Photovoltaics

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nellis Solar Power Plant at Nellis Air Force Base in the USA. These panels track the sun in one axis.

Photovoltaic SUDI shade is an autonomous and mobile station in France that replenishes energy for electric vehicles using solar energy.

Solar panels on the International Space Station

Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon,amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide.[1] Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.[2][3][4] Solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly, albeit from a small base, to a total global capacity of 67,400 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2011, representing 0.5% of worldwide electricity demand.[5] The total power output of the worlds PV capacity run over a calendar year is equal to some 80 billion kWh of electricity. This is sufficient to cover the annual power supply needs of over 20 million households in the world.[5]More than 100 countries use solar PV.[6] Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing)[7] or built into the roof or walls of a building (building-integrated photovoltaics). Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics has declined steadily since the first solar cells were manufactured[8] and the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions.[9] Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solargenerated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries.[10] With current technology, photovoltaics recoup the energy needed to manufacture them in 1 to 4 years.[11]

Solar cells

Solar cells produce electricity directly from sunlight

Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre. Note that this is for a horizontal surface, whereas solar panels are normally mounted at an angle and receive more energy per unit area. The small black dots show the area of solar panels needed to generate all of the world's energy using 8% efficient photovoltaics.

Solar cell productions by region[12]

Main article: Solar cell Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839.[13][14] The term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode. Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light, which can be used to power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid power for

remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon,polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide.[1] Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells andphotovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.[2][3][4] Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in multiples as arrays. A significant market has emerged in off-grid locations for solar-power-charged storage-battery based solutions. These often provide the only electricity available.[15] The first commercial installation of this kind was in 1966 on Ogami Island in Japan to transition Ogami Lighthouse from gas torch to fully self-sufficient electrical power. Solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly, albeit from a small base, to a total global capacity of 67,400 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2011, representing 0.5% of worldwide electricity demand.[5] The total power output of the worlds PV capacity run over a calendar year is equal to some 80 billion kWh of electricity. This is sufficient to cover the annual power supply needs of over 20 million households in the world.[5]More than 100 countries use solar PV.[6] World solar PV capacity (grid-connected) was 7.6 GW in 2007, 16 GW in 2008, 23 GW in 2009, and 40 GW in 2010.[16][17][18] Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing)[7] or built into the roof or walls of a building (building-integrated photovoltaics). Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test conditions (STC) in "Wp" (Watts peak).[19] The actual power output at a particular point in time may be less than or greater than this standardized, or "rated," value, depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other factors.[20] Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are typically under 25%, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity.[21] The EPIA/Greenpeace Advanced Scenario shows that by the year 2030, PV systems could be generating approximately 1.8 TW of electricity around the world. This means that, assuming a serious commitment is made to energy efficiency, enough solar power would be produced globally in twenty-five years time to satisfy the electricity needs of almost 14% of the worlds population.[22]

[edit]Current

developments

Map of solar electricity potential in Europe.

Photovoltaic panels based on crystalline silicon modules are encountering competition in the market by panels that employ thin-film solar cells (CdTe CIGS,[23] amorphous Si, microcrystalline Si), which had been rapidly evolving and are expected to account for 31% of the global installed power by 2013.[24] However, precipitous drops in prices for polysilicon and their panels in late 2011 have caused some thin-film makers to exit the market and others to experience severely squeezed profits.[25] Other developments include casting wafers instead of sawing, concentrator modules, 'Sliver' cells, and continuous printing processes. The San Jose-based company Sunpower produces cells that have an energy conversion ratio of 19.5%, well above the market average of 1218%.[26] The most efficient solar cell so far is a multi-junction concentrator solar cell with an efficiency of 43.5%[27] produced by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in April 2011. The highest efficiencies achieved without concentration include Sharp Corporationat 35.8% using a proprietary triple-junction manufacturing technology in 2009,[28] and Boeing Spectrolab (40.7% also using a triple-layer design). A March 2010 experimental demonstration of a design by a Caltech group led by Harry Atwater which has an absorption efficiency of 85% in sunlight and 95% at certain wavelengths is claimed to have near perfect quantum efficiency.[29] However, absorption efficiency should not be confused with the sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiency. For best performance, terrestrial PV systems aim to maximize the time they face the sun. Solar trackers achieve this by moving PV panels to follow the sun. The increase can be by as much as 20% in winter and by as much as 50% in summer. Static mounted systems can be optimized by analysis of the sun path. Panels are often set to latitude tilt, an angle equal to the latitude, but performance can be improved by adjusting the angle for summer or winter. Generally, as with other semiconductor devices, temperatures above room temperature reduce the performance of photovoltaics.[30]

