READ RULES BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER Rules: This document is meant for everyone to study from from

so if you have someone who I havent added, add them. Also please read over the notes of the designated chapter before pasting in your own notes. Just add the parts of your notes that this outlines and key-points missed. Also paste them into the CORRECT CHAPTER. Source: http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/mckayworld8e/default.asp#t_4943 88____ READ RULES BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 1 Key Points I. Birth and Growth of the Mesopotamian Civilization (ca. 30002331 B.C.E.): History properly begins with the Neolithic period, during which nomadic peoples settled and supported themselves through systematic agriculture. As these early peoples adopted the settled life of agricultural towns, civilizationwhich meant law, government, economic growth, and religionbecame possible. By around 3000 B.C.E., the first urban-agricultural societies had emerged in Mesopotamia, the fertile land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. 1. A. The Invention of Writing and Intellectual Advances (ca. 30002331 B.C.E.): The most important of these early communities of farmers and city builders were the Sumerians of southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerians greatest achievement was their cuneiform writing system. 2. B. Sumerian Thought and Religion: Sumerians practiced medicine and had some knowledge of geometry and trigonometry. Religious beliefs were polytheistic. Sumerians also produced the first epic poem, Epic of Gilgamesh.

3. C. Sumerian Society: Sumerian society was a mixture of religious ritual, war, slavery, and individual freedom. 4. D. The Triumph of Babylon and the Spread of Mesopotamian Civilization (2331ca. 1595 B.C.E.): Sargon of Akkad created the first empire. This empire was conquered by the Babylonians, whose city, Babylon, dominated the trade on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Babylonians united Mesopotamia and gave the world one of its most important law codes, the Code of Hammurabi. This code tells us how Mesopotamian people lived: how husbands treated their wives, how society dealt with crime, how consumer protection evolved, and so forth. II. Egypt, the Land of the Pharaohs (31001200 B.C.E.): Egyptian society grew alongside the Nile River, which sheltered and isolated its people more effectively than the Tigris and Euphrates protected the peoples of Mesopotamia. 1. A. The God-King of Egypt: Egypt was first united into a single kingdom in about 3100 B.C.E. The focal point of all life in ancient Egypt was the pharaoh. His tomb, the pyramid, provided him with everything that he would need in the afterlife. 2. B. The Pharaohs People: Egyptian society was a curious mixture of freedom and constraint. Slavery existed, but ordinary people could rise to high positions if they possessed talent. 3. C. The Hyksos in Egypt (16401570 B.C.E.): The Hyksos migration brought Egypt into the Bronze Age, improving both agricultural and military tools. 4. D. The New Kingdom: Revival and Empire (15701075 B.C.E.): The pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty created the first Egyptian empire. This New Kingdom was a time of wealth and imperialism. Akhenaten and Nefertiti became monotheistsa short-lived departure from the popular polytheism of Egypt.

III. The Rise of the Hittites (ca. 1650ca. 1200 B.C.E.): The Hittites from Anatolia built their own empire. Their major technological contribution was the knowledge of iron working. They ended Egyptian expansion at the Battle of Kadesh. Both the Hittite and Egyptian empires suffered as a result of various invaders, the most famous of which were the Sea Peoples. 1. A. A Shattered Egypt and a Rising Phoenicia: After the fall of the Hittite Empire and the contraction of Egyptian might, less powerful peoples developed their own civilizations along the Mediterranean coast. Foremost among these peoples were the Phoenicians, who built a prosperous maritime commercial network. The Phoenicians also developed an alphabet based on one letter for one sound. IV. The Children of Israel (ca. 950538 B.C.E.): The Hebrews moved from Mesopotamia into Canaan and, after a period of enslavement in Egypt, established a homeland in Palestine. Their territory was expanded under King David, and King Solomon built the Temple of Jerusalem as home of the Ark of the Covenant. The nation divided into Israel (in the north) and Judah. Assyria defeated Israel, and in 587 B.C.E. the Babylonians defeated Judah, beginning the Babylonian Captivity. King Cyrus the Great of Persia allowed many exiles to return in 538 B.C.E. These exiles continued to practice their monotheistic beliefs, based on the law of Yahweh. 1. A. Daily Life in Israel: Fundamental to Jewish life was marriage and the nuclear family. First-born sons took their fathers places as the head of the family. Jews adopted settled agriculture and engaged in trade, entering the mainstream of Near Eastern life. Yet they always retained their unique religion and culture. V. Assyria, the Military Monarchy (859612 B.C.E.): In the ninth century B.C.E., the warlike Assyrians, with their capital at Nineveh, began a series of conquests that won them an empire stretching from the Persian Gulf, across the Fertile Crescent, to northern Egypt. Despite their brutality, the Assyrians owed their

success less to calculated terrorism than to efficient military organization. The Assyrian Empire fell to the Babylonians in 612 B.C.E. VI. The Empire of the Persian Kings (ca. 1000464 B.C.E.): The Persians gave the Near East both political unity and cultural diversity. 1. A. The Coming of the Medes and Persians: Medes and Persians, both Iranian peoples, settled in Media in the north and Persia in the south, respectively. 2. B. The Creation of the Persian Empire (550464 B.C.E.): The Persian Empire began in 550 B.C.E. with the first conquests of Cyrus the Great. The next two hundred years of Persian rule in the Near East were marked by efficient administration and respect for the diverse cultures of conquered states. 3. C. The Religion of Zoroaster: Out of this benevolent rule came an important new religion, Zoroastrianism, which gave to Western society the idea of individual choice in the struggle between goodness and evil. D. The Span of the Persian Empire: The empire eventually reached as far as India to the east and Asia Minor to the west. The Royal Road and other roads helped link the sections of this farflung empire. Glossary Ahuramazda: The chief Iranian god, who was the creator and benefactor of all living creatures; unlike Yahweh, he was not a lone god. Amon-Ra: An Egyptian god, consisting of Amon, a primeval skygod, and Ra, the sun-god. Baal: An ancient Semitic fertility god represented as a golden calf. Babylonian Captivity: A period of Jewish history between 586 and 537 BCE during which the political and spiritual leaders of the

Kingdom of Judah were deported to Babylon following the defeat of Judah by Nebuchadnezzer. Book of the Dead: An Egyptian book that preserved their ideas about death and the afterlife; it explains that after death, the soul leaves the body to become part of the divine. Bronze Age: The period in which the production and use of bronze implements became basic to society; bronze made farming more efficient and revolutionized warfare. clients: Free men and women who were dependent on the nobilityin return for their labor, they received small plots of land to work for themselves. cuneiform: The Sumerian form of writing (from the Latin term for wedge-shaped), used to describe the strokes of the stylus. Hyksos: Called Rulers of the Uplands by the Egyptians, these people began to settle in the Nile Delta shortly after 1800 B.C.E. Indo-European: Refers to a large family of languages that includes English, most of the languages of modern Europe, Greek, Latin, Persian, and Sanskrit, the sacred tongue of ancient India. law code: A proclamation issued by the Babylonian king Hammurabi to establish law and justice in the language of the land, thereby prompting the welfare of the people. It inflicted harsh punishments, but despite its severity, it is pervaded with a spirit of justice and a sense. of responsibility. monotheism: The belief in one god; when applied to Egypt, it mean.......s that only Aton among the traditional Egyptian deities was god. Near East: The region between the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Neolithic period: The period between 7000 and 3000 B.C.E. that serves as the dividing line between anthropology and history. The term itself refers to the new stone tools that came into use at this time. nobles: The top level of Sumerian society; it consisted of the king and his family, the chief priests, and high palace officials. nomads: Homeless independent people who lead roaming lives,

always in search of pasturage for their flocks. pharaoh: The leader of religious and political life in the Old Kingdom, he commanded the wealth, resources, and people of Egypt. Purple People: The Greek name for the Phoenicians, a culture that inhabited the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. So called because of the remarkable purple dye they produced from certain sea snails. pyramid: The burial place of a pharaoh; it was a massive tomb that contained all things needed for the afterlife. It also symbolized the kings power and his connection with the sun-god. Royal Road: The main highway created by the Persians; it spanned 1,677 miles from Greece to Iran. Sea Peoples: Invaders who destroyed the Egyptian empires in the late thirteenth century; they are otherwise unidentifiable because they went their own ways after their attacks on Egypt. Yahweh: A god, who in Medieval Latin became Jehovah, that appeared to Moses on Mount Sinai and made a covenant with the Hebrews. Zoroastrianism: The religion based on the teachings of Zoroaster, who emphasized the individuals responsibility to choose between good and evil. Though Zoroasters teachings often met with opposition, the Persian ruler Darius was a convert. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 2 Key Points I. The Harappan Civilization of the Indus Valley (ca. 3000 1500 B.C.E.): Indian civilization began in the Indus River region with the Harappan culture whose people constructed over 300 cities in an area twice the size of Egypt. Two of the best known of these were Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Supported by profits from agriculture, both were carefully planned and built through sophisticated construction techniques. Harappan decline was

internally generated. II. The Aryans and the Vedic Age (ca. 1500500 B.C.E.): Harappan culture was replaced by a new society established by the migrating, Sanskrit-speaking Aryans. While Harappan culture left extensive archeological traces, the Aryans left mainly literary evidence of their civilization, such the Rigveda. Led by their rajas and priests, the Aryan warrior tribes conquered the Ganges Valley, defeating the local people with iron weapons and horse-drawn chariots. 1. A. Early Indian Society, 1000500 B.C.E.: The four classes of Aryan society evolved into a caste system whereby the various strata (varna) became the Vaishya (merchant/artisan/landowner), the Shudra (peasant/laborer), Brahman (priest), and Kshatriya (warrior) castes. Added to this were slaves and the outcastes. Overall women in Aryan society held subordinate roles. 2. B. Brahmanism: The core of Aryan religion was sacrificial ritual to the gods. The Brahmans monopolized these rituals, and the Upanishads record the meaning of sacrificial rites and the evolution of a strong belief in selfdiscipline and ascetic self-denial. Brahmanical thinkers also developed the ideas of a lifelong accounting of good and bad deeds (karma) which determine reincarnation (samsara), a cycle of life and death in which each individual was responsible for the destiny of his or her own soul (atman). Escape from endless reincarnation and achievement of timeless bliss was possible through yoga and/ormoksha, the arrival at ultimate reality. III. Indias Great Religions: Renewed urban culture, centered in Magadha in the Ganges valley, encouraged the great intellectual revolution that produced Jainism and Buddhism. The Brahmanical religion evolved into a more devotional religion called Hinduism. 1. A. Jainism: Led by an order of monks, Jainism held that all forms of matter, from humans to plants and rocks, have souls.

Asceticism, suffering, and non-violence can overcome karma and enable one to reach liberation. 2. B. Siddhartha Gautama and Buddhism: Buddhism denied the idea of the individual soul and offered a middle way between asceticism and a worldly life. This optimistic message was based on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Buddhas followers eventually wrote down his teachings and organized a form of monasticism that included (at first) begging and rituals, and an organization of Lay Buddhists. Buddhism declined in India after 1200 c.e. 3. C. Hinduism: Hinduism kept the priesthood from the Brahmanical tradition but allowed the individual to have direct contact with thousands of gods. Hinduism is based on sacred revelations in the Vedas, the caste system, and the quest for Brahma. The Bhagavad Gita is a central text for Hinduism. IV. India and the West (ca. 513298 B.C.E.): After 513 B.C.E., India became increasingly involved with events in the West. Persian conquests introduced new writing and governing techniques and joined India to expanding east-west trade routes. Alexander the Greats conquests brought western India into the Hellenistic world. V. The Mauryan Empire (ca. 322185 B.C.E.): Employing Persian and Greek ideas of government, Chandragupta built the Mauryan Empire, dividing it into provinces with tight central control. 1. A. The Reign of Ashoka (ca. 269232 B.C.E.): The Mauryan Empire was extended by Ashoka who, out of guilt over his bloody conquests, eventually embraced and promoted Buddhism. After his death India broke into smaller units. VI. Small States and Trading Networks (200 B.C.E.300 c.e.): Indian political unity was absent in the post-empire period, but the cultural unity that had developed earlier endured.

