Mod 3 Final

EASA PART 66 Course Notes
Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies School of Aeronautical Engineering Electrical Fundamentals Module 3
Amendment and Annual Review Record

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School of Aeronautical Engineering

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 ELECTRON THEORY __________________________________ 3 STATIC ELECTRICITY AND CONDUCTION _________________ 10 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY___________________________ 11 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY _________________________ 16 DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY _________________________ 20 DC CIRCUITS _______________________________________ 34 RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS _________________________ 38 POWER ___________________________________________ 62 CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITORS ______________________ 66 MAGNETISM ______________________________________ 80 INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTORS________________________ 98 DC MOTOR AND GENERATOR THEORY _________________112 AC THEORY _______________________________________143 RESISTIVE, CAPACITIVE AND INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS _______153 TRANSFORMERS __________________________________177 Filters ___________________________________________191 AC GENERATORS __________________________________196 AC MOTORS ______________________________________204 2

3.1 ELECTRON THEORY
Matter Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and may be classified in a number of ways. States of Matter There are three normal states of matter: Solid: A solid has definite mass, volume and shape. Liquid: A liquid has definite mass and volume but takes the shape of its container. Gas: A gas has definite mass but takes the volume and shape of its container. Chemical Classification From a chemical view we again have three divisions: Elements: An element is a substance which cannot by any known chemical process be split into two or more chemically simpler substances. Eg: Hydrogen, Oxygen, Copper, Iron, Aluminium, carbon. 3 Mixtures:
Compounds:
A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically joined together. Eg: Water Hydrogen and Oxygen, Salt (Sodium and Chlorine), Sulphuric Acid (Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulphur). A mixture consists of elements or compounds which are brought together by a physical process. Eg: Salt and Sand, Earth and sawdust, Carbon and Iron Filings.
However, material may also be classified according to the particles it contains; this is the atomic view of matter. This view gives us a better understanding of electrical and electronic phenomena and is the view we shall concentrate upon.

Molecules Let us take a piece of matter, for example, a drop of water and see what happens when it is sub-divided into smaller and smaller portions. The drop is first cut in half, each half drop-let halved and so on indefinitely. The resulting smaller and smaller droplets will soon become invisible to the naked eye, but it is known what happens if the process could be carried far enough; a point would eventually be reached where the particles of water are of such a size that further sub-division would split them into the hydrogen and oxygen of which they are composed. These last minute particles of water are known as molecules and are the smallest particles of water which can exist alone and still behave chemically as water. Every material is built-up from molecules and there are as many different molecules as there are different substances in existence. Molecules: The molecule of an element or compound is the smallest particle of it which can normally exist separately. It consists of one or more atoms, of the same or different types joined together. Atoms: If a water molecule could be magnified sufficiently it would be seen to consist of three smaller particles closely bound together. These three particles are ATOMS, two of hydrogen and one of oxygen. The water is a compound; the oxygen and hydrogen are elements. Every element has atoms of its own type. There are 92 naturally occurring elements and therefore 92 types of naturally occurring atoms.
Every molecule consists of atoms. Molecules of elements contain atoms of the same types, for example the hydrogen molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen joined together, the oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen joined together, but the molecules of compound contain different atoms joined together. 4

Most molecules contain more than one atom but some elements can exist as single atoms. In such a case the atom is also the molecule. For example the Helium atom is also the Helium molecule. An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in a chemical change. The Structure of an Atom The Nucleus and Electrons: Atoms themselves are also composed of even smaller particles. Let us take an atom of hydrogen as an example. A hydrogen atom is very small indeed (about 10 10 in diameter), but if it could be magnified sufficiently it would be seen to consist of a core or nucleus with a particle called an electron travelling around it in an elliptical orbit. The nucleus has a positive charge of electricity and the electron an equal negative charge; thus the whole atom is electrically neutral and the electrical attraction keeps the electron circling the nucleus. Atoms of other elements have more than one electron travelling around the nucleus, the nucleus containing sufficient positive charges to balance the number of electrons. Protons and Neutrons: The particles in the nucleus each carrying a positive charge are called protons. In addition to the protons the nucleus usually contains electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Neutrons have the same mass as protons whereas electrons are 1 very much smaller only of the mass of a proton. 1836 The Fundamental Particles Although other atomic particles are known, the three fundamental ones are: Protons: The proton has unit mass and carries a unit positive charge. Neutron: The neutron has unit mass but no electrical charge. 5

1 unit of mass but 1836 it carries a unit negative charge. Thus although we have 92 types of naturally occurring atoms, they are all builtup from different numbers of these three fundamental particles. Thus our picture of the structure of matter is as shown below. Electron: The electron has only Particle function Protons: The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of material: E.g. Hydrogen 1 proton Helium 2 protons Lithium 3 protons Beryllium 4 protons Copper 29 protons Uranium 92 protons The number of protons is referred to as the atomic number, thus the atomic number of copper is 29. Neutrons: The neutron simply adds to the weight of the nucleus and hence the atom. There is no simple rule for determining the number of neutrons in any atom. In fact atoms of the same kind can contain different numbers of neutrons. For example chlorine may contain 18 20 neutrons in its nucleus. The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are called isotopes. The weight of an atom is due to the protons and neutrons (the electrons are negligible in weight), thus the atomic weight is virtually equal to the sum of the protons and the neutrons. 6

Electrons: The electron orbits define the size or volume occupied by the atom. The electrons travel in orbits which are many times the diameter of the nucleus and hence the space occupied by an atom is virtually empty! The electrical properties of the atom are determined by how tightly the electrons are bound by electrical attraction to the nucleus. Ions A neutral atom contains an equal number of positive charges (protons) and negative charges (electrons). Atoms however do not always exist in the neutral form and it is possible for atoms to gain and lose electrons. An atom (or possibly a group of atoms) which loses an electron has lost one of its negative charges and is therefore left with an excess of one positive charge; it is called a positive ion. An atom that gains an electron has an excess of negative charge and is called a negative ion. Electrical materials Materials which allow an electric current to flow easily are known as conductors and those which prevent the flow of an appreciable current are known as insulators. Conductors and insulators are used in electrical circuits to provide paths for and to control the flow of, electric current. Practically all normal materials are either good conductors or good insulators. There are, however, a few materials which fall between these two categories and these are called semiconductors. Semiconductors will be studied in detail when we begin the electronics phase of the course. The best electrical conductor is silver, but for most purposes its high cost is prohibitive so copper is the standard conductor material. Aluminium is an alternative, but it is not such a good conductor. Brass, which is harder than copper, is commonly used for terminals, switches etc. Tungsten and nickel are used in the construction of lamps and thermionic valves. Electron distribution The atoms of a solid have electrons rotating in orbits around the positive nucleus. This is true of gases and 7

liquids as well. These orbiting electrons exist in energy shells or levels. To calculate the maximum No of electrons that can exist in a shell the formula 2n2 can be used, where 'n' is the shell number. The potential energy (energy of position) increases with distance out from the nucleus. The outermost occupied energy level is called the valence shell. This is a higher energy level than the energy levels of electrons in the other shells since the electrons are rotating further from the nucleus. The electrons in the valence shell can most easily pass from one atom to another and thus constitute an electric current. Furthermore, the valence electrons are the ones that go into chemical reactions, or combinations, with other atoms. When an outside influence such as an electronic field or addition of heat is applied a valence electron may acquire sufficient energy to jump through a forbidden (energy) gap and on into the conductor band where it is free of any influence of the positive nucleus and becomes a carrier of electricity, ready to take the place of another electron that has just left its own atom, in the same manner. Ionisation If the amount of external energy is large enough the valence electron can gain sufficient kinetic energy (energy of movement) to be removed completely from its atomic orbit and may not be replaced by another accelerated electron. This process is known as ionisation, since an atom which now contains one more proton than can be neutralised by the remaining electrons is a positive ion. Gas-filled devices such as Neon tubes make use of this process. In a solid where 8

atoms are close together, simple ionisation does not occur as with individual items. Energy levels The energy levels, measured in electron volts in which orbiting electrons exist comply with a law of physics which states that energy can be given to electrons only in discrete amounts (quanta) which means that there are energy values that an electron cannot acquire. From this it can be deducted that there is a forbidden energy gap between each of the allowed energy bands K to O. The width of the forbidden energy gap between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band determine the electrical conducting properties of materials. Conductors Elements with 1 or 2 electrons in their outer orbits readily transfer them from atom to atom, because there is an overlap between the valence and conduction bands. Silver and copper elements are good conductors. Insulators Elements with 6 to 8 valence electrons cannot have electrons-in the conduction bands because the forbidden gap is to large. Sulphur and rubber elements are insulators. Semi-conductors The elements Germanium and Silicon have four electrons in their valence shells. In conductivity they lie between good conductors and good insulators, ie; they are semi-conductors.

3.2 STATIC ELECTRICITY AND CONDUCTION
If electrons are removed from one material and placed on another or if they are moved from one region of a material to another we have a separation of charge. The material or area receiving electrons becomes negatively charged and the material or region having lost electrons, positively charged. If these accumulations of charge remain stationary after their transfer then the build up of charge is referred to as static electricity. Fundamental Law of Electrostatics It is observed that if negatively charged bodies are made to approach each other there is a force of repulsion between them and similarly with two positively charged bodies. If however a positively charged body is brought close to a negatively charged body they attract each other. Hence: Like Charges Repel, Unlike Charges Attract. Unit Of Charge The charge on an electron is very small, therefore a more practical unit of charge called a Coulomb, has been chosen:
One Coulomb
6.29 x 1018 electrons
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3.3 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Voltage Voltage is the electrical equivalent of mechanical potential. If a person drops a rock from the first storey of a building, the velocity it will reach when dropped will be fairly small. However, if the rock is dropped from the twentieth floor, it will have reached a much greater velocity on reaching the ground. On the twentieth floor the rock had much more potential energy. The potential energy of an electrical supply is given by its voltage. The greater the voltage of a supply source, the greater its potential to produce a current flow. Thus, a 115 volt supply has 115 times the potential to produce a current flow than a 1 volt supply. Potential If one coulomb of electrons is added to a body and one joule of work has been done, then the body will acquire of potential of 1 volt. If the electrons had been removed, then the body would have acquired a potential of +1 volt. The unit of potential is the volt. Potential Difference When charges move from one point to another, it is not the actual values of potential at those points which are Important, but the potential different (pd) through which the charge has travelled. Just as lifting weight in the gymnasium, the height above sea level is not important, but the distance between the gym floor and the height of ones body. In cases where an actual level of potential is required, the zero of potential is taken as Earth and whenever the potential at a point is given, it means the difference in potential between the point and the earths surface. If one coulomb of electricity requires one joule of work to move it between two points, then there is a potential difference of 1 volt between them If a current flows round a circuit, then a potential difference must exist between any two points in that circuit and each point in the circuit must be at a different potential. However because there is very little opposition to current flow in conducting wires, very little potential difference is required to push the current along the wires and it is normally assumed to be zero. Whenever the opposition to current flow is not negligible, then a potential different exists across that component to push the electrons through the device. 11

