Over the years, numerous studies have been conducted to examine students' beliefs and

attitudes toward mathematics. Implicit in much of this research is the assumption that
positive affect might lead to positive achievement behavior (see McLeod, 1992, for a
review). While some psychologists emphasize the role of ability-related self-perceptions
in motivating achievement behavior, others attribute equal importance to subjective task
values in predicting behavior (see Eccles, Wigfield, Harold, & Blumenfeld, 1993, for a
discussion). These subjective task values are defined in terms of interest in and
enjoyment of the task, perceived importance of being good at the task, and perceived
usefulness of the task.

Although considerable research has been conducted on the beliefs and attitudes toward
mathematics among middle school and older students, relatively less research has been
done on these topics with elementary-level students (however, see Eccles et al., 1993). In
part, this may be due to the fact that no gender differences in quantitative performance
have been observed in the early elementary years (see Leder,1992, for a review). The
existing research on affect in mathematics education at the elementary school level
suggests that most children like mathematics and that there are no significant differences
in the attitudes of girls and boys (e.g., Rathbone,1989; Suydam,1984). Nonetheless, there
is evidence of gender difference in the students' subjective views of their own
competence: even at this young age, boys hold more positive beliefs than girls about their
competence in mathematics (e.g., Eccles et al., 1993; Rathbone, 1989).

At the elementary level, there are few reports on the perceived usefulness and importance
of mathematics, gender stereotyping of the field of mathematics, and perceptions about
the relation between mathematics and other areas of the curriculum. Little research exists
on children's attitudes towards the different strands of mathematics. This information
would be useful assuming close links between affect and activity choice (e.g.,
Bandura,1989; Nicholls,1984; Schunk, 1984).

A recent formative program review in a large urban school district provided an

opportunity to survey the beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics among third- and
fifth-grade students. The survey addressed (a) students' enjoyment of mathematics in
general, as well as the various strands of mathematics; (b) perceived competence at
mathematics; and (c) the perceived importance, usefulness, and relevance of
mathematics. In addition, the survey included items about the process of doing
mathematics and the relation of mathematics to other curricular subjects. Responses of
girls and boys were analyzed and compared.

Method

Schools

Sixty elementary schools were randomly selected to participate in the review. The
average enrollment for elementary schools in the school district is approximately 400
students. The percentage of students whose primary language at home is not English is
43%. The major non-English languages spoken at home include Portuguese, Spanish,
Italian, and Polish. English was the primary language of instruction in all schools
involved in the study, and all 60 schools were coeducational.

Respondents

In each school, one class of Grade 3 students and one class of Grade 5 students was
randomly selected to complete the survey conducted in the spring of 1994. A total of
1,344 Grade 3 students (679 girls and 665 boys) and 1,412 Grade 5 students (745 girls
and 667 boys) participated. From each grade, a sample of 660 girls and 660 boys was
randomly selected for further analyses. Consistent with the ethnocultural diversity of the
school district population, 46% of respondents indicated that their parents always spoke
English at home, 47% reported sometimes, and 7% indicated never. The vast majority of
students (94%) reported that they had lived in Canada for at least 2 years. The majority of
students (91%) indicated that they had a calculator at home; only 50% stated that they
had a computer at home.

Over the years, numerous studies have been conducted to examine students' beliefs and
attitudes toward mathematics. Implicit in much of this research is the assumption that
positive affect might lead to positive achievement behavior (see McLeod, 1992, for a
review). While some psychologists emphasize the role of ability-related self-perceptions
in motivating achievement behavior, others attribute equal importance to subjective task
values in predicting behavior (see Eccles, Wigfield, Harold, & Blumenfeld, 1993, for a
discussion). These subjective task values are defined in terms of interest in and
enjoyment of the task, perceived importance of being good at the task, and perceived
usefulness of the task.

Although considerable research has been conducted on the beliefs and attitudes toward
mathematics among middle school and older students, relatively less research has been
done on these topics with elementary-level students (however, see Eccles et al., 1993). In
part, this may be due to the fact that no gender differences in quantitative performance
have been observed in the early elementary years (see Leder,1992, for a review). The
existing research on affect in mathematics education at the elementary school level
suggests that most children like mathematics and that there are no significant differences
in the attitudes of girls and boys (e.g., Rathbone,1989; Suydam,1984). Nonetheless, there
is evidence of gender difference in the students' subjective views of their own
competence: even at this young age, boys hold more positive beliefs than girls about their
competence in mathematics (e.g., Eccles et al., 1993; Rathbone, 1989).