Glossary Aryans: The dominant people in North India after the decline of the Indus Valley civilization; they spoke an early form of Sanskrit. bodhisattvas: Buddhas-to-be who stayed in the world after enlightenment to help others on the path to salvation. brahman: The unchanging, ultimate reality, according to the Upanishads. Brahmans: Aryan priests who supported the growth of royal power in return for royal confirmation of their own religious rights, power, and status. caste system: The Indian system of dividing society into hereditary groups that limited interaction with each other, especially marriage to each other. Code of Manu: The codification of Indian law from the second or third century C.E.; it lays down family, caste, and commercial law. dharma: The moral law that Hindus observe in their quest for brahman. Eightfold Path: The code of conduct, set forth by the Buddha in his first sermon, which began with "right conduct" and eventually reached "right contemplation." Four Noble Truths: The Buddha's message that pain and suffering are inescapable parts of life; suffering and anxiety are caused by human desires and attachments; people can understand and triumph over these weaknesses; and the triumph is made possible by following a simple code of conduct. Harappan: The first Indian civilization; it is also known as the Indus Valley civilization. karma: The tally of good and bad deeds that determines the status of an individual's next life. Mahayana: A form of Buddhism that is known for being more inclusive; also called "Great Vehicle." moksha: Release from the wheel of life. nirvana: A state of blissful nothingness and freedom from

reincarnation. outcastes: People not belonging to a caste; they were often scorned and sometimes deemed "untouchable." raja: From an ancient Indo-European word meaning to rule, and related to the modern English royal, raja refers to an Aryan tribal chieftain who led his people into battle and governed them during peace-time Rigveda: The earliest collection of hymns, ritual texts, and philosophical treatises; it is the central source of information on early Aryans. samsara: The transmigration of souls by a continual process of rebirth. sutras: The written teachings of the Buddha, first transcribed in the second or first century B.C.E. varna: Another name for the strata, or four groups into which Indian society was divided under the caste system. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 3 Key Points I. The Emergence of Civilization in China: Relatively isolated within geographical barriers, Chinas early civilization developed with little contact with other cultures. 1. A. The Neolithic Age: During the Neolithic period, peoples living in environmentally distinctive zonesthe Yellow and Yangzi River Valleysmastered agriculture and ceramics production, built fortified towns, and developed a common set of funerary customs. 2. B. The Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500ca. 1050 B.C.E.): China entered the Bronze Age during the Shang Dynasty. Patrilineal warrior-kings ruled sharply-stratified societies. They also served as priests who led sacrifices to the gods and divined the wishes of dead ancestors. Shang civilization was urban, its cities encompassing an aristocratic and religious core

around which grew industrial and residential districts. Beyond these were farming settlements. The Shang practiced human sacrifice, and human remains compose some of the contents of the rich underground tombs. The Shang period saw the emergence of writing, the distinct logographic system that enabled centuries of cultural continuity, as well as communication with neighboring civilizations that adopted it. II. The Early Zhou Dynasty (ca. 1050500 B.C.E.): The frontier state called Zhou rose against the Shang in about 1050 B.C.E. 1. A. Zhou Politics: The Shang fell to the Zhou Dynasty, whose first rulers claimed that the 2. Mandate of Heaven had passed to them from the decadent Shang. The Zhou ruled an increasingly decentralized feudal kingdom that ultimately disintegrated into the independent Warring States. Each of these were more centralized than the Zhou kingdom, and for over a century they vied with each other for political hegemony. 3. B. Zhou Society: Zhou society was highly aristocratic. During this period distrust of women in politics grew, partly because of the practice of concubinage. Poems compiled in The Book of Songs offer insights into the daily life of the period. III. The Warring States Period (500221 B.C.E.): Despite political instability, the Warring States periods was a time of great technological and cultural achievement. Advances in military organization and technologysuch as the introduction of the crossbow and cavalryrevolutionized warfare, and the trend toward centralized bureaucracy fostered social mobility based on individual ability. IV. Confucius and His Followers: Confucius emphasized filial piety and gentlemanly conduct. His teachings minimized the importance of class distinction. The ultimate virtue was humanity. V. Daoism, Legalism, and Other Schools of Thought: Many of

the newer schools of thought developed in opposition to the teachings of Confucianism. 1. A. Daoism: Daoists focused on the whole natural order, which they called Dao, or The Way. Daoism celebrates passivity, yielding, spontaneity, and freedom. 2. B. Legalism: Legalists emphasized the need for rigorous laws and provided the foundation for Chinas later bureaucratic government. C. Yin and Yang: Yin and Yang are complementary poles, with Yin representing the weak, feminine, and dark, and Yang representing the strong, masculine, and bright. The concept is based on natural phenomena. Glossary Anyang: The best excavated settlement from the Shang Dynasty. Book of Documents: A written work describing the Zhou conquest of the Shang. Book of Songs: The earliest collection of Chinese poetry; it provides glimpses of what life was like in the early Zhou Dynasty. crossbow: A weapon developed during the Warring States Period that allowed foot soldiers to shoot farther than a horseman carrying a light bow. filial piety: Obedience of children toward their parents; it was extolled by Confucius. Legalists: Political theorists who emphasized the need for rigorous laws and laid the basis for China's later bureaucratic government. loess: The dominant soil in China; it is fertile and easy to work. logographic: A language in which each word is represented by a single symbol, such as the Chinese script. Mandate of Heaven: The theory that Heaven gives the king a mandate to rule only as long as he rules in the interests of the people. ren: The ultimate Confucian virtue; it is translated as perfect goodness, benevolence, humanity, human-heartedness, and

nobility. shi: The lower ranks of Chinese aristocracy; these men could serve in either military or civil capacities. taotie: A common image in Chinese bronzes; it is a stylized animal face. the Way: The Dao, the whole natural order. Warring States Period: The period of Chinese history between 403 and 221 BCE when states fought each other and one after another was destroyed until only one remained. yin and yang: A concept of complementary poles, one of which represents the feminine, dark, and receptive, and the other the masculine, bright, and assertive. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 4 Key Points I. Hellas: The Land and Its Earliest Settlers (ca. 3500ca. 800 B.C.E.): Geographically formidable yet open to the sea, the Greek environment encouraged the growth of small communities, relatively isolated from each other. At the beginning of the Hellenic period, the Bronze-Age Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations dominated Greece and interacted with other eastern Mediterranean civilizations through trade. The collapse of Mycenaean civilization led to a dark age during which Greeks began to migrate from their homeland, spreading Greek culture throughout the Aegean basin. II. The Polis (ca. 800 B.C.E.): Also during the Dark Age, the Greeks sucked cock as well as established the foundations of the polis, the fundamental Greek political and social unit. A flexible institution, it could accommodate many forms of government, including monarchy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. At the same time, though, it encouraged only the narrowest concept of citizenship and resisted larger political unions other than a loose, unstable federalism.

III. The Archaic Age (ca. 800500 B.C.E.): Overseas migration continued during the Archaic Period, which also saw the emergence of Athens and Sparta. 1. A. Overseas Expansion: Greeks migrated into areas bordering the Mediterranean Sea, including the coast of northern Africa, the Italian peninsula, the Black Sea region, and the northern Aegean. 2. B. The Growth of Sparta: Sparta developed a strong military ethos under the Lycurgan regimen, under which every citizen owed primary allegiance to Sparta. 3. C. The Evolution of Athens: The aristocratic dominance in Athens changed under the reforms of Solon. Athens later became a democracy under the leadership of Cleisthenes. The boule developed as the major institution. IV. The Classical Period (500338 B.C.E.): The Greek civilization reached its peak in politics, thought, and art during this period. 1. A. The Deadly Conflicts (499404 B.C.E.): Athens and Sparta formed the core of resistance to Persian expansion, defeating Persian armies on land and sea, though after these wars the two cities grew increasingly hostile. Athenian imperialism and Spartan opposition eventually exploded into the Peloponnesian War, after which a defeated Athens suffered under Spartan hegemony. 2. B. Athenian Arts in the Age of Pericles: The Classical Period also saw a great flowering of the arts, especially in Athens where Greek fascination with the human and rational found expression in the buildings on its acropolis. These values also informed the plays of the great tragic and comic dramatists, who used devices such as conflict and satire to explore human conduct and the values of the polis. 3. C. Aspects of Social Life in Athens: Daily life in this vibrant culture tended toward simplicity, with most men supporting themselves as craftsmen or farmers, or laborers who had to compete for work with slaves. Except in Sparta

where they played active, legally prescribed roles, women in Athens and elsewhere tended to occupy less active positions, lacking official status but playing important roles in shaping society. 4. D. Greek Religion: Religion of the period tended to emphasize ritual more than belief, having no organized creed or central ecclesiastical authority. 5. E. The Flowering of Philosophy: The signal achievement of the Greeks was philosophy that emphasized rational speculation rather than mythological thought. Such thought began to emerge among the Ionian Pre-Socratics who speculated on the structure of the universe. Classical philosophers carried this speculation into medicine (Hippocrates) and human society (the Sophists). Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle brought Greek philosophy to its highest point, posing questions on subjects ranging from ethics to politics to cosmology. 6. F. From Polis to Monarchy (404323 B.C.E.): Phillip II, king of Macedonia, and then his son Alexander united Greece. The conquests of Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic Period during which Greek language and urban culture spread throughout the ancient world. V. The Spread of Hellenism: Contact with other cultures led to Hellenistic culture, the blending of Hellenism and Near Eastern cultures. 1. A. Cities and Kingdoms: Monarchies replaced the polis as the chief political unit of society. But the cities served the monarchies as the administrative and cultural unit. 2. B. Building a Shared Society: Greeks and Easterners adapted much of what they encountered from the other, but they never developed a true fusion of cultures. VI. The Economic Scope of the Hellenistic World: New markets and increased trade resulted from the spread of Hellenistic culture.

