Dimensioning of Metallic Conetctions EC 3

Dimensioning of Metallic
Connections per EC3
Manual of Analysis
and verification examples
Analysis reference and verification.
December 2007
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Contents
1. Basic Calculation principles...................................................... 1

1.1. Force distribution on connecting means
1.1.1. Transfer of torque coplanar to bolting on bolts
1.1.1.1. Free centre of rotation
1.1.1.2. Forced centre of rotation
1.2. Calculation of fillet weld strength
1.3. Impact of plate deformability in bolted connections
1.3.1. Failure of strut footing
1.3.1.1. Welding connection
1.3.1.2. Bolted connection
2. Connection of strut beam bolted on the beam body............. 28
2.1. Description of mechanical behavior
2.1.1. Transfer of stress through the connection means
2.1.2. Potential connection failure mechanisms
2.1.3. Additional check for hollow rectangular strut cross-section.
2.1.4. Classification of connection
2.2. Detailed calculation of connection
2.2.1. Clearance check
2.2.1.1. Bolt Clearances
2.2.1.2. Welding thickness check
2.2.1.3. Beam height adequacy check
2.2.2. Finding the maximum bolt shearing force
2.2.3. Bolting shearing strength
2.2.4. Strength under intrados compression
2.2.5. Tearing strength of connection beam segment
User Manual v3.0
2.2.6. Tearing strength of connection plate segment

2.2.7. Welding check
2.2.8. Strength against front failure of hollow strut footing
2.2.8.1 Connecting plate tensile strength
2.2.8.2. Check
3. Strut beam connection with double angular plates .............. 42
3.1.2. Critical connection failure mechanisms
3.2.1.1. Bolt clearance check
3.2.1.2. Angular plate height adequacy check
3.2.2. Shearing strength of a bolt
3.2.3. Strut bolt check under shearing
3.2.4. Strut bolt check under intrados compression
3.2.5. Beam bolt check under shearing
3.2.6. Beam bolt failure under intrados compression
3.2.7. Check of angular plates under shearing
3.2.8. Check of angular plates under bending
3.2.9. Beam section tearing strength
3.2.10. Tearing strength of an angular plate leg section on a beam
3.2.11. Tearing strength of an angular plate leg section on a prop
3.2.12 Case of welding on beam connection
4. Beam on Beam connection with double angular plates ....... 61
Contents
User Manual v3.0

4.2.1.1. Bolt Clearances
4.2.3. Main beam bolt check under shearing
4.2.4. Main beam bolt check under intrados compression
4.2.5. Secondary beam bolt check under shearing
4.2.6. Secondary beam bolt check under intrados compression
4.2.9. Secondary beam section tearing strength
4.2.10. Tearing strength of an angular plate leg section
on a secondary beam
4.2.11. Tearing strength of an angular plate leg section
on main beam
5. Continuity restoration of a beam subjected to bending
and tensile stress with beam with body-foot plates............. 76
5.1.1.1. Transfer of bending moment
5.1.1.2. Transfer of pivotal force
5.1.1.3. Transfer of shearing force
5.1.2. Bolting stressing
5.1.3. Case of member with welded connections
5.1.3.1. Body plate
5.1.3.2. Footing plate
5.1.4. Plate stressing
5.1.5. Member cross-section stressing
5.1.6. Checks carried out
5.2. Detailed connection calculation
Contents
User Manual v3.0
5.2.2. Beam cross-section checks at the restoration point

5.2.2.1. Complete cross-section check
5.2.2.2. Decreased cross-section check at the restoration point
5.2.2.2.1. Bending strength check
5.2.2.2.2. Shearing force strength check
5.2.3. Bolt check
5.2.3.1. Footing bolt check
5.2.3.1.1. Bolt strength under footing shearing
5.2.3.1.2. Bolt group strength under intrados compression
5.2.3.2. Body bolt check
5.2.3.2.1. Bolt strength under footing shearing
5.2.3.2.2. Bolt group strength under intrados compression
5.2.4. Footing and body plate check
5.2.4.1. Footing plate check under pivotal force
5.2.4.2. Body plate check under axial force.
6. Strut beam connection with front slabs ................................. 96
6.1.1. General
6.1.2. The logic of semi-rigid connections and the necessity of
ductile behavior
6.1.3. Classification of torque-transferring connections
6.1.4. Deformation capacity
6.1.5. Aiming at ductile behavior
6.1.6. The component method in general
6.1.6.1. Transfer of forces to the connection
6.1.6.2. Calculation of initial connection rigidity
6.1.6.3. Required rotating ability
6.1.7. The logic of equivalent short-T
6.1.7.1 Multiple bolt rows
6.1.8. Formation of short-Ts on front slab
6.1.9. Transfer of tensioning forces
Contents
User Manual v3.0
6.1.9.1. Feasibility of reinforcing strut footing

6.1.9.1.1. Reinforcement by transverse reinforcement plates
6.1.9.1.2. Reinforcing by backing plates
6.1.10. Transfer of compressive forces
6.1.11. Transfer of shearing forces
6.1.11.1. Bolt shearing forces
6.2.1.2. Check of strut body reinforcing plate clearances
6.2.1.3. Check of strut footing reinforcing plate clearances
6.2.1.4. Check of beam strut angle
6.2.1.5. Welding check
6.2.2. Initial calculations and assessment of general connection
parameters
6.2.2.1. Values of the parameter of transformation β
6.2.2.2. Strut shearing surface
6.2.2.3. Calculation of effective width of the strut body under
compression
6.2.2.4. Decreasing factor ω for the interaction of compression and
shearing
6.2.3. Solving the connection
6.2.3.1. Finding connection component rigidity coefficients
6.2.3.1.1. Preliminary assessment of the number of tensioned
bolt rows
6.2.3.1.2. Rigidity coefficients for the first tensioned bolt row.
6.2.3.1.3. Rigidity coefficients for the second tensioned bolt row.
6.2.3.1.4. Rigidity coefficients for the third tensioned bolt row.
Contents
User Manual v3.0
6.2.3.1.5. Rigidity coefficients for the forth tensioned bolt row.

6.2.3.1.6. Calculation of the equivalent rigidity coefficient keq
6.2.3.1.7. Other connection rigidity coefficients
6.2.3.2. Finding the strengths of the basic connection components
6.2.3.2.1. Strut body under shearing
6.2.3.2.2. Strut body under compression
6.2.3.2.3. Beam body and footing under compression
6.2.3.3. Repetitive process for finding the number of tensioned rows
6.2.3.4. Connection classification
6.2.3.4.1. Finding the initial rigidity SiM
6.2.3.4.2. Classification according to rigidity
6.2.3.4.3. Classification according to strength
6.2.3.5. Check of connection rotating ability
6.2.3.6. Check of shearing force
6.3. Flow diagrams
6.3.1. Finding the initial rigidity Sj,ini
6.3.2. Finding strength torque
7. Prop support connection ....................................................... 163
7.1.1. General
7.1.2. Elastic resistance of the prop base
7.1.3. Resistance of prop base with low quality mortar
7.1.4. Comparison of the calculations of concrete strength
according to EC2 and EC3
7.1.5. Accumulation of stresses under the prop base
7.1.6. Effective length of the short-T plate base
7.1.7. Slip coefficient between steel and concrete
Contents
User Manual v3.0
7.1.8. Transfer of shearing forces through anchors

7.1.9. Transfer of shearing forces through friction and anchors
7.1.10. Bolt anchoring rules
7.1.10.1. Theoretical data
7.1.10.2. Check for bending of anchoring bodies
7.1.11. Impact of the biaxial nature of loading to the connection
analysis procedure according to EC3
7.1.12. Assumptions in order to eliminate the difficulties arising due
to the fact that EC3 does not provide instructions for biaxial loading
7.1.12.1. Strength of the tensioned side of the node
7.1.12.2. Strength of the compressed side of the node
7.1.12.3. Total connection strength
7.1.12.4. Necessity of employing interaction diagrams
7.1.12.5. Calculation of pivotal rigidity
7.2.1. Check of Distances
7.2.1.1. Check of anchor distances
7.2.1.2. Check of cement grout thickness
7.2.1.3. Check of weldings
7.2.2. Connection calculation
7.2.2.1. Finding the basic node parameters
7.2.2.2. Starting and ending points for neutral axis shift within
the cross-section
7.2.2.3. Solving for the neutral axis at a specific point
of the cross-section
7.2.2.3.1. Tensioned side of the node
7.2.2.3.1.1. Assessment of strength of each tensioned anchor
7.2.2.3.2. Compressed side of the node
7.2.2.3.3. Node strength
7.2.2.3.4. Pivotal rigidity of node
7.2.2.4. Check of anchoring on the foundation
Contents
Page 1 Analysis reference & verification manual
1
Basic Calculation principals
1.1. Force distribution on connecting means
1.1.1. Transfer of coplanar to bolting torque on bolts
In this chapter, we shall discuss the method employed to transfer a

coplanar to a torque bolting in order to find the acting shearing force at the
most adverse bolt. One may discern two cases, depending on the “type” of
the bolting rotation pole. Presuming that this pole is located in the Gravity
centre of the bolt cluster, it is called Free Centre of Rotation. In the
opposite case, where the centre of rotation would not coincide with the
bolting centre, then such centre should called Forced Centre of Rotation. In
the following sections, each case shall be discussed separately:
1.1.1.1. Free Centre of Rotation
Fig. 1.1. Cluster of bolts loaded by coplanar torque.
In the event of slight deformations to bolted plates, a linear relation

between the cutting force Ri, which is acting on bolt "i" and the
displacement of “δi” may be assumed, resulting to calculating the force of
each bolt proportionately to the distance from the rotation centre and the
bend θ as shown in the following graph:
Fig. 1.2. Determination of bolt forces

The algebraic relations of determining such forces are as follows:
Since bolting is undergoing true bending, then the equilibrium equations

should be illustrated as follows:
From the two last relations it appears that the centre of rotation truly
coincides with the gravity centre of the bolting. Finally, the external torque
satisfies the relation:
where from it appears the shearing force to the most adverse bolt:
If an eccentric force would act on a bolt cluster, the following method could
be employed: The force R results from the flexural torque M=eF; whereas
F/n results from the eccentric force F (where the bolt number).
Fig. 1.3 Determination of bolt forces on a free centre of rotation subject

to eccentric force.
As shown, the eccentric force F may be replaced by a flexural

torque M and a force of even direction on the centre of rotation. The bolt
forces result from superposition due to bending and shear. The resultant
force may be analyzed in components along the main axes:
In the previous sections, we assumed an elastic analysis for the

distribution of forces on the bolts. It is reminded that the tension could be
also distributed plastically, if the bolt shear strength was greater / smaller
than the ductile strength against intrados compression, which would result
to rendering the possibility of plastic intrados deformation and equalization
of forces causing fatigue to each bolt.
In such case, namely in a marginal failure condition, all bolts would

be fatigued, their strength being in intrados compression and in direction
vertical to the actinic distance between the bolt and the momentary centre
of rotation.
Fig. 1.4. Plastic force distribution on bolting due to torque
The distance of the momentary centre of rotation from the Gravity

Centre of the bolting is defined as x0. According to the plastic analysis,
there results an algebraic system to be resolved, since the force
equilibrium has been taken toward the axis x as well as that of torques
about the centre of rotation A. From the solution of said system, the
distance x0 as well as the strength shearing force VRd are taken. Since the
cutting force did not have the direction of some main axis as in the
previous case, then it would have been also required to set out the
equilibrium equation to the other axis, in which case a 3x3 system would
have resulted.
Plastic Plastic
Elastic
distribution deformations
distribution
Fig. 1.5 Force distribution on bolts
Elastic
distribution
Plastic
distribution
Fig. 1.6. Relation between a force causing fatigue to a bolt and a growing deformation.
1.1.1.2. Forced centre of rotation

In a front slab connection, as the one of the following figure, a
considerable rigidity difference may be observed between the tension and
compression areas.
Compressing forces
Forced centre
of rotaton
Fig. 1.7. Forces of bolt rows in front slab connection, having forced centre of rotation
(2 rows of bolts).
In the compression zone, the compressive force is transferred

directly from the beam footing to the strut body. The deformations
observed in this area are minor compared to those developed in the
tensioned zone, where bending of the front slab, as well as of the strut
footing is taking place. Due to such difference in rigidity, the point 1 of
figure 1.7 is considered as the centre of rotation. For safety purposes,
many a times it is considered that this also coincides with the location of
the lower bolt row. The thicker and therefore more rigid the front slab
becomes, the more the centre of rotation tends towards its lower end.
Assuming that the rigidity observed is equal to all tensioned bolt
rows, the tensioning forces of each row are directly proportional to their
distance from the centre of rotation.
In accordance with the foregoing, the following may apply:
For bolts of the same size:
In fact, the rigidity of the tensioned bolt rows may differ considerably
amongst them; for instance, the protruding section of the front slab of the
upper beam footing is more flexible than the section located underneath
the beam footing, where the body of the beam contributes greatly to rigidity
increase. As a result, the row 2 of figure 1.8 would apparently receive
greater load than the row 1.
Thick front slab Thin front slab
Fig. 1.8. Impact of the front slab thickness on the force distribution on bolt rows.
In case of thin front slabs, the differences in rigidity of the various

bolt rows are more significant, whereas the distribution of forces deflects
much more than a linear distribution.
Forced centre Free centre

of rotation of rotation
Fig. 1.9. Connection of a front slab under flexural torque and tensioning load.
As regards a front slab of ordinary dimensions, it could be

reasonably accepted that the tensioning strength on the upper footing of
the beam is distributed on rows 1 and 2. However, since the connection is
loaded by the combination of flexural torque and tensioning strength FH, the
forced rotation centre might not be applicable; and this is α condition it
should be given closer attention. This depends on the size of the tensioning
load FH.
In case the centre of rotation is forced (small FH) then such FH is
transferred through the rigid point 1. The torque about this point is:
where (a) is the distance between the gravity centre axis of the beam and
the point 1. Due to horizontal equilibrium, it is taken:
If , then D=0. For D<0, there is no forced centre of rotation. From
(1.15) and (1.16) it results that if , then there is a forced centre of
rotation; whereas if , then there is a free centre of rotation.

1.2. Calculation of fillet weld strength.
In this section, we shall present the ground based on which the

strength of the fillet welds on the connections examined shall be
calculated. As effective length l of a filler weld it shall be taken the length
on which such fillet weld has its full thickness.
Fig. 1.10. Fillet weld thickness
The strength of the designing may be calculated either by the

Component Method or by the Simplified Method. In this section, reference
shall be made to the first method, which is considered as being more
accurate, since is has been employed in the calculation of the fillet weld
strength in connection under examination. The particular method takes into
consideration the tensions to the members to be connected (welded), as
shown in Fig. 1.11.
Fig. 1.11. Tensions on members to be welded and tensions of fillet weld.
The fillet weld tensions are calculated as follows:
The alternative method proposed by Eurocode 3 gives:

The second requirement for s. £ fu/gMw plays some part only if tension “t” is
small, namely, when the resulting force deviates from the horizontal (see
fig. 1.11).
If only σΖ, is existent, then for the fillet weld thickness it may be
taken:
• For S235 steel
• For S355 steel
Since plastic analysis is employed for finding actions during

construction designing; and since the connection shall be implemented on
a point where formation of plastic joint is anticipated, then the minimum
welding thickness should be determined by the condition sz = fy. This would
give:
• For S235 steel

• For S355 steel
This requirement is also used on statically undetermined

structures, elastically designed. It should be stressed out that, even in case
of elastic designing, it is presumed that the members and the connections
have adequate deformation capabilities, such as to be able to compromise
with loads and tensions, which usually are not taken into consideration, i.e.
loads attributed to temperature differences. This is one of the reasons for
which the members being connected should creep, prior to their weld
failing.
When the Eurocode relations apply with sz = fy, then the welding
strength shall be at least equal to that of the member being connected. In
other words, the failure shall be observed on the member and not on the
welding. Accordingly, from the member creeping requirement, prior to the
friable failure of the welding, it results that the welding designing may be
based on the relation:
where the index “r” denotes the material of the member to be welded. For
instance, for steel S355 it may be taken:

Since the value of the ratio fyr /fur may exceed the value 0.70, the following
is required: If the deformation feature (ductility) is required, then the
welding should be designed in a way to safely bear at least the 80% of the
creep force of the weakest member to be connected.
From the foregoing, and referring to the example in Fig. 1.11, a
lower limit of a double fillet welding thickness results:
• For S235 steel

• For S355 steel
Finally, it is worth to be pointed out that fillet weld thicknesses,

which are calculated on the basis of the mean tension method of the
Eurocode, are approximately 1.22 times more than thicknesses calculated
on the basis of the component method, in which case the use of steel
increases by 1.222 ? 1.5 times!
1.3. Determination of effective welding width between a plate and a

non reinforced footing.
Supposing a strut footing on which a plate is welded. Since the

footing on which the plate is welded is not reinforced, then the load would
tend to cause deformations, which would have a maximum value on the
footing edges and a minimum value in the middle (due to body
contribution). As a result, the welding sections that are close to the body
would be loaded more, in which case it would be deemed necessary to
take this distribution of deformation into account in the analysis. Therefore,
only a section of both the fillet weld and the footing would be taken into
account on calculating the strength of connection components.
For a double “T” cross-section, the effective width beff should be
taken as follows:
however
where fy is the limit of member creep and fyp, is the limit of plate creep.
In the case of a hollow cross-section, the following shall be
applicable, in correlation with the foregoing:
however
Fig. 1.12. Effective width of welding on a non reinforced footing.

21.3. Impact of the plate deformation ability on bolted connections.

The examination of the impact of the plate deformation ability on a
bolted connection is effected on two basic simulations, the short “T” and
the short “L”. The first applies to bilateral connections, such as to open
cross-sections; and the latter to unilateral connections, such as closed
cross-sections, angles, etc. It is apparent that the strength of the short "T"
is twice as much as that of the short "L"; therefore, that is the one to be
examined herein below.
Fig. 1.13. Short “T” and short “L” simulations

Supposing that the plate of Fig. 1.14 is welded to the footing of a

double “T” cross-section and tensioned. The tensile strength of the
connection, as regards the vertical member, shall be determined by the
most critical failure mechanism of those manifested.
1. Plastic failure of the strut footing.
2. Creep – breakage of strut body.
3. Welding failure
Fig. 1.14. Failure mechanisms for plate welded on strut footing.
Correspondingly, the failure mechanisms for a front slab bolted on

the strut footing shall be as follows:
1. Plastic failure of the strut footing.
2. Creep – breakage of strut body.
3. Welding failure
4. Bolt failure
5. Front slab plastic failure (of short “T”)
Fig. 1.15. Failure mechanisms for plate welded on strut footing.

It is apparent that the failure of such connection results from the

analysis process, taking into consideration that the first (weaker and
determining) failure mechanism is marginally effected. That is how the
strength of each potential failure mechanism, which might occur, is
calculated and the minimum is kept, according to which the connection
strength result. EC3 provides adequate information on the node
components and on said failure mechanisms for strut beam connections as
well as on other connection types, such as strut bearing, etc. In the
following sections, certain basic failure mechanisms on ordinary
connections shall be discussed, and a preliminary approach in determining
their strength shall be attempted.
1.3.1. Strut footing failure
1.3.1.1. Welding connection
Fig. 1.16 illustrates a welding connection on a footing of double “T”

cross-section.
Fig. 1.16. Plastic strength forces of a non-reinforced footing.