A number of solar panels may also be mounted vertically above each other in a tower, if the zenith distance of the Sun is greater than zero, and the tower can be turned horizontically as a whole and each panels additionally around a horizontical axis. In such a tower the panels can follow the Sun exactly. Such a device may be described as a ladder mounted on a turnable disk. Each step of that ladder is the middle axis of a rectangular solar panel. In case the zenith distance of the Sun reaches zero, the ladder may be rotated to the north or the south to avoid a solar panel producing a shadow on a lower solar panel. Instead of an exactly vertical tower one can choose a tower with an axis directed to the polar star, meaning that it is parallel to the rotation axis of the Earth. In this case the angle between the axis and the Sun is always larger than 66 degrees. During a day it is only necessary to turn the panels around this axis to follow the Sun. The 2011 European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) report predicted that, "The future of the PV market remains bright in the EU and the rest of the world," the report said. "Uncertain times are causing governments everywhere to rethink the future of their energy mix, creating new opportunities for a competitive, safe and reliable electricity source such as PV."[31] 2012 could see the installation of 2030 GW of PV about the same as in 2011. Unfortunately, the industry's capacity continues to expand, to perhaps as much as 38 GW. The resulting glut of supply has crushed prices and profits.[32] By 2015, 131196 GW of photovoltaic systems could be installed around the globe.[31]

[edit]Economics

Photovoltaic power worldwide GWp[5]

2005

5.4

2006

7.0

2007

9.4

2008

15.7

2009

22.9

2010

39.7

2011

67.4

Year end capacities

The output of a photovoltaic array is a product of the area, the efficiency, and the insolation. The capacity factor, or duty cycle, of photovoltaics is relatively low, typically from 0.10 to 0.30, as insolation ranges, by latitude and prevailing weather, and is location specific from about 2.5 to 7.5 sun hours/day. Panels are rated under standard conditions by their output power. The DC output is a product of the rated output times the number of panels times the insolation times the number of days. The sunlight received by the array is affected by a combination of tilt, tracking and shading. Tracking increases the yield but also the cost, both installation and maintenance. A dual axis tracker can increase the effective insolation by roughly 3540%, while temperature effects can reduce efficiency by 10%. The AC output is roughly 25% lower due to various losses including the efficiency of the inverter.[33] For example, for a 4 kW array in Paris, where the average insolation is 3.34 sun hours/day, the annual (AC) output would be approximately 3.34x4x365x0.75=3657 kWh, and the monthly output, from the following chart, would range from 67 kWh in December to 498 kWh in July.[34] The weather strongly affects the output and from year to year monthly and annual outputs can vary substantially. Published insolation values are normally 10 year averages. There are many live data sites that can be monitored, and compared.[35]

Source: Apricus[36]

Financial incentives for photovoltaics, such as feed-in tariffs, have often been offered to electricity consumers to install and operate solar-electric generating systems. Government has sometimes also offered incentives in order to encourage the PV industry to achieve the economies of scale needed to compete where the cost of PV-generated electricity is above the cost from the existing grid. Such policies are implemented to promote national or territorial energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction of carbon dioxide emissions which cause global warming. Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people use and buy more as manufacturers increase production to meet demand, the cost and price is expected to drop in the years to come.