VII. Hellenistic Intellectual Advances: Philosophy, science, and medicine saw great advances during the Hellenistic period. 1. A. Religion in the Hellenistic World: Many turned to Eastern mystery religions or one of the many philosophical schools that offered ways to deal with capricious chance. 2. B. Philosophy and the People: Epicureanism and Stoicism became popular philosophies. 3. C. Hellenistic Science: Scientists such as Aristarchus, Euclid, and Archimedes, made great advances in the sciences. D. Hellenistic Medicine: Medical advances were made in the areas of dissection, observation and cure of illnesses, and the use of drugs. Glossary acropolis: An elevated point within a city on which stood temples, altars, public monuments, and various dedications to the gods of the polis. aristocracy: A type of Greek government in which only the top members of society exercise authority. The word translates as power in the hands of the best. Delian League: A grand naval alliance, created by the Athenians and led by Aristides, aimed at liberating Ionia from Persian rule . deme: A local unit that served as the basic of Cleisthenes political system. democracy: A type of Greek government in which all citizens, without regard to birth or wealth, administered the workings of government. It is translated as the power of the people. Epicureanism: A Greek system of philosophy, founded on the teachings of Epicurus, which emphasized that a life of contentment, free from fear and suffering, was the greatest good. Great Silk Road: The name of the major route for the silk trade. heliocentric theory: The belief that the earth revolves around the sun.

hoplite: A heavily armed foot soldier that served as the backbone of the Greek army. koine: A common dialect of the Greek language that influenced the speech of peninsular Greece. monarchy: Derived from the Greek for the rule of one man, it was a type of Greek government in which a king represented the community. mystery religions: Any of several religious systems in the GrecoRoman world characterized by secret doctrines and rituals of initiation. natural law: The belief that the laws governing ethical behavior are written into nature itself, and therefore possesses universal validity oligarchy: The rule of a few, a type of Greek government in which a small group of wealthy citizens, not necessarily of aristocratic birth, ruled. polis: Generally translated as city-state, it is the basic political and institutional unit of Greece. sovereign: An independent, autonomous state run by its citizens, free of any outside power or restraint. Stoicism: The most popular of Hellenistic philosophies; it considers nature an expression of divine will, and holds that people can be happy only when living in accordance with nature. Tyche: The Greek goddess of luck, eventually identified with the Roman goddess Fortuna. tyranny: Rule by a tyrant, a man who used his wealth to gain a political following that could take over the existing government. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 5 Key Points I. The Etruscans and Rome (ca.750290 B.C.E.): Etruscans and Romans entered the Italian peninsula at about the same period. 1. A. The Etruscans and the Roman Settlement of Italy (ca.750509 B.C.E.): According to legend, Rome was

founded by the brothers Romulus and Remus. Etruscan kings ruled until 509 B.C.E. 2. B. The Roman Conquest of Italy (509290 B.C.E.): In 509 B.C.E., Rome threw off Etruscan rule and proclaimed itself a republic. The Romans built strong military and political institutions. After recovering from Gaulish invasions, Rome began a campaign of conquest. Through military force and diplomatic acumen Rome absorbed Italy, ensuring the stability of the growing state by offering citizenship to allied and conquered peoples. II. The Roman Republic: The Senate was the dominant political institution. Society was divided between patricians and plebeians. 1. A. Social Conflict in Rome: The early Republic experienced internal unrest as plebeians struggled with patricians for the right to participate in the processes of government. From this conflict emerged the written laws that formed the basis of Roman legal universalism; institutions that protected plebian rights; and, after the Struggle of the Orders, a new, more inclusive concept of citizenship. III. Roman Expansion and Its Repercussions (28227 B.C.E.): Expansion led to power and wealth but also caused social unrest. 1. A. The Age of Overseas Conquest (28245 B.C.E.): A conflict in southern Italy led to foreign involvement, first in Sicily and then in North Africa, during the Punic wars between Rome and Carthage. 2. B. Old Values and Greek Culture: Military victory brought economic, political, and social changes, including a new reliance on slavery and, to the dismay of Roman traditionalists, the absorption of Greek culture. 3. C. The Late Republic (13331 B.C.E.): Further, the powerful armies became the tools of ambitious men bent on ruling the Republic themselves. The struggles among them culminated during the Late Republic with the rise and murder of Julius Caesar. After the subsequent civil war the Republic

fell in all but name, and in its place rose the imperial state of Caesars nephew Octavian (later called Augustus). IV. The Pax Romana: Augustuss success in meeting the problems of reconstruction led to the Roman peace. 1. A. Augustuss Settlement (31 B.C.E.14 c.e.): When Augustus became the First Citizen of the State in 31 B.C.E., Rome began a new era of constitutional monarchy. 2. B. Administration and Expansion under Augustus: Rome expanded into northern and western Europe and as far east as the Danube River. V. The Coming of Christianity: Jesus of Nazareth lived, preached, and was executed in the Roman province of Judaea during the reign of Tiberius. 1. A. Unrest in Judaea: Violence and unrest associated with the civil wars spread to Judaea. The Jews were divided between two groups: the Zealots and those who believed that the coming of the Messiah was near. The Roman cultures mystery religions or paganism clashed with Jewish beliefs. 2. B. The Life and Teachings of Jesus: Jesus lived during this tumultuous period. The Gospels detail Jesus life and teachings. Jesus claimed to be the promised Messiah, and many Jews followed Jesus. Pontius Pilate condemned Jesus to death because of his (Pilates) desire to maintain peace and order. 3. C. The Spread of Christianity: The structure of the Roman Empire, coupled with the work of Paul of Tarsus and others, ensured the spread of Christian teachings. 4. D. The Appeal of Christianity: Christianity appealed to many people in part because of the emphasis on love, forgiveness, and salvation. VI. The Golden Age: Augustuss political success led to a golden age later in the first century. It was a time of growing cities and economic well-being. 1. A. Politics in the Empire: Rome continued to flourish through the Golden Age, aided by the rule of the five good

emperors. In order to gu ard the frontiers, the army changed from a mobile unit to a defensive force. 2. B. Life in the Golden Age: Romes population was 500,000750,000. The government provided food and entertainment. In the provinces, peace and security led to extensive prosperity. Trade increased, and industries grew. VII. Rome and the East: The Romans expanded into Central Asia bringing the Romans into contact with Iran and China. 1. A. Conflict and Commerce between Rome and Parthia: In the East, eventual Roman control of Parthia (Iran) allowed the Romans to take advantage of the sophisticated trade contacts Iran had established with China, Egypt, India, and other regions. 2. B. Contacts Between Rome and China: Maritime exploration led to trade with China, although Rome expressed no interest in learning more about China. VIII. The Empire from Crisis to Triumph (284337 c.e.): After the five good emperors, Rome entered a period of civil war and foreign invasion. 1. A. Reconstruction under Diocletian and Constantine (284 337 c.e.): Diocletian brought renewed stability through administrative reforms, permanently splitting the empire in two. Constantine worked to repair the damage. 2. B. Economic Hardship and Consequences: Diocletian and Constantine also faced major economic, social, and religious problems. The tax system affected social mobility and economic vitality, leading to the beginning of serfdom. 3. C. The Acceptance of Christianity: Diocletian persecuted Christians, but Constantine recognized it, and in the fourth century c.e., Christianity was made the official religion of Rome. 4. D. The Construction of Constantinople: At the site of Byzantium, Constantine built a new capital for the empire. E. From the Classical World to Late Antiquity: The empire was split between East and West, with the East remaining a world of

urbanism and empire. But the West was soon taken over by independent barbarian kingdoms. Yet the influence of Rome would continue to be felt. Glossary Eucharist: A Christian sacrament in which the death of Christ is communally remembered through a meal of bread and wine. First Triumvirate: A political alliance between Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey in which they agreed to advance one anothers interests. five good emperors: Five consecutive Roman emperors (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius) distinguished by their benevolence and moderation. Forum: A public area in the center of Rome which served as focal point of the political, spiritual, and economic life of the city. Franchise: The rights, privileges, and protections of citizenship. gladiators: Criminals and convicts who were sentenced to be slaughtered in the arena as public entertainment. Heresy: A non-orthodox religious practice or belief. ius civile (civil law): A law that consisted of statutes, customs, and forms of procedure. ius naturale (natural law): A universal law that could be applied to all societies. latifundia: Huge Roman estates created by buying up several small farms. manumission: The freeing of individual slaves by their masters. Messiah: The savior of Israel. Pagan: From a Latin term meaning of the country, used to describe followers of a folk religion. paterfamilias: A term that means far more than merely father, it indicates the oldest dominant male of the family, one who holds nearly absolute power over the lives of his family as long as he lives. patricians: The aristocracy, wealthy landowners who held political

power. Pax Romana: A period during the first and second centuries C.E. of security, order, harmony, flourishing culture, and expanding economy. plebeians: The common people of Rome, who had few of the patricians advantages. praetor: A new office created in 366 B.C.E.; these people would act in place of consuls when the consuls were away, although they primarily dealt with the administration of justice. Princeps Civitatis: A Latin term meaning First Citizen, used as an official title by the early Roman emperors, from Augustus through Diocletian. provinces: The rural colonies of the Roman civilization; they were often allowed to keep many of their local beliefs. senate: Originating under the Etruscans, a council of noble elders who advised the king. Struggle of the Orders: A great social conflict that developed between patricians and plebeians; the plebeians wanted real political representation and safeguards against patrician domination. Tetrarchy: A system by which four men ruled the empire. toga: The distinctive garment of Roman men, made of a long sash wrapped around the body. The wearing of the toga was forbidden to non-citizens. tribunes: The people whom plebeians were able to elect; tribunes would, in turn, protect the plebeians from the arbitrary conduct of patrician magistrates. Universalism: The belief that all human beings will ultimately be reconciled to God and achieve salvation. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I. The Age of Empire in China 1. A. The Qin Unification (256206 B.C.E.): In 221 B.C.E., the Chinese empire was established under the Qin dynasty, which lasted only until 206 B.C.E.

2. B. The Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.220 C.E.): The Han dynasty established a unified bureaucratic form of government backed up by a strong military that gained Chinese overlordship in areas of nomad invaders. Under the Han, a major expansion of territory took place. 3. C. Inner Asia and the Silk Road: Chinas products like silk and laquerware created demands for Chinese goods as far away as Rome. Emperor Wu established control over the trade routes across Central Asia, called the Silk Road. The tributary system was developed to regulate contact with foreign powers. 4. D. Han Intellectual and Cultural Life: A rediscovery of Confucianism, art, literature, and history writing were all components of a strong cultural component in the Han dynasty. 5. E. Economy and Society in Han China: City-dwellers enjoyed most of the prosperity of Han China. The bulk of the population consisted of peasants living in villages. Society was based on patrilineal lines. To fight peasant poverty, the government kept taxes low. 6. F. China and Rome: While Rome was building a huge empire, the Qin and Han rulers in China built an empire on a similar scale. Like the Roman Empire, it was put together through force of arms and held in place by sophisticated centralized administrative machinery. 7. G. The Fall of the Han and the Age of Division: Weaknesses in the Han dynastic system led to the decline of the empire and its final collapse in 220 c.e. During the subsequent Age of Division, China was split between north and south, ruled by non-Chinese and Chinese dynasties respectively. II. The Spread of Buddhism Out of India: During this period of political unrest, Buddhism spread beyond its home in India and came to provide a common set of ideas and visual images for the entire region, but it coexisted with other religions, including

Hinduism in India, Daoism in China, and Shinto in Japan. The forms of Buddhism that entered China, Japan, and Korea were called Mahayana, which means Great Vehicle, thus refers to its inclusive nature. Buddhism was popular among rulers because it offered a source of magical power and a political tool to unite Chinese and non-Chinese. To the masses, Buddhisms democratic nature was attractive. Chinese was widely used as an international language outside China and its empire. III. The Chinese Empire Re-created: Sui (581618) and Tang (618907): China was again unified under the Sui dynasty. The other achievements of this dynasty include strengthening the central government, laying the foundation of the civil service examination, and building the Grand Canal. 1. A. The Tang Dynasty (618907): An exhausted Sui dynasty fell to Li Yuan, founder of the Tang dynasty. Tang emperors introduced innovative administrative reforms. They also successfully quelled rebellions and repulsed invasions until losing control of provinces to military governors. 2. B. Tang Culture: The Tang presided over an extraordinary cultural flowering and oversaw the full penetration of Buddhism into Chinese life, developing the Pure Land and Chan schools of Buddhism. This period was also the great age of Chinese poetry. IV. The East Asian Cultural Sphere: Increased communication stimulated state formation in Central Asia (which is the vast area between the ancient civilizations of Persia, India, and China), Tibet, Korea, Manchuria, and Japan. Korea, Japan, and Vietnam all adopted Chinese institutions, although by 800 c.e., each of these regions was on its way to having a distinct political and cultural identity. 1. A. Vietnam: The Han conquered Nam Viet in 111 B.C.E. Chinese innovations were integrated into the culture, but the local elite did not accept Chinese political domination. Yet, the Tang period saw continued Chinese control over northern Vietnam.