Fig. 1.17. Connection aspect
A part of the tensile power is transferred through rectilinear

tensions without bending to the strut footing. The width to which such
power applies is twc+2rc. The tensile power is given by the relation:
The remaining part of the power should be transferred through

bending of the strut footing to the body. For that type of loading, a model
may be adopted as shown in Fig. 1.17, based on a slab of bound
movements on its three sides, loaded by a linear load at its centre. The
application of plasticity theory maintains that the applied load is directly
proportional to the plastic strength torque of the slab:
where: the coefficient “C” results experimentally, whereas a value of said

coefficient equal to 14 is considered as safe.
Summarizing the above: the overall strength of a non-reinforced
strut footing is given by the minimum value of the following, namely by the
most critical mechanism out of the 2 mentioned above.
where beff is the effective width of the footing, as it has been determined in
section 1.3.
Because of the limited experiments pertaining to the assessment of
coefficient “C”, the effective width, in connection with the determination of
Ft2, is limited to 7tfc.
Accordingly:
In order for the connection to develop plastic deformations,
ductility is required, which is ensured once the beam footing has crept prior
to failing of the welding between footing - plate. Consequently, the
designing strength of a non-reinforced footing should be at least equal to
the 70% of the creeping strength of the beam footing:
Should this requirement not be satisfied, then the connection should

be reinforced by reinforcement plates, as shown in Fig. 1.18:
Fig. 1.18. Reinforcement of strut footing.
1.3.1.2. Bolted connection
Contrary to the previous condition of a welded connection, in case

of using front slab bolted on the strut footing, the overall tensile strength is
transferred through the strut footing, resulting solely to flexural torques.
In order to appreciate the various forces developed in such
connections, it would be useful to consider from the beginning a simpler
model under tensile. Therefore, two short "Ts" are selected, which are
connected by two bolts and loaded by tensile load Ft.
Fig. 1.19. Transfer of tensile strengths through bending and model for tensile strength transfer to
bolted connections.
It is initially supposed that the force of each bolt is equal to 0.5Ft and that
the footing has been designed to transfer such forces through bending.
The necessary footing “tf” thickness should be calculated as follows:
Fig. 1.20. Form of short “T” failure.
Fig. 1.21. Critical failure mechanism π; bolt creep.

In this case, the following would be applicable:
In the foregoing equations, the bolt and strut footing dimensions

have been calculated in a way that the tensile strength of bolts would
determine the strength of the connection. In the event of failure, the
footings would separate from each other.
In the event that stronger bolts are selected, then the extreme
tensile strength would increase, obtaining values higher than those resulted
in the previous case for Ft. Accordingly, footings would creep and the bolt
deformation decrease at the same time. In case of failure, footings would
not completely separate. This means that there is a contact surface
between them resulting to developing contact forces. These forces would
reasonably cause further flexural torque to the footings. When such forces
are strong enough, then said torque would be equal to the plastification
torque mpl. If this would be the case, four plastic joints would be formed in
marginal condition.
Fig. 1.22. Critical failure mechanism is the footing plastification.
Fig. 1.23. Critical failure mechanism is the slab-footing plastification.

In this case, the following would be applicable:
where
Between the 2 types of failure described above, there is a third
type, in which connection forces develop, the bolts however fail prior to
footing plastification. In such case, both the bolts and the footing are
considered as being critical.
Fig. 1.24. Critical failure mechanism is the slab – footing plastification and the bolt creep.
In relation to this case, the energy method for calculating the

marginal tensile strength of the connection shall be illustrated. For the
remaining 2 cases, respective relations may be set out towards finding the
short “T” strength.
The equation of external and internal force power is stated as
follows:
and for δ1, δ2
The previous cases are summarized in the following graph:
Fig. 1.25. Relation between footing (slab) resistance and bolts for a Short “T”.
It is recommended that the connection is designed so that the critical point

would be the failure mechanism (1), namely, critical would be the footing,
the reason being that then the deformation ability would be adequately
provided (more ductile mechanism). In the third failure type of Fig. 1.25,
the deformation is provided to the connection solely by the lengthening of

bolts, which is far less than the footing deformation of the previous
mechanism. It should be noted that the deformation ability of mechanisms
(1) and (2) might increase by selecting bolts threaded lengthwise.
In compliance with EC3, the tensioned zone of a non-reinforced
footing should be considered as an aggregate of short “Ts” equal to the
total of the effective lengths of each individual footing (Σ?eff). Adopting the
plasticity theory, the effective length ?eff of a short “t” may be calculated as
shown in Fig. 1.26.
Fig. 1.26. Effective length of an equivalent Short “t” for one and two rows of bolts.
2
Connection of beam – strut by a plate
bolted on the beam body.
Linear node simulation
Diagram of a beam
shearing force in node area
Diagram
of bending
torques
in node area
Fig. 2.1. Linear node simulation

2.1.1. Transfer of tension through connection means
Said connection is required to transfer, as stated above, a

shearing force from the beam to the strut through the connection means.
Moreover, as shown in Fig. 2.4, the bolting is further stressed by a torque
coplanar to it, which results from the linear simulation accepted as
applicable. Specifically, the stress is transferred as follows:
Fig. 2.3.
Transfer of forces to strut
1 - Bolts (shear and intrados) Fig. 2.3.
2 - Body of the beam Welding stress
3 - Connection plate
4 W ldi
• Shearing force and torque at the bolting centre of gravity by
resolving a framing metallic carrier.
• These values create a force shearing the bolt threads.
• The overall shearing and flexure are transferred through intrados
forces to the plate.
• This transfers to the welding a torque vertical to its plane and a
shearing parallel to its axis (see fig. 2.3).
• These values are transferred to the strut footing and are axially
received by it.
In the general case of bolting consisting of many columns and

rows of bolts, the shearing force Ved is considered as being exercised at its
gravity centre, as well as the torque of value e2Ved. Then, it is distributed to
the bolts, following the calculation of the polar moment of inertia of the
bolting as:
Fig. 2.4. Calculation of torque stressing the bolting and the welding
where ‘η’ is the total number of bolts. In the previous sections, we assumed
an elastic analysis for the distribution of forces on the bolts. It is reminded
that the stress could be also distributed plastically, if the bolt shearing
strength was greater / smaller than the ductile strength against intrados
compression, which would result to rendering the possibility of plastic
intrados deformation and equalization of forces stressing each bolt. In this
case, the elastic distribution applied is acceptable towards safety; however,
in certain cases, it may not be the best solution as regards economy.
Accordingly, due to torque on the corner (most adverse) bolts, the
horizontal force shall be
and the vertical
and the resultant active shearing on a (single-sheared) bolt shall be:
Fig. 2.5. Example of transfer of coplanar torque from the gravity centre of bolting
to a bolt; and relation between the position and the force on a bolt.
2.1.2. Potential connection failure mechanisms

Summarizing the above, one could point out the connection failure
mechanisms:
1. Bolt failure: (a) under shearing. 2. Yield of complete section

(b) under intrados compression
3. Breakage of decreased cross-section 4. Breakage of outer distance (tearing)
5. Plate yield 6. Welding breakage
Fig. 2.6. Types of failure (ductile types are 1(B), 2 and 5)

2.1.3. Additional check for a hollow rectangular strut cross-section.
It should be pointed out that in the event of a hollow strut cross-

section, a local phenomenon might appear relating to the aspect of its
footing. This shall be dealt with by an additional check provided by EC3
relating to the axial strength of hollow cross-section footing.
Fig. 2.7. Local phenomenon for RHS cross-sections
2.1.4. Connection classification
Finally, is should be stated that the connection being examined is

classified in class (a) of figure 2.8 due to its high flexibility.
a. case of articulated connection b. case of rigid connection
c. case of semi-rigid connection
Fig. 2.8. Connection types as regards rigidity


In this section, the particular connection shall be resolved in detail,
so that the results may be compared to those of the previous calculation
routine.
Accordingly, the characteristic example of the following connection
shall be selected, following which all checks effected shall be presented.
Suppose that the design shearing force is VEd=60 kN. It is reminded that all
dimensions are in kN, mm, unless specified otherwise .
Bolts Μ16/8.8
Steel type: S235
Fig. 2.9. Front view of connection (dimensions in mm)
Fig. 2.10. Detail of connection plate (dimensions in mm)

2.2.1. Checking of clearances
2.2.1.1. Bolt clearances

For the connection plate, it is:
2.2.1.2. Check of welding thickness
2.2.1.3. Check of beam height adequacy
Fig. 2.11. Distance of bolting centre of gravity from the left plate cheek.
Polar moment of inertia of bolting:
Torque in the bolting centre of gravity:
End bolt: xb=yb=40 mm
The end bolt shearing force (i.e. top, right) should be
where η = 4 bolts
2.3.2. Bolting shearing strength
Strength of a bolt:
where αν = 0.6 for quality 8.8. (the coefficient 0.85 comes in by virtue of the
selected bolt quality for check under shearing)
Strength of bolting:
2.2.4. Strength under intrados compression
The strength of the group of bolts is given by the formula:
with ab = min{ad, fub/fu, 1}, where coefficients k1 and ad are dependent on

the examined row and location of a bolt (outer or inner), respectively.
According to the load transfer direction (1st row is the top one) it
shall be:
• Row 1:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
• Row 2:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
therefore:

Net tensioned surface:
Net sheared surface:

Since bolting is eccentrically stressed, then the tearing strength shall be

given by the formula:
2.2.6. Tearing strength of connecting plate section

2.2.7. Welding check
The following stresses are calculated:

- σ_ι_, regular stress, vertical to the weld
- σII , regular stress, parallel to the welding axis
- τ_ι_, shearing stress (at the neck level) vertical to welding axis
- τII, shearing stress (at the neck level) vertical to welding axis
Fig. 2.12. Definitions of calculated stresses
Torque stressing the welding:
Shearing force stressing the welding:

Welding moment of inertia
Therefore
and
Consequently, the welding is adequate.
2.2.8. Strength under front failure of hollow strut footing

This check would not have been required if the strut cross-section
would have been of double-T. As mentioned in the mechanical behavior
description section, said check shall be effected by considering the
behavior as plastic, namely, by checking the axial strength of the strut
footing to the tensile strength of the connection plate, a process favoring
safety.
2.2.8.1. Connecting plate tensile strength

It is reminded that the tensile strength results from the minimum of
the yield force for the entire surface and the decreased breaking force
thereof due to existing holes. From fig. 2.13 we conclude that:
and
The breaking force of the decreased cross-section shall be:
and the yield force of the complete cross-section:
(2.29)
in which case, Nt,Rd = 269.57 kN
Fig. 2.13. Decreased surfaces
2.2.8.2. Check
The above force shall be considered as action towards the check
of the strut footing as regards front failure. According to EC3, the strength
shall be:
where km=1 for tensioning.

3
Beam – strut connection
with double angular plates
Case of bolting on the

beam body
Linear node simulation
Case of welding
on the beam body
Diagram of a shearing force in node area (V)
Diagram of flexural holes in node area (M)
Fig. 3.1. Linear simulation of connection


Said connection is required to transfer, as stated above, a
shearing force from the beam to the strut through the connection means
shown in fig. 3.1. The bolting on the beam is further stressed by a torque
coplanar to it, which results from the linear simulation accepted as
applicable. Namely, the eccentricity of the joint positioning point generates
a torque e1 VΕd, which shall be taken into account in the following sections.
On the other hand, the bolts located at the strut footing are stressed solely
by shearing forces.
The mechanism transferring stress via the connection is described below.
Case a: Bolting on beam body
Case b: Welding on beam body
Fig. 3.2. Stress transfer to the connection means
In correspondence with figure 3.2, the path of forces into the

connection means is as follows:
1. Shearing force and torque at the centre of gravity of the bolting on

the beam, by solving a metallic carrier frame 2.
ο (a) bolting on the beam: The previously mentioned forces
generate shearing loading on each bolt (double-sheared
bolts).
ο (b) welding on the beam: The aforesaid forces stress the 3
fillet welds
3. The overall shearing force and bending are transferred to the leg of
the angular plate on the beam.
4. Through shearing of the two angular plates (mainly and practically
negligible bending due to their short length), the design shearing
force is transferred to the legs of the angular plates on the strut
body.
5. The design shearing force is transferred by intrados forces to the
strut bolts, which are sheared (single-sheared).
6. Shearing is now received by the body or footing of the strut.
In the general case of bolting consisting of many columns and

rows of bolts, the shearing force Ved is considered as being exercised at its
gravity centre, as well as the torque of value e2Ved. Next, it is distributed to
the bolts, following calculation of the polar moment of inertia of the bolting
Fig. 3.3. (a) Stress of welding on beam body. (b) Stress of bolting on beam body.
where ‘η’ is the total number of bolts. In the previous sections, we assumed
an elastic analysis for the distribution of forces on the bolts. It is reminded
that the stress could be also distributed plastically, if the bolt shear strength
was greater/smaller than the ductile strength against intrados compression,
which would result to rendering the possibility of plastic intrados
deformation and equalization of forces stressing each bolt. In this case, the
elastic distribution applied is acceptable towards safety; however, in certain
cases, it may not be the best solution as regards economy. Accordingly,
due to the torque applied on the corner (most adverse) bolts, the horizontal
force shall be
and the vertical
and the resultant design shearing force on a (single-sheared) bolt shall be:
The angular plates shall be checked as regards bending due to the

coplanar torque, which is also equal to
for each footing. The design shearing force shall be VEd / 2 for each plate.
Fig. 3.4. Calculation of torque stressing the bolting on the beam
Fig. 3.5. Cases of beam connection (a) on footing (b) on strut body
The angular plates shall be checked as regards bending due to

the coplanar torque, which is also equal to
for each footing. Finally, a check shall be carried out on the angular plate
under shearing, with acting shearing force equal to on each one of

them.
centre of gravity of
the welding
Fig. 3.6. Calculation of torque stressing the welding on a leg of an angular plate on a beam
For a more detailed description of the transfer of coplanar bolting

torque to individual bolts, the reader may consult the corresponding force
distribution annex.
Assuming that instead of a bolting there is a welding on the beam,
the torque on the centre of gravity thereof may be respectively calculated
as stressing the three fillet welds. Finally, the resultant stress developed on
the most adverse point of the welding shall be calculated, and this is
checked against the maximum permissible stress, in accordance with the

normative frame that follows.
Summarizing, the connection failure mechanisms are pointed out,

for which the connection shall be checked:
• Strut bolt failure under shearing
• Strut bolt failure under intrados compression
For bolting on the beam:

ο Strut bolt failure under shearing
ο Strut bolt failure under intrados compression
ο Angular plate leg on beam failure under tearing
ο Beam body failure under tearing
For welding on the beam:

ο Fillet welding failure under maximum developed stresses
• Angular plate leg on strut failure under tearing

• Strut body failure under tearing
• Angular plate failure under shearing
• Angular plate failure under bending
3.1.3. Connection classification

The connection being examined is classified in class (a) of figure 3.7.
a. case of articulated connection b. case of rigid connection
c. case of semi-rigid connection
Fig. 3.7. Node classification according rigidity thereof.


In this section, the particular connection shall be resolved in detail,
so that the results may be compared to those of the previous calculation
routine.
Accordingly, the characteristic example of the following connection
shall be selected, following which all checks effected shall be presented.
Suppose that the design shearing force is VEd=110 kN. It is reminded that
all dimensions are in kN, mm, unless specified otherwise.
Bolts M12/4.6
Angular plates 1.90/10
Steel type: S235
Fig. 3.8. 1st front view of connection (dimensions in mm)

Fig. 3.9. 2nd front view of connection (dimensions in mm)
Angular plate leg Angular plate leg

on beam on strut
Fig. 3.10. Detail of bolt positioning on angular plates

2.2.1. Checking of clearances
3.2.1.1. Checking bolt clearances
For the leg of the angular plate on the beam and strut we have:
3.2.1.2. Adequacy check of height of the angular plate
Shearing strength of a bolt
where αν = 0.6 for quality 4.6.
3.2.3. Strut bolt check under shearing
Due to the acceptance of the static simulation with the joint in the
model, at the point of section of the gravity centre axis of the beam with the
outer side of strut footing cheek, it is clear that said bolts would transfer
solely a shearing force equal to the design shearing force VEd, without
developing bending torque, at the same time, which would generate tensile
forces on the bolts. Therefore, each of the 8 single-sheared bolts would be
stressed by a design shearing force equal to
The bolting strength would be:
3.2.4. Strut bolt check under intrados compression

The strength of the bolt cluster is given by the formula:
with ab = min{ad, fub/fu, 1}, where coefficients k1 and ad are dependent on

the examined row and location of a bolt (outer or inner), respectively.
According to the load transfer direction (1st row is the top one) it
shall be:
• Row 1:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
• Row 2:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
Therefore,
The strength of all 8 bolts on the main beam under intrados compression
would be:
3.2.3. Beam bolt check under shearing
Bolting polar moment of inertia:
Torque coplanar to bolting:
Fig. 3.11. Coordinate system at the centre of gravity of bolting on a beam

The end (most adverse) bolt (xb=70mm and yb=130mm), is

stressed by a shearing force:
where η = 4 bolts
and
3.2.4. Beam bolt check under intrados compression

The strength of the bolt cluster according to EC3 is given by the
formulae:
• Row 1:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
• Row 2:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
Therefore

In an angular plate a shearing force is acting equal to VEd/2, whereas the
stressing torque is equal to xΚΒ VEd / 2 (the distance xΚΒ is defined in figure
3.11). In this particular example, it is:
and
the ductility criterion shall be applied
in order to verify whether the holes should be deducted from the shearing
surface calculation,
in which case, the decrease of shearing surface due to the holes would not
be necessary. Consequently,
the shearing strength of an angular plate is given by the formula:


As already mentioned, the torque stressing one angular plate is:
Since the above ductility criterion is satisfied, the subtraction of the holes
surface for calculating the resistance torque on the angular plate cross-
section is not required. Therefore:
whereas
Fig. 3.12. Definition of surfaces Αην, Αηt
Since bolting is eccentrically stressed, the tearing strength shall be given

by the formula:
3.2.10. Tearing strength of an angular plate leg section on a beam

3.2.11. Tearing strength of an angular plate leg section on a strut
Since bolting is considered as not being eccentrically stressed, the tearing

strength shall be given by the formula:
3.2.12. Case of welding on beam connection
Since the beam is welded instead of bolted, the following checks are
carried out on the angular plates: Suppose the welding thickness is α=3
mm
Fig. 3.13. Case of welding on the beam – angular plate connection
The distance “e” from the outer side of the strut footing cheek to the
gravity centre of the welding is equal to 66.18 mm. Next, the moments of
inertia of the fillets shall be calculated:
The torque stressing the welding is:
Tensions of the fillet weldings along the main axii:
Resultant stress:
The correlation factor for steel S235 is defined as βw = 0.80; accordingly,

the welding strength is:
4
Beam on beam connection
with double angular plates
4.1 Description of mechanical behavior
Linear simulation of node
Diagram of beam shearing

force at the node area
Diagram of beam bending

torque at the node area
Figure 4.1 Linear simulation of the connection and stress values

4.1.1 Transfer of stress through the connection media
This connection is required to transfer, as mentioned above, a

shearing force from the secondary beam to the main beam through the
connection media shown in figure 4.2. The bolts on the secondary beam
are also being stressed by a coplanar torque that results from the linear
simulation, which has been accepted as valid. That is, the eccentricity of
the point where the joint is being fixed creates a torque eVEd, which shall be
taken into account later. On the other hand, the bolts on the body of the
main beam are considered as bearing only a shearing force due to the
small distance between the center of the joint, and this results in a
practically zero torque, which would otherwise produce tensile forces on
the bolts. In particular, the stress is borne as follows:
Figure 4.2 Bearing of stress

at the connection
Fig. 4.3 Stressing of bolts on the body of the secondary beam
According to figures 4.2 and 4.3, the path of the forces on the
connection media is as follows:
1. Shearing force and torque at the centre of gravity of the bolts on the
secondary beam by solving a metallic frame bearing body
2. The above forces create a shearing load on each bolt (double-
sheared bolts).
3. The overall shearing force and bending is transferred through
intrados forces at the leg of the angular plate on the secondary beam
4. By shearing the two angular plates (mainly, and with practically
insignificant bending due to their small length) the design shearing
force is transferred on the legs of the angular plates on the main
beam body
5. The design shearing force is transferred by intrados forces to the
main beam bolts, which are sheared only once (single-sheared bolts)
6. The shearing force is then received by the body of the main beam
In the general case of bolting, which consists of many columns and

rows of bolts, it is considered that the shearing force Ved is exerted at the
center of gravity of the bolting area, as well as the torque e2Ved. Then it is
distributed on the bolts after the calculation of the polar moment of inertia of
the bolting area
where n is the total number of bolts. As mentioned above, an elasticity

analysis has been assumed for the distribution of forces on the bolts. It
should be reminded that the stress might also be plastically distributed,
provided that the shearing strength of the bolting area is greater than the
higher ductile strength against intrados compression, which would enable
plastic deformation of the covings and equalization of the stress forces on
each bolt. For the case in question, the applied elastic distribution
enhances safety and, in some cases, may be the best solution as regards
cost-saving. Thus, the horizontal force due to the torque on the corner
(most adverse) bolts shall be:
and the vertical force shall be
while the resultant shearing force that acts on a (single-sheared) bolt shall
be:
Fig. 4.4. Calculation of torque stressing the bolting area on the secondary beam
Moreover, the angular plates shall be checked for bending due to

their coplanar torque, which is equal to
for each plate.