NREL compilation of best research solar cell efficiencies from 1976 to 2010

According to Shi Zhengrong, in 2012 unsubsidized PV systems already produce electricity in some parts of the world, more cheaply than coal and gas-fired power plants.[37][38] As PV system prices decline it is inevitable that subsidies will end. "Rapid decline or outright disappearance has already been seen in all the major solar markets except China and India".[38] As of 2011, the price of PV modules per MW has fallen by 60% since the summer of 2008, according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates, putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with the retail price of electricity in a number of sunny countries. There has been fierce competition in the supply chain, and further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar lie ahead, posing a growing threat to the dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years.[39] As time progresses, renewable energy technologies generally get cheaper,[40][41] while fossil fuels generally get more expensive: The less solar power costs, the more favorably it compares to conventional power, and the more attractive it becomes to utilities and energy users around the globe. Utility-scale solar power can now be delivered in California at prices well below $100/MWh ($0.10/kWh) less than most other peak generators, even those

running on low-cost natural gas. Lower solar module costs also stimulate demand from consumer markets where the cost of solar compares very favorably to retail electric rates.[42] As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. The average retail price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from $3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over the course of 2011.[43] For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00/watt were achieved. A module price of 0.60 Euro/watt (0.78 $/watt) was published for a large scale 5-year deal in April 2012. [44] In some locations, PV has reached grid parity, which is usually defined as PV production costs at or below retail electricity prices (though often still above the power station prices for coal or gas-fired generation without their distribution and other costs). Photovoltaic power is also generated during a time of day that is close to peak demand (precedes it) in electricity systems with high use of air conditioning. More generally, it is now evident that, given a carbon price of $50/ton, which would raise the price of coal-fired power by 5c/kWh, solar PV will be cost-competitive in most locations. The declining price of PV has been reflected in rapidly growing installations, totaling about 23 GW in 2011. Although some consolidation is likely in 2012, due to support cuts in the large markets of Germany and Italy, strong growth seems likely to continue for the rest of the decade. Already, by one estimate, total investment in renewables for 2011 exceeded investment in carbon-based electricity generation.[43]

[edit]Applications

80 MW Okhotnykovo Solar Park in Ukraine.

President Barack Obama speaks at theDeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center.

[edit]Power

stations

Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe.[45] As of May 2012, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are the Charanka Solar Park (India, 214 MW), Golmud Solar Park (China, 200 MW), Agua Caliente Solar Project (USA 100 MW) Perovo Solar Park (Ukraine 100 MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 97 MW), Brandenburg-Briest Solarpark (Germany 91 MW), Solarpark Finow Tower (Germany 84.7 MW), Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station (Italy, 84.2 MW), Eggebek Solar Park (Germany 83.6 MW), Senftenberg Solarpark (Germany 82 MW),Finsterwalde Solar Park (Germany, 80.7 MW), Okhotnykovo Solar Park (Ukraine, 80 MW), Lopburi Solar Farm (Thailand 73.16 MW), Rovigo Photovoltaic Power Plant (Italy, 72 MW), and the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany, 71.8 MW).[45] There are also many large plants under construction. The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm under construction in Riverside County, California and Topaz Solar Farm being built in San Luis Obispo County, Californiaare both 550 MW solar parks that will use thin-film solar photovoltaic modules made by First Solar.[46] The Blythe Solar Power Project is a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction in Riverside County, California. The California Valley Solar Ranch (CVSR) is a 250 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic power plant, which is being built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast of California Valley.[47]The 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch is a First Solar photovoltaic project which is under construction in the Antelope Valley area of the Western Mojave Desert, and due to be completed in 2013.[48] TheMesquite Solar project is a photovoltaic solar power plant being built in Arlington, Maricopa County, Arizona, owned by Sempra Generation.[49] Phase 1 will have a nameplate capacity of 150 megawatts.[50] Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. There are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.

[edit]In

buildings

Photovoltaic wall at MNACTEC Terrassa in Spain

Main article: List of rooftop photovoltaic installations Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either integrated into them, mounted on them or mounted nearby on the ground. Arrays are most often retrofitted into existing buildings, usually mounted on top of the existing roof structure or on the existing walls. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable to supply power for the building. In 2010, more than four-fifths of the 9,000 MW of solar PV operating in Germany were installed on rooftops.[51] Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power.[52] Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building. Roof tiles with integrated PV cells are also common. A 2011 study using thermal imaging has shown that solar panels, provided there is an open gap in which air can circulate between them and the roof, provide a passive cooling effect on buildings during the day and also keep accumulated heat in at night.[53] The power output of photovoltaic systems for installation in buildings is usually described in kilowatt-peak units (kWp).