The converse is also true, if no current is flowing, then no potential difference exists. The larger the potential difference the larger the current. Electromotive Force emf To make use of electricity by provision of an electric current, the potential different must be maintained. That is, the positive and negative charge must be continuously replenished. A cell (or battery) uses chemical energy to maintain the potential difference. Another device used for this purpose is the generator, which uses electro-mechanical energy to maintain the potential difference. The potential difference across the terminals of the source (cell, battery or generator) when it is not supplying current, is called Electromotive Force (emf), since this is a measure of the force available to push electrons around the circuit. In a circuit with a current flowing, the potential difference across the terminals of the source is always less than the emf and is referred to as the terminal voltage. Current The SI unit of current is the ampere (A). Although it is known that electric current is a flow of electrons, this flow cannot be measured directly. Movement Of Charge Although electric current is referred to as the flow of electrons through a conductor, it should be noted that more exactly, any movement of electric charge constitutes an electric current. Thus, passage of electricity may occur through a: Conductor such as metal, due to the movement of the loosely held outer electrons of the atoms. Vacuum or gas, due to the movement of electrons. Gas, due to the movement of the ionised gas molecules. Liquid, due to the ionisation of certain molecules, particularly those of acids and salts in solution (e.g. Electrolytes).
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The ampere may be defined in terms of the mechanical units of force and length, a more helpful picture is that of moving electrons. When a current of one ampere is flowing in a conductor, one coulomb (6.29 x 1018 electrons) of charge passes any point in the conductor every second. The ampere is thus a measure if the rate of flow of electrons. The Coulomb and the Ampere Since: Conventional Flow An applied emf causes directional flow. Using conventional flow the charge carriers are considered to be positive, that is they leave the positive terminal of a supply and return to the negative terminal. This form of flow was decided upon before anybody knew exactly what current flow was, however it is still widely used in Britain and will be assumed throughout the course, unless stated otherwise. Electron Flow It is now known that current flow is a movement of negatively charged particles i.e. electrons. Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. This form of flow is referred to as electron flow and is used extensively in the United States.
One coulomb = 6.29 x
1018
electrons
One ampere = a rate of flow of 6.29 x 1018 electrons per second, Then one ampere = one coulomb per second
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Resistance An electric current is a flow of free electrons through a conductor. The size of current flowing through a conductor for a given applied voltage depends on: The number of free electrons. The opposition to free movement of the electrons caused by the structure of the material. These two factors taken together give an effective opposition to current flow which is called resistance. To simplify matters it is usual to ignore the second factor and equate good conductors to a large number of free electrons and poor conductors to fewer free electrons. Hence, a good conductor is a material which has low resistance, i.e. a large number of free electrons, and allows a large current to flow. Conversely a poor conductor has a high resistance, i.e. few free electrons and allows only a small current to flow for the same applied voltage. Because the value of the current flowing is determined by the resistance in the circuit, current flow can be controlled by varying the resistance. Even the best conductors have resistance. Factors Affecting Resistance The four factors that affect the resistance of a wire conductor are: Material (). Some materials conduct better than others. Length (l). Resistance is directly proportional to length thus if the length is doubled (other factors remaining constant), resistance is doubled. Cross Sectional Area (A). Resistance is inversely proportional to A. Thus if the cross sectional area is doubled, resistance is halved. Temperature. Temperature affects the number of free electrons and hence resistance. Units of resistance Resistance is measured in ohms, symbol (omega). The resistance of a piece of material is one ohm if a potential difference of one volt applied across it causes a current of one ampere to flow.
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Conductance and conductivity Also, the conductance (G) of a material is the reciprocal of its resistance and is:
The conductivity of a material is the reciprocal of its resistively. It is given the Greek symbol (sigma) and has the units Siemens per metre (S/m). Thus at 0 C copper has a conductivity of; INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Conductance and conductivity are rarely used in the course, but a mention is required.
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3.4 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
charge) with cats fur (becomes positively charged). Everyday examples are: Combing the hair (dry). The comb attracts the individual hairs and the hairs repel each other and stand on end. Removing a shirt (especially nylon). The shirt crackles and sparks may be seen, the shirt is also attracted to the body. The receiving of electric shock from cars (also aircraft) when touching them on the outside. Here the charge has been produced by the friction of air passing around the vehicle. The rapid collection of dust by records. The dust is attracted by the charge built up on the record produced by friction of handling and playing. Lightning flash is a result of the build up of static electricity in clouds. Although not used to produce electricity for any aircraft systems, static electricity is generated by friction as the aircraft moves through the air and will therefore be considered at various points throughout the course.
Very large amounts of electrical energy lie dormant in the atoms of every speck of material in the universe. Whilst the atoms remain electrically balanced however, this electricity cannot be put to any practical use. What is needed is some form of external energy that will separate the electrons from their nuclei. In this way, the external energy that is applied will give rise to electrical energy. There are six sources of external energy that are capable of separating the electrons from their nuclei; these are friction, pressure, magnetism, heat, light and chemical action. By Friction Static electricity that is the separation and build-up of charge is an everyday phenomenon that is often caused by friction the physical stripping of electrons from one body and depositing on another. Early examples in science were the rubbing of a glass rod (which loses electrons and gains a positive charge) with a silk stocking! (Gains electrons, receives negative charge) and the rubbing of an ebonite rod (receives negative
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By Pressure Certain crystals and semiconductors produce an emf between two opposite faces when the mechanical pressure on them is either increased or decreased (the polarity of the emf is reversed when the pressure changes from an increase to a decrease). This emf is known as the piezoelectric emf. This effect is used in a number of devices including semi-conductor strain gauges and vibration sensors. As the mechanical pressure on the crystal is altered, a varying voltage which is related to the pressure is produced by the crystal. The voltage can be as small as a fraction of a volt or as large as several thousand volts depending on the crystal material and the pressure. Aircraft systems employing the piezoelectric effect generally only produce very small emfs, the very high voltages produced by materials such as Lead Zirconate Titanate are used in ignition systems for gas ovens and gas fires. By Magnetism Magnetism itself is not used as the direct source of external energy. In a manner which will be studied in great detail later in the course, large amounts of electrical energy are produced by machines called generators. Energy is used to drive the generator, which when it turns, makes use of the properties of magnetism to produce the external energy necessary to break the electrons away from their nuclei and so make it possible for electric current to flow. By Heat The Seebeck Effect The Thermocouple. When two different metals are brought into contact with one another, it is found that electrons can leave one of the metals more easily than they can leave the other metal. This is because of the difference in what is known as the work function of the two metals.
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Since electrons leave one metal and are gained by the other, a potential difference exists between the two metals; thus the emf is known as the contact potential or contact emf. The current flow is proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot junction and the cold junction. Each junction is known as a thermocouple and if a number of thermocouples are connected in series so that alternate junctions are hot and the other junctions are cold, the total emf is increased; this arrangement is known as a thermopile. On aircraft, thermocouples are used for temperature measurement and will be examined in more detail at a later date. If two metals, say copper and iron, are joined at two points as shown in the diagram above, and both junctions are at the same temperature, the contact potentials cancel each other out and no current flows in the loop of wire. However, Thomas Johann Seebeck (1770 1831) discovered that if the two junctions are kept at different temperatures, there is a drift of electrons around the circuit, that is to say, current flows. The magnitude of the voltage produced by this method is small only a few millivolts per degree centigrade but it is sufficient to be measured. By Light The Photovoltaic Cell or Solar Cell. A photovoltaic cell generates an emf when light falls onto it. Several forms of photovoltaic cell exist, one of the earliest types being the selenium photovoltaic cell in which a layer of selenium is deposited on iron and any light falling on the selenium produces an emf between the selenium and the iron.
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Modern theory shows that the junction at the interface between the two forms, what is known as a semiconductor p-n junction in which one of the materials is p-type and the other is n-type. The most efficient photovoltaic cells incorporate semiconductor p-n junctions in which one of the regions is a very thin layer (about 1 m thick) through which light can pass without significant loss of energy. When the light reaches the junction of the two regions it causes electrons and holes to be released, to give the electrovoltaic potential between the two regions. A better understanding of this action will be obtained later in the course when semi-conductor materials and devices are studied. By Chemical Action The final method of producing electricity is by chemical action. It is the particular kind of chemical action that takes place in electric cells and batteries which is put to practical use in the production of electricity.
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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3.5 DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
To study electrical principles further we require a source of emf. Although an emf can be produced by any of the six methods discussed above, large amounts of useable power can only be produced chemically or by generation. Generation requires a more in depth study of magnetism and therefore cells and batteries will be studied first. On an aircraft the battery may be used for engine starting, but far more importantly, the battery is the source of emergency power when the generator fails. Although aircraft battery systems and servicing will be studied at a later date, battery principles and battery construction will be studied now and will not be repeated. Principles A Cell is a portable device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. A group of interconnected cells is known as a battery. Cells operate on a principle of the exchange of charges between dissimilar metals. Cell & Battery Symbols The circuit symbols for cells and batteries are shown below. To identify the polarity of the terminals, a long thin line is used to represent the positive terminal and a short thick line the negative terminal. Sometimes the terminal voltage is indicated.
Construction & Chemical Action In cells, an electrolyte separates two charge collecting materials called electrodes, to which external connections are made. The electrolyte pushes electrons onto one of the plates and takes them off the other. This action results in an excess of electrons, or a negative charge, on one plate and a loss of electrons, or a positive charge, on the other plate.
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to make up for those it had pushed onto the negative plate. Both plates would then be fully charged and the movement of electrons would cease. If a wire were connected between the negative and positive terminals of the cell, electrons on the negative terminal would leave the terminal and travel through the wire to the positive terminal. The electrolyte would carry more electrons across from the positive plate to the negative plate. Whilst the electrolyte is carrying electrons you would see the negative plate being used up and you would see bubbles of gas at the positive plate. Electrolytes are chemical solutions manufactured to allow the generation and free movement of both types of ions, and are normally acid or alkaline pastes or liquids. The action of the electrolyte in carrying electrons from one plate to the other is actually a chemical reaction between the electrolyte and the two plates. This action changes chemical energy into electrical charges on the cell plates and terminals. With nothing connected to the cell terminals, the electrons would be pushed onto the negative plate until there was no more room. At the same time the electrolyte would take electrons from the positive plate Primary & Secondary Cells In a primary cell, current will continue to flow until chemical action had dissolved the negative plate into the electrolyte, at which point the cell would be exhausted and of no further use. In a secondary cell, the chemical action that takes place whilst the cell is producing a current flow is reversible, enabling the cell to be re-used. The process of reversing the chemical action is referred to as charging and entails passing a current through the cell in the opposite direction to the discharge current. 21

Cell Emf The size of a cell has no bearing on the emf that it will produce, the generated emf being determined solely by the materials used in its construction. Another point to note is that the potential difference, or voltage measured across the terminals of a cell, is not the same as the emf generated by the cell. The terminal voltage of a cell depends on the: Internal resistance of the cell. Size of the discharge current. Charge state of the cell. As a general rule, whenever a cell is providing current, the terminal voltage will be less than the cell emf. The difference between the cell emf and its terminal voltage is directly proportional to the discharge current. All sources of electricity have internal resistance which affects the terminal voltage; this will be examined in more detail later in the notes. Cell Capacity The amount of electrical energy that a cell can provide from new to the end of its useful voltage on load is called the cell capacity and is quoted in Ampere-hours (A-h). Capacity varies with the amount of current drawn from the cell; the greater the current the lower the capacity, therefore capacity is normally quoted at a standard rate. The 1hr rate is the internationally accepted standard for Nickel Cadmium cells, with 10 hr or 20 hr rates being used for Lead Acid cells. A cell quoted at 40A-h at the 10 hr rate will provide 4 Amps continuously for 10 hours. A battery quoted at 40A-h at the 1 hr rate will provide 40 Amps continuously for 1 hour. A 40 A-h cell will only be able to provide a discharge current of 80 amps for approximately 20 minutes, not 30 minutes as may be expected by calculation. Similarly, it will be able to supply a discharge current of 20 amps for longer than the expected 2 hrs. 22

The capacity of a cell is also affected by its age, the older a cell, the lower its capacity; therefore the only way of determining actual capacity is to measure it. Interconnection of Cells Cells may be connected in series, parallel or any combination of the two in order to form a battery. When cells are connected to form a battery they should be of similar construction, and have the same terminal voltage, internal resistance and capacity. Series Connection. When connected in series: The battery voltage is the total of the individual cell voltages. The battery resistance is equal to the total of the individual cell resistances. The battery capacity is the same as the capacity of a single cell. Parallel Connection. When connected in parallel: The battery voltage is the same as the voltage of a single cell. The battery resistance is equal to the parallel total of the cell resistances. The battery capacity is equal to the total of the individual cell capacities. These rules can also be applied when connecting batteries together in series, parallel or any combination of the two.
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Lead acid batteries Lead acid cells have a nominal voltage of 2 Volts, therefore a typical 24V aircraft battery would consist of 12 cells connected in series. The active material in the Anode (positive plates) is Lead Peroxide (Pb02) and in the Cathode (negative plates) and the, Spongy Lead (Pb). The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid (2H2SO4). Conventional Construction There are two forms of Lead Acid battery construction, conventional and solid block, often referred to as a Varley type battery. In the conventional battery the plates consist of lead grids into which the active materials are pressed. The positive and negative plates are then interleaved and connected to a lug that forms both a mechanical support and the terminal. Cells are generally constructed with an additional negative plate, making both outside plates negative. This ensures that chemical action takes place on both sides of each positive plate. 24 When chemical action only takes place on one side of a positive plate it tends to buckle. The plate arrangement is then inserted into a composite material container which is fitted with a lid. The inside of the container is ribbed to provide additional support for the plates, which are raised clear of the bottom of the container to prevent shorting by any sediment that forms.