Finally, a shearing check shall be carried out for the angular plates with
acting shearing force on each one equal to .

For a more detailed description of the coplanar bolting torque
transfer on individual bolts, the reader can refer to the corresponding force
distribution annex.
4.1.2 Critical mechanisms of connection failure
Summarizing, we note the connection failure mechanisms for which

the connection shall be checked:
• Main beam bolts shearing failure
• Main beam bolts intrados compression failure
• Secondary beam bolts shearing failure
• Secondary beam bolts intrados compression failure
• Failure of angular plate leg on the main beam due to tearing
• Failure of angular plate leg on the secondary beam due to tearing
• Main beam body tearing failure
• Secondary beam body tearing failure
• Angular plate shearing failure
• Angular plate bending failure
4.1.3 Connection classification
Finally, we mention that the described connection is classified in category

(4) of figure 4.5 due to its high flexibility.
a. articulate connection b. rigid connection
c. semi-rigid
connection
Figure 4.5
Connection classification
4.2 Detailed connection calculation
In this section we shall solve the connection in question in detail, in order to

enable comparison of the results with those of the previous calculation
routine. So we select the typical connection example that follows and then
we describe all checks to be carried out. Let the design shearing force be
VEd=100 kΝ. It is reminded that all dimensions are in kN and mm, unless
specified otherwise.
main (supporting)
beam HEB300
equilateral angular plate secondary (supported)

90/90/10, L = 160 beam IPE 300
Bolts M12/4.6
Steel quality S235
Figure 4.6 1'' connection section (dimensions in mm)
Figure 4.7. 2nd connection section (dimensions in mm)

Leg of angular plate Leg of angular plate on

on the secondary beam the main beam
Figure 4.8. Detail of bolt fixing on the angular plates
Convention: From now on, the main beam shall be indicated as ΚΔ, and
the secondary beam as ΔΔ.
4.2.1 Check of Distances
4.2.1.1 Bolt distances
For the leg of the angular plate on the secondary beam we have:
4.2.1.2 Check of beam height adequacy
where 30 + 40 + tf,ΚΔ = 89, the shearing of the upper footing of the

secondary beam.
4.2.2 Shearing strength of a bolt
Shearing strength of a bolt:
4.2.3 Main beam bolts shearing check

Since we have assumed the static simulation with the joint on the
model, at the intersection point of the two center of gravity axii of the
connected beams, it is clear that these bolts transfer only a shearing force
equal to the design shearing force Ved, and no bending torque is
developed, which might otherwise produce tensile forces on the bolts. The
more the main beam can swivel, the better this assumption approximates
the actual behavior of the connection. Thus each one of the 8 single-
sheared bolts is being stressed by a design shearing force equal to
The bolting area strength shall be:
4.2.4 Main beam bolts intrados compression check
The group of bolts strength is provided by the formula

With ab = min {ad, fub/fu, 1}, where coefficients k1 and ad depend on the
checked bolt row and position (inner or outer) correspondingly.
Along the direction of load transfer (1st row is the top one) we
have:
• Row 1:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
• Row 2:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
Thus
The intrados compression strength of all 8 bolts on the main beam is:
4.2.5 Secondary beam bolts shearing check
Polar moment of inertia of bolting area:
Torque, coplanar with the bolting area:
Figure 4.9. Coordinate system at the center of gravity of the bolting area
on the secondary beam
The edge (most adverse) bolt (xb=25 mm and yb=50 mm) is being stressed
by a shearing force:
where n = 4 bolts
and
4.2.6 Secondary beam bolts intrados compression check
The group of bolts strength is provided by the formula

with ab = min {ad, fub/fu, 1}, where coefficients ka and ad depend on the
have:
• Row 1:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
• Row 2:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
Thus
4.2.7 Shearing check of angular plates

An angular plate is subjected to a shearing force equal to VEd/2,
and the torque stressing it is equal to χΚΒ VEd / 2 (distance χΚΒ is defined in
figure 4.9). In this particular example we have:
and
the ductility criterion shall be applied
to establish whether the holes must be excluded from the calculation of the
shearing surface
so no decrement of the shearing surface due to the holes is required, and

thus
The shearing strength of one angular plate is provided by the formula:
4.2.8 Bending check of angular plates

As mentioned above, the stressing torque on one angular plate is:
Since the above ductility criterion is met, no decrement of the hole

surfaces is required in order to calculate the resisting torque of the angular
plate cross-section,
thus
while
4.2.9 Secondary beam plate tearing strength
Net surface under tensile stress:
Net surface under shearing stress:
Since the bolting area is being stressed eccentrically, the tearing strength is
provided by the formula:
Figure 4.10. Definition of c, w and k distances

5
Continuity restoration of a beam subjected
to bending and tensile stress
with body-footing plates
The connection in question is expected to restore the continuity of
a member with double-T cross-section, by transferring, as mentioned
above, the bending torque, and the shearing and pivotal force through the
media.
Diagram of bending torques

at the node area [M]
Diagram of pivotal forces

at the node area [N]
Diagram of shearing forces

at the node area [V]
Figure 5.1 Linear simulation of the connection and stress values at the restoration area
As shown in figure 5.1, the connection can be considered as

completely rigid; furthermore, this is the reason why the torque can be
transferred through it. This is due to its high pivotal rigidity, to which the
footing plates mainly contribute. If no such plates existed, the connection
would be considered as articulate, since if there were only plates on the
body the two members would pivot easily towards one another and the
node would behave in a much more flexible manner.
Later on, we shall describe the mechanism by which the stress

values are transferred from the continuity restoration area to the connection
media, the possible failure mechanisms, and the required checks.
The stress values that result by solving the metal frame are
developed at the connection area of the two members.
5.1.1 Transfer of stress through the connection media
These forces must be transferred to the connection media (centers

of gravity of bolting areas) and to the body footing plates, in order to
produce the design actions of this connection. Initially, the quantities
shown in figure 5.2 are transferred to the plates, and the plates transfer
them through intrados forces to the bolts as shearing forces. These are
then transferred to the overall cross-section of the member, beyond the
connection area.
Figure 5.2 Cross-section at the continuity restoration area and internal stress values
5.1.1.1 Transfer of bending torque
The bending torque is transferred to the body and footing plates in

an elastic manner, according to their rigidity, that is, to their moment of
inertia for bending stress. In particular, the torque received by the body
plates shall be equal to:
while the torque on the footing plates is:
This torque creates a pair of pivotal forces on the footing plates, and each
force is equal to:
Figure 5.3. Moments of inertia of plates around axis y - y
5.1.1.2 Transfer of pivotal force
The rigidity against pivotal stress is equivalent, as it is known, to

the area of the member under stress, so according to the above we have:
Pivotal force on body plates:

Pivotal force on footing plates:
Thus the total pivotal force (due to overlapping) on the footing plates shall
be:
Figure 5.4. Plate surface areas
5.1.1.3 Transfer of shearing force
The shearing force is considered as being received only by the

body plates, since the shearing surface of the footing plates is practically
negligible.
5.1.2 Stressing of bolts
1. Footing bolts: Their shearing stress is only equal to Nfinal,fl

2. Body bolts: They are subjected to shearing stress after
analyzing the coplanar torque into an equivalent bolt shearing
force. This shall be equal to Mbolts,web=Mw-eVEd. Similarly, the
pivotal force Mw and the shearing force VEd are distributed on
each bolt and the resulting design force for the most adverse
positioned bolt is calculated
where n is the number of bolts.

Single-sheared footing bolts

(only shearing)
Double-sheared body bolts

(shearing resulting from
torque Mw, shearing force
VEd and pivotal force Nw,
after projecting them
at the center of gravity
of the bolting area).
Figure 5.5. Stressing of bolting areas on the body and footing
5.1.3 Case of member with welded connections
5.1.3.1 Body plate
Since, instead of bolting there is weld-fixing of one of the two

members to be connected with the body plate, we correspondingly
calculate the torque at the center of gravity of the fixing area (see fig. 5.6):
Note that we must first calculate distance e of the center of gravity of the
welded area from the continuity restoration area. This is subjected to
bending forces on the same plane, as well as to tensile and shearing
forces. So we find the moment of inertia of the welded area towards the
horizontal and vertical axii, as well as the acting torque:
Then we calculate the stresses at both directions and finally we calculate

their resultant force fs, which is compared with the strength stress.
5.1.3.2 Footing plate
The weldings of the plate on the footing are being stressed only by
the Nfinal,fl force, so we calculate the stresses on the welded area and we
compare them with its strength stress (see fig. 5.6.).
Body plate Footing plate
Figure 5.6. Weldings (outer seams) on the left member
5.1.4 Plate stressing
The body footing plates shall be checked as regards their tensile

stressing by forces Nw and Nfinal,fl respectively. The tensile strength shall
result as the minimum between the yield force for the total plate surface
and the breaking force as reduced due to any holes.
5.1.5 Member cross-section stress
Finally, the forces end up on the cross-section of the member to be

connected. It must be ensured that this cross-section is able to safely bear
such loads. Thus the cross-section shall be checked under bending,
shearing, and tensioning simultaneously. The ductility criterion as regards
whether the holes shall be subtracted in each check of this kind is as
follows:
where Anet is the reduced surface of the part subjected only to tensioning,
while A is the overall surface of the tensioned part of the cross-section or
footing, depending on the case. In order to find these parts, the plastic
neutral axis of the cross-section must be found. It muse be reminded that
this axis does not necessarily pass from the center of gravity of the (twin
symmetrical) cross-section, since there also exists a pivotal design force.
So, if the ductility criteria are met, no reduction due to holes is required for
the calculation of the strength torque of the cross-section. The same stands
for the shearing check, where coefficient Anet corresponds to the overall
shearing surface except the holes.
In particular, we must calculate both the tensioned surface of the
cross-section as equilibrium point of the inner stresses with the externally
applied pivotal force, and the reduced surface due to holes. If the above
criterion is met for the tensioned part, we can then consider as negligible
the reduction of the cross-section strength due to the holes in it. In the
opposite case we must further reduce the plastic resistance torque of the
cross-section due to the holes at the tensioned area of the body,
considering that the category of the cross-section is 1 or 2, and the strength
torque results as follows:
Regarding shearing, the shearing surface of the cross-section is calculated

as
as well as the corresponding reduced ΑV,net due to the holes in the body.
We check whether the ductility criterion is met in order to deduce whether

the shearing strength is affected by the holes in the body of the cross-
section. Then we reduce the shearing surface and the design shearing
strength results from the formula:
5.1.6 Checks to be carried out
Summarizing, we present the checks to be carried out for this

particular connection:
• Bending check of cross-section

• Shearing check of cross-section
• Footing bolts shearing check
• Footing bolts intrados compression check
• Footing plate shearing check
• Body plate tensioning check
• Body bolts shearing check
• Footing bolts intrados compression check
If there are weldings on the left member:

• Footing welding check under maximum stress buildup
• Body welding check under maximum stress buildup
In this section we shall solve the connection in question in detail, in

order to enable comparison of the results with those of the previous
calculation routine.
So we select the typical connection example that follows and then
we describe all checks to be carried out. We suppose that we have a
member with cross-section IPE 400, with design stress values at the
restoration area NEd=30 kN, VEd=60 kN and MEd=150 kNm. The connection
media and their qualities are shown in fig. 5.7. It must be reminded that all
dimensions are in kN and mm, unless specified otherwise.
Footing bolts: Μ20/4.6, body bolts: Μ16/4.6.

Footing welding thickness 6 mm, body welding
thickness 4 mm.
Steel quality S235, dimensions in mm.
Figure 5.7. Front view and section characteristic at the connection area.
5.2.1.1 Check of Bolt Distances
For the plate on the beam body we have:

For the plate on the beam footing we have:
5.2.1.2 Check of beam height adequacy
where 30 + 40 + tf,KΔ = 89, the shearing of the upper footing of the

secondary beam.
5.2.2 Beam cross-section checks at the restoration area
We shall calculate the strength values for the cross-section of the

beam, and at the same time we shall check whether the ductility criterion is
met.
to establish whether the holes must be excluded at the tensioned part of

the cross-section.
The cross-section is classified in category 1.
5.2.2.1 Check of the overall cross-section
Plastic resistance torque:

where
5.2.2.2 Check of reduced cross-section at the restoration area
5.2.2.2.1 Bending strength check
Footing surface:
Reduced footing surface:
so the ductility criterion is not being met, and we have to take into account
the reduction of the cross-section strength due to the footing holes.
Then we shall calculate the surface area of the tensioned part of the cross-
section, due to the tensioning pivotal force and to the bending torque as
shown in figure 5.8.
plastic neutral axis
tensioned rows
of body bolts
Figure 5.8. Shift of the center of gravity axis of the cross-section due to pivotal force
Calculation of the tensioned cross-section surface area due to proper

quantities N and M:
Assumption (1): the neutral axis intersects the cross-section body
where
From the first equation we have:
and from the third one
so assumption (1) is valid.

We check whether further reduction of the beam strength is required due to
the holes in the body. The tensioned cross-section surface area shall be:
due to the tensioning pivotal force. So we must reduce the 2 footing holes
and 2 from the 3 body holes.
The reduced cross-section surface area due to the holes is:
and again the ductility criterion is not being met, so we have to take into
account the 2 body holes in order to reduce the plastic resistance torque of
the cross-section. Thus we have to reduce all of the holes of the tensioned
part (body and footing). Distance of footing holes from the neutral axis:
(as defined in fig. 5.8)
Distance of 1st tensioned row of body bolts from the neutral axis:
hw1=147.18 mm
Distance of 2nd tensioned row of body bolts from the neutral axis:
hw2=14.84 mm
The plastic resistance torque becomes:
5.2.2.2.2 Shearing strength check
The net sheared surface is:
The criterion
is met, so we consider that the body holes do not affect the shearing
strength and the overall cross-section check, as described above, is valid.
5.2.3 Bolts Check
5.2.3.1 Check of Footing Bolts
The stress values at the continuity restoration area are distributed

on the footing and body blades. The shearing force is considered as being
fully received by the body blades, and the torque is distributed according to
the blade rigidity. According to the above, we initially calculate the
moments of inertia of the body and footing plates.
The torque shall be distributed as follows:

The pivotal force stressing each footing plate shall be:
and the pivotal force on each body plate shall be:
Due to bending, an additional pivotal force is applied on the feet, which is

equal to:
The total design pivotal force on the footing bolts is then equal to:
5.2.3.1.1 Bolt strength under footing shearing

5.2.3.1.2 Strength of a group of bolts under intrados compression
The group of bolts strength is provided by the formula:
with ab = min{ad, fub/fu, 1}, where coefficients k and ad depend on the

have:
• Row 1:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
• Row 2:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
• Row 3:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
Thus
5.2.3.2 Check of Body Bolts
Torque acting at the center of gravity of the bolting area:
where x = 100 mm is the distance of the connection restoration area to the

center of gravity of the bolting area.
5.2.3.2.1 Footing bolt shearing strength

5.2.3.2.2 Strength of a group of bolts under intrados compression
The group of bolts strength is provided by the formula:
With ab = min {ad, fLb/fu, 1}, where coefficients kt and ad depend on the
have:
• Row 1:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
• Row 2:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
• Row 3:
o Column 1:
o Column 2:
Thus
5.2.4 Check of footing and body plates
5.2.4.1 Check of footing plate under pivotal force
The tensile strength of the footing plate is calculated as the minimum

between the yield force for the total surface and the breaking force as
reduced due to any holes.
Reduced cross-section:
where t is the plate thickness, b is its width, and e2, pu, p2 are the bolt
distances as specified in EK3.
Thus
5.2.4.2 Check of body plate under pivotal force
The tensile strength of the footing plate is calculated as the

minimum between the yield force for the total surface and the breaking
force as reduced due to any holes.
Reduced cross-section:
where t is the plate thickness, b is its width, and e2, plf, p2 are the bolt
distances as specified in EK3.
Thus
6
Connections of beams –-
columns with end plate
6.1.1 General
Torques are developed at nodes, on foundations (carriers) whose

lateral stability is provided through the framing operation. Therefore,
connections between beams - columns must be formed as torque
connections, i.e. able to carry torques and the relevant shearing forces,
from beams to columns. Development of connection torques is a function
involving several factors such as the beam profile, column profile (open or
closed cross-section profiles), connection type (bolted, welded or
composite), method of construction (only factory - made or on - site welds),
several geometrical or other restrictions and especially construction
practices. The multitude of these factors is exemplary or the variety
encountered in the formulation of such connections; however, their
development is beyond the scope of the present paper.
6.1.2 The rationale of semi-rigid connections and the need

for ductile behavior
The last decades saw the development of the concepts of semi-

rigid connection and the partial - resistance connection; at earlier times,
connections were designed either as articulated joints or as full-strength
pilings. Due to the lack of theoretical and experimental research, it was
often unclear whether connections designed as full-strength pilings, would
also function in practice as designed by the engineer.
Due to the absence of suitable design models, connections were
often designed much stronger and more rigid than needed, resulting in non-
economical designs. This design would often contradict the overall design
assumptions of the structure; it could therefore influence safety of the
structure in question. Design of the initial nodes has been based on
experimental observations. Test results as such were discussed at length
and led to the development of simple Simulations for manual calculation
purposes.
Test results were recently stored in databases, thus allowing
prediction of node properties through analytical formulae. The most
important properties are their bending torque strength (resistance) MjRd,
deformation / rotational stiffness Sj and the deformation /rotational capacity
φCd. These properties can be predicted with remarkable accuracy. The
complexity of the problem due to the presence of defects, residual
stresses, friction etc., in some cases requires a behavior simulation through

the use of detailed finite element simulations.
Hence, beam - column connections required to transfer torques,
are often selected to be constructed as semi-rigid. This is usually
dependent upon economic criteria of design, as mentioned. Formulation of
continuous framing requires rigid or piled, full - strength connections.
Contrary to that, in plain connections (e.g. shearing), are lower cost
alternatives, but the resulting beams are of larger size. An intermediate
solution (neither rigid connections, nor members of much larger cross
sections), is implemented in semi-rigid connections.
Beam design
Figure 6.1 Quantity of support torque shall be determined upon design
In this case, the beam shall be dimensioned for Μ = MFREE - MCΟNN

while linking plays a key role for semi-rigid frame design.
6.1.3 Classification of torque - transferring connections
full strength
partial strength
where
Classification according to strength
Strength
torque
Articulated
Classification according to rigidity
1. full strength,
rigid, non-ductile
2. full strength, rigid,
ductile
3. partial strength,
rigid, ductile?
4. full strength,
semi-rigid, ductile
5. partial strength,
More ductile semi-rigid, ductile
Less ductile
Classification according to ductility
Figure 6.2 Classification of connections according to strength, rigidity, and ductility