2. B. Korea: The Han dynasty took control of Choson in 108 B.C.E., thereby establishing a long-term Chinese influence in the region. Buddhism was introduced in 372. C. Japan: Japans early development was tied closely to Korea. In the sixth century, Chinese-style bureaucratic practices were adopted. The Yamato rulers espoused the native religion of Shinto, but beginning in the sixth century Buddhism was encouraged. Glossary Age of Division: The period after the fall of the Han Dynasty, during which time China was divided into the Northern and Southern Dynasties. Chan: A school of Buddhism (known in Japan as Zen) that rejected the authority of the sutras and claimed the superiority of mind-to-mind transmission of Buddhist truths. Confucian classics: The canonical scripturesancient Confucian texts recovered during the Han Dynasty. eunuchs: Castrated males who played an important role as palace servants. Grand Canal: A canal, built during the Sui Dynasty, that connected the Yellow and Yangzi Rivers. Great Wall: A rammed-earth fortification built along the northern border of China during the reign of the First Emperor. lacquer: Made from the sap of the lac tree, it was often used to make cups and dishes. Nara: Japan's first true city; it was established in 710 north of modern Osaka. Pure Land: A school of Buddhism that taught that by paying homage to the Buddha Amitabha and his chief helper, one could achieve rebirth in Amitabha's paradise. Records of the Grand Historian: A comprehensive history of China written by Sima Qian. regent: A temporary ruler appointed to rule in the place of a child emperor.

Shinto: The "Way of the Gods"; it was the native religion espoused by the Yamato rulers. Silk Road: The trade routes across Central Asia through which Chinese silk and other items were traded. tributary system: A system used during the Han Dynasty to regulate contact with foreign powers. States and tribes beyond its borders sent envoys bearing gifts and received gifts in return. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 7 Key Points I. The Byzantine Empire: The Roman Empire in the east continued as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of the western portion of the Roman Empire. 1. A. Sources of Byzantine Strength: The Byzantine Empire retained the legal and administrative systems of the empire centered at Rome, including the senate and the army legions. The geographical position as well as military strength helped preserve the eastern portion as the western portion fell to invaders. 2. B. The Sassanid Kingdom of Persia and Byzantium: The Sasanid Kingdom was Byzantiums most regular foe. The Persians adopted Zoroastrianism as the official state religion. In the seventh century, the region was absorbed into the Islamic caliphate. 3. C. The Law Code of Justinian: The Byzantine Empires greatest contribution to the West was Justinians corpus juris civilisthe body of civil law, compiled as the Code, the Institutes, and the Digest. 4. D. Byzantine Intellectual Life: The Byzantine Empire preserved much Greco-Roman knowledge, a great deal of which was not rediscovered in the West until much later. The Byzantines also prized education and made advances in medical practice.

5. E. Constantinople: The Second Rome: The Byzantine Empire was important for European development. Its central city, Constantinople, was, in the tenth century, the greatest city in the Christian worldthe center of international trade and a society that was dominated by a landed aristocracy. II. The Growth of the Christian Church: Surviving the downfall of the Roman Empire in the west, the Christian grew and became the most important institution in Europe. 1. A. The Church and its Leaders: With an organization that mirrored Diocletians division of the empire, the church came to be the major political as well as spiritual power. By 380 Christianity was the official religion of the empire, and the church had been allowed to develop its own body of law, canon law. 2. B. The Western Church and the Eastern Church: In the eastern empire the emperor held supreme authority over the church. In Rome, however, the bishops formulated the theory of the churchs ultimate power over the state. Unlike the Roman church, the Greek Orthodox church was subservient to the emperor, who treated religion as a matter of state policy. 3. C. The Iconoclastic Controversy: The Iconoclastic Controversy brought the question of church-state relations to a head. It also hastened the schism between the western and eastern churches. 4. D. Christian Monasticism: Monasticism had its beginning in Egypt, and then after about 529, the monastic orders in the west were unified under the Rule of Saint Benedict. Monasticism in the Byzantine world developed differently, with each group adopting its own set of rules. Unlike in the west, education was not a central feature. III. Christian Ideas and Practices: Christians soon adapted classical influences to their beliefs. Missionaries spread Christianity, assimilating pagan peoples.

1. A. Adjustment to Classical Culture: Christianity encouraged adjustment to the ideas and institutions of the Roman world. The contemporary world had an impact on attitudes toward gender and sexuality as expressed by some of the early church fathers. Although Jesus considered women the equal of men, later Christian writers tended to regard them as inferior because they were seen as encouraging sexual activitysomething regarded as a threat to spiritual freedom. Women were also viewed in church teaching as inferior to men. 2. B. Saint Augustine: Augustinian theology, with its synthesis of Christian and classical thought and emphasis on human sinfulness, laid the foundation of Christian thought through the Middle Ages and beyond. 3. C. Missionary Activity: Missionaries spread Christian teachings throughout the Roman world and beyond, moving into the countryside and assimilating pagan peoples. 4. D. Conversion and Assimilation: Missionaries and priests used preaching, assimilation, and the penitential system to help illiterate and pagan peoples understand Christian ideals and teachings. IV. Migrating Peoples: Migrating peoples had a lasting impact on the region. 1. A. Celts, Huns, and Germans: The Romans referred to these groups as barbarians. The Celts and Germans moved into the Roman Empire in the third and fourth centuries because of pressure from the Huns. 2. B. Barbarian Society: Barbarians had no notion of written law. They thought and operated in social, not political, terms. 3. C. Social and Economic Structures: Society was typically based on small villages, with a rural lifestyle. Great differences in wealth and status occurred. The family was the basic social unit. 4. D. The Frankish Kingdom: The Frankish chieftain Clovis established the most enduring Germanic kingdom and the

Merovingian dynasty. His kingdom was divided upon his death. E. Charlemagne: The Carolingian dynasty replaced the Merovingian. Charlemagne was the most powerful of the Carolingian rulers. Charlemagnes most enduring legacy was the Carolingian Renaissance. Glossary Arianism: A theological belief, originating with Arius, a priest of Alexandria, that denied that Christ was divine and co-eternal with God the Father barbarian: A name given by the Romans to all peoples living outside the frontiers of the Roman Empire (except the Persians). canon law: The body of internal law that governs the Church. Carolingian: A Frankish family which increased its power through selective marriage, political acumen, and military victory to the point that they were able to replace the Merovingians as the rulers of the Frankish kingdom during the seventh century. coenobitic monasticism: Communal living in monasteries, encouraged by Saint Basil and the church because it provided an environment for training the aspirant in the virtues of charity, poverty, and freedom from self-deception. corpus juris civilis: The "body of civil law"; it is composed of the Code, Digest, and Institutes. diaspora: The dispersion of the Jews from Jerusalem between 132 and 135. diocese: A geographic administrative district of the Church, under the authority of a bishop and centered around a cathedral. eremitical: A form of monasticism that began in Egypt in the third century in which individuals and small groups withdrew from cities and organized society to see God through prayer. The people who lived in caves and sought shelter in the desert and mountains were called hermits, from the Greek word eremos. iconoclastic controversy: The conflict that resulted from the

destruction of Christian images in Byzantine churches in 730. Merovingian: A dynasty founded in 481 by the Frankish chieftain Clovis in what is now France. So called because Clovis claimed descent from the semi-legendary leader, Merovech. penitentials: Manuals for the examination of conscience. Petrine Doctrine: The statement used by popes, bishops of Rome, based on Jesus words, to substantiate their claim of being the successors of Saint Peter and heirs to his authority as chief of the apostles. regular clergy: Clergy who live under the rule (Latin: regulus) of a monastic house, i. e. monks and nuns. relics: Bones, articles of clothing, or other material object associated with the life of a saint, used as a expedient to worship or to invoke the blessing and protection of that particular saint. sacraments: Certain rituals of the Church believed to act as a conduit of Gods grace. The Eucharist and baptism were among the sacraments. schism: A division, or split, in church leadership; during the period 13771418, there were two, then three, popes. secular clergy: Clergy who staffed the churches where people worshipped, and were therefore no separated from the world (Latin: saeculum), i. e. priests and bishops. Treaty of Verdun: A treaty, ratified in 843, which divided the territories of Charlemagne between his three surviving grand-sons and formed the precursor states of modern Germany, France, and Italy. wergeld: Manmoney or money to buy off the spear; according to the code of the Salian Franks, this is the particular monetary value that every person had in the tribe. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 8 Key Points I. The Origins of Islam: The monotheistic religion of Islam emerged from the teachings of Muhammad. These teachings and

the political genius of Muhammad brought unity, power, cultural and economic growth, and intellectual creativity to much of the world. Under Islam the old pre-Islamic world of tribal localism, family ties, and agriculture was converted into a cosmopolitan world that emphasized urban culture, trade, and social status based on wealth and merit. 1. A. Muhammad: Little is known of Muhammads early life, but according to tradition he was orphaned at age six, raised by an uncle, married a wealthy widow, and at age forty began receiving angelic messages from Allah to preach the revelations he would receive. 2. B. The Islamic Faith: Muhammads teachings formed the ideas central to Islamthe ideas of a last judgment, predestination, and the jihad, or holy war. These ideas were compiled in the Quran. The fundamental obligations of Muslims are the Five Pillars of Islam. II. Islamic States and Their Expansion: Driven by a religious fervor focused by the concept of jihad and the idea of a unified community, or umma, the Muslims quickly expanded. By 751 C.E., their conquests reached eastward as far as China and to the west as far as Spain 1. A. Reasons for the Spread of Islam: The spread of Islam was facilitated by the use of garrisoned cities, good wages for soldiers, and by the militancy of Muslims. 2. B. The Caliphate: When Muhammad died in 632, the Muslim umma threatened to disintegrate. With Abu Bakr and his successors, however, the office of caliph evolved. Originally an elective office, it became a hereditary office based on ceremony and military might. The caliph became the center of a centralized state governed through an administrative bureau (the diwan al-kharaj), a legal council called the ulama, and a sophisticated communication system called the barid. Thesharia as interpreted by the ulama formed the legal system of the Islamic state. After Muhammads death, the Muslim world split into two factions

with differing theological and political views: Shiites, who claimed to have been given divine authority from Muhammad, and Sunnis, who looked to the Quran for authority and were generally more worldly. The Shiites were the followers of Ali, one of the first caliphs, who was assassinated when the opposition Umayyad (Sunni) dynasty was founded. 3. C. The Abbasid Caliphate: Under the Abbasid dynasty (7501258) the caliphate declined, and the Islamic state moved toward decentralization. 4. D. Administration of Islamic Territories: The chief adviser to the caliph, the vizier, assumed much power, and by the mid-tenth century the caliphs had become largely symbolic. III. Fragmentation and Military Challenges (9001400): A general breakdown of Muslim unity occurred, as independent Muslim states developed in Spain, North Africa, and elsewhere. 1. A. The Ascendancy of the Turks: The Seljuk Turks took over the eastern Muslim world by 1055, and the caliph became a puppet of the Turkish sultan. 2. B. The Mongol Invasions: By the thirteenth century the invading Mongols, first under Chinggis Khan, disrupted Muslim unity even further. The Mongols took control of Damascus and ruled the central Muslim lands for eighty years. IV. Muslim Society: The Life of the People: A basic Muslim doctrine was social equality. Islamic teaching opposed the preIslamic tribal emphasis on family membership and birth as the criterion for social status. 1. A. The Classes of Society: The caliphs household and ruling Muslims were the elite of society, followed by converts to Islam and dhimmis. 2. B. Slavery: Slaves were at the bottom of the social scale but owners were encouraged to treat slaves with humanity. Expansion ensured a steady flow of slaves captured during war.