At the elementary level, there are few reports on the perceived usefulness and importance
of mathematics, gender stereotyping of the field of mathematics, and perceptions about
the relation between mathematics and other areas of the curriculum. Little research exists
on children's attitudes towards the different strands of mathematics. This information
would be useful assuming close links between affect and activity choice (e.g.,
Bandura,1989; Nicholls,1984; Schunk, 1984).
A recent formative program review in a large urban school district provided an
opportunity to survey the beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics among third- and
fifth-grade students. The survey addressed (a) students' enjoyment of mathematics in
general, as well as the various strands of mathematics; (b) perceived competence at
mathematics; and (c) the perceived importance, usefulness, and relevance of
mathematics. In addition, the survey included items about the process of doing
mathematics and the relation of mathematics to other curricular subjects. Responses of
girls and boys were analyzed and compared.

Method

Schools

Sixty elementary schools were randomly selected to participate in the review. The
average enrollment for elementary schools in the school district is approximately 400
students. The percentage of students whose primary language at home is not English is
43%. The major non-English languages spoken at home include Portuguese, Spanish,
Italian, and Polish. English was the primary language of instruction in all schools
involved in the study, and all 60 schools were coeducational.

Respondents

In each school, one class of Grade 3 students and one class of Grade 5 students was
randomly selected to complete the survey conducted in the spring of 1994. A total of
1,344 Grade 3 students (679 girls and 665 boys) and 1,412 Grade 5 students (745 girls
and 667 boys) participated. From each grade, a sample of 660 girls and 660 boys was
randomly selected for further analyses. Consistent with the ethnocultural diversity of the
school district population, 46% of respondents indicated that their parents always spoke
English at home, 47% reported sometimes, and 7% indicated never. The vast majority of
students (94%) reported that they had lived in Canada for at least 2 years. The majority of
students (91%) indicated that they had a calculator at home; only 50% stated that they
had a computer at home. The Survey

The survey was adapted from an Ontario Ministry of Education (1989) survey entitled
Student Questionnaire: Mathematics, part of the 1988-1989 provincial reviews of
mathematics and reading for Grade 6. Items in the survey were consistent with
curriculum planning guidelines used in the school district. Students were told that they
would be asked questions about school activities related to mathematics and their feelings
toward them. They were informed that there were no right or wrong answers to the
questions on the survey, and that their answers may be different from their classmates.
Students were instructed not to write their name on the survey. The entire survey was
read out loud to Grade 3 students; students responded as the items were read out.
Students in Grade 5 worked on the survey independently. Items on the survey were
presented in multiple-choice format, and students were required to circle the response
that best applied to them.

Related Results
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The survey contained 22 items that addressed students' attitudes and perceptions
regarding mathematics. Other information that was collected concerned demographics,
classroom practices, parental involvement, and activities at home, all of which were of
interest to educators at the school district. For the majority of items, students were
required to circle the appropriate response from a set of three alternatives:

"1 " (Yes) if they agreed, "2" (No) if they disagreed, and

"3" if they were unsure. For a few items, students were required to choose from a
different set of response alternatives.

Results

Eighteen of the 22 items are shown in Table 1. These items have been categorized into
three sections: (a) Liking Mathematics, (b) Perceived Mathematics Competence, and (c)
Beliefs Regarding Mathematics Relevance. For these items, students were required to
select one response from a set of three alternatives: "1" (Yes) if they agreed, "2" (No) if
they disagreed and "3" if they were unsure. For purposes of conducting reliability
calculations, the latter two categories (i.e., "2" and "3") were grouped together.
Cronbach's alpha values were .75, .45, and .53 for each of the three sections respectively.
For each of the 18 items, the percentages of "yes" responses among girls and boys in
Grades 3 and 5 are shown in Table 1. The remaining four items related primarily to
students' beliefs about the process of learning mathematics; responses to these items are
summarized in Table 2.