The key characteristics of a connection are ductility and

classification as a partial connection. The first term pertains to the ability to
develop a plastic joint and is fully dependent upon its rotational capability.
The second term denotes that the strength torque of the connection is less
than the adjoining beam. From the moment that beam strength torques are
applied to connections, the latter shall be capable of making a sufficient
rotation, so that the plastic zone may actually absorb energy. The rotation
that the beam must withstand is then adjusted in regulatory terms and
ranges between 0.02 and 0.04 rads. In practice, the strength torque of the
connection selected, is within a range of 30-50% of the plastic strength
torque of the beam.
6.1.4 Deformation capacity

To enable the connection to sufficiently rotate, some of its elements
must initially exhibit controlled yield. Bent plates (flange, end plate etc.) and
the body of the beam / column system under shearing are the prevailing
node components selected to reach their ratio limit. In fact, the most
important aspect is to avoid potential brittle failure of other joint
components. This category includes welds as well as tensioned bolts.
Thus, a component of the joint must be dimensioned as the «weakest»; this
process is selected upon the design phase. Commonly, such a component
is the bolted end plate, whether extending to the face or projecting on both
opposite sides of the beam.
End plate at the Projecting end plate

face of the beam
Figure 6.3. End plate types

Check of rotational adequacy will be implemented by comparing

rotational capability available with the necessary rotation of the beam at the
joint position. The latter is related to the geometrical and stress conditions
of the supported beam. For example, for a both-ends supported beam
under distributed fixed load, the necessary rotation is provided from the
following formula:
under accumulated load from :
etc. Rotational capability on the one hand depends upon configuration of

the joint. Connections with a column of bolts often possess sufficient
rotational capability. However, for larger shearing forces, where a second
bolt column might be necessary, rotational adequacy must be controlled.
Rotational adequacy must be also controlled on welded joints. Regarding
bolted connections on end plates it is apparent that deformability must be
the result of the deformability of the tensile zone, given the fact that
deformability of the compressed part of the joint is low. To this end,
deformability of the three T-stubs must be examined, as discussed in the
introductory chapters. For a given deformability 6U, the resulting rotational
capability is as follows:
where z is the distance between the compression and tension centers of

gravity. As demonstrated in the reference chapter in deformability of the 3
T-stub failure mechanisms, sufficient rotational capability is often available
in cases of critical end plate. For this purpose, the thickness of end plates
as well as the height z of the joint shall be restricted.
Figure 6.4. Yield of end plate shall protect bolts and welds from undertaking
additional loads
Bolt strength (kN) Example for bolts Μ24 / 8.8
Critical bolts
Critical end plate

and bolts
Critical end plate
End plate
thickness (mm)
Figure 6.5. Impact of end plate thickness to the type of failure

6.1.5 Pursuit of ductile behavior
It is very common to adopt the rule of restricting thickness of the

end plate to approximately 60% of bolt diameter (assuming that the quality
of the latter is at minimum 8.8). Even thinner end plates would carry higher
torques, with a risk of premature failure due to bolt breakage, before
performing the necessary rotation of the node. End plates designed merely
under the bending strength criterion, may have a thickness equal to or
greater than bolt diameter. These are not considered to be ductile. Figure
6.5 e.g., would require an end plate 25 mm thick so that bolts Μ24 / 8.8
obtain their full plastic resistance. In addition to the above it must be
specified that a thinner end plate will make a more ductile joint to behave in
a less rigid manner in comparison to a thicker one.
Rigidity or stiffness is much more useful in portable frames in
comparison to fixed ones. It contributes to the stability of the metallic frame
regarding portable frames; specifically for fixed frames it only contributes to
the restriction of beam shearing, while it restricts rotation of columns.
Generally, upon selection of end plate thickness, rigidity and ductility of the
joint may be regarded to be contradicting concepts, as the pursuit of one
will diminish the other. Stiffness of end plate, intended to be the critical
component of the joint, is proportional to its thickness in the power of two or
three. Ductility under no circumstances may be ignored, thus larger and / or
stronger bolts must be preferred, in fact restricting the thickness of end
plate. An optimal combination would be Μ24 / 8.8 or 10.9 bolts on one end
plate of 15 mm.
The above fully demonstrate the need to perform controls
regarding deformations beyond structural adequacy of such joints. In
regulatory terms, control of deformations shall be performed by applying
rotational capacity checks according to EC3; however this is currently in a
premature stage. A connection is considered capable of behaving as a
plastic joint provided that any of the following conditions is met:
• Strength torque is restricted by shearing of the body of the
pillar
• Strength torque is restricted by column flange in terms of
bending; the failure mechanism is the first one (only flange is
critical)
• End plate under bending would restrict strength torque and
failure mechanism is the first (only end plate is critical)
Only in the special case of twin - side node arrangements

(perimeter columns), it is possible that the first of the above mentioned
conditions is met. In case a beam is located on both opposite sides of the
column, active torques can be balanced, thus greatly reducing shearing of
the column body; therefore, for plastic design the intent is that the 2 latter
conditions apply.
Case 1: ductile joint when shearing strength of column body is critical

Case 2: ductile joint when column flange is critical, commonly for thin flange
Case 3: ductile joint when end plate is critical; the thickness of the plate as a
function of bolt quality / size shall be determined in the design phase
Figure 6.6. The 3 rules specified by EC3 to allow sufficient rotational capability
6.1.6 The component method in general
This paragraph discusses certain general information on the node

component method, as proposed by EC3 to analyze joints with end plates.
Implementation of the component method will permit examination of
several joint types in three main steps: classification of node components,
estimation of the force - deformation diagram of each individual component
during the initial rigidity phase, strength, force and deformation and
eventually composition of these components to estimate overall behavior of
the node. Component method principles are mainly based on the work by
Zoetemeijer. It is possible that components are stressed by tension,
compression and shearing.
The accuracy of this method is based on the precision of
description of the main components by independent springs and the quality
of the composition. The method allows very simple predictions for practical
application on complex models, aiming at further extensions. It is assumed
that component properties are independent, thus they can be easily
simulated; however some components are not acting independently; they
are affected by others. This can be overcome by applying simplifying
assumptions, since a generic method based on an iterative calculation
procedure would be complex for practical use.
Behavior of components can be generally described by a non -
linear force - deformation plot. Behavior is often non - linear and includes
several influences (strain hardening, contact between elements, membrane
effects, 3-D stress distribution etc.), however it can be simplified to a
bilinear or trilinear model. Model parameters are derived from component
dimensions and material properties. The most important properties include
design resistance FRd, rigidity coefficient k and deformation strength 6C.
Joint properties are assured through the blending of properties of
independent components. When a non - linear component behavior model
is used, it is possible to employ a progressive blending process.
This approach allows the calculation of a full torque - rotation plot
for the node. In actual applications, engineers usually need only the initial
stiffness and bending torque resistance of the node. This can be easily
assured by blending of the components which are described by a linear
model.
Initial stiffness
Node
resistance
Experimental plot
Elastic limit Design plot
Deformability Rotation, rad
Figure 6.7. Node rotation torque plot
6.1.6.1 Transfer of forces to the joint
To examine the behavior of the present joint, it shall be broken into

several components, which shall be simulated by using springs.
Connection of the individual springs in appropriate layout (series or parallel)
will yield the resulting joint response. Breaking into components can be
effected using appropriate subsystems, which sum up the response of
several individual elements.
Figure 6.8. Joint broken down into subsystems
Distinguishing of subsystems is carried out depending on the stress

they transfer. Thus, torque connections are broken into a tensioned and a
compressed zone, whose response differs due to the difference in stress.
Joints that only transfer axial forces can be examined in a similar manner,
by examining force transfer areas. The following shall apply to torque
connections:
where: Fc, Rd , Ft,Rd the strength values of compressed and tensioned zones
respectively, and z is the distance between the compression and tension
centers of gravity.
Rotation capacity:
depending on whether the zone under compression or tension is critical,

where:
: deformability of compressed or tensioned zone

: deformations, of compressed or tensioned zone - commonly elastic
- for a load level exhausting the resistance of the other zone
The following is a detailed description of the calculation of tensile

compressive forces of the joint, and of lever arm z.
All torque connections are designed under the same rationale,
irrespective of whether they have been selected to become rigid or full-
strength. The design process shall ensure that all joint elements are
capable of receiving the torque applied and a common shearing force. Axial
action is largely negligible, as beams are considered to be part of a
diaphragm which apparently does not carry loads along its axis.
All torque connections are designed under the same rationale
irrespective of whether they are intended to be rigid or full-strength. Design
process shall ensure that all joint components are able to carry the torque
applied and a common shearing force. Axial action is largely negligible, as
beams are considered to be part of a diaphragm which apparently does not
carry loads along its axis.
For example, a typical beam - column joint is required to transfer
torque by developing a pair of forces, a compressive force close to the
lower beam flange and a tensile force at the upper section of the joint. In
case it is applied to the axial direction, then the two above mentioned
forces are equal. Therefore, top bolts must resist to the tensile force, while
compression is assumed to be transferred through the contact of the end
plate to the lower flange of the beam.
A large number of other node components, may limit the resistance

of the joint. Each of them must be separately investigated and in case it is
insufficient, it must be reinforced (using metal plates, depending on the
case), as discussed thereafter. Regarding the joint examined, the following
node components can be distinguished, both in topology terms and in
terms of their loading (also ref. figure 6.9).
Figure 6.9. Node components

Loading type Point Required controls

Tensioning a Bolt tensioning
b End plate bending
c Bending of column footing
d Beam body tensioning
e Column body tensioning
f Welding between beam flange - plate
g Welding between beam body-plate
Horizontal shearing h Column body under shearing
Compression j Beam flange compression
k Welding of beam flange
L Column body under intrados compression
m Buckling of column body
Vertical shearing n Welding between beam body-plate
p Bolt under shearing
q Bolting under intrados compression
Table 6.1 Stressing of joint areas
Column body is subjected to accumulated loads in the tensile and

compressive zones; it can be controlled using empirical methods which
determine an active area on the body. Buckling must be controlled -
among others - in the compression zone.
Adjacent structural elements provide lateral assurance so that
buckling length of the compressed part of the joint is equal to 0.7 times the
body width.
Shearing of column body can become significant, especially under
unilateral node layout or in a laterally non-shifting frame. On the contrary, if
2 beams converge from opposite sides of the column on a fixed frame, the
quantities transferred out of two beams may be in equilibrium, thus the
column body will not be subject to significant stress. Therefore, depending
on the frame type, this element may be (or may not be) critical.
In most cases a plastic distribution over bolted nodes is assumed,

however elastic or elastoplastic distribution can be also implemented.
Regarding elastic distribution, forces over bolt rows are derived from tensile
resistance of the upper row of bolts. Bolt forces must be checked to confirm
that exceeding of resistance does not occur at any position.
When elastic distribution is assumed, a shearing force is
transferred from all bolts; checks for shearing - tension contribution is then
required. In this case, tensile force of the bolt shall include the increase due
to the lever effect of bolts. During elastoplastic and plastic distribution,
shearing force is determined from bolt rows that cannot convey bending
torque. Alternatively, it may be assumed as combination of tension and
shearing.
Tensile strength of a single row of bolts is calculated from column
flange under bending Ft.fc.Rd, from the column body under tension Ft.wc.Rd,
from edge plates under bending Ft.ep.Rd and from column body under
tension Ft.wb.Rd. Overall resistance of components under shearing and
compression is the minimum between column body frame under shearing
Vwp,Rd/ β, of column body under compression Fc,wc.Rd and of beam flange
under compression Fc,fb.Rd. Conversion coefficient β is used to calculate
frame stiffness of column body, as this is subject to shearing stress on the
left and right side of the node.
Regarding nodes with two or more bolt rows, resistance of the
group of bolts of adjacent rows must be taken into account.
When plastic distribution of forces on bolted nodes is assumed, resistance
of a single row of bolts shall be calculated according to 1.9 Βt.Rd in order to
ensure sufficient deformation capacity. When the ability to develop plastic
articulation on nodes is required, strain hardening effects may lead to
overloading of welds. In this case, welds shall be designed so as to
undertake bending torques increased to 1,4 Mj.Rd for linked elements and
1,7 Mj.Rd for non-linked elements.
6.1.6.2 Calculation of initial joint stiffness
The component method may be used for calculating initial stiffness

of a node Sj.ini. Stiffness can be calculated by adding elastic deformations
of each of connection components. Using rigidity coefficient of the
component (k), deformation δ is equal to:
where F is the force on component i and Ε is the modulus of elasticity.
Node rotation can be calculated from components' deformation

taking into account the length of the arm between tension and compression
zones:
Using formula 7.8, the node stiffness can be calculated as follows:
When the above mentioned formula is converted to the following

expression:
the full torque-rotation graph can be calculated in straightforward manner.

Regarding column - beam nodes and continuity of beams, a linear elastic
behavior can be adopted, equal to 2/3 of the node's bending torque
resistance. Factor μ that expresses the proportion of the initial stiffness to
the string stiffness (shearing stiffness), is equal to one in the elastic phase
and greater than one in the elastoplastic segment of the graph, i.e. equal
to:
Form factor ψ is equal to 2.7 for welded nodes and bolted edge
plates, and 3.1 for bolted flange plates.
The effective stiffness factor, keff of each bolt row under tensioning
shall be calculated according to formula:
where k, are the stiffness factors of the main components that correspond
to the particular row of bolts. These commonly are: the flexible column
body under tensioning, the column flange under bending, the bolts under
tensioning and the end plates under bending.
For joints of end plates with two or more bolt rows under
tensioning, the main components from all bolt rows are represented by an
equivalent rigidity coefficient, keq, determined according to the formula:
The equivalent lever arm shall be determined according to the formula:

6.1.6.3 Required rotational capability
The required rotational capability of nodes depends upon the

structure type; it rarely exceeds 60 mrad. When the component method is
employed, the end plate under bending and the frame of the column body
under shearing represent ductile components. The bolt subject to tensile
and shearing forces, as well as the welds, are common examples of brittle
components. For this purpose, it is recommended to avoid designing bolts
and welds that determine the strength of the joints. Prediction models allow
a distinction between plastic nodes from brittle ones as well as hazardous
solutions, not only regarding design assumptions, but also regarding
behavior description.
Torque
Experimental plot
Bilinear model
Rotation capacity
in plastic zone
Rotation
Figure 6.10. Rotation capacity, design resistance limit due to brittle failure
of the second row of bolts at a beam - column joint
6.1.7 The concept of the equivalent T-stub
Bending of a plate is a complex, three-dimensional problem in

nature. To address this problem, Eurocode has introduced the "equivalent
T-stub" concept.
Semi - empirical formulae provide the T-stub length which is
aligned to the actual conditions of yield lines for a single or multiple rows of
bolts.
The abovementioned 3 types of failure can be represented in a
very simple manner in figure 6.11.
Regarding the first mechanism, "double bending" is observed close

to the bolts and at the joint with the T-stub body. The second mechanism
combines bolt yield with a simple yield plot at the joining point between the
flange and the body. Bolts are critical in mechanism 3, thus the failure
pattern is only relevant to their yield. It is worth mentioning that only
mechanism 3 utilizes the full strength of the bolts; regarding the other two
mechanisms, part of their strength is utilized to counteract contact forces Q.
In 1st failure pattern, only 70% of the bolts' tensile strength is available.
Thin plate,
strong bolts
Thick plate,
weak bolts
Bolt tensile
strength
Figure 6.11. T-stub failure mechanisms