3. C. Women in Classical Islamic Society: The Quran and Islamic law intended to reverse pre-Islamic tribal custom and treat women as spiritual and sexual equals of men. By the early years of the Umayyad dynasty (the seventh century) women had achieved significant equality in religious, economic, and political life. Nevertheless, by the later Umayyad years the situation had reversed, and women were regarded as incapable and unfit for public affairs. Polygamy (which weakens the position of women within society) was practiced, and the harem had become a symbol of male dominance. V. Trade and Commerce: Islamic society was geared toward mercantile rather than agricultural interests. Its economic world was held together by a vast commercial network that spanned a great number of commercial seaways (the Black and Caspian Seas, the Arabian Gulf, and the Mediterranean Sea being the most important) and land routes (from North Africa to China). Through this network moved goods ranging from silk and peacocks to slaves and white lead that brought fabulous wealth to some merchants and provided the basis for a gracious and sophisticated urban culture. Both Baghdad and Cordoba are examples of the remarkable material and intellectual wealth found in Muslim urban centers. VI. Cultural Developments: The wealth of Baghdad, Cordoba, and the Muslim world in general gave rise to a great intellectual flowering. 1. A. Education and Intellectual Life: Muslim paper-makers improved upon Chinese techniques, thus encouraging the diffusion of books. Education flourished, and the intellectuals who emerged from this cosmopolitan culture made important advances in philosophy, medicine, and science, drawing upon Islamic, Hebrew, and Greco-Roman thought. 2. B. Sufism: Sufis were ascetics who opposed the materialism of the Umayyad regime.

C. Muslim-Christian Encounters: Contact was frequent between Muslims and Christians because of business and trade encounters. Beginning in the late tenth century, Muslim regulations closely defined what Christians and Muslims could do. Christians were considered infidels, and a Muslim who converted to Christianity immediately incurred a death sentence. Relations between Muslims and Christians grew increasingly complicated. Although Muslims and Christians traded with each other and exchanged artistic, philosophical, and technological ideas, periods of warfare and conquest turned theological differences into bloody hostility. Glossary caliph: The successor to Muhammad; the representative or deputy of God. dhimmis: A term meaning "protected peoples"; they included Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians. diwan: An administrative device meaning "register"; it listed all Muslim soldiers. emirs: Arab governors who were given overall responsibility for good order, maintenance of the armed forces, and tax collection. Five Pillars of Islam: The basic tenets of the Islamic faith; they include reciting a profession of faith in God and in Muhammad as Gods prophet; prayer five times daily; fasting and prayer during the month of Ramadan; a pilgrimage to Mecca once in one's lifetime; and contribution of alms to the poor. hadith: Collections of the sayings of or anecdotes about Muhammad. harem: The separate quarters of a house or palace where women live and men are excluded . imam: The leader in community prayer. infidel: An unbeliever; the Muslim term for a Christian, no matter how assimilated. jihad: "Holy war," a Muslim term that some scholars interpret as the individual struggle against sin and others interpret as having a

social and communal implication. Kaba: A Muslim temple containing a black stone thought to be God's dwelling place. madrasa: A school for the study of Muslim law and religious science. Mozarabs: Christians who adopted some Arabic customs but did not convert. qadis: Muslim judges who carried out the judicial functions of the state. Quran: The sacred book of Islam. sharia: Muslim law, which covers social, criminal, political, commercial, and religious matters. Shiites: Arabic term meaning "supporters of Ali"; these make up one of the two main sects of Islam. Sunna: An Arabic term meaning Trodden Path. The term refers to the deeds and sayings of Muhammad, which constitute the obligatory example for Muslim life. Sunnis: Members of one of the larger of the two main sects of Islam; the division between Sunnis ad Shiites began in a dispute about succession to Muhammad, but over time many differences in theology developed . ulama: A group of religious scholars whom Sunnis trust to interpret the Qur'an and the Sunna. umma: A community that consisted of those who shared a religious faith and commitment, rather than a tribal tie. vizier: The caliph's chief assistant. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 9 Key Points I. The Land and Peoples of Africa: The continent of Africa, which is the worlds second largest, is divided into five climate zones, ranging from the fertile coastal lands to vast deserts and dense rain forests.

1. A. Egypt, Africa, and Race: The peoples of North Africa are a mix of native Berber and Mediterranean peoples, while black Africans are the dominant group of the regions south of the Sahara. 2. B. Early African Societies: Africa is one of the places where knowledge of agriculture began. Gradually, agriculture and a settled way of life spread over the continent. Over the centuries, Africa supported a variety of civilizations and societies, one of earliest centered at Nok where terra-cotta sculpture achieved great refinement. 3. C. Bantu Migrations: By 200 B.C.E., the Bantu migrations had brought the knowledge of ironworking to much of the continent. A Bantu language is spoken today by a majority of the 70 million people living south of the Congo River. 4. D. Kingdoms of the Western Sudan, ca. 1000 B.C.E.1500 C.E.: Between 1000 B.C.E. and 200 C.E., other societies developed in the rich savannah regions of the Sudan. The basic social unit of these city-states was the extended family. Religions were animistic and polytheistic. 5. E. The Trans-Saharan Trade: A network of caravan routes connected the Mediterranean coast with the Sudan, stimulating gold mining, the slave trade, and urbanization. II. African Kingdoms and Empires (ca. 8001450): This period saw the flowering of several powerful African states. 1. A. The Kingdom of Ghana (ca. 9001100): The kingdom of Ghana emerged as one of Africas richest and most powerful states by virtue of its control of the southern end of the caravan route and its strong agricultural base. 2. B. The Kingdom of Mali (ca. 12001450): Another powerful state, Mali, carried on a brisk trade in salt, gold, and slaves. As in much of Africa, commerce along the trade routes introduced Africans to Islam. In western Africa Islam was carried south by Berber merchants converted during the Arab conquests of the eighth century. This diffusion of religious ideas led, in turn, to the conversion of rulers, the

growth of intellectual centers such as Timbuktu, and the strong influence of Muslim ulemas. 3. C. Ethiopia: The Christian Kingdom of Axum: Although the most important foreign influence on Africa was Islam, Ethiopia was a center of Christian civilization. Ruled from Axum by kings, early Christian Ethiopia became a major trading empire. Muslim conquest of northern Ethiopia weakened Axums power and prompted the inwardness that characterized subsequent Ethiopian civilization. During that period Ethiopian national identity formed around the mythic origins of the Solomonic ruling house. 4. D. The East African City-States: In eastern Africa, trading city-states such as Kilwa developed along the coast, linking the interior of the continent to the Indian Ocean trade routes. The East African coastal culture was called Swahili. E. Southern Africa: In southern Africa, peoples descended from Bantu immigrants built societies based on the polygamous nuclear family and thrived on agriculture and gold mining. Among the most notable of these societies was the gold-trading state centered at Great Zimbabwe. Glossary Aksum: A kingdom in northwestern Ethiopia that was a sizable trading state and the center of Christian culture. Bantu: The people living in Africa south of the Congo River who speak a Bantu language. Berbers: North African peoples who were the first to develop saddles for use on the camel. Ethiopia: The first black African society that can be studied from written records; it was the site of the kingdom of Axum. Ghana: The name of a great African kingdom inhabited by the Soninke people. ghana: The name used by the Soninke people for their ruler. Great Zimbabwe: A ruined African city discovered by a German

explorer in 1871; it is considered the most powerful monument south of the Nile Valley and Ethiopian highlands. Kilwa: The most powerful city of the coast of Africa by the late thirteenth century. Kumbi: The city where the king of Ghana held his court. Mogadishu: A Muslim port city founded between the eighth and tenth centuries; today it is the capital of Somalia. stateless societies: African societies bound together by ethnic or blood ties rather than political states. Sudan: The African region surrounded by the Sahara, the Gulf of Guinea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the mountains of Ethiopia. Swahili: The East African coastal culture, named after a Bantu language whose vocabulary and poetic forms exhibit strong Arabic influences. Timbuktu: Originally a campsite for desert nomads, it grew into a thriving city under Mansa Musa. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 10 Key Points I. The Early Peoples of the Americas: The climate and geography of the Americas are extremely varied. Mesoamerica, meaning Mexico and Central America, is dominated by high plateaus divided by great valleys and bounded by coastal plains. South America is characterized by great plains and the tropical lowlands of the Amazon River. 1. A. Settling the Americas: No consensus has yet emerged about how and when people came to the western hemisphere, although several theories speculate about the issue. 2. B. The Development of Agriculture: Agriculture in the Americas was extensive though limited. The American Indians, or Amerindians, discovered how to domesticate plants, particularly corn (maize) and potatoes. Development

of the chinampas, or floating gardens, and terracing of slopes became ways to support a huge population. II Early Civilizations: Agricultural skill had social and political benefits as well, in that labor was then available for activities besides agriculture. 1. A. Mounds, Towns, and Trade in North and South America: In North America, by 2500 B.C.E. some groups began to build mounds. Most of these were concentrated in the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys. In South America, the early builders were in Norte Chico and in the Andes region (the Chavin people). 2. B. The Olmecs: The Olmecs created the first society with cities in Mesoamerica. Olmec society centered on a priestly elite and peasant farmers, and succeeded in producing a large food supply and great stone buildings. III. Classical Era Mesoamerica and North America: The highest level of Amerindian civilization came with the Maya peoples, but other city-states were also important. 1. A. Maya Technology and Trade: Intensive agriculture as practiced by the Maya made huge populations and a thousand years of advancement possible. Maya trade reached beyond Maya communities to the Valley of Oaxaca and the central valley of Mexico. 2. B. Maya Science and Religion: The Maya developed a complex writing system, devised a 365-day calendar and a mathematical system based on the vigesimal (20) system, and used the number zero. The Maya were renowned for their accomplishments in abstract thought. Religion was apparently based on rituals, practices, and astronomical calculations. 3. C. Teotihuacn and the Toltecs: In central Mexico the Teotihuacn peoples built an large and rich city, but its collapse around 700 c.e., led to a Time of Troubles, during which a Toltec confederation dominated central Mexico.

4. D. Hohokam, Hopewell, and Mississippian: In southwestern North America, the Hohokam people developed a culture also based on agriculture. Other groups, such as the Anasazi, Yuma, and later Pueblo, also built settlements in this area. Along the Mississippi River, the Hopewell culture developed, noted for the extensive mounds it built. Near the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers in what is now Illinois, the Mississippian culture was centered at Cahokia, a complex that served perhaps 38,000 people. The Mississippian culture was also noted for mound building. IV. The Aztecs: The Aztecs built a culture that adopted much from earlier peoples. 1. A. Religion and War in Aztec Society: For the Aztecs, war was a part of religious faith. Human sacrifice was a sacred duty. The Aztecs established a state based on constant warfare because of the gods needs for human sacrifice and because of the need to acquire warriors to assist in territorial expansion. 2. B. The Life of the People: No sharp social distinctions existed in the early migrations of the Aztecs, but later Aztec society was highly stratified, the most numerous and the lowest classes being the workers, the landless workers, and the slaves. The emperor was at the top of the social pyramid. 3. C. The Cities of the Aztecs: The center of this society was Tenochtitln (Mexico City), whose layout, buildings, engineering accomplishments, and wealth were, according to eyewitness accounts, spectacular. V. The Incas: The Incas established their empire in the Andes mountains of Peru. 1. A. Earlier Peruvian Cultures: Cultures preceding the Incas, and upon which the Incas built, include the Chavin and the Moche. 2. B. Inca Imperialism: As with the Aztecs, Inca religious ideology was the driving force for imperialist expansion. The Inca method of control was imperial unification, which

included an excellent system of roads, an effective bureaucracy, and an enforced religion of state gods. C. Inca Society: The ayllu, or clan, was the basic social unit of Inca society. Inca society was highly regimented, but the state took care of the poor and the aged. Glossary Anasazi: A Native American culture that dominated the Four Corners region of the southwestern United States. Remarkable for their construction of numerous cliff-dwellings in the region. ayllu: A clan; it served as the fundamental social unit of Inca society. Aztec: A term coined by nineteenth-century historians to describe the Mexica people. Chavin: A culture that developed in the Andes Mountains of Peru around 1200 B.C.E. and was responsible for the earliest cities in the region. curacas: The headman of the Inca clan; he was responsible for conducting relations with outsiders. Hohokam: A Native American culture that emerged around 300 BCE and was centered around the Gila River in Arizona. The Hohokam practiced a system of agriculture that relied on irrigation trenches, dams, and terraces to cultivate their arid land. Hopewell: An important mound-building Native American culture that thrived between 200 B.C.E. and 600 C.E. The culture was centered near the town of Hopewell, Ohio, and was noted for their extensive canals and a trade network that extended from the Caribbean to Illinois. Huitzilopochtli: The chief among the Aztecs' many gods; it symbolized the sun blazing at high noon. Incas: The Peruvian empire that was at its peak from 1438 until 1532. Indian: A term often used for the indigenous peoples of the Americas; it stems from the mistaken belief of European explorers