Liking Mathematics

Ten items were included in the Liking Mathematics section (see Table 1). Chi-square tests
for independence between gender and grade were conducted to determine if the
proportions of male and female respondents who agreed (i.e., selected the "yes" option)
with questionnaire items were different in Grade 3 and Grade 5. These tests revealed
statistically significant differences only for Item 19, Chi^sub 2^(1) = 4.73, p

The remaining nine items in the Liking Mathematics category were subsequently
examined using separate chi-square goodness-of-fit tests for grade (collapsed across
gender) and gender (collapsed across grade). A statistically significant difference was
obtained for Item 20 with respect to both gender and grade level; fewer girls than boys
indicated that they liked solving mathematics problems that made them think a lot,
Chi^sub 2^(1) = 7.24, p

Students differed in their reports of liking measurement and geometry. In both grades,
more boys than girls stated that they liked measurement, Chi^sub 2^(1) = 5.33, p
Although mathematics does not appear to be the favorite subject of many students (see
Item 44), the percentage of students who indicated that they "liked mathematics" was
generally high (70 to 79%). As noted earlier, a relatively lower percentage of students (43
to 55%) said that they liked the mathematics they did in school (cf. Items 19 and 39). The
reason for this difference is not readily apparent.

Perceived Mathematics Competence

Three items were included in the Perceived Mathematics Competence section (see Table
1). In only one instance was there a significant difference in the pattern of responding
across genders at the two grade levels: Item 41, Chi^sub 2^(1) = 4.51, p

Perhaps the most critical finding was obtained when students were asked if they were
good at mathematics (Item 37). In both Grades 3 and 5, more boys than girls indicated
that they were good at mathematics, Chi^sub 2^(1) = 14.67, p

Beliefs Regarding Mathematics Relevance Four items were included in the section
Beliefs Regarding Mathematics Relevance (see Table 1). We found no differences
associated with gender but remarkable differences between the two grades. Significantly
more students in Grade 5 than in Grade 3 indicated that mathematics helps them outside
of school, Chi^sub 2^(1) = 33.95, p

Mathematics

The data pertaining to students' perceptions about the process of mathematics learning are
shown in Table 2. There were no significant differences in responding associated with
gender. About half the students in both grades (51 to 64%) agreed that learning
mathematics is mostly memorizing, whereas, the remainder either disagreed or were
unsure. This result is consistent with reports of secondary students (e.g., Schoenfeld,
1989). Nonetheless, in both grades, between 70 to 85% of students thought that there are
usually many ways to solve a mathematics problem.

Students in both grades appeared to recognize that there was a relation between learning
mathematics and learning other subjects, supporting an integrated view of learning.
Although nearly one third of the students in both grades were unsure about the relation of
learning mathematics and other subjects, between 10 and 20% of students indicated that
learning mathematics was mostly like learning either language or art, and more than 30%
indicated that mathematics was mostly like learning science.

Finally, responses to Item 45 suggested that students in both grades held a "gender-free"
view of mathematics. An overwhelming majority of students (between 88 and 97%)
indicated that both girls and boys should learn mathematics.

Discussion
One of the most important findings presented in this paper is that more boys than girls
consider themselves to be "good" at mathematics, even though no gender differences
were observed on many other variables including "liking mathematics." Apparently, even
as early as Grade 3, a higher proportion of boys than girls report feeling competent in
mathematics, and this pattern is repeated in Grade 5.

Most research on gender differences in student attitudes regarding mathematics has

focused on the attitudes of older students. For example, in the Fourth NAEP Mathematics
Assessment, males were more likely to report being good at mathematics, even though
both genders were equally likely to report enjoying mathematics (in Steinback &
Gwizdala, 1995). These authors also reported significant gender differences in attitudes
towards mathematics, self-confidence, and perceived usefulness, in favor of males.
Similar results were reported by Fennema and Sherman (1978), who found that among
students in Grades 6 through 11, males were consistently more confident in their ability
to learn mathematics than females and thought that males were more adapted to
mathematics than females. In the high school grades, males were more likely than
females to perceive that mathematics was useful.

The few studies conducted with younger children also support the observation that boys
perceive themselves to be better at mathematics than girls. As part of a comprehensive
longitudinal study (Grades 1 to 4), Eccles et al. (1993) found that younger children's
perceptions of competence and subjective task values were more positive than those of
older children. Secondly, they reported that girls and boys valued mathematics equally,
but boys were more likely to believe that they were more competent than girls. Rathbone
(1989) observed a similar pattern with Grade 5 students. Our results concur with those
reported by these authors.