6.1.7.1 Multiple bolt rows
The process becomes more complex in cases of multiple bolt rows

at close spacing, which interact in undertaking tensile forces. It is worth
noting that a pair of rows will assume less than twice the force a single row
would undertake. EC3 stipulates that outer bolt rows (above beam flange)
are of key importance; due to their increased lever action, they will assume
torques in a much more effective manner. This can be best understood if
the calculation procedure is described. Resistance of the outer row is
calculated as if the other bolt rows under tension are non - existent. The
second row under tension shall assume a force resulting from the strength
of rows 1 and 2 as these are assumed to be a bolt group, minus the
minimum strength of row 1 or 2 assumed to be single rows etc., and
assuming all possible bolt group combinations. The presence of
reinforcement plates will restrict the number of rows whose forms of failure
(curved yield) are combined.
At the end of this process, a column-type vector is determined, with
all bolts force metrics. Clearly these can be restricted by a different
component of the joint, dependent upon which component is considered to
be critical. Commonly, column body is the critical component. Eventually,
strength torque of the joint is calculated as S [Fti hi] where Fti is the force of
the row of bolts i and hi its lever arm, taken from the centre of compression,
which is initially assumed to be the bottom flange of the beam.
It must be stressed that this calculation formula is based on plastic
distribution of bolts' forces; this fact requires that the node is capable of
developing sufficient rotation, until joint T-stubs assume their full strength.
As thickness values of the end plate and beam flange increase, the above
mentioned control of rotation capacity becomes less meaningful, as bolts
tend to become critical under such conditions and the footings of the
respective T-stubs obtain much higher stiffness rates.
Furthermore, an alternative process based on triangular distribution
of bolts' forces can be considered.
Then, the lever arm would determine the amount of force assumed
by each row of bolts under tension, while footing thickness values for end
plate columns would not influence the calculation in any way. The use of
such a distribution in full strength joints is prohibited; therefore no further
reference to it will be made.
6.1.8 T-stubs pattern on end plate
Bolts under
tensile force
Bolts only
under
shearing
Figure 6.12 a) End plate with 4 bolts in row, b) separation into T-stubs ,
c) division of top bolt rows in separate T-stubs
Bolts a1-a4 and b1-b4 near beam flange under tension, can be
taken for bending torque resistance calculation, ref. figure 6.12. The bolts
c2 and c3 could also be considered. However the bolts c1 and c4 can not
be considered for the transfer of tension due to the limited stiffness of the
end plate. These bolts together with the bolt row d could be useful as
regards shearing.
Depending on the size of the end plate and bolt spacing, there are
several possibilities for yield line patterns for bolts in rows a and b. The
expected formation of yield lines at the extension of the joining plate is
shown in figure 6.13. Bolts b1 and b4 are expected to present similar yield
lines.
Figure 6.13. Expected formation of yield lines at the extension of the connecting plate
6.1.9 Transfer of tensile forces
Many details are available regarding the calculation of tensile

forces distribution on bolts; these are fully addressed in EC3, part 1.8. The
basic tensile forces transfer mechanism to bolts has been referred to in an
introductory chapter, taking into account the deformability of the flange or of
the end plate depending on the case.
The strength of a row of bolts that may lead to failure conditions will
be possibly restricted either by the bolts - carrying plate, or by strength of
bolts, or by a combination thereof (a total of 3 forms of failure ). In case the
end plate or the flange, respectively, is thin, then they shall be deformed
due to bending. If they are thick, then the bolt will fail prior to yielding of the
plate or the flange. In conditions where the thickness of the plate / flange
obtains intermediate values, then the failure mechanism is complex and will
result from a combination of the two independent factors mentioned above.
Regarding the tensile force of the beam flange, this will spread in the body
over a length equal to beff.
Welded node End plate with 2 bolt rows*
Figure 6.14. Effective length of column body zone under tensile force
It is assumed that under the ultimate failure condition, when part of the
body with a length of beff yields. Then tensile force Ft will become:
Respectively, for a welded joint, the same effective width beff, is

used, both in the tensioned and the compressed zone, despite the
experimental results that have shown that this is often longer in the zone
under tensioning.
For bolted connections, the effective length of the T-stub of column
body under tensile force is considered to be equal to the overall effective
length of equivalent T-stubs. The column body can be reinforced either by
flange reinforcing plates, or by plates welded on both sides of the column
body (figure 6.15).
Figure 6.15. Reinforcement using body plates
6.1.9.1 Possibilities to reinforce column flange
6.1.9.1.1 Reinforcement with transverse reinforcement plates
In contrast to welded joints, bolted joints can be locally reinforced

by plates located on the column, so that the force can be directly
transferred by the beam flange to the column body, without any bending
taking place.
Figure 6.16 Reinforcement column flange

In case plates are used as in figure 6.16, the stiffness and strength
of column flange will increase; a fact which is beneficial to the strength of
the row of bolts adjacent to the rib. The strength of such rows can be
calculated by introducing an equivalent T-stub with equivalent length of ?eff
= α m1 where the value of coefficient α is taken from figure 6.17, formulated
both according to the plasticity theory and the experimental results. This
value will depend upon the geometry next to the reinforcing plate.
Figure 6.17 Coefficient α to calculate T-stub effective length of a row of bolts adjacent
to column rib
6.1.9.1.2 Reinforcement with plates parallel to a flange

(backing plates)
In a corresponding manner, it is possible to reinforce column flange
with plates bolted upon the former. Selection of length lbp of plates must be
emphasized; it is recommended to be taken as equal to effective length ?eff
of the equivalent T-stub of bolts. Thus, plastic torque Mpa is increased, not
Mpb in figure 6.19, therefore such reinforcement is efficient only when
failure mechanism 1 is critical (only end plate is critical).
flange plate
Figure 6.18 Reinforcement column flange with backing plates
Figure 6.19 Increase of Mpa with column flange plates

6.1.10 Transfer of compressive forces
The compressive force on a non-reinforced column body may

cause local buckling. Following performance of experiments on column-
beam joints, the following determination model has been adopted. The
assumption made is that buckling starts when the average stress over a
section whose effective width is equal to beff becomes equal to the yield
stress. This model is essentially the same as the one used for the transfer
of tensile forces to the column body. The ultimate compressive force results
as follows:
Figure 6.20 Effective width of column body under compressive force
The following are various variations of the geometry of the joint. It

is noted that imaginary lines that determine the value of effective width, are
inclined by 2.5:1 within the thickness of the flange of column and 1:1 within
other elements of the joint.
Figure 6.21 Effective length of the compressed part of the joint on column body
In case b, as shown in figure 6.21, it is assumed that the end plate

under the beam flange will yield before buckling occurs in the column body.
In this case, compressive force Fc is spread throughout the entire end plate
thickness.
Figure 6.22 Behavior of compressed joining zone with projecting end plate
The following must apply for the projection of end plate le :
In case the last formula is not met, then the lowest part of the end
plate becomes plastic and the effective width is decreased to take the
following value:
However, the lever arm between the compression and tension

centers will increase, even marginally; this is considered an advantage (in
other words, the center of compression does not precisely coincide with the
lower beam flange).
In case of significant axial forces in the column, the critical load in
the compressed zone will decrease. As long as regular tension sn is less
than value 0,5 fy, their influence can be ignored. For even higher stresses
sn, design strength of the compressed part of the joint shall be calculated
according to the formula:

where R is a reduction factor considered to be . The column

can be also reinforced in the compressed zone with reinforcement plates
between flanges or by plates welded on its body.
6.1.11 Transfer of shearing forces
On asymmetric joints, e.g. on perimeter columns, column body is

also loaded with a shearing force, Fv. This may also happen on symmetric
joints loaded in an asymmetric manner. For example, in the following joint,
tensile force to the upper flange must be transferred through the shear
panel formed; then it will counteract the respective compressive force of the
lower flange of the beam.
Figure 6.23 Shearing stresses developed on a column with reinforced flanges (asymmetric
node)
Assuming that geometry of the column body will not permit buckling
due to the shearing force, the shearing strength of the panel will be equal
to:
Column body could be reinforced by diagonal plates or plates

welded thereupon. When the first solution is selected, care must be taken
so that bolt placement problems are avoided.
Figure 6.24 Reinforcement of column body against shearing
Care must be taken in cases as the following, where

implementation of such reinforcements may entail undesirable results
regarding the resulting stress condition. A similar example is shown in
figure 6.25.
Tensile force zone Compression zone
With reinforcement Without reinforcement
Figure 6.25 Reinforcement of top node (stress condition in the panel will change)
6.1.11.1 Bolt shearing forces
Generally, force distribution over bolts must be selected in an

optimal manner. Thus it is possible to uniformly distribute shearing force
over the bolts. In this case, the bolts must be checked according to the
applicable rules for combined shearing / tension, i.e.:
In formula (6.23), tensile force Ft,Rd is the tensile resistance of each

bolt, as resulting from solving the joint, thus formula (6.25) will result.
Moreover, the shearing force is usually distributed over the compressed
part of the node. If the load-bearing capacity of these bolts is sufficient,
then the other bolts are merely tested as regards tensile strength. In
addition, and in order to allow sufficient deformation capacity, it is important
that bolts resistance to shearing is greater than their resistance under
intrados compression, either on the plate or on the column flange.
Distribution of shearing Equivalent shearing

force on non-tensioned force on each bolt
bolts
Figure 6.26 Example of shearing force distribution on bolt rows
6.2 Detailed joint calculation
This section will provide the detailed solution of the particular joint,
so that the results can be compared with the ones obtained from the
previous calculation routine.
Thus, the following characteristic joint example is selected and
thereafter all tests carried out are presented. Assume a column with
ΗΕΒ300 section size and a ΙΡΕ 200 beam. Beam cross section will
increase at the area of the joint, using a column of equivalent beam cross
section, truncated at its upper flange. At the point of connection of the
support beam flanges, a reinforcement of beam body is employed, to
increase the resistance of the body against second order effects. Column
flanges are also reinforced by reinforcing ribs at the compression center
area (lowest flange of the beam), as well as in the area of the upper flange
of the beam. A pair of ribs is used, to form a panel on column body; the
latter is intended to receive the shearing force thereupon. Furthermore,
reinforcement plates are also placed on both sides of column body to
increase both its shearing resistance and its rotation stiffness as well.
Finally, tensile force zone of the flange shall be reinforced by plates placed
locally at the back of its flange (backing plates).
It is noted that the present example utilizes all possible
reinforcements of a node of this type, to provide a comprehensive
presentation of the Eurocode method and also to demonstrate the
capabilities of the software developed with respect to handling a torque
node between beam-column.
In the following, relevant drawings of the joint will be shown, to
enable understanding of its geometry. It is reminded that all dimensions are
in kN, mm, unless specified otherwise. The steel used is S235 grade for all
members and joining media. Furthermore, bolts are Μ20 / 8.8 and holes
are regular (22 mm). All weldings are fillet welds with the following
thickness values:
• Between beam flange and end plate: 5 mm
• Between beam body and end plate: 3 mm
• Between column body and column reinforcement plates: 6 mm
• Between column body and beam flange: 3 mm
It is reminded that thickness of transverse ribs is at minimum equal to

the flange of the member intended for reinforcement, therefore column ribs
(reinforcements) are selected so as to have a thickness of 20 mm, and 10
mm for the beam.
Figure 6.27 Stress quantities acting on the node under examination

local reinforcement plate in the

tensioned zone 340/120/20
end plate 550/250/20
beam rib
column flange
ribs
section of ΙPE200
reinforcement plates on both sides

of 800/220/15 body
Figure 6.28 Joint front view

Figure 6.29 Joint side view
Figure 6.30 Joint plan view

6.2.1 Spacing check
6.2.1.1 Bolt spacing check

Regarding bolts on the end plate:
6.2.1.2 Spacing check of reinforcement plates column body
The following apply to reinforcement plates of the column body:

According to paragraph 6.2.6.1 (9) (prEN 1993-1-8), the width of plates, bs,
shall be sufficient so that the body reinforcement plate extends at least to
the root of the mounting radius, thus for a malleable cross section, the
check shall be performed in the following manner:
where run is the mounting radius of the column cross-section.

Correspondingly, the maximum width of plates is equal to
Furthermore column body thickness must be less than or equal to the plate
thickness, i.e.:
6.2.1.3 Spacing check of column flange reinforcement plates
Regarding the plates used for local reinforcement of the flange of

the column (backing plates) the following shall apply:
Additionally :
In this particular case:
Figure 6.31 Determination of extreme dimensions for plates used for local
reinforcement of the tensioned zone (backing plates)
6.2.1.4 Check of beam column angle
Regarding the beam column, specifically the angle between

column beam flanges, γ, the following shall apply:
6.2.1.5 Check of weldings
Regarding weldings between joining media the following apply:

Welding thickness between beam flange and end plate:
a = 5mm<max a = 0.7x8.5 = 5.95mm
Welding thickness between beam body and end plate:
a = 3mm<max a = 0.7x5.6 = 3.92mm
Welding thickness between column body plates and column body:
α = 6 mm < max α = 0.7 χ 11 = 7.7 mm
Welding thickness between beam-column and beam flange:
α = 3 mm < max α = 0.7 x 5.6 = 3.92 mm
6.2.2 Initial calculations and estimation of general joining parameters
6.2.2.1 Values of transformation parameter Β
The following shall apply with respect to transformation parameter

β:
6.2.2.2 Column shearing surface
It is calculated for a ductile column cross-section, according to the

following formula as proposed in EC3, part 1.1, paragraph 6.2.6 (3):
According to paragraph 6.2.6.1 (6) (prEN 1993-1-8), the shearing surface

may be increased by bstwc, due to the use of body reinforcement plates,
where bs, twc, are the width and thickness of reinforcing plate and column
body respectively.
Thus the shearing surface becomes:
6.2.2.3 Calculation of effective width of the column body

under compression
According to paragraph 6.2.6.2 (1) (prEN 1993-1-8), for bolted

connection to the end plate, the effective length of the column body under
compression is:
where sp is the length resulting from a projection under 45° through the end
plate (at least t,, and up to 2tp, provided that the section of the end plate
close to the flange is sufficient). In particular, sp = 40 mm, hence: beffcwc =
293.96 mm, where tn is the thickness of the column flange, as it is
assumed that the centre of compression of the joint is located in the column
flange.
6.2.2.4 Reduction coefficient ω to account for interference

between compression and shearing
According to table 6.3 it is derived that:
and
6.2.3 Solution of joint
6.2.3.1 Finding stiffness coefficients of joint elements

6.2.3.1.1 Pre-assessment of number of tensioned bolt rows
This will be arbitrary, taken as equal to the number of bolts located

above the bottom flange of beam cross section, i.e. 4.
Thereafter, stiffness factors k1, k2, k3, k4, k5, k10, shall be calculated
according to table 6.10 (prEN 1993-1-8). Of the above mentioned
coefficients, all but the first two refer to bending of the end plate-flange or to
tensioning of bolts and column body, thus they must be calculated
separately for each row of bolts under tensioning conditions. On the other
hand, stiffness factors k1, k2 referring to the column flange under shearing
and under compression, can be calculated irrespectively of the rows of
bolts.
6.2.3.1.2 Stiffness coefficients for the first row of bolts

under tensioning
Stiffness coefficient ka (column body under tensioning):
According to table 6.11 (prEN 1993-1-8) parameter befftwc is taken

to be the effective width of column body under tensioning from 6.2.6.3
(prEN 1993-1-8). For a node with one row of bolts under tensioning, beff,t,wc
must be taken equal to less than the effective lengths ?eff (individually or as
member of a group of rows of bolts) as given for the particular row of bolts
in Table 6.4 (prEN 1993-1-8) (non-reinforced column flange) or in Table 6.5
(prEN 1993-1-8) (reinforced column flange).
Instructions for calculating the effective length of the equivalent T-stub, are
provided in table 6.4 (prEN 1993-1-8), since this is a row not adjacent to a
column reinforcement structure (rib). Distances defined in the above
mentioned table refer to the particular row:
m = 17.90 mm
m2 = 36.61mm
e = 80.00 mm
e1 = 390.00 mm
c = 45.00 mm
The above is an edge row of bolts, therefore effective length shall

be derived from these formulae:
An upper ceiling exists, thus effective lengths are ignored under the
condition:
• The row of bolts is assumed to be individual

ο For circular patterns:
ο For non - circular patterns:
• The row of bolts is assumed to be member of a group of rows of

bolts.
Minimum effective length is equal to 112.47 mm; this constitutes the

effective length of the first row of bolts for the column body under tensile
force.
Thus, stiffness coefficient k3 shall be equal to:
where dc = hc 2tfc = 283.00 mm (6.44)
Stiffness coefficient k, (column flange under bending force):
Table 6.11 yields:
where length is equal to effective length calculated above, i.e. 112.47

mm. Distance m is defined in accordance with figure 6.8 (prEN 1993-1-8)
and is equal to m = 17.90 mm. Thus, coefficient k4 will become:
Stiffness coefficient k5 (end plate under bending force, one row):
The effective length needed to calculate coefficient k5 will be

derived from table 6.6 (prEN 1993-1-8). The distances defined in this table
for this particular row are:
m = 38.81 mm
mx = 34.34 mm
e = 80.00 mm
ex = 40.00 mm
c = 45.00mm
w = 90.00 mm
This constitutes a row of bolts within the beam flange under tensioning,
therefore the effective length shall be derived from the following formulae:

• The row of bolts is assumed to be member of a group of rows

of bolts.
It is not necessary to assume that the row belongs to a group.

effective length of the first row of bolts for the end plate under bending.
Thus, stiffness coefficient κ5 shall be equal to:
Stiffness coefficient k10 (bolts under tensioning, single row of bolts):
For the calculation of this coefficient, value Lb (constituting the

deformable bolt length, which is assumed to be equal to the retaining
length - total thickness of metal and washer) is required, plus half of the
sum of the thickness of bolt head and washer. Regarding geometry of the
particular joint, it is derived that Lb = 61.95 mm, hence:
where As is the effective surface of a single bolt.
For the examined row (1st), effective stiffness coefficient keff,r, is

calculated according to the formula:
where ί = 3,4, 5,10.(6.51)
6.2.3.1.3 Stiffness coefficients for the second row of bolts

under tensioning
Stiffness coefficient k3 (column body under tensioning):

Instructions for calculating the effective length of the equivalent T-
stub, are provided in table 6.5 (prEN 1993-1-8), as this is a row located
adjacent to a column reinforcement structure. The distances specified in
table 6.5 for this particular row, are as follows:
m = 17.90 mm
m2 = 36.61mm
e = 80.00 mm
e1 = 460.00 mm
c = 45.00 mm
There is an upper ceiling, thus effective lengths under component

e1 are ignored. Coefficient α from figure 6.11 shall be calculated after
solving for values λ1 and λ2.
and
thus the resulting value of α shall be equal to 8.0.



of bolts
Minimum effective length is equal to 97.02 mm, and this constitutes the
effective length of the first row of bolts for the column body under
tensioning.
where dc = hc 2tfC = 283.00 mm (6.58)
Stiffness coefficient k4 (column flange under bending):
Table 6.11 yields:
where length is equal to effective length as calculated above, i.e. equal

to 97.02 mm. Distance m shall be derived in accordance with figure 6.8
(prEN 1993-1-8) and is equal to m = 17.90 mm. Thus, k4 coefficient will
become equal to:
Stiffness coefficient k5 (end plate under bending, one row):
The effective length required to calculate k5 coefficient shall be

derived from table 6.6 (prEN 1993-1-8). The distances defined in this table
are as follows for this particular row:
m = 38.81 mm
mx = 34.34 mm
e = 80.00 mm
ex = 40.00 mm
c = 45.00 mm
w = 90.00mm
This is a row of bolts outside the beam flange under tensioning, therefore
the effective length shall be derived from these formulae:

of bolts.
No need to assume that this row is a member of a group
Minimum effective length shall be equal to 125.00 mm, and this

constitutes the effective length of the first row of bolts for the end plate
under bending.
Stiffness coefficient k10 (bolts under tensioning, a single row of bolts):
According to the above calculation it is derived that Lb = 61.95 mm,

therefore:
where Α5 is the effective surface of a single bolt.