that they were near the East Indies. khipu: A intricate system of knotted and colored strings used by early Peruvian cultures to store information such as census and tax records. maceualtin: The vast majority of the Aztec population; these were the ordinary citizens or members of the working class. Maya: A highly-developed Mesoamerican culture, centered in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. The Mayas created the most intricate writing system in the western hemisphere. Mesoamerica: The term used by scholars to designate the area of present-day Mexico and Central America. Mexica: Another term for Aztec; it is a pre-Columbian term designating the dominant ethnic people of the island capital of Tenochtitln- Tlatelolco. milpa: A system of effective agriculture used throughout Mesoamerica that relies on crop rotation and the planting of multiple crops in a single field. The term is derived from a Nahuatl word meaning field. Mississippian: An important mound-building culture that thrived between 800 and 1500 C.E. in a territory that extended from the Mississippi River to the Appalachian Mountains. The largest mound produced by this culture is found at Cahokia, Illinois. mita: A draft rotary system that determined when men of a particular hamlet performed public works. Moche: A Native American culture that thrived along Perus northern coast between 100 and 800 C.E. The culture existed as a series of city-states rather than a single empire and is distinguished by an extraordinarily rich and diverse pottery industry. mound builders: Societies of peoples in North America who built massive earthworks, mounds of earth and stone. Nahuatl: The language of both the Toltecs and the Aztecs. Norte Chico: A region along the coast of Peru that possessed a highly-developed urban culture as early as 2500 B.C.E. Characterized by massive stepped pyramids and extensive use of cotton.

Olmec: The oldest of the early advanced Amerindian civilizations. Popul Vuh: The Book of Council, a collection of mythological narratives and dynastic histories that constitutes the primary record of the Mayan civilization. Quechua: First deemed the official language of the Incas under Pachacuti, it is still spoken by most Peruvians today. tecuhtli: Provincial governors who exercised full political, judicial, and military authority on the Aztec emperor's behalf. Tenochtitln: A large and prosperous Aztec city that was admired by the Spanish when they entered in 1519. Teotihuacn: A city in central Mexico that became a great commercial center during the Classic period. Toltecs: An heir to Teotihuacn, this confederation extended its hegemony over most of Central Mexico under the reign of Topiltzin. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 11 Key Points I. Central Asian Nomads: Central Asia, dominated by the grasslands or steppes, was the home of three confederations of nomadic tribes, the Xiongnu (Huns), the Turks, and the Mongols. 1. A. The Turks: The first to leave written accounts of themselves, the Turks came to prominence in the sixth century, when western tribes made themselves masters of a long section of the Silk Road. Their eastern cousins frequently raided China and fought its imperial armies. One group, the Uighurs, built an empire in the eight century that fell to the Kyrgz in the ninth. These eastern Turks ultimately settled in towns and cities, as did western Turks, such as the Seljuks, who invaded and settled in Asia Minor and the eastern Mediterranean coast. 2. B. The Mongols: The Mongols lived north of the Khitans and Jurchens and maintained their traditional ways.

3. C. Daily Life: Prior to the periods of great conquests, these peoples moved with their animals between winter and summer pasturesliving in tents (yurts) and subsisting on a diet of mostly animal products that left them susceptible to famine. Women, like men, had to work hard and had to be expert ridersand were active in making family decisions. Families were part of clans, and groups of clans made up tribes. Tribes stole men from each otherand hence tribal raiding was a part of daily life. Before the late twelfth century the Mongols lived in nomadic camps, raised their animals, trained for battle, and worshipped under the guidance of shamans. II. Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Empire: Beginning in the late twelfth century, the brilliant and ruthless leader Temujin, or Chinggis, started his people on the path that would lead to world empire. Under Chinggis the Mongol tribes subdued other tribal groups, and in 1206 Chinggis united the tribes and assumed leadership and the title of Great Khan. The Mongols turned first on Jurchen and then on China. They destroyed many Chinese cities and then moved westward to Central Asia and Persiathen in the hands of the Turks. Hundreds of thousands of people were massacred. 1. A. Chinggiss Successors: After the death of Chinggis, his empire was divided into four khanates, each ruled by one of his descendants. Chinggiss sons and their descendants invaded Europegaining control of Moscow and Kiev, and looting cities in Poland and Hungary. They then turned to Persia and the Middle Easttaking Baghdad in 1258, and then (under Khubilai) completed their conquest of Korea and China. Mongol expansion in the east ended with the failed invasions of Japan and Southeast Asia. 2. B. The Mongols as Rulers: Much of the Mongol success was due to their willingness to incorporate other ethnic groups into their armies and governments. Mongol leaders welcomed people of all religions. Although the Mongol

Empire did not fall until 1405, by then it was no longer a pan-Asian empire but a collection of mutually hostile successor states. III. East-West Communication During the Mongol Era: Overall, the Mongols did more to foster the movement of people and goods across Eurasia than any earlier political group. IV. India, 3001400: Between 300 and 1400 India felt the impact of developments in Central Asia. 1. A. The Gupta Empire (ca. 320480): Before 500 the major Indian state was the Gupta Empire. The greatest of the Guptas, Chandragupta II, overthrew the Shakas in west India, bringing about increased trade and agricultural production. Religious toleration and the arts flourished, but the Guptas could not hold back the invasion of the nomadic Huns from Central Asia. 2. B. Indias Medieval Age (ca. 5001400) and the First Encounter with Islam: In 711 India came under attack from Islamic armies from Iraq. Pressure from succeeding Islamic states increased, culminating with establishment of the Delhi Sultanate under Turkish rulers from Afghanistan. After much destruction and looting of Hindu temples, Muslim Turks allowed for some religious toleration (but not for Buddhists) and although some Indians adopted Islam, most Indians looked on the Muslim overlords as a new ruling caste. South India remained free of these invasions and so small Hindu kingdoms flourished. For centuries the Delhi Sultanate held off the Mongols, but by 1398 it fell to the armies of the Mongol leader Tamerlane. 3. C. Daily Life in Medieval India: Life was dominated by the caste system. Guilds developed to oversee conditions of work and trade. Agriculture, small (sometimes walled) villages, and the maturity of the caste system (including development ofjati) were the dominant aspects of daily life. Marriage and the family were the focus of individual life.

4. D. Southeast Asia, to 1400: During this period India left its own cultural mark on Southeast Asia. While the northern part of Vietnam was under Chinese control, a southern Vietnamese state, called Funan, spread out over much of Indochina and the Malay Peninsulaproviding a trading and cultural circle for Indian merchants, Brahman priests, and Buddhist monks. This Indian influence continued even after the decline of Funan, as did Indian influence in the independent state of Tai and the Khmer Empire of Cambodia. Also drawing on Indian tradition and Sanskrit writing was the maritime empire of Srivijaya based on the island of Sumatra, and dominating the waters in that area and extending up to the Malay Peninsula. After 800 it was the early Indian form of Buddhism (called Theravada Buddhism) that dominated in Southeast Asia. E. The Spread of Indian Culture in Comparative Perspective: Overall, it was not direct Indian control that was the key to the expansion of Indian culture, but an extension of trade and religious networks. Glossary Funan: The Chinese name for the first state to appear in Southeast Asia; it had its capital in southern Vietnam. grasslands: Also called steppe, this arid land is easily cropped by horses, but is too dry for crop agriculture. Great Khan: An honorary name given to the Mongol ruler Chinggis in 1206. jati: The numerous Indian castes. khanates: The four units into which Chinggis divided the Mongol Empire. nomads: Wandering peoples who have no fixed home and move from place to place in search of food, water, and land. protected people: The Muslim classification used for Hindus, Christians, and Jews; they were allowed to follow their religions,

but had to pay a special tax. Sanskrit: India's classical literary language. sati: A practice whereby a high-caste Hindu woman would throw herself on her husband's funeral pyre. Srivijaya: A maritime empire that held the Strait of Malacca and the waters around Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. steppe: Another name for the arid grasslands that are common in Central Asia. tax-farming: The Mongol process of allowing Central Asian Muslim merchants to bid against each other for licenses to collect taxes. yurts: Tents in which the Mongols lived; they could be dismantled and loaded onto animals or carts in a short time. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 12 Key Points I. The Medieval Chinese Economic Revolution (8001100): During this three-hundred-year period, Chinese population doubled, from about 50 million to 100 million. The increase was due largely to the expansion of rice cultivation, which allowed for added commercialization. The introduction of paper money aided increased trade and marketing, and cities grew to accommodate these changes. Technological advances included the perfection of the magnetic compass and improved metallurgy. II. China During the Song Dynasty (9601279): The Song Dynasty replaced the Tang in 960. Song China was the most advanced society in the world in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. However, Song China never achieved military power to match its economic might. Through alliances, payments, and shows of military force the Song managed for a time to keep at bay the Khitans and Jurchens of the northern steppes. Eventually, though, the Jurchens captured the Song capital and formed a state in northern China, while the Song Dynasty re-established itself in the south.

1. A. The Scholar-Officials and Neo-Confucianism: Fostered by the availability of less-expensive books, NeoConfucianism emerged as the dominant philosophy of government, and the scholar-official, certified through the distinctly Chinese examination system, became the permanent governing elite. 2. B. Womens Lives: Along with the spread of learning and prosperity went a general decline in the status of women. Although women often worked in and out of the home, they were expected to marry, and married women often had to compete with the concubines their husbands might bring home. III. Japans Heian Period (7941185): In Japan Heian rulers initially followed Chinese models, but with the decline of Tang went their own way. 1. A. Fujiwara Rule: In time true political power fell to the Fujiwaras, and powerful clans vied for influence within the bureaucratic system. To counter Fujiwara control the imperial house developed the system of cloistered government. 2. B. Aristocratic Culture: Heian culture became highly refined, emphasizing the arts and court ceremoniala civilization captured in The Tale of Genji. Buddhism from China remained strong in Heian Japan, with the Tendai and Shingon schools competing for primacy. IV. The Samurai and The Kamakura Shogunate (11851333): Civil war among warrior clans brought the collapse of the Heian regime 1. A. Military Rule: In its place rose the Kamakura Shogunate dominated by the samurai class defined by its adherence to the Bushido code. Under the Kamakuras Japan weathered two Mongol invasions, but by the fourteenth century the Kamakura feudal system was collapsing under the pressure of samurai discontent.

