

Improved Stove Selection and Dissemination: Asia Regional Training of Trainers Workshop

A report on the Regional Training of Trainers Workshop organized by ARECOP, which took place in Mataram, Lombok, Indonesia in 1997. This regional meeting is

RWEDP Report No. 44

page 24

Wood Energy News

Gender Aspects of Woodfuel Flows in Sri Lanka: Case Study in Kandy District

In 1997 and 1998, a study was conducted in Kandy, Sri Lanka, on gender aspects of woodfuel flow. The researchers looked at woodfuel flow in both the rural Kundasale area, where woodfuel is largely gathered free and there is demand from local industries, and in Kandy city. This report presents the findings of that study.

The consultation helped development of a broad framework wood energy curricu-

Author: Prof. Anoja Wickramasinghe; RWEDP Field Document No. 55

Woodfuel is the primary source of energy in rural Sri Lanka and contributes some 18.2 percent of energy supply in the industrial sector. However, little is known about the ways in which woodfuel is distributed from production sources to the end users, particularly the gender aspects of this woodfuel flow. Our limited understanding impedes our ability to plan and formulate strategies to promote cash returns from woodfuel trade and ensure the benefits are felt by both men and women.

Wood Energy and Forestry Education: Expert Consultation on the Integration of Wood Energy into the Training Curricula of Forestry Education
In June 1998, RWEDP organized a regional expert consultation on the integration of wood energy into the training curricula of forestry education institutions, which took place in Cha-am, Thailand. The consultation was attended by experts in forestry education from 11 RWEDP member countries, who looked at wood energy in forestry education from both national and regional perspectives.

lum for the region, and of a strategy for integrating it into existing forestry and agroforestry curricula. A series of national workshops on this issue have been organized to follow the Cha-am meeting. This report contains the 11 country presentations, along with the outcomes of various workshop activities, the conclusions and recommendations of the consultation and summaries and full texts of some of the other presentations given.

RWEDP Field Document No. 56

News and Notes

National Training on Woodfuel Production and Marketing in Myanmar
Conventional energy sources still meet only around 20 percent of energy needs in Myanmar. Thus biomass energy, primarily fuelwood and charcoal, still plays a crucial role. Biomass is the main source of energy not only among the rural poor but even among households in large urban centres as well as industries, commercial establishments and others. Over-reliance on fuelwood has led to localized forest depletion in high population areas. National efforts have been made in Myanmar to establish exclusive fuelwood plantations to help meet demand in critical areas. However, this is not considered sufficient by foresters to overcome the problem of fuelwood supply shortages. They now openly accept that the forestry sector cannot overcome the problem alone. Coordinated actions are needed from all related sectoral agencies to enhance woodfuel production by integrating multipurpose trees into the farming/production systems. This message was reiterated in the recommendations of the National Training on Woodfuel Production and Marketing in Forest, Agriculture and Tree Production Systems, which was attended by foresters, energy planners, agriculturists and researchers in Myanmar. Besides giving these different sectors a chance to discuss together this important topic, the training workshop also set a significant precedent for Myanmar in the open recognition of the contribution of non-forest lands in woodfuel supply.

National Expert Consultation on Integration of Wood Energy in Forestry and Agroforestry Education in Nepal
The National Expert Consultation on Integration of Wood Energy in Forestry and Agroforestry Education was the first of its kind in Nepal, held exclusively to look at training needs for sustainable wood energy development. The consultation appraised the role of traditional fuels in the national economy and energy balance and reviewed current developments in the energy sector. The participants endorsed the view that meeting Nepals inevitable demand for woodfuel over the coming years in a sustainable way will require the involvement and cooperation of agencies in the forestry, agriculture, energy and health sectors. For these agencies to play their roles effectively, wood energy development issues will need to be integrated into the curricula of relevant sectoral training and education institutions.

The national training was hosted by the Forest Department of Myanmar with assistance from RWEDP. It took place in Yangon, Myanmar from 1619 March 1999.