For the examined row (2nd), the effective stiffness coefficient keff,r, shall be
where i = 3,4, 5,10. (6.65)
6.2.3.1.4 Stiffness coefficients for the third row of bolts

under tensioning
Stiffness coefficient k3 (column body under tensioning):

stub, are provided in table 6.5 (prEN 1993-1-8), as this refers to a row
located adjacent to a column reinforcement structure. The distances
specified in table 6.5 (prEN 1993-1-8) for this particular row, are:
m = 17.90 mm
m2 = 36.61mm
e = 80.00 mm
e1 = 548.50 mm
c = 45.00 mm
There is an upper ceiling, therefore the effective lengths under e1

component are ignored. Coefficient α from figure 6.11 (prEN 1993-1-8)
shall be calculated after solving for λ1 and λ2 values.
and
and the resulting value of a α is equal to 8.0.



of bolts
Minimum effective length is equal to 105.27 mm, where this constitutes

the effective length of the first row of bolts for the column body under
tensioning.
where
Stiffness coefficient k4 (column flange under bending): Table 6.11 yields:
where length £en is equal to the effective length as calculated above, i.e.
105.27 mm. Distance m shall be determined in accordance with figure 6.8
(prEN 1993-1-8) and is equal to m = 17.90 mm. Thus, coefficient k4 will
become:
Stiffness coefficient k5 (end plate under bending force, one row):
The effective length required to calculate coefficient k5 shall be derived

from table 6.6 (prEN 1993-1-8). The distances defined in this table for this
particular row are as follows:
m = 38.81 mm
mx = 34.34 mm
e = 80.00 mm
ex = 40.00 mm
c = 45.00mm
w = 90.00 mm
This is the first row of bolts underneath the beam flange subjected to
tensioning; therefore the effective length shall be derived from the following
formulae:
and


of bolts
Minimum effective length is equal to 217.66 mm and this constitutes the

According to the above calculation it is derived that Lb = 61.95 mm,

therefore:
where Α5 is the effective surface of a single bolt.
For the examined row (2nd), effective stiffness coefficient keff,r, shall
be calculated according to the formula:
where i = 3,4, 5,10. (6.83)
6.2.3.1.5 Stiffness coefficients for the fourth row of bolts under

tensioning
Stiffness coefficient k3 (column body under tensile force):

stub are provided in table 6.4 (prEN 1993-1-8), as this refers to a row not
adjacent to a column reinforcement structure. The applicable distances as
specified in table 6.4 (prEN 1993-1-8) for this particular row are:
m = 17.90 mm
m2 = 36.61mm
e = 80.00 mm
e1 = 651.50 mm
c = 45.00 mm
There is an upper ceiling, thus effective lengths are ignored under the
condition e1:


of bolts

effective length of the first row of bolts for the column body under
tensioning.
where dc=hc 2tfC= 283.00 mm (6.88)
Stiffness coefficient kA (column flange under bending force):
Table 6.11 (prEN 1993-1-8) yields:
where length eff is equal to the effective length as calculated above, i.e.
112.47 mm. Distance m shall be specified in accordance with figure 6.8
(prEN 1993-1-8), being equal to m = 17.90 mm. Thus, coefficient κ4 will
become:
Stiffness coefficient k5 (end plate under bending, one row):
The effective length required to calculate coefficient k5, shall be derived

from table 6.6 (prEN 1993-1-8). The distances defined in this table for this
particular row are:
m = 38.81 mm
mx = 34.34 mm
e = 80.00 mm
ex = 40.00 mm
c = 45.00 mm
This constitutes an internal row of bolts close to the beam flange, therefore
the effective length shall be derived from the following formulae:
and


of bolts

According to the above calculation, it is derived that Lb = 61.95

mm, therefore:
where A5 is the effective surface of a single bolt.

For the examined row (i.e. 2nd), effective stiffness coefficient keff,r, shall be
where i = 3,4,5,10. (6.99)

6.2.3.1.6 Calculation of equivalent stiffness coefficient keq
The equivalent lever arm of joint zeq, is derived according to the

formula specified in paragraph 6.3.3.1 (3) (prEN 1993-1-8):
where r is each tensioned row (r = 1, 2, 3, 4) and hr is the distance of each

individual row from the centre of compression of the joint. It is concluded
that zeq = 375.36 mm.
Thereafter, the equivalent stiffness coefficient is calculated as

follows:
6.2.3.1.7 Miscellaneous stiffness factors of the joint
The only thing remaining to do is to calculate stiffness factors k1

and k2 of the joint, referring to column flange under shearing and
compression respectively; nevertheless these will be needed at a later
stage, for calculation of the rotation stiffness of the said node.
Coefficient k1 is assumed to be infinite, as the node is assumed to be
reinforced due to the existence of ribs on the column.
In similar manner, coefficient k2 k1 is also assumed to be infinite, as the
column of the node includes a reinforcing rib close to the compressible
beam flange, as well as at the reinforcement plates of the column body.
6.2.3.2 Finding of strength values for the main components of the joint
6.2.3.2.1 Column body under shearing
Paragraph 6.2.6.1 (prEN 1993-1-8) shall apply. A condition is that

the following inequality is valid:
Where . In fact
The design shearing strength of the non - reinforced body is provided by

the following formula:
where Avc is the increased shearing surface of column cross section, due to
the existence of body reinforcement plates.
According to paragraph 6.2.6.1 (4) (prEN 1993-1-8), when transverse ribs
are simultaneously used in the tensile and compressed zone, design plastic
shearing resistance of the column body Vwp,Rd can be increased by
Vwp,add,Rd as follows:
however
where:
ds is the distance between the gravity center lines of ribs
VΡl,Fc,Rd is the design plastic bending resistance of the column flange
Vwp,add,Rd is the design plastic bending resistance of the rib
In particular:
hence
The resulting transformation coefficient β is equal to one, therefore

reduction of the above mentioned shearing force resistance is not
necessary.
6.2.3.2.2 Column body under compression
Coefficients ω and β used in chapter 6.2.6.2 have been already

calculated. The design compression strength of the column shall be
however
As reinforcement plates are used on the column body, column

body thickness can be set to twice its value in the above mentioned
formula. According to paragraph 6.2.6.2 (2) (prEN 1993-1-8), when
maximum longitudinal compressive stress ocomEd exceeds 0.7fywc on the
body (due to axial force and bending torque on the column) (next to the
mounting radius for a ductile cross section, or on the root weld for e weld
joint), its impact on the design compression strength of the column body
must be taken into account by multiplying the value of FcwcRd supplied in
formula 6.9 (prEN 1993-1-8) applying a reduction coefficient kwc, the latter
is defined as follows:
• when
• when
For this particular case:
thus kwc = 1.
Regarding the reduction coefficient ρ for plate buckling we have:

• for < 0,72: ρ = 1,0
• for > 0,72:
where η is its specific buckling capacity, as supplied by the following

formula:
with
for a column with ductile cross section
Compression resistance of the column can be increased due to the
existence of a compressed rib on the column, by:
Therefore:
6.2.3.2.3 Body and beam flange under compression
The required resistance of beam flange shall be derived from

chapter 6.2.6.7 (prEN 1993-1-8). Special attention must be given to the
presence of the column as well, since the latter is located within the
compressed area of the node.
Calculation of the strength of the column under body and flange
compression, shall be performed initially. Shearing strength is :
thus reduction of strength torque of the column cross section - due to

interference with the shearing force - is not necessary.
Thus, strength torque will become:

and the requested column strength is:
Regarding beam resistance, it shall be calculated in a similar

manner to the calculation of column strength under compression, however
it shall be increased by , due to the existence of the rib on the

beam. While bst and tst are the width and thickness of the reinforcing plate
of the beam, respectively. Eventually, the resulting strength value shall be
equal to 359.96 kΝ > 337.39 kN, therefore to enhance safety, the
compressive strength for body and flange of the composite beam cross
section due to the column, is considered to be 337.39 kN.
6.2.3.3 Iterative process for finding the number of rows under

tensioning
This section will employ the iterative process presented in

paragraph 6.3.2 (general flow diagram), to find the number of rows of bolts
under tensioning. Partial bolt rows shall be regarded as individual or group
members in order to find their critical tensile resistance load. The iterative
process shall commence from the top row of bolts and shall stop when a
row with negative strength is found. It is noted that (as repeatedly noted
before), the plastic method for the determination of node strength values is
implemented; this fact will detach this examination from the magnitude and
direction of actions effected on the node.
Rows considered to be individual:
• 1st row of bolts:

ο Column body under tensioning
According to paragraph 6.2.6.3 (3) (prEN 1993-1-8), on a bolted

connection, the effective width beff,t,wc of the column body under tensioning
must be taken as equal to the effective length of an equivalent T-stub
corresponding to the column flange.
The row in question is not adjacent to a rib, therefore the required effective
lengths will be derived from table 6.4. Furthermore, and since it is assumed
that an upper ceiling exists, the effective lengths shall be equal to:
Regarding distance values m, e, it follows that:

m = 32 mm and e = 80 mm
According to table 6.2, we have:
Furthermore, the plastic torques developed on the equivalent T-stub of the

flange are:
Due to the existence of local reinforcement of the column flange, the

resistance force shall be:
where η = 40.75 mm
The required strength is provided by the following formula:
where
It is eventually found that

o Column flange under bending
The examined row is not adjacent to a rib, therefore the effective length of
the equivalent T-stub for bending of the column flange is provided by the
following formulae:
where η = 40.75 mm
and
ο End plate under bending
The effective lengths for the end plate under bending and for a row above
the flange under tensioning are provided by the formulae:
and
ο Beam body under tensioning
According to paragraph 6.2.6.8 (prEN 1993-1-8), the effective length is

equal to the one mentioned above since it is considered that that the T-stub
developed is equal to the one found in the case of the end plate under
bending.
Strength is calculated as follows
Critical failure mechanism for 1st row of bolts assumed to be individual:
Beam body under tensioning with FT = 164.50 kΝ

• 2nd row of bolts:
ο Column body under tensioning
The row is adjacent to a rib, therefore the required effective lengths may be
inferred from table 6.5 (prEN 1993-1-8). The value of parameter α as
inferred from figure 6.11 (prEN 1993-1-8), is equal to 7.71 for λ1 = 0.29 and
λ2 = 0.39. The effective lengths are determined as follows:
According to table 6.2 it follows that:
Furthermore, the plastic torques developed on the equivalent T-stub of the

flange are:
Due to the existence of a local reinforcement on the column flange, the

following shall apply for the resistance force:
The required strength is provided by the following formula:
where
Eventually, it follows that
ο Column flange under bending
The effective length is equal to the value calculated above, = 251.28.

Furthermore Fb = 141.12 kΝ, therefore
ο End plate under bending
Effective lengths for the end plate under bending and for a row of bolts
above the flange under tensioning, are provided by formulae:
and
ο Beam body under tensioning
The effective length is equal to the above mentioned, =125.00 mm

The strength is calculated as follows:
Critical failure mechanism for 2nd row of bolts assumed to be

individual: Beam body under tensioning with FT = 164.50 kN
In similar fashion, the strength value for the 3rd and fourth row of
bolts can be derived. The calculated strength values, as well as the critical
mechanisms are appropriately noted:
Critical failure mechanism for the 3rd row of bolts assumed to be

individual: Column flange under bending with FT = 282.24 kN
Critical failure mechanism for the 4th row of bolts assumed to be

individual: Column flange under bending with FT = 282.24 kN
Analysis will respectively carry on for all rows, assuming they are
all individual as well as group members, in accordance with the general
flow diagram shown in paragraph 6.3.2. Following completion of all
iterations of the calculation process and assuming all bolts are group
members, as stipulated by EC3, the following results will be derived, in
conjunction with the final strength values for each row of bolts. One may
observe the non-linearity of distribution of bolts' forces, a fact which is
expected due to variation in rigidity between the tensioned and compressed
areas.
Column body under shearing 940,76

Column body under compression 260,35
Beam body & flange under compression 337,39
Table 6.2 Strength values of basic node components (in kΝ)
Rows considered to be individual
Row i=l Column body under tensioning 529.43
Column flange under bending 282.24
End plate under bending 217.81
Beam body under tensioning 164.45
Fsolo = 164.45
Row i=2 Column body under tensioning 577.42
Fsolo = 164.45
Fsolo = 282.24
Fsolo = 282.24
Rows considered to be group members
Row i=2
Row j = 1
Column body under tensioning over group 700.91
Column flange under bending over group 489.99
End plate under bending over group 489.99
Beam body under tensioning over group 493.62
Fg = 489.99
SumFsolo = 164.45
Fqroup = 325.54
Fup = 164.45
F(i) = 164.45
Row i=3
Row j = 1
Column body under tensioning over group 1Ε + 10
Beam body under tensioning over group 1Ε + 10
Fg = 529.2
SumFsolo = 328.9
Fqroup = 200.3
Row j = 2
Fg = 352.8
SumFsolo = 164.45
Fqroup = 188.35
Fup = 328.9
F(i) = 8.39
Row i=4
Row j = 1
Fg = 705.6
SumFsolo = 611.14
Fqroup = 94.46
Row j = 2
Beam body under tensioning over group ΙΕ + 10
Fg = 529.2
SumFsolo = 446.89
Fqroup = 82.51
Row j = 3
Fg = 529.2
SumFsolo = 446.89
Fqroup = 82.51
Fup = 611.14
F(i) = -273.75
Table 6.4 Strength values of rows considered as group members
The resulting force value for the fourth row was negative, therefore
it is considered that only the first three rows are subjected to tensioning.
The strength torque of the joint shall be derived as follows:
where η is the distance of the row from the centre of compression of the
joint, which in this particular case is considered to be at the centre of the
beam column flange. The strength torque has a value in excess of the
action torque MEd = 70000 kNmm, therefore structural adequacy is
achieved.
6.2.3.4 Classification of the joint
6.2.3.4.1 Finding initial stiffness Sj,ini
In accordance with paragraph 6.3.1 (prEN 1993-1-8) it follows that:
6.2.3.4.2 Classification regarding stiffness
According to paragraph 5.2.2.5 (prEN 1993-1-8), the following is the

ultimate value of rotation stiffness Sjim of a node, in order to be regarded as
rigid:
in fact, the above applies for kb = 25 (fixed frame), therefore the joint can be
classified as rigid, in terms of stiffness.
6.2.3.4.3 Classification regarding strength
The bending strength of the beam cross section at the joint, taking
into account the column, shall be:
Furthermore it follows that:
Hence, the joint is considered to be of full strength.

6.2.3.5 Check of rotation capability of joint
According to paragraph 6.4.2 (prEN 1993-1-8), the joint has

insufficient rotational capability, since the critical mechanisms are as
follows:
• Row 1: Beam body under tensioning
• Row 2: Beam body under tensioning
• Row 3: Body and beam flange under compression
The abovementioned components of the joint should be stronger in
order to meet this criterion, while parts referring to bending of the flange
and end plate could become weaker, so that these elements then become
critical. Then, the type of failure would exhibit a more ductile behavior and
rotational capability would be considered to be sufficient.
6.2.3.6 Check for shearing force

This check is carried out pursuant to table 3.4 (prEN 1993-1-8).
The resulting strength value for each row of bolts is considered equal to the
minimum of its strength under intrados compression and shearing force.
The resulting strength values for each row are presented in table 6.5.
Strength Strength under intrados
Row of bolts
under shearing compression
1 102.54 198.44
2 102.54 244.80
3 102.54 1627.36
4 102.54 1627.36
5 102.54 1627.36
Table 6.5 Strength of each row under shearing force
Apparently, the critical quantity for each row is the shearing

strength of bolts, therefore the shearing strength of the entire joint will
become:
Furthermore, it is necessary to examine the validity of the criterion

of interference between tensioning and shearing for the bolts, i.e.:
This criterion is met for each row of bolts.

6.3 Flow diagrams
6.3.1 Finding initial stiffness Sj,ini
Estimate of bolts under

tensioning
For each row of bolts under tensioning
Column body
under tensioning K3J
Column flange
under bending K4,i
End plate under bending Κ 5,i
Bolts under tensioning Κ10,i
Column body under shearing ΚΙ
Column body under compression
Κ2 Initial stiffness
Flow diagram 6.1 Finding initial stiffness

6.3.2 Finding of strength torque
Column body Column body Body and beam flange

under shearing Fcws under compression Fcwc under compression Fbfc
For each row of bolts i ,

starting from top
Column body For each row of bolts j above i

under tensioning Fcwt
Column body under tensioning,
of group i-j Fcwt,g
Column flange
under bending Fcfb Column flange under bending,
of group i-j Fcfb,g
End plate End plate under bending,
under bending Fpb of group i-j Fpb,g
Beam body under tensile,
Beam body of group i-j Fbwt,g
under tensioning Fbwt
For each row of bolts j above i

For each row of bolts i from top up to nt
next iteration
YES [hi: Distance of bolt row i from the middle
NO under beam flange]
Number of rows under tensioning nt = i-1
Flow diagram 6.2 Finding strength torque

7
Prop support connection
7.1.1 General
With the term 'prop base' we mean the lower part of the prop, the
seating plate and the anchoring system (anchors). Usually the prop bases
are designed without rigidity blades, but when they are expected to bear
high bending torques, rigidity blades may also be used. The prop bases
are seated either on a concrete foundation or on some other type of
foundation (e.g. piles). Standard prEN 1993-1-8 includes rules for the
calculation of their strength and rigidity. The process may be applied either
to open or closed cross-section props. Moreover, it is possible to adopt
design details that include seating plates reinforced with steel elements
encased in the foundation concrete. The impact of the concrete base to the
overall response of the prop base is not covered by standard prEN 1993-1-
8.
The classic approach for designing articulated prop bases leads to
seating plate thicknesses that ensure uniform distribution of stresses, so
the seating plate may be simulated as a rigid element. The classic design
of prop bases that bear torques is performed using elasticity analysis on
the basis of the assumption that the cross-sections remain flat. By solving
the equilibrium equations we can calculate the maximum stress on the
concrete foundation (linear distribution of stresses) as well as the tensile
stress at the anchoring system. Even if this methodology has been proven
to be satisfactory for many years, it actually ignores the flexibility of the
bending seating plate, anchoring system and concrete. The idea adopted
in prEN 1993-1-8 transforms the flexible base to an active solid plate and
permits development of stresses on the concrete equal to the accumulated
compression resistance. To this end, we use plastic distribution of internal
forces in the O.K.A.
To calculate the rigidity we can apply the connection components
method as presented in a previous chapter. According to this method, we
initially identify the important elements of the connection, which are called
components, and then we define their strength and rigidity. These
components are properly configured in order to provide the simulation of
the overall connection.
The rules for calculating the resistance at the prop bases are
provided in prEN 1993-1-8, Chapter 6.2.6, and the rules for calculating the
rigidity are provided in Chapter 6.3.4. These chapters also include the
characteristics of the prop base components, such as the components at
the compressed side and at the bent plate (Chapter 6.3.2), at the prop
footing and at the compressed body (Chapter 6.2.4.7), and at the tensioned
side the tensioned anchoring system and the bending of the seating plate
(Chapter 6.2.4.12). The method for receiving the horizontal shearing forces
is provided in Chapter 6.2.1.2, while the limits for classifying the prop bases
into categories are provided in Chapter 3.2.2.5.
Tensioned anchors and

seating plate under bending
Prop footing and body under compression

Prop footing and body
under compression
Anchors under shearing
Reinforcing
plate
Figure 7.1 Typical prop bases and selection of their components

a) bolts inside the seating plate, b) bolts outside the seating plate
(possibly with rigidity elements)
7.1.2 Elastic resistance of the prop base
The prop bases operate by converting the flexible seating plate to

an active solid plate. By limiting the plate deformations only within the
elastic area, the simulation receives the uniform accumulated stress under
the flexible plate. This provides a secondary assurance that the yield stress
of the prop base is not exhausted. The calculation of the effective bearing
area of the flexible seating plate is based on the effective width c
Figure 7.2 Finite elements simulation for a prop base with short T cross-section, and concrete
foundation under compression both before and after deformation, and main concrete stress
Figure 7.3 Simulations of prop bases
The elastic bending resistance per unit of length is calculated using

the formula
and the bending torque per unit of length, which acts on the seating plate
and corresponds to a cantilevered beam of length c, is:
When these torques become equal, the bending torque resistance of the
prop base reaches its limit, and the formula for the calculation of c is:
7.1.3 Resistance of prop base with low-quality mortar
The impact of the low quality mortar has been studied both by
using experimental methods and numerically. It has been found that the
thin layer of cement grout does not affect the concrete resistance. It is also
expected that the thin layer of cement grout under 3-D compression
between the concrete and seating plate shall behave like a liquid.
Most of the mortars have high resistance in comparison to the concrete
material. In such cases, the mortar may be ignored. In other cases, the
resistance can be checked by assuming a distribution of regular stresses
under the active plate at an angle of 45°. In case the mortar thickness is
greater than 50 mm, the characteristic strength of the mortar shall be
considered to be at least equal to the thickness of the foundation concrete
[prEN 1993-1-8].
Figure 7.4 Distribution of stresses on the cement grout