To provide further support for the plates and to ensure they cannot touch separators are fitted, these were originally cedar wood but modern batteries use microporous plastic materials. Each cell is fitted with a special non spill valve that allows gasses to escape, but prevents the spillage of electrolyte, this valve can be removed for checking and adjusting the electrolyte level. The electrolyte used is sulphuric acid diluted with pure distilled water, the specific gravity of the electrolyte used is determined by the manufacturer, however, it is generally lower than 1300. Solid block type construction In the solid block type battery the electrolyte is completely absorbed into a compressed block consisting of porous plates and separators. The plates are completely supported and therefore a more porous active material paste can be used, this gives better absorption and an enhanced electrochemical activity. The support given to the plates means practically no distortion and no shedding, therefore no sludge gap is 25 required, all the space inside the cells being used for the plates. All of these advantage result in a battery that is stronger, less susceptible to vibration damage and has a higher capacity to weight ratio than its conventional counterpart.

Chemical action When the lead acid battery is delivering current, the sulphuric acid breaks up into Hydrogen ions (H2) that carry a positive charge and Sulphate ions (SO4) that carry a negative charge. The SO4 ions combine with the lead (Pb) plate and form lead sulphate (PbSO4). At the same time they give up their negative charge, thus creating an excess of electrons on the negative plate. The H2 ions go to the positive plate and combine with the oxygen of the lead peroxide (PbO2) forming water (H2O), during this process they take electrons from the positive plate. The lead of the lead peroxide combines with some of the SO4 ions to form lead sulphate on the positive plate. The result of this action is a deficiency of electrons on the positive plate and an excess of electrons on the negative plate. When a circuit is connected to the battery, electrons flow from the negative plate to the positive plate. This process will continue until both plates are coated with lead sulphate. The lead sulphate is highly resistive, and it is mainly the formation of the lead sulphate which During charging, current is passed through the battery in a reverse direction. The SO4 ions are driven back into solution in the electrolyte, where they combine with the H2 ions of the water, thus forming sulphuric acid. The plates are thus returned to their original compositions. The sulphuric acid is effectively used up as the battery is discharged, and returned to the electrolyte as it is charged, a test of the specific gravity of the electrolyte 26 gradually lowers the battery capacity until it is discharged.

will give a good indication of the state of charge of the battery. Charge and Discharge Characteristics During discharge the plates are converted into lead sulphate, the water content of the electrolyte increases, the internal resistance of the cell increases and the terminal voltage decreases. By passing a current through the battery in the opposite direction these effects are reversed. The plates are converted back to their original form, the water content of the electrolyte decreases, the internal resistance decreases and the terminal voltage increases. The process of recharging takes approximately 8 to 10 hours. During most of the charge and discharge cycle the battery terminal voltage remains constant at 1.95V, it therefore gives no indication as to the batterys state of charge. The specific gravity of the electrolyte however changes at a regular rate as the battery is charged, or discharged 27 and can therefore be used to determine the batterys state of charge. Voltage & Specific Gravity Characteristics The voltage and specific gravity figures for a lead acid battery are: Fully charged and still connected to the charging board charge: 2.5 to 2.7 Volts 1270 to 1280 SG Fully charged and off charge: 2.2 to 2.5 Volts 1270 to 1280 SG Fully Discharged: 1.8 Volts 1150 SG The battery will be damaged if allowed to go below the above discharged values.

Common Lead Acid Battery Faults Careful treatment of lead acid batteries prevents damage and early failure, however, some common faults associated with lead acid batteries are: Sulphation is the formation of hard, permanent lead sulphate on the plates and appears as random greyish white patches. Sulphation causes an increase in the internal resistance of the battery, leading to possible overheating and buckling of the plates. Sulphation is caused by continually undercharging the battery or by discharging below 1.8 Volts or 1150 SG and if severe there is no cure. However, if mild, it can sometimes be cured by giving the battery a long low charge. Buckling is twisting and bending of the plates. Because the active material is squeezed out of the plates the capacity of the battery may be reduced, if severe it can lead to internal shorting of the battery. Buckling is caused by excessive charge and discharge currents being imposed on the battery and by the effects of sulphation. There is no cure for buckling only prevention. 28 Sedimentation is the collection of discarded active material from the plates at the bottom of the cell. Sedimentation may result in shorting of the plates and complete loss of capacity, slight shedding is normal in a well maintained battery.

Nickel Cadmium Batteries Construction The plates of a nickel cadmium battery are made by sintering a nickel plated steel screen with nickel carbonyl powder. The resultant plaques are then impregnated with the active materials, Nickel salts on the positive, cadmium salts on the negative. The plaques are then placed in electrolyte and subjected to a small current to convert them to their final form. After washing and drying the plaques are cut into plates, each one having a nickel tab welded to it. The plates are then stacked alternately to produce a cell. Whilst producing the stack a continuous separator is wound between the plates to prevent them shorting. Terminals are then welded to the plates and the stack is inserted into its container, which is sealed and pressure tested. The separator used is normally a triple layer type, one layer of cellophane, two of woven nylon cloth. Cellophane is used because it has a low resistance and is 29 a good barrier material, it prevents metal particles from shorting the plates whilst allowing current to flow. The cellophane also acts as a gas barrier, preventing oxygen given off by the positive plate during overcharge, from passing to the negative plates where it will combine with the cadmium, reducing the cell voltage and producing heat.

The electrolyte, a solution of potassium hydroxide and distilled water, with a SG of between 1240 and 1300, is then injected into the cell under a vacuum. Fitted to the top of each cell is a special vent that allows the escape of gas but prevents electrolyte spillage. In a typical Ni-Cad battery the cells are mounted in a metal case that incorporates 2 venting outlets, carrying handles, a quick release connector and a lid. Each cell is separated from its neighbour by its moulded plastic case and electrically connected by nickel plated steel links between the terminals. Chemical Action As the battery discharges, hydroxide ions (OH) from the electrolyte combine with the cadmium in the negative plates and release electrons to the plate. The cadmium is converted to cadmium hydroxide during the process. At the same time, hydroxide ions from the nickel hydroxide positive plates go into the electrolyte carrying extra electrons with them. Thus electrons are removed from the positive plate and delivered to the negative plate during discharge. The composition of the electrolyte remains a solution of potassium hydroxide because hydroxide ions are added to the electrolyte as quickly as they are removed. For this reason the specific gravity of the electrolyte remains essentially constant at any state of charge. It is therefore impossible to use the specific gravity as an indication of the charge state of the battery. When the battery is charged, the hydroxide ions are caused to leave the negative plate and enter the electrolyte. Thus the cadmium hydroxide of the negative plate is converted back to metallic cadmium. Hydroxide ions from the electrolyte recombine with the nickel 30

hydroxide of the positive plates, and the active material is brought to a higher state of oxidation. This process continues until all the active material of the plates have been converted. If charging is continued, the battery will be in overcharge, and the water in the electrolyte will be decomposed by electrolysis. Hydrogen will be released at the negative plates and oxygen at the positive plates. This combination of gases is highly explosive. Charge and Discharge Characteristics During charging and discharging the electrolyte acts only as an ionised conductor, transporting electrons from one plate to the other, its specific gravity remaining constant. On discharge the terminal voltage initially falls rapidly and then remains constant for most of the discharge cycle, dropping rapidly again when the battery is nearly fully discharged. When charged, the terminal voltage initially rises rapidly and then settles to a gradual increase. A second rapid 31 rise takes place as the battery reaches the fully charged condition, at this time gassing takes place, hydrogen being released at the negative plates, oxygen at the positive plates, this combination of gases is explosive. Prolonged gassing should be avoided as it reduces the water content of the electrolyte and causes overheating of the battery, a slight amount of gassing, however, is necessary to ensure charging is complete. The terminal voltage remains constant for most of the batteries life and the specific gravity of the electrolyte remains unchanged, the only way of determining the state of charge of the battery therefore, is to carry out a full charge followed by a capacity test. During discharge the plates absorb electrolyte to such an extent that the level may disappear from view. As the battery is charged, the electrolyte is forced back out of the plates, a point to note when topping up the cells.

Advantages & Disadvantages A Nickel Cadmium battery has the following advantages over a Lead Acid battery: They have a longer life The terminal voltage remains almost constant during the discharge cycle They can be charged and discharged at much higher currents without causing cell damage They can be discharged to a very low voltage without causing cell damage But have the following disadvantages: They are far more expensive to buy and maintain Each cell has a lower voltage, therefore more cell are required to produce a battery. They are more susceptible to thermal runaway. Thermal Runaway Batteries loose heat by conduction and radiation. Provided the rate of heat loss is greater than the rate at which heat is generated there is no problem. Should the battery not be able to loose heat quickly enough its temperature will start to increase. As the battery temperature increases the internal resistance decreases causing the circuit current to increase. This increase in current leads to an increase in chemical activity within the battery, this generates more heat and the cycle repeats. Nickel Cadmium batteries are very susceptible to thermal runaway which can result in the battery boiling, or even being totally destroyed. Small Alkaline Cells Hermetically sealed Ni-Cad cells are produced in the same size and shape as their primary counterparts. They are small, portable and maintenance free, but have the added advantage of being rechargeable.
32

The plates are constructed in a similar manner to the larger Ni-Cad cells, the separator being a thin porous material. The electrolyte is fully absorbed by the plates and separator in a similar manner to the Varley type cell; with steel or plastic being used for the case. Special vents are fitted to each cell; these allow the escape of gas but prevent the entry of oxygen and electrolyte leakage. The nominal voltage of a fully charged cell is 1 25 volts and these can then be interconnected to form batteries. A 10 hour rate capacity is generally used with an end of life voltage of 1.1 volts, it is possible to discharge the cells further but damage will occur if allowed to go below 1 volt. Charging should be carried out using a constant current at the 10 hour rate, total charge taking approximately 14 hrs, the end of charge on charge voltage being 1 45 volts. Overcharging should be avoided; it produces heat and shortens the long term life of the cell. INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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3.6 DC CIRCUITS
So far you have been introduced to the concepts of electric current (as a movement of free electrons through a conducting material), to voltage (or potential) and potential difference and to the resistance to current flow by any conducting material. The relationship which exists between these quantities was discovered by a physicist called Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854) and is now referred to as Ohms Law. This is the most fundamental law of electricity and electronics. Ohms law states For a fixed metal conductor, the temperature and other conditions remaining constant, the current through it is proportional to the potential difference between its ends. Mathematically this is expressed as: the conductor. Hence we may write: Where: V = the potential difference in Volts I = the current in Amperes R = the resistance in Ohms
Transposition of Ohms Law By transposition it is seen that Ohms law may be written in three forms: thus resistance may be calculated if V and I are known. thus current may be calculated if V and R are known. thus voltage may be calculated if I and R are known.
Thus the ratio:
And this ratio is called the resistance of 34

The Ohms Law Triangle One simple way of memorising Ohms law is the Ohms law triangle see below. These types of meters were called 'moving coil meters' or 'analogue meters'. Moving coil meters will be studied in some depth later in this course, because the principle behind their operation is the same as the principle employed in many aircraft instruments. Modern meters are referred to as a 'digital meters' or 'Digital Multi-meters' more commonly abbreviated to DMM's. Digital meters are cheaper and, arguably, more reliable and more robust and generally considered more accurate than their analogue counterparts. It is essential that you are confident in the use of both types of meter. There are instances where a digital meter cannot be used, leaving no choice but to revert to an analogue meter. Connecting Meters to a Circuit Irrespective of whether the meter is digital or analogue, the way that it is connected to the circuit under test is the same.
V I R
By covering up the unknown quantity, the relationship between the remaining two is directly observed. You may check this against the equations in the above subchapter. This is not necessary if you are able to remember one form of the equation and derive the other two directly by transposition. Electrical Measuring Instruments Quantities of electrical current, voltage and resistance are measured using instruments called meters. Until the advent of electronic displays and semiconductor components, meters comprised a movement, working on the motor principle, driving a needle across a scale.
35