B. Cultural Trends: Buddhism continued to spread particularly through the Pure Land and Chan (Zen) schools influencing the visual arts. Kamakura literature stressed war tales, which were performed by minstrels. Buddhism remained strong. After a period of stagnation in the Heian period, agriculture improved under the Kamakuras. Glossary Bushido: Also called the "Way of the Warrior," this was the code of conduct by which samurai were expected to live. cloistered government: A system in which an emperor retired to a Buddhist monastery, but continued to exercise power by controling his young son on the throne. compass: A tool developed in Song times to aid in navigation at sea; it consisted of a magnetic needle that would point north in a small, protective case. concubine: A woman contracted to a man as a second wife; she took orders from the wife, but her children were considered equal in status. dynastic cycle: The theory that Chinese dynasties go through a predictable cycle, from early vigor and growth to subsequent decline as administrators become lax and the well-off find ways to avoid paying taxes, cutting state revenues. Esoteric Buddhism: The religious belief that teachings containing the secrets of enlightenment have been secretly transmitted from the Buddha and can be accessed through initiation into the mandalas, mudras, and mantras. examination system: The highly competitive civil service examinations through which the scholar-official class was certified. foot binding: An elite practice of binding the feet of girls with long strips of cloth to keep them from growing and to make the foot narrow and arched. military governors: Japanese officials who were appointed to

oversee the military and enforce the law in the provinces. military land stewards: Officials placed in charge of overseeing estates. movable type: A system of printing in which one piece of type was used for each unique character. Neo-Confucianism: The revival of Confucian thinking that began in the eleventh century. paper money: Legal currency issued on paper; issued by the Chinese government to make large transactions more convenient. samurai: Skilled Japanese workers who performed loyal service to their lords in return for land or income. shogun: A general-in-chief; this person ruled over the Japanese military. The Tale of Genji: A Japanese literary masterpiece written by Lady Murasaki; it tells the story of court life. Zen: A school of Buddhism that emphasized meditation and truths that could not be conveyed in words. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 13 Key Points I. Political Developments: After Charlemagnes death, his empire was divided, leading to decentralization of power at the local level. 1. A. Feudalism and Manorialism: The systems of feudalism and manorialism are linked, with feudalism resting on the military service provided by vassals and manorialism based on the landed estates worked by peasants. 2. B. Invasions and Migrations: As Frankish power declined, Europe underwent a period of crisis and recovery. Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invaders drove through Europe, disrupting economic activity and undermining central governments. 3. C. The Restoration of Order: By the eleventh century stability began to return as authorities capable of maintaining stability rose in England, France, and Germany.

4. D. Law and Justice: In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, kings in England and France contributed to the development of national states by their administration of the laws. In England, the Magna Carta established the principle of the rule of law. II. Revival and Reform in the Christian Church: The church too began a period of revival and limited reforms. 1. A. Monastic Reforms: Monastic life was reformed under Cluniac leadership using The Rule of Saint Benedict. 2. B. Papal Reforms: A reinvigorated papacy clashed with civil authorities in the investiture issue, a conflict that had the greatest effect on German political and social life. 3. C. Popular Religion: Religion had a major impact on the everyday lives of people in the Middle Ages. The village church was the center of community life. III. The Expansion of Latin Christendom: During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Latin Christianity spread into Scandinavia, the Baltic region, eastern Europe, and Spain. In Spain, the reconquista was the crusade to take Spain from the Muslims. 1. A. Toward a Christian Society: Although the expansion of Christianity provided some unity and uniformity across Europe, instances of racism and ethnic tensions also appeared. IV. The Crusades: The resurgent and militant church also sponsored the Crusades. 1. A. Background of the Crusades: In the eleventh century, the pope desired to launch an expedition against Muslims in the East as a way to extend Roman influence into Greek territories, strengthening his claim as leader of the Christian church, and perhaps reuniting the eastern and western Christian churches. 2. B. The Course of the Crusades: These brutal holy wars won Europeans only temporary political gains, and the religious enthusiasm that droved them deepened the

animosity between the western and eastern churches and often prompted anti-Semitic violence. 3. C. Consequences: The Crusades yielded important cultural consequences by encouraging east-west trade. But relations of Christians with both Jews and Muslims suffered as a result of the Crusades. V. The Changing Life of the People: As the Middle Ages progressed, the cultural and social life of Europe grew more complex. 1. A. Those Who Work: About 90 percent of the population were men and women who worked the land. Within this category existed many levels of peasants, from complete slaves to free, wealthy farmers. 2. B. Those Who Fight: Military duty was limited to the nobility. The focus on military skills gradually gave way to the ideal of chivalry. 3. C. Towns and Cities: The rise of towns, enclosed by walls, created possibilities for social mobility that disputed the traditional societal orders. Craft guilds were created to regulate particular trades. Merchant guilds helped reduce t 4. he risk of loss. 5. D. The Expansion of Long-Distance Trade: Expansion of long-distance trade led to changes that historians have called the Commercial Revolution. Economic revival that began in the eleventh century both drove, and was driven by, the growth of towns, particularly in Flanders and Italy. This revival loosened old social orders and created the new middle class. Long-distance trade expanded, part of a larger commercial revolution that laid the foundations of modern capitalism. VI. The Culture of the Middle Ages: As a result of the changes experienced in the Middle Ages, Europe saw the rise of universities and new styles of architecture and literature. 1. A. Universities and Scholasticism: Paralleling the development of Islamic schools, universities rose in towns

and cities, offering curricula that included philosophy, theology, logic, civil and cannon law, and the sciences. Among the most important intellectual movements to emerge from the universities was scholasticism, the greatest practitioner of which was Thomas Aquinas. 2. B. Cathedrals: During this period the dark, heavy Romanesque style of church architecture gave way to the Gothic, a form that reached its highest development in France. 3. C. Troubadour Poetry: The troubadour poetry of the twelfth century represented another fertile union of Christian European and Muslim ideas. VII. Crises of the Later Middle Ages: The fourteenth century brought a period of upheaval. 1. A. The Great Famine and the Black Death: Famine and disease in the form of the Black Death devastated Europes population. 2. B. The Hundred Years War: The Hundred Years War between France and England, and its related peasant uprisings further disrupted the social and political structures of western Europe. 3. C. Challenges to the Church: The church provided little spiritual leadership during these troubles. The Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism undermined papal authority at the same time that England and France pursued their dynastic struggles at the expense of the church. D. Peasant and Urban Revolts: These disasters did yield some positive results. The decline in population meant that those who survived had better food and higher wages. Peasants in western Europe used the labor-shortage problem to demand higher wages and freedom from serfdom. These demands, however, often resulted in conflict with their lords, including the Jacquerie in France and the Peasants Revolt in England. Glossary

Black Death: The bubonic plague that first struck Europe in 1347. It spread either in the bubonic form by flea bites or in the pneumonic form directly from the breath of one person to another. In less virulent forms, the disease reappeared many times until 1701. cathedral: A church, headed by a bishop, which forms the administrative center of a diocese. From the Greek term kathedra, meaning seat, since the cathedral housed the throne of the bishop. chivalry: A code of conduct that governed the conduct of a knight, characterized by the virtues of bravery, generosity, honor, graciousness, mercy, and gallantry toward women. college: A university was made up of a collection of these privately endowed residences for the lodging of poor students. Commercial Revolution: The transformation of the economic structure of Europe, beginning in the eleventh century, from a rural, manorial society to a more complex mercantile society. common law: A law that originated in, and was applied by, the king's court. craft guilds: Associations of artisans and craftsmen organized to regulate the quality, quantity, and price of the goods produced as well as the number of affiliated apprentices and journeymen. Crusades: Holy wars sponsored by the papacy for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Muslims in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. Domesday Book: A record of a survey ordered by William the Conqueror to determine how much wealth there was in his new kingdom, who held what land, and what land had been disputed among his vassals; it is an invaluable source of social and economic information. feudalism: A medieval European political system that defines the military obligations and relations between a lord, his vassals, and the granting of fiefs. fief: A portion of land, the use of which was given by a lord to a vassal in exchange for the latters oath of loyalty.

Gothic: The term for the architectural and artistic style that prevailed in Europe from the mid-twelfth to the sixteenth century. Great Schism: The period during which the Church had two popes, one in Rome and one in Avignon; it caused the ultimate division between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) churches. Hanseatic League: A mercantile association of towns that allowed for mutual protection and security. Jacquerie: A massive uprising by French peasants in 1358 protesting heavy taxation. jurors: In William the Conqueror's reign, a priest and six local people who swore an oath to answer truthfully all questions about their wealth. lay investiture: The selection and appointment of church officials by secular authorities. manor: The estate that most European peasants, free or unfree, lived on. manorialism: The economic system that governed rural life in medieval Europe in which the landed estates of a lord were worked by the peasants under his jurisdiction in exchange for his protection. merchant guilds: Communal enterprises, people commonly linked by similar occupations as united enterprise provided them with greater security and less risk of losses than did individual action. reconquista: A fourteenth-century term used to describe the Christian crusade to wrest Spain back from the Muslims; clerics believed it was a sacred and patriotic mission. saints: Individuals that had lived particularly holy lives, and were consequently accorded great honor by medieval Christians. Saints were believed to possess the power to work miracles and were frequently invoked for healing and protection. Scholastics: Medieval professors who developed a method of thinking, reasoning, and writing in which questions were raised and authorities cited on both sides of a question. serf: A peasant who has lost his freedom and become permanently

bound to the landed estate of a lord. troubadours: Medieval poets in southern Europe who wrote and sang lyrical verses devoted to the themes of love, desire, beauty, and gallantry. vassal: A knight who has sworn loyalty to a particular lord. Vassal is derived from a Celtic word meaning servant. villeins: "Inhabitants of small villages or English serfs. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 14 Key Points I. Renaissance Culture: The Renaissance was characterized by an awareness among Italians and other Europeans that they were living in a new era. 1. A. Economic and Political Context: The Renaissance began in Florence, Italy, in the late thirteenth century. The wealth of Florentine bankers and merchants allowed for control of politics and culture. 2. B. Intellectual Change: Although many of the supposedly new Renaissance ideas are actually found in the Middle Ages, scholars generally agree that the Renaissance was characterized by a number of distinctive ideas, including individualism and humanism. 3. C. Secularism: Secularism involved a basic concern with the material, secular world rather than with the eternal world of spirit. 4. D. Christian Humanism: Christian humanists interpreted Italian ideas about and attitudes toward classical antiquity, individualism, and humanism in terms of Christian traditions. Some used these ideas to develop programs for broad social reforms. 5. E. The Printed Word: The printing press using movable metal type ensured the rapid distribution of ideas. 6. F. Art and the Artist: The best-known expressions of the Renaissance spirit can be seen in the painting, sculpture, and

architecture of the period. During this period, the concept of the artist as genius developed. II. Social Hierarchies: Many social hierarchies were evident during the Renaissance period. 1. A. Race: The term race was used interchangeably for ethnic, national, and religious groups. Both free and slave blacks lived in Europe, and in the fifteenth century, sizable numbers of black slaves entered Europe. 2. B. Class: The notion of class did not exist in the Renaissance, but the idea of a wealth-based hierarchy was beginning to develop. 3. C. Gender: During the Renaissance, debates occurred that tried to answer questions about the role of women in society. Women earned about half to two-thirds of what men earned for the same work. III. Politics and the State in the Renaissance (ca 14501521): In politics, the Renaissance produced new attitudes toward power and the state. 1. A. France: The monarchs power was strengthened by the creation of a permanent royal army, by the addition of the duchy of Brittany, and by the Concordat of Bologna. 2. B. England: The York victory in the War of the Roses led to a period of reconstruction of the monarchy and the consolidation of royal power. 3. C. Spain: The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella allowed the two monarchs to pursue a common foreign policy, although they did not create a strong political union. 4. D. The Habsburgs: Advantageous marriages aided the Habsburgs in strengthening their power and influence. IV. The Protestant Reformation: For centuries the Catholic Church had faced calls for reform, but in the sixteenth century conditions were ripe for the revolution that came to be known as the Protestant Reformation. 1. A. Criticism of the Church: Corruption and pluralism were two major criticisms of the Church.