7.1.4 Comparison of the calculations of concrete strength according

to EC2 and EC3
Standards prEN 1992-1-1, Design of Concrete Structures, and

prEN 1993-1-8, Design of Steel Structures, solve the same problem of
concrete resistance when loaded by a steel plate. The limit of such
compression is defined by the breaking of the concrete under compression.
The relevant literature can be divided into to large categories. In the
publications referring to research works related to the stress status of steel
plates, most of which involve the use of prestressed anchors, and in the
studies that focus on flexible plates loaded by the prop cross-section and
bear the loads only through a part of the seating plate.
The experimental and analytical simulations include inter alia,
ratios of concrete strength to the surface of the seating plate, the relevant
depth of the concrete foundation, the identification of the seating plate
installation area on the foundation, and the impact of reinforcement. The
results of all such studies that relate to the breaking-through load and fully
loaded plates provide quality information regarding the foundation of the
prop base. The effects of failure are observed when an inverted stress
distribution pyramid is created under the plate. The concrete ultimate state
analysis application includes 3-D material behavior, plasticization and
breaking. Experimental studies [Shelson, 1957; Hawkins, 1968, DeWoLf,
1978] led to the development of a suitable model for the stresses occurring
at the prop bases, which has been adopted by the current standards.
Moreover, it is required to perform a separate check of the concrete
foundation under shearing, breaking-through and bending according to the
final geometry of the prop base and all construction details.
The impact of the flexible plate has been solved by introducing an
equivalent solid seating plate [StockweLL, 1975], [Baniotopoulos, 1994].
This assumption corresponds to the actual non-uniform distribution of
stresses where the max values follow the shape of the prop cross-section.
The realistic behavior of this model has been recently confirmed by
experiments. 50 experiments in total have been carried out in order to
investigate the concrete strength [DeWolf, 1978, Hawkins, 1968a]. In these
experiments, the variants were the size of the concrete foundation, the size
and the thickness of the seating plate. The test samples consisted of
concrete cubes 150 to 330 mm, which were subjected to centric
compression by a steel plate. Below we present the relation between the
flexibility of the seating plate, which is expressed as the ratio of its
thickness to the distance from its edge, and the corresponding bearing
resistance. The bearing capacity of the test samples at failure varies from
1.4 to 2.5 times the capacity as calculated according to prEN 1993-1-8,

with an average value of 1.75.
This simple and practical model has been modified and has been
checked by experiments [BijLaard, 1982], [Murray, 1983]. It was also
established [DeWolf, SarisLey, 1980], [Wald, 1995], that the stress rises as
the eccentricity of the regular force increases. In the case where the
distance from the edge of the plate to the edge of the foundation is
constant and the eccentricity of the load increases, the contact surface
decreases and at the same time the stress also increases. Moreover, in
case of breaking of the concrete surface under the fixed edge, the problem
must be addressed theoretically, and this defines the limits of the practical
implementation of this method [Ivanyi, Baniotopoulos, 2000]. Figure 7.5
shows the impact of the concrete strength. From the comprehensive
research program of Hawkins, 16 experiments with similar geometry and
material properties were selected and are presented here [Hawkins,
1968a]; in these experiments the concrete strength was selected as the
only parameter (the strengths used were 19.31 and 42 Mpa).
Results of calculations
Results of experiments
Figure 7.5 Relation between bearing resistance and prop base flexibility
according to analytical formulae and experiments
Figure 7.6 Relation between concrete strength - bearing capacity under ultimate load
7.1.5 Accumulation of stresses under the prop base
The mortar and concrete foundation resistance under compression

has breaking under the seating plate as a limit. In the simulations used, the
flexible seating plate has been replaced by an equivalent solid plate. The
equivalent plate is defined by the cross-section of the prop increased by a
strip with effective width c [prEN 1993-1-8]. The bearing resistance of the
foundation corresponds to a 3-D concrete stressing status. In this case, the
strength measured during the experiments was approximately 6.25 times
higher than the resistance of the concrete under compression. The
calculation of the bearing strength of the concrete fj is given in prEN 1993-
1-8 as a function of the accumulation factor kj, with a max value of 5.0 for a
square seating plate. The bearing resistance of the seating plate Fc,Rd is
calculated by the following formulae:
The effective surface Aeff is shown in fig. 7.7. The mortar quality
and thickness are introduced into the calculations through the node
coefficient βj. For a βj=2/3, it is expected that the rated strength fck,g of the
mortar shall not be less than 0.2 times the rated strength of the concrete
foundation fck (fck,g < 0,2 fck) and the mortar thickness is tg< 0.2 min (a, b).
In the case of lower quality or larger thickness of the mortar layer, the latter
must be checked separately. This check must be carried out in the same
manner as the check for the concrete foundation strength.
Only pivotal
action
Effective surface around
the cross-section
Combination Effective surface around

of pivotal force the compressed
and torque cross-section area
Pl. Neut. Axis
Only bending Effective surface around

torque the compressed
cross-section area
Pl. Neut. Axis
Figure 7.7 Dimensions of concrete foundation and effective surface of the flexible seating plate
7.1.6 Effective length of the Short-T base plate
The effective length of a short-T under tensioning is affected by the

failure mechanism of the short-T. Short-Ts at a prop base are similar to the
short-Ts at the beam-prop connections, but their failure mechanism may be
different. This is due to the large anchor lengths and the large thicknesses
of the seating plates in comparison to the beam-prop connection plates.
The failure mechanism usually results due to detachment of the short-T
from the foundation, so no lever forces are produced. The resistance of the
short-T when not in contact with the concrete is:
where is the plastic bending torque of the base per unit of length. The
relation between failure mechanism 1, which corresponds to the beam-prop
connection, and the short-T failure mechanism when in contact is shown in
figure 7.9.
Figure 7.8 Short-T with no contact with the foundation

Figure 7.9 Failure mechanism 1 for short-T at a prop base
The limit between failure mechanisms with or without contact can

be calculated using the analysis of the elastic deformations of the short-T,
and it can be expressed in various manners, e.g. as the ultimate length of a
bolt Lb,lim. For bolts longer than Lb,lim, neither contact effects nor lever
actions are observed. That limit is:
where As is the surface area of the bolt cross-section and Lb is the free
length of the anchor. For bolts encased in the concrete foundation, the Lb
may be considered as equal to the length above the concrete surface Lbf,
and the effective length of the encased section is estimated to be Lbe = 8 d,
so Lb = Lbf + Lbe [Wald,1999].
Figure 7.10 Free length of anchors encased in the concrete foundation

The effective lengths of a short-T at a prop base are summarized

below.
Figure 7.11 Dimensions of the prop base
Bolts not used at the prop feet
where lever forces appear where no lever forces appear
Bolts in the prop feet
Table 7.12 Effective lengths of short-T at a prop base

7.1.7 Slip coefficient between steel and concrete
The friction coefficient between the seating plate and the ground is
provided in prEN 1993-1-8, paragraph 6.2.1.2. A value equal to Cf,d= 0.20 is
used for cement-sand mortars, and a value Cf,d= 0.30 is used for special
mortars.
According to the CEB Guide [CEB, 1997], a value equal to 0.4 shall be
used when a 3 mm thin layer of mortar is used. In such a case, a partial
safety coefficient equal to gMf = 1.5 must be used.
It must be noted that the friction coefficient acts, obviously, in favor of
loading of the anchors due to the shearing force, so it must be considered
as zero in favor of safety; thus we assume a smooth interface between the
seating plate and the cement mortar.
7.1.8 Transfer of shearing forces through anchors
The horizontal shearing force can be received through friction, from

the seating plate, the mortar and the foundation, through shearing and
bending of the anchors, through a shearing element bonded under the
seating plate or through direct contact of the seating plate with the
foundation. In most cases, the shearing force is received through friction
occurring between the seating plate and mortar. Friction is a function of the
minimum compressive load and friction coefficient. Prestressing of the
anchors leads to an increase of the resistance against the shearing force
through friction. In cases where the horizontal shearing force cannot be
received through friction due to the lack of a regular (vertical) force,
provisions shall be made for the installation of elements suitable for
receiving it (e.g. perforating nails).
Figure 7.13 Transfer of horizontal perforating forces at the prop base through
a) friction from the seating plate, mortar and foundation
b) shearing and bending of the anchors
c) shearing element bonded under the seating plate
d) direct contact of the seating plate with the foundation
The transfer of shearing forces through anchors has been widely

implemented in the USA for many years [DeWoLf, Ricker 1990]. In case
the holes, which are designed in a manner that ensures sufficient
tolerances, are larger than the required size, they must be stabilized by a
stabilization ring or by injecting resin in the anchor hole. Additionally, a
conservative method is presented in [CEB, 1997]. According to this
method, the anchors behave as cantilever beams with length equal to the
mortar thickness increased by 0.5 d. Provided that the rotation of the
anchor head is limited by the prop base, the opening is reduced to L/2.
Figure 7.14 Anchor subjected to bending according to CEB
In the model used for prediction of the design strength of the

connection, as described in prEN1993-l-8, it is considered that the anchors
shall be deformed whenever a tensioning force is applied on the anchor
and a compressive force is applied on the mortar. That prediction is based
on experimental and analytical work carried out by Bouwman [Bouwman et
al., 1989]. The design methodology is simplified at the practical
implementations only by checking the shearing force and by limiting the

ultimate conditions.
Tensile strength
Reduced tensile strength
Shearing and bending strength
Figure 7.15 Anchor behavior under shearing

a) symbols, b) forces, c) force-deformation diagram
7.1.9 Transfer of shearing forces through friction and anchors
The resistance simulation used in prEN 1993-1-8, paragraph

6.2.1.2, is based on the assumption that the anchors loaded by a shearing
force bend, so eventually tensioning is developed on them. The bending
resistance of the anchors is relatively low, so plastic joints are created.
This activates task-related hardening effects on the ductile material of the
anchor. In order to transfer shearing only the anchors at the compressed
area of the plate can be used. In this case, the shearing resistance consists
of a friction resistance at the seating plate - concrete interface and of a
reduced tensile resistance of the bolts, that is:
The resistance of the bolts against intrados compression at the seating

plate and concrete must be checked separately.
Resistance to friction
Figure 7.16 Resistance to friction and tensioning on anchors

7.1.10 Bolt anchoring rules
7.1.10.1 Theoretical data
The rules of Table 3.2, prEN 1993-1-8, regarding the resistance of

bolts against tensioning may be used for all steel qualities and for the
anchors. The anchor force NEd must satisfy the formula:
where As is the net anchor cross-section, fub its ultimate strength, YMb the
partial safety coefficient, and Bb the reduction factor for the reduced cross-
section at the thread (the value Bb = 0.85 may be used).
Figure 7.17 Types of anchors
The various types of anchors are shown in figure 7.17. In the case
of high bending torques, it is possible to use anchors welded in groups as a
mesh, but such a solution is costly. Models for calculation of the design
resistance are proposed in the CEB Guide [CEB, 1997] and they are based
on research carried out by Eligehausen [Eligehausen 1990]. In these
models, the following failure mechanisms must be checked:
• Steel failure:
• Extraction:
• Concrete failure:
• Failure due to concrete breaking:
Similar checks are required in the case of grouped bolts.
Figure 7.18 Geometry of on-the-spot injected anchor with head
The calculation of the design resistance of an anchor includes the following

parameters:
The extraction resistance is:
where for non-cracked concrete: pk = 11fck and Ah is the bearing surface of

its head; for circular and square heads:
The concrete resistance is:
where
is the rated resistance of an anchor. Fro non-cracked concrete we can use

coefficient k1 = 11 (N/mm)0,5. The impact of the distribution geometry
(interval) of anchors ρ and the distance form the edges e are included in
the cone surface, see fig. 7.19.
Figure 7.19 Concrete cone at a) an individual anchor, b) a group of anchors,

c) an individual anchor at the edge
Consecutively the following apply:
As concrete cone width we can use the value pcrN = 3.0hef. The disruption to
the distribution of concrete stresses may be taken into account by
introducing coefficient:
Parameter Ψec,N is introduced in order to take into account the impact of a

group of anchors, and is used for small encasing depths (hef < 100 mm).
The resistance increases for anchors in non-cracked concrete through
parameter:
Failure due to tearing for on-the-spot constructed anchors can be avoided,

provided that the concrete is reinforced and the configuration of the
anchors is dense. The distances of the anchors shall not exceed:
and the distance from the edge shall not be greater than:
The height of the concrete foundation shall not be less than:
where c0 is the required overlapping of the shoe reinforcement.
7.1.10.2 Check for bending of anchoring bodies
In case anchors with nuts or retention plate are being used, a

check for bending is also required. From tables for square plates and pro-
safety circular plates, the following applies:
where
with hρ equal to the thickness of the retention plate and b = 1.

If the above check is not successful, the thickness of the retention plate or
nut must be increased.
7.1.11 Impact of the biaxial nature of loading to the connection

analysis procedure according to EC3
As is known, part 1.8 of EC3 does not provide details for dealing
with the biaxial bending at metal element foundations; on the other hand it
provides a summary of the fundamental principles for calculation of the
connection of a prop to be founded, which is stressed by an axial force and
a bending torque around its strong axis.
So, in a completely similar manner with the connection torque for a
prop beam with front plate, we also propose the components method for
the seating connection of a prop; on the basis of this method, as mentioned
in chapter 7.2.6, the strength under torque is determined by the ultimate
strength loads of each critical mechanism that may be realized.
Obviously, the critical mechanisms are directly related to the type
of loading and it is difficult for any one of them to be reduced to generalized
stress conditions using the instructions of the current version of EC.
For example, suppose that we have a prop base stressed by a torque
around its strong axis.
Basic connection components according to

EC3:
tensioning compression
1. Prop body under tensioning
2. Prop footing and body under compression
3. Seating plate with anchors under bending
4. Concrete under compression
Plastic neutral axis
Figure 7.23 Strength of basic connection components according to part 1.8 of EC3,
for bending around the strong axis
The basic components proposed are, in this case, related to the

single-axis character of the connection. The components that are also
related to tensioned elements, are characterized by an effective length of
an equivalent short-T, which is considered to simulate the behavior of the
connection. This length, in turn, relates to the arrangement of the bolts and
takes into account any interactions between the rows of bolts for the
realized failure type.
In the case of biaxial loading, with the neutral axis at random slope,
intersecting the cross-section at random points, the term 'row of bolts' has
no meaning; moreover, one of the mentioned components may be
intersected by the plastic neutral axis, which makes non-valid certain
checks, such as the check for 'prop body under tensioning' since, for
example, the prop body may be tensioned partially, fully, or not at all.
The same stands for the mechanism checking the 'prop footing and
body under compression'.
Thus we notice an inability of the EC to cover special cases, such
as the biaxial stress case as discussed here, and this is attributed to the
fact that EC is still in a premature stage.
As mentioned above, the basic

components of the node, as
proposed by EC3, are not valid
in such a generalized loading.
Figure 7.24 Biaxial loading of prop under compression
7.1.12 Assumptions in order to eliminate the difficulties arising due

to the fact that EC3 does not provide instructions for biaxial
loading
It is understandable that due to the above difficulties, certain

assumptions must be adopted for analyzing the connection in order to
adjust the provisions of EC3 in the case of bending around the two main
axii of the prop. We must note that it is necessary to perform experimental
procedures, and to carry out a detailed simulation of the node under the
acting stress quantities in order to confirm such assumptions.
Initially, we must consider the node components relating to the
geometry of the prop as non-critical, so that they do not contribute to the
calculation of the strength torque of the node according to the components
method. Using this assumption, no checks of the prop body under
tensioning and footing body under compression are required. These
concepts, as mentioned in the previous chapter, are valid mainly for
bending around the strong axis.
From the above, we can deduct that the strength of the tensioned
side of the node shall be determined only by the strength of the seating
plate together with the anchors, against bending. Correspondingly, the
strength of the compressed side of the node shall be determined only by
the compression strength of the concrete.
7.1.12.1 Strength of the tensioned side of the node
In the case of random loading of the seating node, the neutral axis
has random slope and it also intersects the cross-section at random points.
Figure 7.25 Case of loading of a prop cross-section under compression and biaxial bending
To deal with this general case, we create a number of short-Ts

(with half the strength of the corresponding short-T) equal to the number of
tensioned anchors. Each anchor that lies outside the footing of the prop
cross-section is considered as creating a short-T with the seating plate,
with width equal to its distance from the footing. Correspondingly, each
tensioned anchor inside the feet creates a short-T with the body of the
cross-section. The procedure to be followed is shown in fig. 7.25. Note also
that the anchors outside the cross-section footing, which are also not inside
the footing width, are not taken into account for the calculation of the
strength torque. These are considered as receiving only a shearing force,
and this is a pro-safety assumption.
tensioning
compression
Figure 7.26 Short-Ts formed at the tensioned area of the node

Thus the plastic forces of the anchors are independent of the loading and,
consequently, of the position of the plastic neutral axis. In this phase of the
calculation, the abovementioned assumption is of course involved, since
we do not take into account any interactions between the anchor failure
types, which normally are taken into account by considering the bolts as
members of a group. Moreover, it is easy to calculate the torques around
the strong and weak axii of the prop, which are created due to the tensile
forces on the anchors.
When using this method for calculation of the anchor strength
under tensioning together with the seating plate under bending, we also
make another simplifying assumption regarding the formation of the short-
Ts. These should be perpendicular to the plastic neutral axis, i.e.
perpendicular to the direction of the resultant bending torque. This usually
leads to more adverse results, since the bolts move away from the footing
of the equivalent short-T, and thus their tensile strength decreases.
tensioning
compression
Figure 7.27 A more rational consideration of the short-Ts of the bolts,

perpendicular to the direction of the resultant acting torque
Finally, in favor of safety, any reinforcing plates either at the strong

or at the weak axis of the prop are not considered as reinforcement of the
tensioned area, so they do not contribute to the tensile strength of the
anchors. The reinforcing plates might otherwise be considered as
reinforcing webbings of the tensioned zone, and in such a case the
effective length of equivalent short-Ts would increase, resulting in a higher
plastic strength.
7.1.12.2 Strength of the compressed side of the node
The strength of the compressed side of the node is determined

only by the compression strength of the concrete. As effective we consider
only the area under the compressed elements of the node and at a
distance equal to c around them, while as compressed elements we can
consider the feet and bodies, or their reinforcing plates, which are under
compression. There, according to EC3, we consider as constant and equal
to fr the distribution of stresses at the failure state. So, we have to calculate
the compressed surface area in order to find the compression force, as well
as the center of gravity of that area in order to determine the lever arm
during the assessment of the strength torque.
The process involves strenuous calculations due to generality
regarding the position and slope of the neutral axis. Initially, we form all
candidate effective compressed areas, i.e. under each compressed body,
footing, and reinforcing plate an orthogonal area is formed and projects by
a distance equal to c at both sides of the element.
tensioning
compression
Figure 7.28 Effective foundation area around the compressed elements.