Voltmeters Voltmeters are used to measure emf's and more commonly potential differences. The two probes of the meter are therefore connected in parallel to the two points between which the potential difference is required. Ammeters Ammeters are used to measure current flowing in the circuit; as such they need to be inserted in series with the circuit under test so that the current to be measured flows through the meter. This means the circuit must be broken.
If the potential at A with respect to B is required, the red lead is connected to point A, the black lead point B. If the potential at B with respect to A is required, the red lead is connected to point B, the black lead point A. If it is required to measure a potential between any point on the circuit and ground or Earth, the red lead is connected to the point and the black lead is connected to ground or Earth.
To connect an ammeter, the power must be switched off. The circuit is broken at the point where the current is to be measured; the meter is then inserted into the circuit ensuring that the pola5ity is correct for conventional current flow. Once the meter is connected, circuit power may be restored and the measurement taken. To disconnect the meter, the circuit power must again be switched off. Once the meter is removed from the circuit, the circuit must be reconnected. 36

Ohmmeters The use of ohmmeters is somewhat more involved. Most importantly when measuring resistance the circuit power must be switched off, power is derived from within the instrument. semiconductor type devices are present. (this will be discussed in a later module). When making resistance measurement, care must be taken to ensure the correct
Secondly, great care must be taken to ensure there are no parallel paths that would affect the measurement. This is generally best confirmed by removing the component or device, or by disconnecting one end of it from the circuit concerned. Thirdly, it is essential that an analogue meter is zeroed before it is used. To measure resistance, the meter is simply connected across the component or device to be measured. The polarity of the leads is not important unless 37

3.7 RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS
Resistivity The factors affecting the resistance of a conductor of a given material at constant temperature are related by the expression: area of one square metres (i.e. between the faces of a one metre cube). Typical values of Silver Copper Manganin Carbon at 0 C are: 1.5 x 10-8 - m 1.6 x 10-8 - m 41 x 10-8 - m 7000 x 10-8 - m
Changes of Resistance with Temperature The resistance of all materials changes, with changes in temperature. The resistance of all pure metal increases with temperature whereas the resistance of electrolytes, insulators, carbon and semi-conductors decreases with increasing temperatures. The constant depends on whether the material itself is a good or a poor conductor; this constant is called resistivity of the material. Resistivity has the symbol (Rho) and is measured in Ohm meters and is defined as the resistance between the ends of a piece of material one metre long which has a cross sectional If it is assumed that the resistance change is in proportion to the temperature change, then the ratio provides an indication of the material behaviour. It is necessary however, to relate the change of resistance to its initial value. A large value resistor will change its value more than a small value resistor for the same temperature change. 38

Suppose the resistance of a material at 0C (to) is Ro and at same other temperature (t) the resistance is Rt the change of resistance is Rt - Ro. But the change of resistance is per unit value of the original resistance is given by:
This resistance change has been brought about by a temperature change t equal to t - to (to being 0). Hence the change in resistance, caused by a 1C change in temperature is:
This ratio is called the temperature co-efficient of resistance. Temperature Co-efficient of Resistance The temperature co-efficient of resistance is defined as: The Fractional change in resistance, from 0C, per degree temperature change and may be represented graphically as shown below.
The graph is reasonably linear for many materials over a moderate temperature range (0 - 200C). The units are C because the ohms cancel out in the calculation. Materials whose resistance increases with increasing temperature have a positive temperature co-efficient of resistance.
39

Materials whose resistance decreases with increasing temperature have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Some materials have very small temperature coefficients of resistance and are used where it is important that the resistance does not change with temperature. Examples are Manganin and Eureka. Resistor Type Fixed resistor Fixed resistor with fixed tapping point Variable resistor Resistor with pre-set adjustment Voltage divider (potentiometer) Pre-set potentiometer Old Symbol New Symbol Resistors The electrical component used to introduce resistance into a circuit is called a resistor. Resistors can be fixed or variable. Symbols used in circuit diagrams are shown below: The physical size of a resistor does not give any clue to the resistance value of the component. This value must be marked on individual components. Two codes are currently used to indicate resistor values: a Colour Code and a Letter and Digit Code. Fixed resistors Fixed resistors may be: Wire wound: Special resistance wire is wound onto a former. The wire wound resistor can dissipate heat easily and is therefore used when larger currents are expected (the larger the current the greater the heat produced). These resistors are usually larger than other types; The student should note that size does not indicate resistance value, but depends upon the heat to be dissipated.
40

Carbon Composition, Metal Oxide and Metal Film: Resistors made from carbon composition or from metal films and oxides are usually small. They are therefore used where the currents are kept small. Colour codes The current method of colour code marking of resistors is the Band System. known as bands 1 4. Bands 1 and 2 give the first two numbers of the resistor value, band 3 gives the multiplication factor, i.e. the number of zeros, the fourth band gives the tolerance, which indicates how close the actual value may be to the stated value. Certain resistors remain very close to their stated value, despite temperature changes. These are called high stability resistors and this is shown by a fifth band coloured pink.
Colour First band (or body) First figure 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Second band (or tip) Second figure 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Third band (or spot) Multiply by Fourth band Tolerance
Close to one end of the resistor are four coloured bands (there may appear to be only three, in this case the forth band is no colour see diagram below). They are
Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White Gold Silver No colour
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 0.1 0.01 -
+1% + 2% + 0.5% + 0.25% + 0.1% + 5% + 10% + 20%
41

ones. The number of resistor values required to cover a given range of resistance depends on the tolerance of the resistors being used. An example of resistor Preferred Values for 10% is given in the table below. 1 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.7 5.6 6.8 8.2 10 12 15 18 22 27 33 39 47 56 68 82 100 120 150 180 220 270 330 390 470 560 680 820
High value resistors High value resistors may have three significant figures. If the colour code is used here, the first three bands represent figures, the fourth band is the multiplier and the fifth band is the tolerance. For example, a resistor of value 249,000 + 1% would be coded as shown below: First band Second band Third band Fourth band Fifth band Red is 2 Yellow is 4 White is 9 Orange is 3 zeros Brown Tolerance + 1%
Note: To avoid possible confusion, the fifth band is 1.5 times to 2 times wider than the other bands.
Preferred values and tolerances In practical electrical circuits the precise value for a resistor is not usually critical. It is more economic to produce large tolerance resistors than low tolerance
Note that the upper and lower tolerance resistance limits of each preferred value cover the complete range: eg 2.2K 2.7K 3.3K + 10% = 1.98K + 10% = 2.43K + 10% = 2.98K to 2.42K to 2.97K to 3.63K 42
43
44
45
Letter & Digit Codes In this code the numbers are printed on the body of the resistor to indicate its value. In addition, letters are used to indicate the multiplying factor (eg, M ) and the tolerance as shown below. Multiplying Factor X1 X103 X106 X109 X101
2
The tolerance letter is added on the end. eg 1M5 B 2K2 N is is 1.5M + 0.1% 2.2K + 30%
Tolerance % 0.1 0.25 0.5 1.0 2 B C D F G 5 10 20 30 J K M N
Other markings may also be used in the code to represent date of manufacture. They are placed after the value and tolerance markings. Power Rating Resistors are rated according to their resistance value and also to the rate at which they can dissipate heat. Rate of heat dissipation is measured in watts. (The watt will be discussed later in the course). The higher the wattage rating the more current it can carry.
R (resistor) K K M M G G T T
The position of the multiplying letter is also used to indicate the decimal point position eg 470R 4K7 R47 4R7 is is is is 470 4.7 0.47 4.7 46
Potentiometers A variable resistor arranged so as to control voltage in a circuit is called a Potentiometer and controls the potential difference between two points in a circuit. It is used to tap off part of the supply or signal voltage for connection to a load. Rheostats Variable resistors can be made to vary either current or voltage. A variable resistor arranged to control current is called a Rheostat and controls the current by varying the resistance in the circuit. Voltage Dependent Resistors Some components do not obey Ohms law, in that the current flow through them does not vary linearly as the
applied voltage is varied. These elements are known as non-linear resistors or non-linear conductors. Transistors, diodes and voltage dependent resistors all fall into this group. The current through a voltage dependent resistor increases at a progressively rapid rate as the voltage across it increases; such a device is used for protecting circuits against voltage surges or as a voltage stabiliser. Thermistors Insulators and semi-conductors behave in a different way when the temperature is increased this is because their resistivity decreases (their temperature coefficient of resistance is negative). One example of this effect occurs in a thermistor. A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance alters with temperature; a negative temperature coefficient (n.t.c.) thermistor is one whose resistance reduces with increase in temperature. A thermistor is used in the cooling-water temperaturemeasuring circuit of a car or lorry; it is inserted in the cooling water and connected in series with the battery 47
and temperature gauge. As the water temperature rises, the resistance of the n.t.c. thermistor resistance falls and allows more current to flow through the temperature gauge; this causes the gauge to indicate variations in water temperature. Resistors in Series Components are said to be in series when they are connected end-to-end providing only one path for the current. Thus the same current passes through all the components (including the power supply). See diagram below.
extreme ends is the sum of the individual potential differences.
Hence E = V1 + V2 + V3 But from Ohms Law V = IR therefore E = IRTOTAL So When a current flows through a resistor (or a component having resistance) there is a potential difference between its ends. Thus where two or more resistors are connected in series the potential difference between the V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3
Thus IRTOTAL= IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I (R1 + R2 + R3) So RTOTAL = R1 + R2 + R3
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Kirchhoffs Second Law This law states that in any closed circuit the sum of all the potential differences (voltage drops) is equal to the total applied voltage in that circuit. Thus the potential difference across R2 is given by: VR2 = 9 7 = 2V
It should also be noted that within the resistor network: Route Route Route Route PRQP 4 1 3 = 0 PQRP 3 + 1 4 = 0 RSQR 6 7 + 1 =0 RQSR -1 + 7 6 = 0
Example of Kirchhoffs Second Law There are four possible routes around the circuit shown and whichever one is taken, Kirchhoffs law is true. Note that Q is at a higher potential than R. Also a potential drop is positive and a potential rise is negative: Route MPQSNM 3+710=0 Route MPRSNM 4+610=0 Route MPQRSNM 3+1 + 6 10=0 Route MPRQSNM 41+70=0 49
Voltage Division In a series circuit Ohms law applies for each component. However, since the current is common to all components we have: V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3 Therefore V1 i.e. Vn Rn Hence the voltage drops across each resistor can be calculated from the ratio of the resistance values. It should also be noted, that for any given applied voltage we may derive any smaller voltages we wish by inserting resistors of the appropriate values in series. The following example shows how voltages of 8V, 4V and 24V can be derived from a 36V supply. R1, V2 R2, V3 R3
RTOTAL = 12 + 6 + 36 = 54 54 12 And 6 And 36 36V and 1 = 36/54 = 36/54 = 36/54 36/54V
12 = 8V across AB 6 = 4V across BC 36 = 24V across CD
The Potential Divider A device which employs voltage division and which is commonly used in electrical and electronic circuits is the potential divider. Here two or more resistors are used to divide a given input voltage to achieve a specified output voltage. See diagram. The potential divider is also known as a voltage divider or scaling circuit. Note that if current is drawn from the output then the effective resistance of the circuit changes and the output voltage vOUT changes. 50
Voltages Relative to Earth It is very common in electrical circuits to have an earth connection. This earth connection has no effect on potential differences across components; however it does affect the values of the potentials or voltages at points in the circuit.
positive terminal result in positive voltages. It should be noted that due to static build up on the airframe, the earth connection (airframe) of an airborne aircraft is unlikely to be at zero potential with respect to the ground.
You should also note that earth connections, for example to the chassis of equipment or the airframe of an aircraft, are often used as the current return lead in an electrical circuit.
The earth is a reference point and considered to be at zero volts. Potential differences between earth and the negative terminal of the supply result in negative voltages and potential differences between earth and the 51
Internal Resistance As mentioned earlier in the section on batteries, every source of electricity, such as a cell or generator has resistance to current flow called internal resistance. Cells (and batteries): The internal resistance is mainly due to the resistance of the electrolyte. This varies considerably with temperature and concentration of the electrolyte. Generators. Internal resistance is mainly the resistance of the wires which form the internal windings. Electronic Power Supplies. Here the internal resistance is due to the resistance of components within the power supply.
When the source forces electrons around a closed circuit they must pass through the internal resistance of the source, thus causing a drop in voltage within the source itself, i.e. the source has to do work to push current through it. This loss of potential or voltage drop may be referred to as lost volts, since they are not available in the external circuit, thus the terminal voltage is less than the emf by the value of the lost volts when current is drawn from the supply. CLOSED CIRCUIT TERMINAL VOLTAGE = EMF LOST VOLTS
Loss of potential only occurs when current flows from the source. If therefore the external circuit is open, no current flows and the terminal voltage is equal to the emf. OPEN CIRCUIT TERMINAL VOLTAGE = EMF
The Size of the lost voltage is determined by the internal resistance and the current flowing (Ir). 52
For a given emf the larger the external resistance, the smaller the current and the smaller the lost volts. Thus if the internal resistance is much smaller than the external resistance the lost volts is very small and the terminal voltage is almost equal to the source emf. Resistors in Parallel Components are said to be in parallel when they are connected in such a way as to provide alternative paths for current flow. The characteristics of such a parallel combination are: The voltage across each component is the same. The current through each component is determined by the resistance of that component Ohms law applies to each component connected in parallel.
In the diagram below: V