2. B. Martin Luther: Provoked by such worldly practices as the sale of indulgences, Martin Luther called for fundamental doctrinal changes based on his ideas of faith and salvation. Such ideas became the basic tenets of Protestantism. 3. C. Protestant Thought and Its Appeal: The appeal of Protestant thought rested on many of the same reforms advocated by Christian humanists. Protestants emphasized religion based on faith, importance of Scriptures, and simplicity in worship. 4. D. The Radical Reformation and the German Peasants War: Radicals insisted on a more complete break with the past. Some German peasants used Luthers ideas on freedom as support for their unsuccessful attempts to revolt against their landlords. 5. E. The Reformation and Marriage: Luther and other Protestants believed vows of celibacy went against both human nature and Gods commandments, and most Protestant reformers married. This attitude made marriage virtually the only occupation for upper-class Protestant women. 6. F. The Reformation and German Politics: Protestantism found political expression in the revolt of the German nobility against Rome and the Holy Roman emperor. This revolt amounted to an attack on religious and political unity that resulted in the collapse of what little unity Germany had. The Peace of Augsburg recognized Lutheranism. 7. G. The Spread of the Protestant Reformation: By the later 1520s, the Protestant Reformation had spread not only to states within the Holy Roman Empire and Denmark-Norway but also to England, France, and eastern Europe. 8. H. Calvinism: Outside of Germany, the Protestant reformer John Calvin had a greater impact on Europe than Luther. Calvins harsh and dogmatic religion spread from Geneva into northern Europe and England.

V. The Catholic Reformation: The Catholic Reformation represented the Catholic Churchs efforts to counter the inroads made by Protestants. 1. A. The Reformed Papacy and the Council of Trent: With the Council of Trent of 15451563, the Catholic Church launched the Counter-Reformation to convince dissidents to return to the church. Long-standing clerical abuses were reformed, new religious orders were formed to advance Catholic education, and the new Holy Office worked to impose conformity within the church. Though only partially successful in its offensive against Protestantism, this movement did prompt the spiritual renewal of the church. 2. B. New Religious Orders: The Ursuline order of nuns and the Society of Jesus were examples of the new religious orders founded in attempts to raise the moral and intellectual level of the clergy and the faithful in general. VI. Religious Violence: The attempts by Catholic monarchs to reestablish religious unity and by both Catholic and Protestant rulers to establish strong, centralized states caused several destructive wars. 1. A. French Religious Wars: The bitter wars of religion in France finally ended with the reign of Henry of Navarre whose Edict of Nantes (1598) granted French Protestants special rights. 2. B. The Netherlands Under Charles V: Spains attempt to maintain religious and political unity within its empire led to a long war in the Netherlands against the Protestant Dutch and their English allies. C. The Great European Witch-Hunt: This age of religious violence saw the emergence of a remarkable increase in witchhunting. Between 75 and 85 percent of those executed were women. Glossary

Anabaptist: The general name given to several Protestant groups that believed that only adults could make an informed decision about baptism and that therefore refused to have their children baptized. anticlericalism: A widespread sentiment in the early sixteenth century characterized by resentment of clerical immorality, ignorance, and absenteeism. A primary cause of the Protestant Reformation. Christitan humanists: Scholars from northern Europe who, in the latter years of the fifteenth century, developed programs for broad social reform based upon concepts set forth in the Renaissance and the ideals of the Christian faith. debate about women: A discussion, which began in the latter years of the fourteenth century, that attempted to answer fundamental questions of gender and define the role of women in society. Diet of Worms: An assembly of the Estates of the Holy Roman Empire convened by Charles V in the German city of Worms. It was here that Martin Luther refused to recant his writings. Edict of Nantes: A declaration issued in 1598 by Henry IV which granted liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Huguenots in 150 fortified French towns. Holy Office: An official Roman Catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat international doctrinal heresy and to promote sound doctrine on faith and morals. Huguenots: French Calvinists, most of which lived in the major cities of Paris, Lyons, and Rouen. humanism: A term first used by Florentine rhetorician Leonard Bruni as a general word for the new learning; the critical study of Latin and Greek literature, with the goal of realizing human potential. iconoclasm: The destruction of a religious symbol or monument. During the Reformation, images of the saints, stained-glass windows, and paintings were destroyed by Protestants on the ground that they violated the Biblical command against graven

images. individualism: A basic feature of the Italian Renaissance stressing personality, uniqueness, genius, and self-consciousness. indulgence: A papal statement granting remission of a priestimposed penalty for sin (no one knew what penalty God would impose after death). Jesuits: Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola and approved by the papacy in 1540, whose goal was the spread of the Roman Catholic faith through humanistic schools and missionary activity. misogyny: A negative attitude toward women as a group. The fact that between seventy-five and eighty-five percent of the victims in the witch-craft trials of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were women is indicative of the misogynic attitude that characterized European society. New Christians: the translation of the Spanish word converso, referring to Spanish Jews who converted to Christianity in the fourteenth century in order to avoid persecution. patrons: Wealth individuals who provide financial support to scholars, painters, sculptors, poets, and architects. Politiques: A group of moderate Catholics and Huguenots who sought to end the religious violence in France by restoring a strong monarchy and granting official recognition to the Huguenots. predestination: Calvins teaching that by Gods decree, some persons are guided to salvation, and others to damnation; that God has called us not according to our works but according to His purpose and grace. Protestant Reformation: A reform movement that began in the early sixteenth century, which rejected the institutionalization of Christianity that characterized the Roman Catholic church and emphasized individual salvation by grace through faith alone. Protestant: Originally meaning "Lutheran," this term came to be generally term applied to all non-Catholic Christians. Renaissance: A French word, translated from the Italian rinascita, first used by art historian and critic Giorgio Vasari (15111574),

meaning rebirth of the culture of classical antiquity; Englishspeaking students adopted the French term. Saint Bartholomews Day massacre: A savage 1572 Catholic attack on Calvinists in Paris that led to the War of the Three Henrys. secularism: An attitude that tends to find the ultimate explanation of everything and the final end of human beings in what reason and the senses can discover, rather than in any spiritual or transcendental belief. signori: An Italian honorific title used to describe the ruler of a Medieval Italian city who had the authority to pass his title on to his son. The Prince: A 1513 treatise by Machiavelli on ways to gain, keep, and expand power; because of its subsequent impact, probably the most important literary work of the Renaissance. transubstantiation: The Lutheran doctrine of the Eucharist that states that when the bread and wine are consecrated by the priest at Mass, they are transformed into the actual Body and Blood of Christ. Union of Utrecht: A treaty signed in 1579 that united the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands (all of which were Protestant) into a single political unity. This led to their declaration of independence from Catholic Spain in 1581. War of the Roses: An exhausting conflict in fifteenth century England between the ducal houses of York (represented by a white rose) and Lancaster (represented by a red rose). The war lasted from 1455 until 1471 and ended with a victory of the Yorkist forces, led by Edward VI. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 15 Key Points I. The Indian Ocean: Hub of an Afro-Eurasian Trading World: The worlds third-largest waterway, the Indian Ocean was the center of the trade routes for many peoples.

1. A. People and Cultures: The world of the Indian Ocean contained diverse peoples who lived mainly from rice farming, the traditional practice of which gave women special authority and economic power. 2. B. Religious Revolutions: The arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean prompted competition between Islam and Christianity for believers in Southeast Asia. Although both faiths won many new adherents, ultimately Islam made the biggest inroads into the region. 3. C. Trade and Commerce: The greatest commercial-port city of the Indian Ocean was Malacca (which means market). II. European Discovery, Reconnaissance, and Expansion: Recovery from the fourteenth century crises helped fuel European interest in expansion. 1. A. Causes of European Expansion: Europeans were initially drawn to this region in search of Southeast Asian spices to feed the lucrative market for those commodities in Europe. Eagerness of individual explorers, lack of opportunity at home, and the ongoing crusading spirit contributed to the cause for expansion. 2. B. Technological Stimuli to Exploration: Technological advances such as the caravel ship, improvements in cartography, and navigational aids assisted the European desires for exploration. 3. C. The Portuguese Overseas Empire: Urged on by the policies of Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese were the first to push out into the Atlantic, reaching Africa and India. 4. D. The Problem of Christopher Columbus: Columbus believed he had landed off the coast of Asia, never realizing the scope of his achievementthe discovery of a new world. 5. E. New World Conquest: The most spectacular of Spains overseas ventures during this period was the conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. These nations fell easily to small Spanish forces for a variety of reasons, including internal

struggles, self-defeating religious systems, and technological and military disadvantages. III. The Impact of Contact: The impact of contact was felt on both native groups and Europeans. 1. A. Colonial Administration: Spain divided its New World territories into four viceroyalties, administrative divisions that allowed Spain to govern the regions. 2. B. The Columbian Exchange: Expansion, conquest, and trade also prompted the Columbian Exchange of foodstuffs and infectious diseases. 3. C. Spanish Settlement and Indigenous Population Decline: These diseases, along with the Spanish encomienda system devastated the Native American populations. 4. D. Sugar and Slavery: The decline of Native American populations and the demand for sugar created the demand for labor that, in turn, stimulated the Atlantic slave trade. IV. Global Trade Networks: European expansion east and west united the world through intercontinental seaborne trade. From this trade rose the great Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch commercial empires. These empires fed European demand that, in turn, stimulated commercial activity and population growth in Asia. V. The Chinese and Japanese Discovery of the West: By the fifteenth century, China was the largest geographical state in the world and possessed far greater maritime knowledge than the Europeans. In China, the lure of international trade encouraged the development of the porcelain and silk industries and the immigration of thousands of Chinese to Southeast Asia. In Japan, trade in spices, silks, and Indian cotton prompted the greater exploitation of Japans silver mines. VI. The World-Wide Economic Effects of Spanish Silver: Spain initially benefited most from this era of expansion. Gold and silver from its New World holdings made the Spanish Netherlands the financial and manufacturing center of Europe, and Spain became Europes greatest military power. In the long run, however, overseas expansion ruined the Spanish economy, caused massive

inflation as far away as China, and failed to prevent the decline of Spains power in Europe. Glossary age of commerce: A period of heavy trading from 1570 to 1630 in which Southeast Asia exchanged its spices and other raw materials for textiles from India, silver from the Americas and Japan, and silk, ceramics, and manufactures from China. astrolabe: An instrument, developed by Muslim navigators in the twelfth century, that allowed mariners to plot their latitude by determining the altitude of the sun and other celestial bodies. audiencia: Presided over by the viceroy, the twelve to fifteen judges who served as advisory council and as the highest judicial body. Aztec Empire: A Native American civilization that possessed advanced mathematical, astronomical, and engineering technology. Its capital, Tenochtitln (now the site of Mexico City), was larger than any contemporary European city. Conquered by Corts in 1520. bride wealth: A Southeast Asian custom whereby at marriage, the groom paid the bride or her family a sum of money that remained under her control. carvel: A small, maneuverable, three-mast sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century. The caravel gave the Portuguese a distinct advantage in exploration and trade Columbian Exchange: The exchange of animals, plants, and diseases between the Old and the New Worlds. conquistador: Spanish for conqueror, the term refers to Spanish soldier/explorers, such as Hernando Corts and Francisco Pizarro, who sought to conquer the New World for the Spanish crown. encomienda system: The Spanish system whereby the Crown granted the conquerors the right to employ groups of Amerindians in a town or area as agricultural or mining laborers or as tribute payers; it was a legalized form of slavery.

General History of the Indies: A fifty-volume first-hand description of the natural plants, animals, and peoples of Spanish America. Oviedo was a former colonial administrator who was named Historian of the Indies by the King of Spain in 1532. Inca Empire: the Peruvian empire that was at its peak from 1438 to 1532 magnetic compass: An invention that allowed sailors to determine their position and direction at sea. portolans: Fifteenth-century Portuguese written descriptions of maritime routes showing bays, coves, capes, ports, and the distance between these places. Ptolemy: The author of a second century C.E. work that synthesized the classical knowledge of geography and introduced the concepts of longitude and latitude. The work was reintroduced to Europeans in 1410 by Arab scholars and provided a template for later geographical scholarship. quinto: One-fifth of all precious metals mined in the Americas that the Crown claimed as its own. sugar: Originally from the Philippines, sugar quickly became a demanded luxury in Europe. Sugar plants were brought to the New World by Columbus and became the primary crop for export. The need for workers on sugar plantations, particularly in Brazil, led to a tremendous increase in the African slave trade. viceroyalties: The name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata.. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------