Vol. 14 No. 2, October 1999

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The workshop was attended by 38 experts from the forestry, agriculture and engineering sectors, including planners, implementers, academics and teachers from both formal and non-formal education and training institutes in Nepal. The experts reviewed the current curricula of the Institute of Forestry, the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences and the Institute of Engineering, as well as those of some other nonformal training institutions. They identified gaps in coverage of wood energyrelated issues and discussed in depth how best to bridge them. The experts favoured integration of wood energy-related issues into existing subjects rather than their introduction as new subjects. The experts were also of the view that this could be achieved with the help of only limited external resources during the first few years. Some training institutions may even be able to offer higher-level course focussing on wood energy.

senior faculty members. These academicians endorsed the importance of bioenergy in Sri Lanka, and agreed to integrate issues related to sustainable wood energy development in the curricula of the most relevant courses offered in their respective universities. The participants recommendations included making provisions for an informal follow-up and monitoring body under the leadership of Peradeniya University, comprising representatives of the Forest Department and of the Energy Conservation Fund of Sri Lanka. The consultation also made separate recommendations to address issues related to management of wood energy resources, woodfuel flows and gender, covering both legal and institutional aspects.

comes from natural forests, as use of residues from logging and manufacturing is underdeveloped. STEA presented the Governments environment policy. Both the Constitution and the new Environment Law support community participation in protection and use of natural resources. GRID reported the results of some original research, including that women are usually responsible for woodfuel gathering and that where women have some economic activity, such as weaving, men play a greater role in household chores, including fuel gathering. These families were also more interested in fuel-efficient stoves. GRID research also found that although the forests were deteriorating, people had not yet considered planting trees specifically for fuel, and that women were always excluded from decision-making about village forest. The second day began with a presentation from AIT on womens empowerment. The Lao-Swedish Forestry Project and the ADB Plantation Project shared their strategies for mainstreaming gender. An LWU representative active in forestry volunteer training stressed the importance of increasing mens participation in family chores if women are to participate in community activities. Presentations were also given by PADECT, an NGO involved in stove issues and by STEA. In the final discussion, participants suggested a quota of 50 percent women at all trainings, more work to raise mens awareness about division of labour, more efforts to decrease womens workload through fue-l-efficient stoves and woodlots, and increasing womens economic empowerment in order to strengthen their role in decision making. The workshop was successful in raising awareness among the concerned agencies of the importance of gender in forestry and wood energy planning. GRID will follow up the workshop with the distribution of more information on the topic, including its research report. Those interested in details of the workshop or the research report can contact the GRID Centre at: Lao Womens Union GRID Centre, P O Box 59, Vientiane, Lao PDR. Tel. (856-21) 413 228; fax (856-21) 416 343; e-mai: grid@pan-laos.net.la.

The national expert consultation was organized by the Institute of Forestry, with assistance from RWEDP, and was held at the Institutes campus at Pokhara from 35 August 1999.

The national consultation was organized by the University of Peradeniya in collaboration with the Forest Department and the Energy Conservation Fund of Sri Lanka, and sponsored by RWEDP. It took place at the University of Peradeniya from 58 September 1999.

National Consultation on Wood Energy Supply, Trade and Gender in Sri Lanka
The national consultation was the first of its kind in Sri Lanka, bringing together professionals from interrelated but diverse disciplines including government Forestry and Energy Departments and agencies responsible for training and education in related fields. The consultation raised the awareness of participants about the role and contribution of wood energy in the national economy and energy balance. It reviewed the systems of woodfuel production from both forest and non-forest lands, and analyzed various issues related to woodfuel harvesting, transportation, and trade, particularly gender roles. Another aspect of wood energy development not captured by the title but addressed in the consultation was current training and education curricula of the Sri Lanka Forestry Training Institute of the Forest Department and of universities offer ing degrees in forestr y, agroforestry and agriculture. Representatives of five prominent universities were represented in the consultation by

National Workshop on Gender and Wood Energy in Lao PDR

The Gender Resource Information and Development Center (GRID) of the Lao Womens Union, in cooperation with RWEDP, sponsored the First National Workshop on Gender and Wood Energy in Vientiane, Lao PDR, 34 August 1999. The workshop drew together representatives from the State Planning Committee (SPC), the Science, Technology and Environment Agency (STEA), the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MOAF) and the Lao Womens Union (LWU), as well as participants from FAO and AIT in Bangkok, from NGOs, and from provincial GRID Centres, in order to network and share information. The workshop began with basic information on the current situation of woodfuel use and gender. Lao PDR still has large areas of forest cover, and wood energy planning has not yet received much attention. However, as the population grows and the economy expands, wood consumption and forest destruction are increasing. MOAF estimates that 200,000 hectares of forest are lost each year. The SPC, which began a pilot study in wood energy planning this year, estimates woodfuel usage at 1.0 m3 per person per year , or 4.5 million m3 total. Most of this

This workshop report was kindly submitted by GRID.