total
= V1 = V2 = V3 and I total = I1 + I2 + I3
(By Kirchhoffs first law)
From Ohms law:
and
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Hence the three resistors shown above may be replaced by a single resistor of value RTOTAL which may be computed using the above equation. Note that the most usual error which occurs when using this equation is to forget that the calculation on the right hand side of the equation gives the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance and therefore needs inverting to find RTOTAL. To avoid this possible error the equation may be remembered in the form:
Two resistors in parallel When we have only two resistors in parallel then the general equation may still be used. However a simpler formula can be derived. Using the general equation we obtain:
Therefore
Having found RTOTAL it is now possible to use Ohms law to calculate either V or I, providing one of the two is known. Knowing V (= V1 = V2 = V3 etc) it is now possible to find the current values through the branches I1, I2, I3 etc (provided of course that R1, R2, R3 etc are known). As a check, the total resistance of any parallel combination of resistors should always be less than the value of the lowest resistor in the network.
Equal resistors connected in parallel Where we have two or more resistors of equal value connected in parallel then:
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Therefore:
When any numbers of equal value resistors are connected in parallel, the effective resistance (Total) is equal to the value of one resistor divided by the number of resistors.
of parallel resistors the effective resistor (RTOTAL) is less than the value of any single resistor in the parallel combination. An important point to note here is that the supply current has increased and unless the supply wiring can cope with it, it may be damaged (e.g. begins to melt). Resistor size and current flow Ohms law states that the current flowing is inversely proportional to resistance provided that the voltage remains constant. In a parallel network the voltage across each component is the same, therefore the current through each component is inversely proportional to its resistance. Simply stated, this means that the largest current always flows through the smallest resistor and vice-versa. This is a simple check that may often be useful in numerical calculation.
Effective value of resistors in parallel If a second resistor is connected in parallel with a first, the voltage across the second is equal to the voltage across the first. The first resistor still draws the same current and the second now also draws current. Thus the total current drawn from the supply has increased and therefore the effective resistance (RTOTAL) has decreased. Since the supply of current is now greater than either individually would draw, the effective resistance of the two is less than the resistance of either individually. This is generally true and for any number
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Kirchhoffs First Law Kirchhoffs first law states that at any circuit junction, the sum of the currents flowing towards the junction is equal to the sum of the currents flowing away from it. 10A 2A
possible to solve combinations of resistors in both serial and parallel by Ohms law provided sufficient information is given. In some cases, however, solution is not possible without the use of Kirchhoffs laws. Physical arrangement of resistors Before we look at some problems it is necessary to warn you that physical appearances can be deceptive. When components are mounted they are usually done so in a manner as to reduce the space they occupy to a minimum. Care must be taken to decide whether they
9A
7A
8A Current flowing towards junction = 2 + 7 + 9 = 18A Current flowing away from junction = 10 + 8 = 18A Resistors in series / parallel combinations In the previous units we have used Ohms law to solve combinations of resistors in series or in parallel. It is
are mounted in series or parallel or in a combination of both. Thus on the Tag Board above, the resistors may appear to be in parallel, however, only R3 and R4 are in parallel.
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Solution of resistor networks using Ohms Law only Many problems may be solved by combining series and parallel groups of resistors and applying Ohms law. Remember that Ohms law involves three quantities I, V and R, thus to find any one quantity the other two must be known or be capable of determination. Where resistors appear in both series and parallel they may be reduced to a single effective resistance using a step-bystep sequence as follows: Combine any simple series groupings within branches Replace any simple parallel groups by single equivalent resistors
57
Combine any simple series groupings
Determine the single equivalent resistance.
Replace any simple parallel groups.
At this point the total circuit current (Is) may be found if Vs is given, or Vs found if Is is given. Having determined Vs or Is, as appropriate, the current in any branch and the voltage drop across any resistor can be found by working backwards through the sequence in the first paragraph of this section, applying Ohms law at each stage. 58
The effects of open circuits An open circuit is essentially a break in the circuit. An open circuit in a series circuit will prevent the flow of current through the circuit. With no current flowing in the circuit there can be no voltage drop across any resistors and, therefore, the supply potential will be measured at all points between the positive terminal and the break.
The effects of short circuits A short circuit is a path for current where a path should not exist, the path is generally considered to have a low resistance. If a short circuit is placed across a resistor, the current will flow through the short circuit rather than through the resistor. Short circuits across series or parallel connected resistors will result in a decrease in the circuit resistance and an increase in the current drawn from the supply. Short circuits may result in the fuse blowing, the circuit breaker tripping or the circuit burning out if no protection devices are fitted.
In a circuit with parallel paths, an open circuit path will cause an increase in the circuit resistance and a reduction in the circuit current. The change in current flow will cause the voltages measured around the circuit to change.
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The Wheatstone bridge You have already solved resistor networks using Ohms law and Kirchhoffs laws. In this unit we are going to look at a special arrangement of series and parallel resistors called a Wheatstone bridge. Construction The Wheatstone bridge circuit and other similar variants were widely used in test equipment to determine the value of an unknown resistor by comparison with other resistors whose values are accurately known. The normal arrangement in a Wheatstone bridge used for resistance measurement is for two resistors, usually R1 and R2, to be fixed and of known value and R4 to be an accurate variable resistor adjusted by means of a calibrated dial. The resistor R3 is then the unknown whose value is to be measured. Calculating unknown resistances The current through the galvanometer (G) a very sensitive ammeter, is reduced to zero by adjusting R4. The bridge is then said to be balanced. Dividing (1). by (2). Then:
When the bridge is balanced, the voltage at A is equal to the voltage at B and no current flows between A and B. Hence:
Also:
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In calculations it is possible for any of the four resistors to be unknown. Provided that the bridge is balanced, the theory remains the same and all that is required is to transpose the equation to find the unknown. Uses on aircraft Whilst the Wheatstone bridge may be used to determine the value of an unknown resistor, it is far easier to use an Ohmmeter. The Wheatstone bridge is however extremely useful for measuring and displaying remote indications. On aircraft, Wheatstone bridge circuits are used for the measurement and display of temperatures, pressures, positions and quantities. In each case, the item being measured varies the value of resistor R3, causing a voltage imbalance that produces a current flow through the galvanometer. The amount of current through the galvanometer, and therefore the
amount of pointer deflection, depends upon the potential difference across the bridge, which, in turn depends upon the change in resistance of R3. The galvanometer can therefore be calibrated to give the appropriate indication.
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3.8 POWER
Electrical work Electrical work is done if a quantity of charge (Coulombs) is moved between two points which are at different electrical potentials. The SI unit of work is the Joule. One Joule of work is done when a charge of one Coulomb moves through a potential difference of one Volt:
Electrical energy Electrical energy is the ability of an electrical system to do work. Energy is expended when work is done and the amount of energy used is equal to the work done. The units of energy and work are the same, that is Joules and the same equation is used for both:
Since one Coulomb is one Ampere second
The energy a body contains may be determined by calculating the electrical work done on the body to give it that energy. Conversely, the work that a body could do if it used up all its energy may be determined by calculating how much energy it contains. This assumes that no energy is lost in the conversion. In practice energy is often lost in the form of heat. No energy is actually destroyed, it is simply converted into some other form. This is stated in the Law of Conservation of Energy - energy can neither be created nor destroyed but merely changed into other forms. 62
Electrical power Electrical power (symbol P) is the rate at which work is done or the rate of conversion of energy by an electrical system. The SI unit of power is the Watt which is a rate of work of 1 Joule per second:
The more power consumed by a device the more heat or light it produces in a given time: A 100w lamp gives more light than a 60w lamp. The rating 6V 12W on a lamp means that if is connected to a 6V supply, its resistance is such that it develops 12W of power and that it is intended to work at this rating. Note: The above bulb consumes 12W only at the correct voltage. If the voltage is increased more power is developed and the component may be damaged. A fluorescent tube of 12W rating produces more light than a 12W filament bulb because the tube produces much less heat and is therefore more efficient. Power ratings of resistors
By substituting V = IR in the above formula, two other expressions for electrical power are obtained:
Power ratings Electrical equipment can only stand a certain amount of heat production without damage and the safe power which a piece of equipment can consume without damage is its power rating or wattage rating. Each component is given a wattage rating and if this is exceeded the component will overheat.
This power rating has a different meaning from that of a bulb. In this case we must always keep below the stated value. To keep below the stated power value, there are maximum permissible values of voltage and current, which may be calculated as follows: 63
Maximum Current:
Carbon resistors of the same resistance value are commonly available in ratings between W and 2W. When higher wattage is required wire-wound resistors may be used, the normal range here is 1W to 200W.
This is the maximum current to avoid damage to the resistor. Maximum Voltage:
The Kilowatt Hour The unit of electrical energy is the Joule which may be expressed in terms of power as a Watt second. The Joule however is a very small unit and it is often more convenient to measure energy used in kilowatt hours where: 1kWh = = = 1000 watt hours 1000 3600 watt seconds 3 600 000 J or 3.6 MJ
This is the maximum voltage to avoid damage to the resistor. Size and power rating The surface area and, therefore, the size of a component is the determining factor of the rate at which heat is dissipated from the component to its surroundings. Generally larger components have a higher power rating.
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Maximum power transfer Every source of EMF has internal resistance. If it is required to develop the maximum possible amount of power in an external load, then the load resistance must be equal in value to the internal resistance of the source. This may be shown by calculating the power developed in RLoad for different values of RLoad.
Matching is very important in electronic circuits which usually have a fairly high source resistance. A typical example is the matching of a loudspeaker to an audio amplifier. Note: For a power source with variable internal resistance and given load (RL), the smaller the internal resistance, the higher the power transfer to the load. The highest power transfer is achieved here when the internal resistance is zero. Batteries, generators and other power supply systems are not operated under maximum power transfer conditions, since to do so would result in the same amount of power being dissipated in the source as was supplied to the load, which is wasteful of energy. Thus power systems are designed to have the minimum internal resistance to minimise losses in the power supply.
This illustrates that maximum power is developed in the load when RLoad equals RInternal.
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3.9 CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITORS

When the voltage applied to a capacitive circuit changes, then there is a change in the electric flux. The ease with which this change takes place is a measure of the capacitance of the circuit. In dc circuits, capacitance is only effective when the voltage is switched on and off, but in ac circuits where the voltage varies continuously, the effect of capacitance is continuous. A device used specifically to introduce capacitance into a circuit is known as a capacitor (sometimes called a condenser). Charging a body A conductor is given a positive charge when electrons are forcibly removed from the conductor, e.g. by connecting it to the positive pole of a dc source. Similarly, when additional electrons are pushed on to a conductor, it is given a negative charge.
The use of force means that energy has been expended by the source of dc and this energy is stored in an electric field. An electric field is represented by lines of flux whose direction is the direction of force which would be experienced by a free positive charge placed in the field. Lines of electric flux behave in an analogous manner to lines of magnetic flux. As the charge on a body increases, it repels further charge with greater force until eventually the repelling force equals the charging force and the conductor is fully charged. The charge on a fully charged body may be changed by changing the voltage supplying the charging force, but the conductor will oppose this charge due to the charge it already possesses. Any conductor will hold a charge, the magnitude of the charge depends upon the magnitude of the voltage applied, but for a single conductor, even a large voltage produces only a relatively small charge.
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The basic capacitor If we have two metal plates close together, but separated by an insulator or dielectric (which could be air) and we apply a voltage across them, electrons are removed from one plate and applied to the other and each becomes charged. The charge held by the combination may be very large because of the concentration of the electric field between the plates. This represents a basic capacitor. Thus, a capacitor is a device which opposes voltage change in a circuit through its capacity to store electrical energy (or charge) in the form of an electric field
Capacitance If we increase the voltage between the plates, the charge increases, but the ratio of charge to voltage remains the same. This ratio gives the capacitance (C) of the capacitor:
Where the charge (Q) is in Coulombs and the voltage (V) in Volts, then the capacitance (C) is in Farads (F). So:
Q V C
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A capacitor has a capacitance of one Farad when a charging current of one ampere, flowing for one second, causes a change of voltage of one volt between its plates. The Farad is a huge unit and smaller units are used in practice:
Material between the plates. This introduces a constant called the absolute permittivity ( ). With constant area and distance, if waxed paper is inserted between the plates instead of air, the capacitance is multiplied by a factor of approximately three. The constant is actually the product of two constants, the permittivity of space ( o) and the comparison of the material with free space, the relative permittivity ( r) We may summarise this in equation form as:
Factors affecting capacitance The factors which affect the capacitance of a parallelplate capacitor are: Overlapping area of the plates (a). The capacitance increases as the area of overlap increases since a larger plate area provides more room to accommodate the increase charge. Distance between the plates (d). The capacitance increases as the distance between the plates decreases, since the electric field then becomes more concentrated.
The units of C are Farads if the units of the other quantities are: Area (a) square metres (m2). Distance between plates (d) metres (m). Absolute permittivity ( ) Farads per metre (Fm-1).
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Energy stored in a capacitor Energy is stored in the electric field of a charged capacitor. If a dielectric is inserted, extra energy is stored above that stored in free space, due to the distortion of electron orbits in the atoms. The energy stored in given by the equation:
Capacitor construction Fixed capacitors Fixed capacitors usually consist of sheets of metal foil between which is sandwiched the dielectric, or alternatively the metal, such as aluminium, is deposited onto both sides of the dielectric. The characteristics and quality of the capacitor depends mainly on the dielectric, which may be paper, chemically impregnated paper, plastics mica or ceramic.
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Variable capacitors Variable capacitors are usually meter plates with air as the dielectric. The variation is achieved by varying the area of overlap of the plates. Preset capacitors may use air, mica or ceramics as the dielectric.
Electrolytic capacitors Electrolytic capacitors use the metal oxide as the dielectric which is formed directly on the metal plates. High values of capacitance can be achieved here with small physical size. Most electrolytic capacitors must be connected into circuit with the correct polarity or damage (possibly including explosion) may result.
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Safe working voltage The safe working voltage is the maximum dc voltage that can safely be applied to a capacitor without causing the dielectric to break down. When breakdown occurs, the electric field is strong enough to tear electrons free from their orbits. A current then flows with the production of a large amount of heat. The dielectric is commonly burned through rendering the capacitor unserviceable. Higher voltage requires thicker dielectrics, but this reduces capacitance. Thus, a given value of capacitance requires a larger capacitor (greater plate area) for greater working voltage.
Capacitor symbols The diagram below gives the symbols for capacitors. The pre-set capacitor (sometimes referred to as a padder or trimmer) allows slight variations to be made about its fixed value.
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Capacitors in circuits Capacitors in series
We know from Kirchhoffs second law that:
And as:
We can also say: When three capacitors are connected in series, if one electron moves from the negative terminal of the cell to the right hand plate of C3, and one electron moves from the left hand plate of C1 to the positive terminal of the cell, one electron will move between C1 and C2 and between C2 and C3. Thus, the total charge moved is one electron and the charge on each capacitor is one electron. Thus we can say:
Therefore:
The three single capacitors may be replaced by a single capacitor whose capacitance (C) is given by the above equation, provided its safe working voltage is of a sufficiently high value to withstand the applied voltage. 72
Capacitors in parallel Therefore:
And from this we can say:
And as:
Three capacitors are connected in parallel. If on closing the switch S a current (I) flows in the circuit and from Kirchhoffs first law:
And VSupply = V1 = V2 = V3 we can also say:
We also know that:
Thus, we may replace capacitors in parallel by a single capacitor whose value is given by the above equation.
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Capacitors in series / parallel combinations When capacitors are connected in series and parallel combinations, the process of finding the total capacitance is basically the same as that used to find the total resistance of a resistor network. It must of course be noted, that the formulae used for capacitors in series and parallel are different from those used for resistors connected the same way. Where capacitors appear in both series and parallel, they may be reduced to a single effective capacitance using a step-by-step sequence as follows: Combine any simple parallel groupings within branches. Replace any simple series groups by a single equivalent capacitor. Repeat the process until a single capacitor remains. Charge & discharge characteristics A capacitor opposes voltage change in a circuit, if we had a perfect dc circuit and a perfect capacitor then only an instantaneous current would flow, charging the
capacitor instantaneously to equal the applied voltage (but in the reverse sense) and so preventing further current flow. In any real circuit, however, resistance is present in the form of: The connecting wires. Internal resistance within the dc source. This causes the capacitor to take a finite time to charge. Charging a capacitor In the diagram below all resistances are taken together and shown as the single resistor R.
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With S1 closed and S2 open, the capacitor will charge. Note that Kirchhoffs second law always applies, that is:
This sequence is shown graphically below.
The charging sequence is as follows: On closing S1, no current has yet flowed, the capacitor plates have no charge on them and hence, there is no voltage across it. Therefore, the whole of the applied voltage is developed across the resistor: The curves are called exponential curves and it can be The initial charging current is equal to the current through the resistor: As C charges its potential difference (VC) increases opposing the applied voltage (E) so that the charging current is progressively reduced. Finally the capacitor is fully charged (VC = E) and current ceases (consequently VR = O). seen that the slopes and are progressively
decreasing as time increases.
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Time Constant It is found that the time taken to charge up the capacitor depends on the product of capacitance and resistance. This product is called the time constant of the circuit and its value is in seconds, providing R is in ohms and C in farads.
Proof of time constant When C is fully charged, then:
Time constant = CR
The time constant is defined as either: The time which would be taken for the capacitor voltage to reach its maximum value if it continued to increase at the initial value, or The time for the capacitor voltage to reach 0.632 of its maximum value (or 63.2%, this is sometimes taken as 2/3 in calculations). It is difficult to say at exactly what point the capacitor is fully charged; however, for all practical purposes it may be considered fully charged after five time constants:
The time taken to fully charge at the initial charging rate is equal to the time constant (TC). Thus:
But as we know:
So:
Time to Fully Charge = 5CR