The stress under this area is has constant distribution with value fj.
Figure 7.29 Effective area of a compressed element at distance c on both sides

Figure 7.31 Compressed areas under a footing and body with double-T cross-section
Similarly for the compressed reinforcing plates.

After fully topologically defining the compressed area, we must
calculate some inertial characteristics of this area in order to finally derive
the plastic compression strength and the point where this force is applied.
These shall be calculated in relation to the center of the prop, against which
the intersection points of the compressed areas and the neutral axis will
have already been calculated. The calculation is carried out as follows:
where p = y, ζ and q = y, ζ and n is the number of corners of the examined

effective area, and A, Αp, Apq, Appq are the moments of inertia of the first,
second and third order towards ρ, q.
Figure 7.32 Definition of positive direction (counter-clockwise)

for numbering of corners in an effective area
After completing the above procedure for all compressed effective

areas and after increasing each inertial quantity by the value that
corresponds to the current area, we derive as a sum the moments of inertia
of the 0, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd order for the overall compressed zone. The
important ones are the moment of zero order, which is equal to the surface
area, and the moments of the 1st order towards y and z for identification of
the position of the center of gravity.
Indeed, towards a random coordinate system y, z, the position of the center
of gravity of a closed flat surface section is provided by the formulae:
So we have determined the position of the resultant compressive force, and

the center of gravity. The compressive force applied to the concrete shall
be:
where fj is the characteristic compression strength of the node, which is

also a function of the concrete quality and placement of the prop on the
shoe.
7.1.12.3 Total connection strength
tensioned bolt i
compressed bolt, ignored

Plastic neutral axis during the calculation
of the strength torque
Figure 7.33 Coordinate system and position of the center of gravity of a compressed area
The total stress condition at the center of the prop shall be derived from the
equilibrium of forces towards axis x, and torques around axis y and z.
Finally, the quantities are derived as follows:
Axial strength (compressive force positive):
where Fc and IFb, are the force at the compressed area and the total tensile
strength respectively, exactly as they were calculated in the two previous
paragraphs.
Strength torque around the strong axis:
Strength torque around the weak axis:
7.1.12.4 Necessity of employing interaction diagrams
It must be noted that the method described above for the

calculation for the connection strengths involves ultimate plastic strengths;
both the anchors and the concrete shall be stressed by their max strength
forces. Direct consequence of the above is the inability to find the exact
stress status of a compressed and tensioned zone, since the values of the
action torques and axial force do not affect the calculation process. The
above strength calculation formulae have a compound form and a simple
comparison of the actions with the corresponding strengths is not enough
to ensure static adequacy. Instead, due to the interaction of these
quantities (regular quantities), we must draw interaction diagrams for
torques and axial forces; then, the adequacy of the connection shall be
ensured provided that the loading lies within the diagram.
final position
of plastic neutral axis
tensioning
initial position
of plastic neutral axis
Figure 7.34 Initial position, final position, and slope of the plastic neutral axis
Figure 7.34 shows the process of successive placement of the

neutral axis so that it passes through the whole cross-section. For each
position we follow the described procedure in order to calculate the
strengths, and derive a vector for the interaction diagram [NRd, MyRd, MzRd]T.
The neutral axis is supposed to follow the elastic slope, i.e. the quotient of
the two bending torques acting on the cross-section. Nevertheless, after

deriving the equilibrium equations for the deformed state, this slope may
change, and this is a non-linear phenomenon. But due to the high
sturdiness of the typically configured seating nodes, this slope is limited to
minimum values (less than 45°), so it can be ignored.
7.1.12.5 Calculation of pivotal rigidity
In this paragraph we shall describe the basic instructions of EC3 for

the calculation of the pivotal rigidity at prop seating connections, and we
shall attempt to modify them in order to be applicable in this case of biaxial
stress.
EC suggests the procedure shown in the table below for the
calculation of pivotal rigidity Sr
Loading Lever arm z Pivotal rigidity Sj,ini

Left side under and
and
tensioning
Right side under
compression where
Left side under και and

tensioning
Right side under
tensioning where
Loading Lever arm z Pivotal rigidity Sj,ini

compression
Right side under
tensioning where

compression
Right side under
compression where
MEd > 0 is clockwise, NEd > 0 is tensioning, for μ. See 6.3.1(6)
Table 7.1 Calculation of pivotal rigidity at prop bases according to EC3
We must also note the following coefficients:
kT,l is the rigidity coefficient under tensioning of the left side of the
node, and it must be taken as equal to the sum of rigidity
coefficients k15 and k16 in relation to the left side of the node
kT,r is the rigidity coefficient under tensioning of the right side of

the node, and it must be taken as equal to the sum of rigidity
coefficients k15 and k16 in relation to the right side of the node
kC,l is the rigidity coefficient under compression of the left side of

the node, and it must be taken as equal to the rigidity
coefficient k13 in relation to the left side of the node
KC,r is the rigidity coefficient under compression of the right side of

the node, and it must be taken as equal to the rigidity
coefficient k13 in relation to the right side of the node
Finally, distances z are defined as follows:
a) Connection of prop base in the case b) Connection of prop base in the case
of prevailing axial compressive force of prevailing axial tensile force
c) Connection of prop base in the case d) Connection of prop base in the case
of prevailing bending torque of prevailing bending torque
Table 7.2 Definition of distances z
It is obvious that the previous formulae must be modified and

generalized for the case of bending around the two main prop axis. The
total connection rigidity shall be equal to the sum of the rigidities of the
tensioned and compressed zone. So we must find the rigidities at these two
zones, and the corresponding lever arms z. In favor of safety we assume
that the components of the node related to the tensioned prop body and the
compressed body and footing do not contribute to its pivotal rigidity. As a
result, the node is considered more flexible, and this is a more adverse
case.
As regards the tensioned zone, the rigidity shall be derived as a

sum of coefficients k15 and k16, which, according to EC3, are defined as
follows:
, when contact forces develop, (7.52)
, when no contact forces develop, (7.53)
, when contact forces develop, (7.54)
και , when no contact forces develop. (7.55)
So for each tensioned anchor we calculate coefficients k15 and k16,

following the calculation of the corresponding effective length of the
equivalent short-T ?eff per bolt, and the geometrical distance m. Then we
add these two coefficients for all tensioned anchors. As regards the
calculation of the lever arm for the tensioned zone, it is considered to be
identical to the distance between the center of gravity of all tensioned
anchors and the neutral axis, and this is an assumption in favor of safety,
since usually the lever arm starts from the row of bolts that has the higher
distance from the neutral axis.
tensioning
compression
center of gravity
of the tensioned
anchor polygon
Figure 7.35 The lever arm of the tensioned zone is considered as equal to the distance of the
center of gravity of the tensioned anchor polygon from the neutral axis
For the compressed area of the node, the formula provided by EC3 is
and it is modified as follows

where Aeff is the effective surface of the compressed cross-section. The
lever arm of this zone is equal to the distance of the center of gravity of the
compressed area from the neutral axis, as shown in fig. 7.35.
tensioning
compression
center of gravity
of the compressed area
Figure 7.36 The lever arm of the tensioned zone is considered as equal to the distance
of the center of gravity of the effective compressed area from the neutral axis
It must be noted that if only compression or only tensioning is

applied at the cross-section, then we must ignore each corresponding
rigidity coefficient from those mentioned above. Finally, in order to calculate
the rigidity, we perform a calculation according to Table 7.2, but we use the
values of zc, zT, k13, k14, κ15 that were calculated in this paragraph.
We select a prop with double-T cross-section, type ΗΕΒ 300, which

is welded on the seating plate, whose dimensions are 700/400/25, using 6
mm thick outer seams at the footing and body. We also place reinforcing
plates on the strong axis of the prop; their dimensions are 700/450/15, and
they are welded using 5 mm thick horizontal outer seams at the seating
plate and 8 mm thick vertical outer seams at the prop footing.
The anchors used are type Μ24/7.8, high coherence. The type of steel for
all connection media is S235. The anchoring method and length shall be
selected on the basis of calculations, so they are not defined beforehand.
The shoe dimensions are 2500/2000/1500 and its concrete quality is
C20/25. Finally, we use a 40 mm thick layer of cement grout under the
whole surface of the seating plate, whose quality is the same as the shoe
concrete. As presented in the following figures, we have deliberately
selected a geometrical eccentricity both between the shoe and seating
plate, and between the plate and prop in order to show the complete
calculation path for a general geometry case. The stress quantities acting
on the prop at the footing area are:
• Torque around its strong axis My,Ed= 250 kNm

• Torque around its weak axis Mz,Ed= 80 kNm
• Axial compressive load ΝEd= 1200 kN
• Shearing force along axis z Vz,Ed = 280 kN
• Shearing force along axis y Vy,Ed = 150 kN
It must be reminded that all dimensions are in millimeters, unless

specified otherwise.
Figure 7.37 Plan view of foundation node and sign of positive bending torques
Figure 7.38 Side view of the connection

Figure 7.39 Front view of the connection
Figure 7.40 Detail of anchor placement on the seating plate

7.2.1.1 Check of Anchor Distances
For the anchors on the seating plate we have:
7.2.1.2 Check of cement grout thickness
Regarding the cement grout thickness, according to paragraph 6.2.5 (7) of

prEN 1993-1-8, we have:
Moreover, for the rated strengths of the cement grout and shoe concrete
respectively, we have:
7.2.1.3 Check of Weldings
Regarding the welding thicknesses, the checks are as follows:

• Between seating plate and prop body:
• Between seating plate and prop footing:
• Between prop footing and reinforcing plate:
• Between seating plate and reinforcing plate:

7.2.2 Connection calculation
7.2.2.1 Finding the basic node parameters
For the distances between the cheeks of the seating plate and shoe we
have:
The corresponding effective surfaces of the shoe are:
The following applies:
so no decrement of surface A1,eff is required.
Coefficient bj is considered to be equal to 2/3 since the prerequisites of

paragraph 6.2.5 (7) (prEN 1993-1-8) are met.
Coefficient kj is calculated as follows:
Using formula 6.5 (prEN 1993-1-8) we get the value of coefficient c:
7.2.2.2 Starting and ending points for neutral axis shift within
the cross-section
We initially suppose that we have a coordinate system whose center lies at

the center of the seating plate.
Figure 7.41 Definition of coordinate system
The stress quantities shall become in this system:
The neutral axis shall have a slope that corresponds to the quotient of the
above two action torques, i.e.:
and shall be shifted in order to pass through the whole seating plate, as
shown in fig. 7.42.
shift direction
of the neutral axis
Figure 7.42 The neutral axis shall be successively shifted

in order to pass through the whole seating plate
The coordinates of points A and B are calculated to be equal to:
and
The neutral axis is shifted using a very small step, to ensure that the
resulting interaction diagram is sufficiently precise. In order to present the
calculation process, we shall consider an intermediate case for the neutral
axis, for which the strengths against torques around the two axii and
against an axial force shall be calculated. Thus we shall have a resulting
vector that lies on the interaction surface. In the same manner we calculate
the rest of its points.
7.2.2.3 Solving for the neutral axis at a specific point

of the cross-section
Let the plastic neutral axis be at the position shown in fig. 7.43. Its line
equation is:
y = -3.125x 130
tensioned area compressed area
neutral axis
Figure 7.43 The neutral axis intersects the body and footing of the prop,
as well as the two reinforcing plates
We observe that tensioning takes place a the left area of the node,
so the anchors identified by numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 in fig. 7.43 are
tensioned and contribute to the node torque strength.
7.2.2.3.1 Tensioned side of the node
7.2.2.3.1.1 Assessment of strength of each tensioned anchor
The strength of each tensioned anchor shall be calculated from the

formed short-Ts. As we have already mentioned, the anchors above the
footing form a short-L to the prop footing, and the anchors inside the feet
form a short-L to the body, as shown in figure 7.44.
Figure 7.44 Formed short-Ts for tensioned anchors
The strengths shall be derived from table 6.6 (prEN 1993-1-8).

For anchors 1 and 3, the procedure is as follows:
The effective length of the short-T for a bolt within the footing of the prop is
provided by:
From table 6.2, we shall calculate the plastic strength forces:
so contact forces may appear.

The final tensile strength shall be equal to:
The rigidity coefficient κ15 of the checked anchor shall be:
and k16 shall be
For anchor 2 we have:

The effective length of the short-T for a bolt outside the footing of the prop,
provided that it is not an edge bolt, is:

The rigidity coefficient k15 of the checked anchor shall be:
and k16 shall be
Anchor 4 lies within the prop feet, so its effective length shall be calculated
using the following formulae of table 6.6:
where m = 107.71 mm and α is calculated from table 6.11 for l1 = 0.57 and
l2 = 0.28, and is found to be equal to 6.00.

The rigidity coefficient k15 of the checked anchor shall be:
and k16 shall be
7.2.2.3.2 Compressed side of the node
We follow the method described in paragraph 7.1.12.2 to calculate

the surface area and the position of the center of gravity of the compressed
side of the node. It must be reminded that in this case the stress
distribution under ultimate failure condition is constant and equal to f,. The
center of gravity is found to be at point C (140, 23) using the coordinate
system of fig. 7.45. The compressed area is equal to Ac = 126792.61 mm2.
Thus the compressive force on the concrete shall be:
tensioned area
compressed area
neutral axis
Figure 7.45 Compressed effective area of the node
7.2.2.3.3 Node strength
For this particular position and slope of the neutral axis we get the
following stress values:
The axial strength is calculated as follows:
The torque around the strong axis of the prop due to the forces on anchors
and the compressive force on the concrete shall be:
Correspondingly, for the strength torque around the weak axis:

neutral axis
tensioned area
compressed area
Figure 7.46 Definition of coordinates xj, yi, xc, yc
This triad constitutes a column vector on the interaction surface.

Similarly, we shift the neutral axis so that it passes through the whole
surface of the seating plate in order to get the corresponding values of the
interaction diagram. The final picture shall be as follows:
Figure 7.47 Interaction diagram for axial torque around the strong axis
It is established that loading lies within the diagram, so adequacy is

ensured.
Similarly, the diagram for the axial force and torque around the weak axis
is:
Figure 7.48 Interaction diagram for axial torque around the weak axis
Loading lies again within the interaction diagram, so safety is also ensured
as regards bending around the weak axis.
7.2.2.3.4 Pivotal rigidity of node
The calculation of the pivotal rigidity shall be carried out for the
position of the neutral axis where the axial strength coincides with the
compressive action. According to the assumptions described in paragraph
7.1.12.5, the lever arm of the tensioned area is equal to the distance of the
center of gravity of the polygon of the tensioned bolts from the position of
the neutral axis.
neutral axis
tensioned area
compressed area
center
of compression
center of gravity of the

tensioned bolts polygon
Figure 7.49 Definition of lever arms of tensioned and compressed area
The resultant action torque shall be:

and the resultant strength torque shall be:
The relation
is met, so the connection lies within the elastic area and:
The rigidity of the tensioned area is calculated as the sum of rigidity

coefficients k15 and k16 for all tensioned bolts. It is found to be equal to:
Similarly, for the rigidity of the compressed area, according to table

6.1, we have:
where Aeff is the compressed area for the above position of the neutral axis.
According to table 6.12 we have:
It must be noted that this rigidity relates to bending around the

neutral axis and has nothing to do with the rigidity coefficients around axii y
and z. The rotation around the neutral axis shall be:
This rotation may be reduced to separate rotations around the two main
axii:
Where and λ is the direction coefficient of the neutral axis, i.e.:
7.2.2.4 Check of anchoring on the foundation
Anchoring shall be checked using the anchor that bears the highest
tensioning force, which, according to previous calculations, has been found
to be equal to Ft = 203.33 kΝ. It is supposed that high coherence anchors
have been used. The coherence point is derived from ΕΚΩΣ2000, and it is
found to be equal to 2.30 Μ Pa.
For straight-line anchoring:
For a typical value of reinforcement overlapping for shoes c = 100 mm, the
above value for the anchoring length is sufficient since:
So we select straight-line anchoring. If the above condition was not met, it

would be required to use another anchoring system.

Dimensioning of Metallic Conetctions EC 3

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Dimensioning of Metallic Conetctions EC 3

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Dimensioning of Metallic

Connections per EC3

Analysis reference and verification.

The software “EC-PRAXIS 3J” as well as all manuals pertaining

For further information and copies of this manual, please contact

Tel: 210 6630270-8

THIS PROGRAM CONSTITUTES A MOST PRACTICAL TOOL FOR THE

THE USERS SHOULD VERIFY THE PROGRAM RESULTS BY

1. Basic Calculation principles...................................................... 1

2.2.6. Tearing strength of connection plate segment

4.2.1. Clearance check

5.2.2. Beam cross-section checks at the restoration point

6.1.9.1. Feasibility of reinforcing strut footing

6.2.3.1.5. Rigidity coefficients for the forth tensioned bolt row.

7.1.8. Transfer of shearing forces through anchors

1.1. Force distribution on connecting means

1.1.1. Transfer of coplanar to bolting torque on bolts

In this chapter, we shall discuss the method employed to transfer a

1.1.1.1. Free Centre of Rotation

Fig. 1.1. Cluster of bolts loaded by coplanar torque.

In the event of slight deformations to bolted plates, a linear relation

Fig. 1.2. Determination of bolt forces

The algebraic relations of determining such forces are as follows:

Since bolting is undergoing true bending, then the equilibrium equations

Fig. 1.3 Determination of bolt forces on a free centre of rotation subject

As shown, the eccentric force F may be replaced by a flexural

In the previous sections, we assumed an elastic analysis for the

In such case, namely in a marginal failure condition, all bolts would

Fig. 1.4. Plastic force distribution on bolting due to torque

The distance of the momentary centre of rotation from the Gravity

Fig. 1.5 Force distribution on bolts

1.1.1.2. Forced centre of rotation

In the compression zone, the compressive force is transferred

For bolts of the same size:

Thick front slab Thin front slab

In case of thin front slabs, the differences in rigidity of the various

Forced centre Free centre

As regards a front slab of ordinary dimensions, it could be

If , then D=0. For D<0, there is no forced centre of rotation. From

(1.15) and (1.16) it results that if , then there is a forced centre of

rotation; whereas if , then there is a free centre of rotation.

1.2. Calculation of fillet weld strength.

In this section, we shall present the ground based on which the

Fig. 1.10. Fillet weld thickness

The strength of the designing may be calculated either by the

Fig. 1.11. Tensions on members to be welded and tensions of fillet weld.

The fillet weld tensions are calculated as follows:

The alternative method proposed by Eurocode 3 gives:

• For S235 steel

• For S355 steel

Since plastic analysis is employed for finding actions during

• For S235 steel

This requirement is also used on statically undetermined

instance, for steel S355 it may be taken:

• For S235 steel

Finally, it is worth to be pointed out that fillet weld thicknesses,

1.3. Determination of effective welding width between a plate and a

Supposing a strut footing on which a plate is welded. Since the

Fig. 1.12. Effective width of welding on a non reinforced footing.

21.3. Impact of the plate deformation ability on bolted connections.

Fig. 1.13. Short “T” and short “L” simulations

Supposing that the plate of Fig. 1.14 is welded to the footing of a

1. Plastic failure of the strut footing.

2. Creep – breakage of strut body.