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Wood Energy News

Events
Event
RECOFTC Training Courses for 2000 Conflict Resolution in Forest Resource Management (1728 January); Community-based Tourism for Conservation and Development (14 February10 March, in Nepal); Marketing for Tree and Forest Products (April TBA, in Lao PDR); Participatory Management of Protected Areas (May TBA); Community Forestry Extension (321 July); Certificate Course in Community Forestry (4 September24 November) The courses are run by the Regional Community Forestry Training Centre (RECOFTC). They are aimed at mid-career forestry and natural resources professionals. Millennium International Conference on Renewable Energy Technologies The conference will review eftorts and successes in renewable energy applications. The objective is to identify thrust areas, strategies and agenda for implementation of renewable energy technologies in the new millennium. Organized by the Indian Institute of Technology Madras. New Energy 2000

Where and When

Bangkok Thailand (except as noted)

Chennai, India; 911 February 2000

Shanghai, China;

1821 April 2000

First World Conference and Exhibition on Biomass for Energy and Industry The conference will contribute to the elaboration of innovative global strategies, projects and efficient practice rules for energy and environment by providing a forum for discussion between scientists, policy makers and practitioners in biomass for energy and industry around the world. Conceived to become the largest and most outstanding event in the worldwide biomass sector. A joint millennium event of the 11th European and 5th American and Canadian Biomass Conferences. World Renewable Energy Congress (WREC) 2000 Topics include: policy issues; low-energy architecture; photovoltaic technology; solar thermal applications; wind energy generation; biomass conversion; related topics; solar energy materials; geothermal applications. Organized by the World Renewable Energy Network (WREN). XXI International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO) World Congress 2000 The theme of the World Congress will be Forests and Society: The Role of Research. Issues to be covered include changes in environment and society, cultural diversity in forest management, and a global vision of forests and society. Malaysia is the first developing country to host an IUFRO World Congress. Some 3,000 participants are expected. Jointly organized by IUFRO and the Forestry Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM). International Conference on Biomass-based Fuels and Cooking Systems (BFCS-2000) The emphasis will be on new trends in stove research such as conversion of biomass into higher-grade fuels, and on stove designs for efficient use of these fuels. Organized by the Appropriate Rural Technologies Institute. Sevilla, Spain;

59 June 2000

Brighton, UK; 17 July 2000

Kuala Lumpur; 712 August 2000

Pune, India;

November 2000

Contacts
RECOFTC courses: Dr Somsak Sukwong, Executive Director, RECOFTC, Kasetsart University, P O Box 1111, Bangkok 10903, Thailand. Tel. (66-2) 940 5700; fax (66-2) 561 4880; e-mail ftcsss@nontri.ku.ac.th Millennium International Conference on Renewable Energy Technologies: Dr C Palaniappan, Planters Energy Network, 171/2 M K University Road, Rajambadi, Madurai 625021, India. Tel. and fax (+91 452) 858607; e-mail: pen@vsnl.com Biomass for Energy and Industry: EnergiaTA - Florence, Piazza Savonarola 10, I-50132 Florence, Italy. Tel. (+39 055) 5002174; fax (+39 055) 573425. Websites for further information: http://www.etaflorence.it and http://www.wip.tnet.de WREC 2000: Prof A Sayigh, 147 Hilmanton, Lower Earley, Reading RG6 4HN, UK. Tel. (+44 1189) 611364; fax (+44 1189) 611365; e-mail asayigh @ netcomuk.co.uk IUFRO World Congress: The Congress Secretariat; tel. (03) 6372135, e-mail iufroxxi@frim.gov.my; website: http://frim.gov.my/iufro.html International Conference on Biomass-based Fuels and Cooking Systems: Priyadarshini Karve at e-mail: karve@wmi.co.in

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INDIA

This map is for general information only, and does not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of the RWEDP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.