Based on decades of research on gender differences in mathematics learning,

investigators have put forth a large number of possible explanations to account for their
observations. Much of the emphasis in the proposed explanatory models involve
"environmental" variables and "learner-related" variables (Leder, 1992). Environmental
variables include the influence of teachers, parents, peer groups, and society in general.
Collectively, these variables are thought to reinforce gender-stereotyped expectations and
behaviors in the learner. Some of the learner-related variables that have been identified
include confidence, fear of success, attributions of success and failure, and persistence. It
is believed that these variables affect males and females in ways that result in attitudes
and behaviors that are differentiated by gender. The results reported in this paper will be
discussed in light of some of the proposed explanations reviewed by Leder (1992),
although it must be emphasized that, given the nature of the present study, these
explanations are purely speculative.

No gender or grade differences emerged when students were asked whether they like
mathematics. However, even though between 70 to 80% of students reported that they
like mathematics (Item 39), the percentage of students who indicated that they liked the
mathematics that they do in school (Item 19) was lower and the difference more
pronounced for girls in Grade 5 (43%) than for boys (52%). Leder (1992) suggests that
there has traditionally been a difference between males and females in the areas in which
they are expected to work for success: men value achievement in intellectual and
leadership areas, whereas women value work requiring well-developed social skills.
Similarly, other research indicates that males prefer leisure activities focused on skills
and mastery of objects, whereas females prefer activities that emphasize interpersonal
relationships. Some researchers have argued that these expectations form part of the
"gender stereotypes" that are reinforced through teacher and parent behavior and through
the media. These preferences develop with age and may become more differentiated
between Grades 3 and 5. They might also explain why fewer girls, relative to boys,
indicated that they liked solving mathematics problems that make them think.

More boys than girls in both grades reported liking measurement. This strand of
mathematics typically involves much classroom activity and demonstration. Some of
these activities include estimation, comparison, and investigation in measuring distance,
capacity, mass, temperature, money, and time. Thus, based on the gender differences
described above, one might expect measurement to be an area that would be more
popular among boys than girls. It is therefore possible that measurement is
characteristically introduced through traditionally male activities. If so, it may be useful
to teach measurement using a variety of methods that include activities that typically
appeal to boys, as well as activities that typically appeal to girls.

Some developmental differences are apparent in students' attitudes toward specific

strands of mathematics. Generally, third graders appear to favor subtraction less than fifth
graders do; fifth graders favor measurement, geometry, and problem solving less than
third graders do. The reasons for this are not readily apparent, although possibly these are
the strands that students in the respective grades find most challenging.

Although further analysis is necessary, the variability in students' responses suggests that
students in both grades are able to identify their attitudes toward the different strands of
mathematics. In addition, students' conceptualization of the field seems largely dominated
by basic arithmetic, and addition, in particular (cf., McDonald & Kouba, 1986). Between
70 and 80% of students indicated that they like mathematics and that they like addition;
the percentages of students who stated that they liked the other strands were lower. These
results are consistent with anecdotal evidence suggesting that subtraction is less popular
than addition, and division less popular than multiplication.

As discussed earlier, more boys than girls reported feeling competent in mathematics.
Although a relatively low percentage of girls and boys indicated that mathematics was
hard for them, this percentage dropped for boys from 14% in Grade 3 to 9% in Grade 5
but remained constant at about 12% in both years for girls. These observations are
consistent with the view that gender-stereotyped beliefs become internalized with age.
Whether the confidence expressed by boys is unique to the area of mathematics or
whether this is reflective of generally higher levels of confidence cannot be evaluated
using the present data. Further study using appropriate control questions would be needed
to assess this possibility.

We found no gender differences in students' perceptions concerning the relevance of

mathematics, a finding which is not consistent with reports from older students (see
Leder, 1992). However, a developmental pattern was clearly evident. More students in
Grade 5 seemed to be aware of the usefulness and relevance of mathematics outside of
school. Because perceived usefulness is thought to be an important determinant of
activity choice (e.g., Feather, 1988; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992), it may therefore be
valuable to make mathematics seem relevant in the early grades, perhaps by providing
students with real-life applications more frequently (e.g., simulating a shopping
transaction).