[edit]In

transport

Main article: Photovoltaics in transport

PV has traditionally been used for electric power in space. PV is rarely used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. A selfcontained solar vehicle would have limited power and low utility, but a solar-charged vehicle would allow use of solar power for transportation. Solar-powered cars have been demonstrated.[54]

[edit]Standalone

devices

Solar parking paystation.

Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in integrated circuits and low power liquid crystal displays make it possible to power such devices for several years between battery changes, making PV use less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing use recently in locations where significant connection cost makes grid power prohibitively expensive. Such applications include water pumps,[55] parking meters,[56][57] emergency telephones,[58] trash compactors,[59] temporary traffic signs, and remote guard posts and signals.

[edit]Rural

electrification

Unlike the past decade, which saw solar solutions purchased mainly by international donors, it is now the locals who are increasingly opening their wallets to make the switch from their traditional energy means. That is because solar products prices in recent years have declined to become cheaper than kerosene and batteries.

In Cambodia, for example, villagers can buy a solar lantern at US$25 and use it for years without any extra costs, where their previous spending on kerosene for lighting was about $2.5 per month, or $30 per year. In Kenya a solar kit that provides bright light or powers a radio or cell phone costs under $30 at retail stores. By switching to this kit Kenyans can save $120 per year on kerosene lighting, radio batteries and cell phone recharging fees.[60] Developing countries where many villages are often more than five kilometers away from grid power are increasingly using photovoltaics. In remote locations in India a rural lighting program has been providing solar powered LED lighting to replace kerosene lamps. The solar powered lamps were sold at about the cost of a few months' supply of kerosene.[61][62] Cuba is working to provide solar power for areas that are off grid.[63]These are areas where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent case for going solar though the lack of profitability could relegate such endeavors to humanitarian goals.

[edit]Solar

roadways

The 104kW solar highway along the interchange of Interstate 5 and Interstate 205 near Tualatin, Oregon in December 2008.

Main article: Solar roadway In December 2008, the Oregon Department of Transportation placed in service the nations first solar photovoltaic system in a U.S. highway right-of-way. The 104-kilowatt (kW) array produces enough electricity to offset approximately one-third of the electricity needed to light the Interstate highway interchange where it is located.[64]

A 45 mi (72 km) section of roadway in Idaho is being used to test the possibility of installing solar panels into the road surface, as roads are generally unobstructed to the sun and represent about the percentage of land area needed to replace other energy sources with solar power.[65]

[edit]Solar

power satellites

Main article: Solar power satellite Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar power in space for use on Earth. It has been in research since the early 1970s. SBSP would differ from current solar collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an orbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are: higher collection rate, longer collection period, and elimination of weather concerns. SBSP also introduces several new hurdles, primarily the problem of transmitting energy from orbit to Earth's surface for use.

[edit]Advantages
The 89 PW of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentiful almost 6,000 times more than the 15 TW equivalent of average power consumed by humans.[66] Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m2) among renewable energies.[66] Solar power is pollution-free during use. Production end-wastes and emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development [67] and policies are being produced that encourage recycling from producers.[68] PV installations can operate for many years with little maintenance or intervention after their initial set-up, so after the initial capital cost of building any solar power plant, operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies. Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission losses in the US were approximately 7.2% in 1995).[69] Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested in the development of solar cells, so there is considerable room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental high efficiency solar cells already have efficiencies of over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells [70] and efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass-production costs are rapidly falling.[71]

[edit]Disadvantages
In some states of the United States of America, much of the investment in a home-mounted system may be lost if the home-owner moves and the buyer puts less value on the system than the seller. The city of Berkeley developed an innovative financing method to remove this limitation, by adding a tax assessment that is

transferred with the home to pay for the solar panels.[72] Now known as PACE, Property Assessed Clean Energy, 28 U.S. states have duplicated this solution.[73]

[edit]References
a b

1.

Mark Z. Jacobson (2009). Review of Solutions to Global Warming, Air Pollution, and Energy

Security p. 4. 2. 3. ^ ^
a b a b

German PV market. Solarbuzz.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-03. BP Solar to Expand Its Solar Cell Plants in Spain and India. Renewableenergyaccess.com.

March 23, 2007. Retrieved on 2012-06-03. 4. ^

a b

Kevin Bullis. Large-Scale, Cheap Solar Electricity. Technologyreview.com June 23, 2006.

Retrieved on 2012-06-03. 5. 6. 7. ^ ^ ^
a b c d e a b a b

European Photovoltaic Industry Association (2012). "Market Report 2011".

REN21 (2011). "Renewables 2011: Global Status Report". p. 22. GE Invests, Delivers One of World's Largest Solar Power Plants. Huliq.com (2007-04-12).

Retrieved on 2012-06-03. 8. ^ Swanson, R. M. (2009). "Photovoltaics Power Up". Science 324 (5929): 891 2. DOI:10.1126/science.1169616. PMID 19443773. 9. ^ Branker, K.; Pathak, M.J.M.; Pearce, J.M. (2011). "A Review of Solar Photovoltaic Levelized Cost of Electricity". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (9): 4470. DOI:10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.104. Open access 10. ^ Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st century (REN21), Renewables 2010 Global Status Report, Paris, 2010, pp. 180. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. ^ Investing in Solar Electricity. Whats the Payback?. Retrieved on 2012-04-21. ^ Pv News. Greentech Media. Retrieved on 2012-06-03. ^ Photovoltaic Effect. Mrsolar.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-12. ^ The photovoltaic effect. Encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net. Retrieved on 2010-12-12. ^ In Indias Sea of Darkness: An Unsustainable Island of Decentralized Energy Production ^ REN21 (2011). "Renewables 2011: Global Status Report". p. 15. ^ REN21 (2009). Renewables Global Status Report: 2009 Update p. 9. ^ Eric Martinot and Janet Sawin. Renewables Global Status Report 2009 Update, Renewable Energy World, September 9, 2009.

19.

^ Antonio Luque and Steven Hegedus (2003). Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-49196-9.

20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

^ The PVWatts Solar Calculator. Pvwatts.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-03. ^ Bob Bellemare, 'Issue alert What is a megawatt?. UtiliPoint International, Inc. (2011) ^ Solar Generation V 2008. Greenpeace.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-03. ^ The technology at a glance. Wuerth-solar.de (2012-03-30). Retrieved on 2012-06-03. ^ "Thin-film's Share of Solar Panel Market to Double by 2013". Renewable Energy World. Retrieved July 7, 2010.

25.

^ Cheyney, Tom (29 July 2011). "Exit strategy: Veeco's departure from CIGS thin-film PV equipment space raises questions, concerns". PV-Tech. Retrieved 10 March 2012.

26. 2011. 27.

^ "SunPower TM 318 Solar Panel Data Sheet". SunPower. February, 2010. Retrieved 30 March

^ "Update: Solar Junction Breaking CPV Efficiency Records, Raising $30M". Greentech Media. 2011-04-15. Retrieved 2011-09-19.

28.

^ Sharp Develops Solar Cell with World's Highest Conversion Efficiency of 35.8%. Physorg.com. October 22, 2009. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

29.

^ "Caltech Researchers Create Highly Absorbing, Flexible Solar Cells with Silicon Wire Arrays". California Institute of Technology. February 16, 2010. Retrieved 7 March 2010.

30.

^ Effect of Panel Temperature on a Solar-Pv Ac Water Pumping System. Ars.usda.gov. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

31.

a b

"Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics until 2015". European Photovoltaic Industry

Association (EPIA). May 2011. p. 39. 32. ^ Goossens, Ehren (9 March 2012). "Solar Panel Sales Seen Dropping First Time in Decade, Feeding Glut". Bloomberg. Retrieved 10 March 2012. 33. 34. 35. ^ Calculator for Overall DC to AC Derate Factor. Rredc.nrel.gov. Retrieved on 2012-06-03. ^ PVWatts Viewer can be used to obtain a more accurate estimate. ^ L'IUT de Cachan A 4.04 kW system near Paris, installed in January 2012 Gron Town Hall A 3.88 kW system near Sens installed October 2011 Carcassonne A 3.96 kW system in southern France, installed in September 2009 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. ^ "Insolation Levels (Europe)". Apricus Solar. Retrieved 2012-04-14. ^ Mark Clifford (Feb. 8, 2012). "China's visible solar power success".MarketWatch. ^
a b

Tim Keating (3 February 2012). "Death to PV Subsidies". Renewable Energy World.