More boys than girls in both grades reported liking measurement. This strand of
mathematics typically involves much classroom activity and demonstration. Some of
these activities include estimation, comparison, and investigation in measuring distance,
capacity, mass, temperature, money, and time. Thus, based on the gender differences
described above, one might expect measurement to be an area that would be more
popular among boys than girls. It is therefore possible that measurement is
characteristically introduced through traditionally male activities. If so, it may be useful
to teach measurement using a variety of methods that include activities that typically
appeal to boys, as well as activities that typically appeal to girls.

Some developmental differences are apparent in students' attitudes toward specific

strands of mathematics. Generally, third graders appear to favor subtraction less than fifth
graders do; fifth graders favor measurement, geometry, and problem solving less than
third graders do. The reasons for this are not readily apparent, although possibly these are
the strands that students in the respective grades find most challenging.

Although further analysis is necessary, the variability in students' responses suggests that
students in both grades are able to identify their attitudes toward the different strands of
mathematics. In addition, students' conceptualization of the field seems largely dominated
by basic arithmetic, and addition, in particular (cf., McDonald & Kouba, 1986). Between
70 and 80% of students indicated that they like mathematics and that they like addition;
the percentages of students who stated that they liked the other strands were lower. These
results are consistent with anecdotal evidence suggesting that subtraction is less popular
than addition, and division less popular than multiplication.

As discussed earlier, more boys than girls reported feeling competent in mathematics.
Although a relatively low percentage of girls and boys indicated that mathematics was
hard for them, this percentage dropped for boys from 14% in Grade 3 to 9% in Grade 5
but remained constant at about 12% in both years for girls. These observations are
consistent with the view that gender-stereotyped beliefs become internalized with age.
Whether the confidence expressed by boys is unique to the area of mathematics or
whether this is reflective of generally higher levels of confidence cannot be evaluated
using the present data. Further study using appropriate control questions would be needed
to assess this possibility.

We found no gender differences in students' perceptions concerning the relevance of

mathematics, a finding which is not consistent with reports from older students (see
Leder, 1992). However, a developmental pattern was clearly evident. More students in
Grade 5 seemed to be aware of the usefulness and relevance of mathematics outside of
school. Because perceived usefulness is thought to be an important determinant of
activity choice (e.g., Feather, 1988; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992), it may therefore be
valuable to make mathematics seem relevant in the early grades, perhaps by providing
students with real-life applications more frequently (e.g., simulating a shopping
transaction).

We found a few noteworthy results about students' perceptions of the mathematical

processes. Students' responses suggest a recognition of the relation between mathematics
and other curricular areas, a finding that is encouraging to practitioners (although there is
room for improvement). Interestingly, the vast majority of students indicated that children
of both sexes should learn mathematics (Item 45), even though, consistent with cultural
stereotypes, males perceive themselves as more competent. In addition, girls and boys
were equally likely to state that their parents really wanted them to learn mathematics
(Item 42), contrary to what might be predicted on the basis of gender-stereotyped
expectations.

This paper makes two important contributions. First, the differences in the responses that
were observed between students in Grades 3 and 5 and the analyses of gender differences
in the respective grades strongly suggest the need for more research during elementary
years. Although the reasons forthe observed differences discussed above are highly
speculative, they clearly highlight the merits of conducting grade-by-grade analyses even
in the early elementary years. Second, the results regarding gender differences in
perceived competence in mathematics support those of Eccles et al. (1993). Assuming the
close link between abilityrelated perceptions and achievement motivation that is proposed
by various psychologists (e.g.,Bandura, 1989; Nicholls, 1984; Schunk, 1984), both sets of
data suggest that intervention may be beneficial in the early elementary years.

Author Note: We thank the principals, teachers, and students for their cooperation and
participation. We are also grateful to James Feeney, our department head, and to the
Mathematics Review Committee, especially Brian McCudden and Anne Cirillo, for their
support and assistance in conducting this research.

Opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the opinions or policy of the Metropolitan Separate School Board.

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Marina Vanayan, Nicholas White, Patricia Yuen, and Maria Teper Metropolitan Separate
School Board, Toronto

Correspondence concerning this article may be sent to Marina Vanayan, Research

Department, Metropolitan Separate School Board, 80 Sheppard Ave. E.,
Toronto/Willowdale, Ontario, M2N 6E8, CANADA.