^ "Renewables Investment Breaks Records". Renewable Energy World. 29 August 2011. ^ Renewable energy costs drop in '09 Reuters, November 23, 2009.

41. 42. World. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

^ Solar Power 50% Cheaper By Year End Analysis Reuters, November 24, 2009. ^ Arno Harris (31 August 2011). "A Silver Lining in Declining Solar Prices".Renewable Energy

a b

John Quiggin (January 3, 2012). "The End of the Nuclear Renaissance |".National Interest.

^ [1] Solarserver.com, April 30, 2012. ^

a b

Denis Lenardic. Large-scale photovoltaic power plants ranking 1 50PVresources.com, 2010.

^ "DOE Closes on Four Major Solar Projects". Renewable Energy World. 30 September 2011. ^ "NRG Energy Completes Acquisition of 250-Megawatt California Valley Solar Ranch from SunPower". MarketWatch. 30 September 2011.

48.

^ "Exelon purchases 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch One from First Solar". Solar Server. 4 October 2011.

49.

^ "Sempra Generation contracts with PG&E for 150 mw of solar power".Sempra Energy. October 12, 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-06.

50. 51.

^ "Mesquite Solar". Sempra Generation. Retrieved 2011-02-06. ^ Germany To Raise Solar Target for 2010 & Adjust Tariffs | Renewable Energy News Article. Renewableenergyworld.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-12.

52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

^ Building Integrated Photovoltaics, Wisconsin Public Service Corporation, accessed: 2007-03-23. ^ "Solar panels keep buildings cool". University of California, San Diego. Retrieved 19 July 2011. ^ SolidWorks Plays Key Role in Cambridge Eco Race Effort. Retrieved 8 February 2009. ^ "Solar water pumping". builditsolar.com. Retrieved June 16, 2010. ^ Solar-Powered Parking Meters Installed. 10news.com (2009-02-18). Retrieved on 2012-06-03. ^ "Solar-powered parking meters make downtown debut". Impactnews.com. 2009-07-22. Retrieved 2011-09-19.

58. 59. 03. 60.

^ Security Products, December 2006, p42 ^ Philadelphia's Solar-Powered Trash Compactors. MSNBC (2009-07-24). Retrieved on 2012-06-

^ Delivering Solar to a Distribution-cursed Market (by Yotam Ariel). Renewableenergyworld.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66.

^ Solar loans light up rural India. BBC News (2007-04-29). Retrieved on 2012-06-03. ^ Off grid solutions for remote poor. ebono.org. 26 February 2008 ^ Eliza Barclay. Rural Cuba Basks in the Sun. islamonline.net. 31 July 2003 ^ "The ODOT Solar Highway". Oregon Dept. of Transportation. Retrieved 22 April 2011. ^ Solar Roads attract funding. ebono.org. 8 March 2008 ^ a b Vaclav Smil Energy at the Crossroads. None. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

67.

^ Evert Nieuwlaar and Erik Alsema. Environmental Aspects of PV Power Systems. IEA PVPS Task 1 Workshop, 2527 June 1997, Utrecht, The Netherlands

68.

^ McDonald, N.C.; Pearce, J.M. (2010). "Producer Responsibility and Recycling Solar Photovoltaic Modules". Energy Policy 38 (11): 7041.DOI:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.023.

69.

^ U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Transmission and Distribution Technologies. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

70. 71.

^ World Record: 41.1% efficiency reached for multi-junction solar cellsFraunhofer ISE ^ Study Sees Solar Cost-Competitive In Europe By 2015. Solar Cells Info (2007-10-16). Retrieved on 2012-06-03.

72.

^ "Berkeley FIRST Solar Financing City of Berkeley, CA". cityofberkeley.info. Retrieved September 7, 2010.)

73.

^ DSIRE Solar Portal. Dsireusa.org (2011-04-04). Retrieved on 2012-06-03.