seconds
Therefore:
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Discharging a capacitor On opening S1 and closing S2 (after the capacitor is fully charged), the capacitor discharges, thus current flows (in the opposite direction to the original current) and the voltage across the capacitor falls to zero exponentially. In this case the voltage across the capacitor falls by 63.2% to 0.368E in CR seconds and takes 5CR seconds to fall to zero (0.368 is sometimes taken as 1/3 in calculations).
A capacitor in a dc circuit It can be seen that although current does flow for a period of time in a dc circuit containing a capacitor (until the capacitor is fully charged), the current is eventually reduced to zero. Thus, a capacitor inserted in a dc circuit prevents current flow and is sometimes called a dc blocking capacitor. Two points should be noted; Current does not flow through a capacitor, it only appears to, because the number of electrons arriving at one plate is the same as the number leaving the other plate. Alternating current always appears to pass through a capacitor. The degree of opposition to ac current flow is determined by a variety of factors which will be studied later in ac circuits. The study of capacitors in ac circuits will also provide additional reasons for using them in dc circuits.
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The effects of open & short circuits A capacitor is in effect an open circuit, however, if the connection to a capacitor were to go open circuit then it would be unable to charge and there would be absolutely no current flow. If this occurred in a parallel combination, the total capacitance of the circuit would decrease; in a series combination the capacitors would be ineffective because of the lack of current flow. When a capacitor is short circuited it is unable to charge, if one capacitor in a parallel combination is short circuited it will prevent the other paralleled capacitors from charging. In a dc circuit, a shorted capacitor will no longer act as a dc block and will allow the flow of both dc and ac current. The effects of open and short circuited capacitors will be examined in more detail as there uses in various circuits are studied.
Safety & testing A charged capacitor can store a large amount of energy which it releases on discharge. It is therefore important to ensure that capacitors, especially large ones, are discharged before you attempt to touch them. Particular care is required when servicing faulty high voltage equipment. A capacitor can be tested using an ohmmeter. When connected across a capacitor, the ohmmeter's battery charges the capacitor. The charging of the capacitor is indicated by a changing value of resistance, from zero to infinity as the capacitor charges. If the charging process is too quick to see, a resistor can be placed in series with the meter and capacitor to slow it down (time constant = CR). In many cases it is necessary to remove the capacitor from the circuit in order to test its serviceability.
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Circuits involving capacitive decay Consider the circuit shown below; Depending on the time constant of the circuit, relative to the period of the square wave applied to it, the response of the circuit can vary widely. Assuming T is half the period of the square wave: If CR is slightly less than T, the waveform in the top diagram is produced at the output (across C). If Cr<<T, the square wave is hardly affected, centre diagram. If CR>>T, the circuit is an integrating circuit, since the output waveform is that of the integral of the square wave, that is the area underneath it. This is shown in the lower diagram.
If the positions of the resistor and capacitor are reversed and the voltage across the resistor measured, then the waveform produced will be that of the current, since V=IR. If CR is short enough then a stream of pulses is produced when a square wave is applied to the input (shown in the diagram above). If CR<<T the circuit is called a differentiating circuit, since the pulses approximate to the slope of the input waveform as in the centre diagram. When CR>>T the circuit is called a coupling circuit. A coupling circuit allows the input waveform to pass to the output whilst blocking the passage of any dc. 79
3.10
MAGNETISM
All materials contain molecules with magnetic properties. In unmagnetised substances, these molecules are arranged in a random manner and no external magnetic effect is produced. When the material is being magnetised, we are aligning the molecules. The number aligned increases, as we further magnetise the specimen and when all are aligned no further increase in magnetisation is possible and the specimen is said to be magnetically saturated. In theory all substances could be magnetised, but in practice it is impossible to align the molecules of most substances. Domain Theory In domain theory it is assumed that magnetic materials are composed of tiny individual magnets called domains, a single domain is very small - about 1012 atoms. Considering each atom - orbital electrons not only orbit the nucleus but spin axially on their own axis.
Everyone has seen and handled a magnet in the form of a straight or horseshoe-shaped bar of steel or steelalloy. The magnet was originally a piece of steel before it was magnetised. A material called magnetite is a naturally occurring magnet (also called lodestone) which was used at sea for primitive navigation. A magnet is easily recognised by its ability to attract pieces or iron and steel; and if suspended freely on a piece of string, will swing to align with the earths own magnetic field. Magnetic theories Molecular Theory If we continue cutting our magnet into smaller and smaller pieces we would eventually arrive at the smallest piece, which would be a molecule and this molecule would be a magnet. Thus the molecular theory of magnetism states that:
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In non magnetic materials the same number of electrons spin clockwise as anti-clockwise. In magnetic materials more electrons spin one way than the other way The unbalanced spin creates twists called magnetic moments. In unmagnetised state the moments of the electrons are in the same direction in a single domain, but the domains produce random pockets of magnetism. As the magnetic material becomes magnetised the domains become partially aligned. In fully magnetised material all domains become fully aligned. Magnetic properties Magnetic poles The two regions near the ends of a magnet at which the attracting forces appear to be concentrated are called the magnetic poles.The pole (when freely suspended) which points towards the earths geographic North Pole is called the North Seeking Pole N (or north pole for short) and that which points to the south geographic pole, the South Seeking Pole S (or South Pole).
It is observed that two north poles repel each other and likewise with two south poles; however a north pole and a south pole will attract each other. This is summarised in the fundamental law of magnetism: Like Poles Repel, Unlike Poles Attract To test a specimen for the presence of magnetism it is necessary to observe repulsion. Attraction simply means that the specimen is magnetic but it may not be magnetised. Thus the test for magnetism is repulsion.
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Magnetic field The region around a magnet in which it exerts a force is called the magnetic field. The magnetic field is threedimensional and it may be shown visually by drawing imaginary lines called lines of magnetic flux. Lines of flux A line of flux is a line indicating the direction in which a free north pole would travel, if placed in the field at that point. Alternatively it is the direction in which the north pole of a compass needle would point. The direction which would be taken is indicated on the lines of flux by arrow heads. Therefore lines of flux emanate from north poles and reenter at south poles, see diagram below.
Properties of Lines of Flux To make the imaginary lines of flux describe the behaviour of the magnetic field we must give them appropriate properties. Thus lines of flux have the following properties: They are imaginary. By definition they emerge from a north pole and re-enter at a south pole. They are continuous and never ending (thus they travel inside the magnet from the south to north). They never cross each other (a compass placed at a given point can only point in one direction). They can bend, but resist bending or distortion. They behave as though elastic (and therefore try to shorten themselves). They repel each other sideways (they fill evenly the volume available there are no abrupt discontinuities).
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The Earths field The earth acts as a magnet and the lines of force produced by it follow the pattern shown in the diagram below.
If the Earth were completely symmetrical, the north and south magnetic poles would coincide with the axis of the Earth. The magnetic poles are, in fact, separated from the true poles by about 1000 Miles, the north magnetic pole being in the area 70 - 75 degrees North and roughly 95 degrees West. Since the North pole of a magnet is really a North seeking pole and similarly the South pole is really a South seeking pole it follows that at the Earth's North pole there must be a south seeking magnet and similarly at the Earth's South pole there must be a North seeking magnet. Unfortunately before the significance of the Earth's magnetism was realised, navigators had dropped the word "seeking" leaving the embarrassing statement that there is a magnetic south pole at the North pole and a magnetic North pole at the South pole. This problem is overcome by defining the North seeking pole as the Red Pole and the South seeking pole as the Blue Pole.
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Ferromagnetic materials Ferromagnetic materials can be easily magnetised and exhibit strong magnetic properties. This group can be further subdivided into hard and soft magnetic materials. Above certain temperatures ferromagnetic materials behave as paramagnetic materials. Hard Iron Hard magnetic materials are more difficult to magnetise but retain most of their magnetism when the magnetising force is removed, examples include steel and nickel alloys such as: Ticonal - Iron-Cobalt / Nickel / Aluminium / Titanium and Copper. Alnico - Iron-Nickel / Cobalt and Aluminium. These materials are used for permanent magnets.
Soft Iron Soft magnetic materials become magnetised very easily, but they loose most of the magnetism when the magnetising force is removed examples include alloys such as: Stalloy Mumetal These materials are used for temporary magnets Paramagnetic materials Most materials fall into this group. These materials can only be magnetised with a great amount of effort, usually resulting in their destruction. If magnetised the material only exhibits small magnetic properties examples include: Wood. Glass. Air. Water. Aluminium. 84
Diamagnetic materials This is a small group of materials that actually oppose a magnetising force and if placed in a magnetic field they will decrease its strength. If suspended in a magnetic field, they will swing to adopt a position at 90 degrees to the lines of flux examples include: Copper Brass Bronze Mercury Bismuth Production of a magnet Magnets can be produced in a variety of ways; generally the method used is determined by the type of magnet required. Stroke method Using the stroke method of producing a magnet, a piece of steel is stroked by a permanent magnet or magnets.
Magnets with same polarity at either end can be produced using the double stroke method. This entails stroking the steel from the centre to the end, reversing the direction of the magnet for each end. Such a magnet is said to have consequent poles.
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Induction The property of magnetism may be induced in a piece of material that does not normally have that characteristic. If a piece of soft iron is placed in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet, the soft iron will assume the properties of a magnet and become magnetised. This action is called magnetic induction. It occurs because the lines of flux tend to flow through the path of least opposition, and air offers more opposition than soft iron. When the lines of flux pass through the soft iron, the molecules of soft iron line up with the lines of force, their north poles pointing in the direction in which the lines of force are travelling through the iron. The end at which the lines of flux enter the soft iron becomes a south pole, the end at which they leave, a north pole.
If the magnetic field is removed, the soft iron will loose its magnetism. It should be noted that a piece of soft iron sitting in the earth's magnetic field will concentrate the lines of flux and become magnetised.
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Use of electrical current When a conductor carries an electric current, a magnetic field is produced around that conductor. This phenomenon was discovered by Oersted in 1820. Oersted found that a wire carrying an electric current produces a magnetic field around the wire for as long as current continues to flow. The direction of the magnetic field depends upon the direction of the current. The field is symmetrical around the wire and is represented by lines of flux drawn as concentric circles around the wire. By convention current flowing into a diagram is represented by a cross, current flowing out of the diagram by a dot. One can liken this to the view obtained from a dart thrown towards you, or away from you.
Corkscrew Rule Knowing the direction of the current, it is possible to determine the direction of the magnetic field using Maxwells Corkscrew rule, usually abbreviated to the Corkscrew Rule (or sometimes the right hand screw rule).
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The Corkscrew Rule states: if a corkscrew is turned so that it moves in the direction of conventional current flow, then the direction of rotation of the corkscrew corresponds to the direction of the magnetic field. Attraction & Repulsion Two parallel wires, which are close together, each carrying an electric current, produce magnetic fields which interact with one another. If the currents flow in the same direction, the wires experience a force of attraction. If the currents flow in opposite directions, the wires experience a force of repulsion, see diagram below.
The force between two such conductors forms the basis for the definition of the unit of current - the ampere. 88
Electromagnetism If a straight wire carrying a current is formed into a circular loop, the magnetic field is as shown. The field may be deduced by taking elements of the loop and looking at the field around each part of the loop.
End rule The direction of the magnetic field depends upon the direction of conventional current flow. We can find out which end of the coil is acting as the North Pole and which the South Pole is by observing the direction of current flow at each end. This is called the End Rule or sometimes, the clock rule, see diagram below. Production of a bar magnet If a length of wire is bent into a series of loops, it forms a solenoid. The direction of the magnetic field around any small part of it can be obtained by using the corkscrew rule. If the fields for a series of such loops are combined, the result will be a field pattern similar to that of a bar magnet. 89
Right hand gripping rule The right hand gripping rule can also be used to determine the north pole of a coil. The coil is gripped by the right hand with the fingers pointing along the conductors in the direction of conventional current flow, when the thumb is then extended; it indicates the end of the coil that has a magnetic north polarity.
The magnetic circuit Magnetomotive force (mmf) In an electric circuit, a current is established due to the existence of an electromotive force. In the same way, in a magnetic circuit, a flux is established due to the existence of a magnetomotive force (mmf). The mmf is produced by the current flowing in the coil and its value is the product of the current and the number of turns on the coil.
Note that, although mmf is quoted in ampere turns, the actual unit dimension is in amperes.
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Magnetising force The magnetomotive force can be expressed in terms of the length of the magnet. It is then referred to as the magnetising force or magnetic field strength and given the symbol H. The magnetising force is a measure of the intensity of the magnetic effects at any given point in the magnetic field.
It will therefore be seen that a solenoid having 10 turns per metre carrying a current of 6A will produce the same strength of magnetic field as one of 12 turns per metre carrying 5A. Flux & Flux density A magnetising force produces a certain amount of magnetic flux ( ), measured in Webers. The magnetic field is represented by imaginary lines of magnetic flux. The number of lines of flux passing though a given area is called the flux density.
Note that: The unit of field strength is ampere per metre, although it may be quoted as ampere turns per metre. The length of a solenoid l is the length along its axis and not the length of wire from which the solenoid is made.
Flux density is denoted by the symbol unit Tesla.
B and given the
The unit of flux density is actually Webers per m2, so:
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Permeability When an mmf produces a magnetising force (H), a certain flux density (B) is established. The ratio is termed 'the permeability of the material'.
The product of
o and
r is called the absolute
permeability and is denoted by the symbol . For all materials:
Permeability is an indication of the ability of the flux to permeate the material. If the material in which the flux is established is a vacuum, or free space, then the ratio is called the permeability of free space' and given the symbol
Reluctance The opposition experienced by a magnetising force to the creation of a flux is called reluctance and is denoted by the symbol S. The following derivation is for information only:
o. This value is considered to be a constant:
If a flux is established in any material other than air or free space, then the flux density will increase. The number of times by which the flux density increases is called the relative permeability of the material denoted by the symbol r. This is not a constant but varies with different material i.e. steel = 800. 92
For more than two parallel paths:
Units of reluctance are:
Ampere Turns . Weber
BH curves For any ferromagnetic material there is a definite value of flux density (B), corresponding to a specified value of magnetising force (H). These values can be ascertained from graphs of B against H for each material. A BH curve can only be obtained using a piece of material that has never been magnetised before. Once the material has been magnetised and the curve obtained, the production of another BH curve, from the same piece of material, is not possible. The BH curve is the line O to Q on the hysteresis curve shown in the next paragraph.
Composite paths and airgaps A magnetic circuit may be composed of paths of different materials. Such magnetic path is called a composite path. The total reluctance of a composite path is equal to the sum of the individual reluctance's.
In many devices such as transformer motors and generators the magnetic flux has parallel paths. The purpose is to reduce the total reluctance given two parallel paths S1 and S2:
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The gradient of the BH curve gives the permeability of the material. In practice it is found that the magnetic properties of different specimens of the same material vary considerably. The fact that permeability varies for a given material may also be seen from the shape of the curve, if the permeability was a constant, the graph of B against H would be a straight line. Hysteresis loop A ferromagnetic material retains some magnetism after the magnetising force is removed. The BH curve (O to Q) will therefore only be followed once, on initial magnetisation. When a material is subjected to a changing magnetising force, the flux density is affected by its previous magnetic history. There is tendency for the magnetic conditions to lag behind the magnetising force that is producing them. This is known as hysteresis and comes from the Greek meaning late or lagging. 94
If a piece of material is taken through a complete cycle of magnetising and demagnetising the graph of B against H is as shown, this diagram is called a hysteresis loop. O to Q Q to R Initial magnetisation to saturation at point A Magnetising force is reduced to zero.
S to T T to Q -
Further increase in the reverse magnetising force. This causes the material to reach saturation in the opposite direction. Reversal of magnetising force again eventually makes the material saturate in original direction.
O to R/U - Represents remanence. Remanence is the flux density remaining in the material immediately after the magnetising force is removed. It is sometimes called retentivity. If the material had not been taken to saturation then this would represent the remanent flux density. R to S The magnetising force is reversed.
The term residual magnetism is used to describe the useful flux remaining after the magnetising force has been removed for a considerable time, it is proportional to the coercivity of the material. This term should not be confused with remanence or remanent flux density. The area of the loop represents the energy loss during each magnetic cycle, or the power dissipated. Its size is dependent upon the type of material and frequency at which the magnetising force is switched. Note: Soft iron saturates with much less magnetising force than steel. The remanence of soft iron is less than that of steel. The area of the loop and coercivity for steel is much greater than for soft iron. This indicates greater hysteresis loss and residual magnetism. 95
O to S/V - Represents the magnetising force required to reduce the flux density to zero. This is called the coercivity of the material. If the material had not been taken to saturation then this would be termed the coercive force.
Materials with large loops are used for permanent magnets Ticonal. Materials with small loops are used for temporary magnets Stalloy, Mumetal. Comparison of electrical & magnetic circuits It is useful to compare various electric and magnetic quantities and their relationships. Consider the electric and magnetic circuits shown below.
Tabulating the comparisons: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT Qty Emf Current Resistance Unit Volt Ampere Ohm MAGNETIC CIRCUIT Qty mmf Magnetic Flux Reluctance Unit Ampere turn Weber
Current = emf / Resistance
Ampere turns / Weber Magnetic Flux = mmf / Reluctance
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Magnetic shielding The differing values of reluctance of air and soft iron are made use of in magnetic screening. Air had high reluctance whilst soft iron has a low reluctance. Thus if the equipment to be screened is surrounded by soft iron, most of the flux will pass through the soft iron, rather than the air inside it, since lines of flux take the path of least reluctance.
Student Notes
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3.11 INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTORS

In 1831, a scientist called Michael Faraday discovered that an electric current was produced by the relative movement of a magnet and a coil, a phenomenon which is now known as electromagnetic induction. Electricity from magnetism If a magnet is moved into or out of a coil of wire and if the coil is connected to a meter, the meter records a flow of current as long as the magnet is moving. The same result is obtained if the magnet is kept stationary and the loop is moved. The meter therefore shows that there is a current as long as there is relative movement between the loop (coil) and the magnet (magnetic field). Note that energy is not being produced but simply converted from mechanical energy to electrical energy.
Factors affecting induced emf By experiment, the following factors may be noted: The faster the magnet (or coil) is moved, the greater is the deflection obtained on the meter. This shows that the magnitude of the emf is proportional to the rate of relative movement. Repeating the experiment using a stronger magnet results in greater meter deflection for the same rate of movement. Hence the magnitude of the emf is proportional to the flux density. Reversal of the direction of motion produces meter deflection in the opposite sense. The direction of the induced emf therefore depends on the direction of motion. Using the south pole of the magnet instead of the north results in meter deflection in the opposite sense, showing that the direction of the induced emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field. 98
If more turns are used on the coil, meter deflection is greater and is proportional to the number of turns (N). These results are summarised in two laws, as follows: Faradays Law When the magnetic flux through the coil is made to vary, an emf is induced in the coil. The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
Lenzs Law A change of flux in a closed circuit induces an emf and sets up a current. The direction of this current is such that its magnetic field tends to oppose the change of flux. See diagram below.
The constant of proportionality in this equation is the number of turns on the coil (N), since the more turns on the coil, the greater emf. Hence, we may write:
The direction of the induced emf as given by Lenzs Law may be shown in our equation by introducing a negative sign, but remember that the negative sign is vectorial and not arithmetic.
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Flemings right hand rule When a straight wire is moved through a magnetic field, an emf is induced in it, in the manner of the coil and magnet experiment. Once again, lines of flux are being cut by a conductor and if the wire forms part of a closed circuit, a current will flow; the same effect is observed if the wire is stationary and the magnetic field moves. The direction of the induced emf may be determined by Flemings right hand rule.
The thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand are held at right angles to each other, then: With the thumb pointing in the direction of the conductor movement. With the first finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field (N to S). Then the second finger points in the direction of conventional current flow and thus indicates the direction of the induced voltage. Self inductance When current through a coil changes, the changing flux induces an emf that opposes the current flow. This emf is the result of self inductance and is called back emf. The term self inductance is often replaced merely by inductance. The value of back emf is given by:
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Where
dI L is the inductance in Henries and dt is the rate

And as:
of change of current. The minus indicates back emf. The unit of inductance is the Henry and is based on the equation. If current changing at a rate of 1 amp per second induces an emf of 1 volt then the inductance is 1 Henry. All circuits have inductance even a straight conductor, but if a straight piece of wire is formed into a coil the number of flux linkages increases and so does the inductance. A further increase in inductance is achieved by increasing the flux density. This depends on the area, the length of the coil and the permeability of material in which flux is established, thus:
Also by transposition of
Mutual inductance If the changing flux in a coil links with the turns of a second coil, the two coils are said to be mutually coupled and mutual inductance exists between them. The unit of mutual inductance is Henry and is defined as: If the primary current, changing at a rate of 1 amp per second, induces a secondary voltage of 1v, then the mutual inductance is 1 Henry, thus:
Where:
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Coupling factor If all the flux of a primary coil links with all the turns of a secondary then 100% coupling exists. Sometimes it is more convenient to use a coupling factor (symbol k). Maximum Coupling (100%) is represented by a k value of 1, thus if flux linkage is 97% the coupling factor is 0.97. Given that mutual coupling depends on k then so does the mutual inductance. The relationship is given by:
Energy stored in a magnetic field If we consider the theoretical case of a circuit with inductance only, all of the energy used in the circuit must go into the magnetic field. It can be shown that the energy stored in the magnetic field is given by equation:
Where L is inductance of coil in Henries and I is current through it in amps.
Where, L1 and L2 are the individual inductances of the mutually coupled coils. The value of k depends on: Purpose of coils involved Relative positions of the coils Frequency or rate of change of current And can be as high as 0.98 or as low as 0.0001.
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Spark suppression If we consider a circuit with a large inductance, possibly one containing a magnetic relay, at the instant the switch is opened, the current through the coil is changing at maximum rate; therefore the back emf induced in the coil is also at maximum. This emf is applied to the air gap between the switch contacts and ionises the air, producing a spark which the burns the contacts. This increases their electrical resistance and radiates energy which may cause interference, therefore sparks must be suppressed. Good design of switch contacts can help, but connecting a capacitor in parallel with the switch is the best method of eliminating sparking. When using a capacitor the energy released by the coil charges the capacitor instead of ionising air and when the switch is closed again the capacitor discharges.
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Inductors Coils which are used for their opposition to current change in a circuit are known as inductances or chokes. Construction Inductors with an air core have small inductances and are used at high frequencies, within radio tuning circuits or as RF chokes to stop radio frequency currents taking certain paths in circuits. Coils for use at high frequency are made of Litz wire which consists of several thin copper wires insulated from each other. Materials based on iron are used where a large inductance is required. Iron increases the strength of the magnetic field several hundred times. Silicon steel and nickel iron are used at frequencies up to 20 kHz. Iron cores are laminated. The laminations reduce the conversion of electrical energy to heat by making it
difficult for currents in the coil to induce currents in the core. These induced currents are called eddy currents because they flow in circles through the iron core. If the laminations are at right angles to the plane of the coil windings, the core offers a large resistance to the eddy currents. Iron based cores can be used at high frequencies if the material is in the form of a powder which has been coated with an insulator and pressed together. Ferrite cores consist of ferric oxide combined with other oxides such as nickel oxide and may also be used at high frequencies. Iron dust and ferrite cores increase the inductance of a coil considerably. For example, an air cored inductor of 1mH could be increased to 400mH by fitting a ferrite core. These cores also have a high resistance, thereby reducing eddy currents.
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Inductor symbols Air Core:
old symbol Iron Core:
new symbol
old symbol Iron Dust or Ferrite Core:
new symbol
old symbol
new symbol
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Inductors in circuits Inductors in series If it is required to increases the value of inductance in a circuit, then two or more inductors may be connected in series. The total inductance then depends on the sum of individual inductances and the mutual coupling between them. With no mutual coupling: Thus if the position of L2 reference to L1 can be reversed, then the total inductance will vary between:
And
Giving a total variation of 4M. A device which will achieve this is called variometer. It consists of two coils located one inside the other. The outer coil (stator) is stationary whilst the inner coil (rotor) is capable of rotation through 180 degrees. The coils are mutually coupled and connected in series, in one position the rotor field aids the stator field, when the rotor is turned 180 the rotor field opposes the stator field. When the coils are at 90 degrees to each other, mutual coupling is negligible.
If the coils are positioned so that the mutually induced emfs in each coil aid the self induced emfs then the coils are said to be series aiding, and:
If the coils are positioned so that mutually induced emfs in each coil oppose the self induced emfs, the coils are said to be in series opposing, and:
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Inductors in parallel The total inductance of inductors connected in parallel is calculated in the same manner as the total resistance of resistors connected in parallel:
Inductors in a dc circuit If a circuit contained only pure resistance, then the current would rise to its full value ( when the switch is closed. In practice, there is no such thing as pure resistance as all conductors have some inductance and if this is true then there can be such thing as pure inductance since any coil must have some resistance. Therefore, all circuits can be considered will have inductance and resistance in series (as shown in the diagram below). An inductance opposes change in current flow by producing a back emf and therefore the current cannot rise to its maximum value instantaneously. There is no back emf once the current is constant and therefore the maximum value of current depends only on the resistance in the circuit. in zero time
Or if only two inductors are connected:
As with resistors, when inductors are connected in parallel the total inductance is decreased. Note: No mutual coupling can exist between connected in parallel as this would require the magnetic lines of flux to cross.
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Hence:
In the above equation circuit; therefore as On moving the switch to position A in the diagram above, the current circuit will start to rise. By Kirchhoffs second law:
E, L and R are constant in a given

(the slope of the
I increases
graph at any point) must decrease. The current then follows a curve whose gradient is continually decreasing and which is called an exponential curve. See below.
Also:
And:
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Time constant This is an indication of the rate at which the current builds up (or decays). We cannot quote the time taken to build up to a maximum (or decay to zero) since it is impossible to decide exactly when this point is reached on an exponential curve. The time constant is defined as either: The time taken for a current to reach its maximum value if the initial rate of increase were maintained. Or The time taken for the current to reach 0.632 of its maximum value (or 63.2%). The latter definition arises since it is found that after one time constant the current has always built up to 63.2% of its maximum value. The time constant for a series LR circuit is given by: 109 Although it is not possible to say exactly when the current reaches its maximum value, for all practical purpose it can be considered a maximum after 5 time constants:
Proof of Time Constant (With reference to the diagram above) The instant of closing the switch (point A) But:
I = O.
Hence:
But
dI at A is the slope of the graph at A, i.e. AB
When dc current is removed The same sort of process occurs when the switch is moved to position B. The current does not immediately fall to zero (because the inductor opposes any change in current flow), but decays exponentially to zero. Voltage Change Note that we now have a short circuit and the applied voltage to zero. Hence from Kirchhoffs second law, the voltage across the inductor must at all times be equal, but opposite in sign, to that across the resistor.
Therefore:
And:
But
E AC is the Time Constant and BC = R
Therefore:
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Safety As the current increases through an inductor, flux builds up and energy is stored in the magnetic field. On short circuiting the inductor, the magnetic field collapses and the energy is returned to the circuit, maintaining the current as it decays to zero. If the circuit is open circuited rather than short circuited, then the collapsing flux will produce a large emf that may cause sparking across the switch contacts as they are opened (causing damage to the contacts and producing heat and electromagnetic radiation). Most importantly the large emf produced can cause a lethal electric shock on what is normally considered a safe, low voltage dc circuits.
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3.12 DC MOTOR AND GENERATOR THEORY

If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor. If an external circuit is then connected to the conductor a current will flow. The direction of the current flow depends on two things: The direction of the magnetic field. The direction of relative movement between the conductor and the field. The direction of conventional current flow can be determined by using Flemings right hand rule.
The size of the generated emf depends on three factors: The strength of the magnetic field (B). The effective length of the conductor in the field (l). The linear velocity of the conductor (V). The three being related in the formula:
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Simple single loop generator In its simplest form, a generator consists of a single loop of wire rotated between the poles of a permanent magnet. The rotating part of the machine is called the rotor or armature and is connected to the stationary external circuit via two slip rings, thus allowing a current to flow.
Induced emf As the loop rotates an emf is induced in both sides of the conductor. By using Flemings right hand rule it can be seen that the resultant currents flow in opposite directions on each side, but are in the same direction around the loop.
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An emf is only induced in a conductor when it is moved at right angles to a magnetic field, therefore the loop will also have an emf induced in it when it is moving at right angles to the field, when moving parallel to the field no emf will be induced. At any position in between there will be a proportion of maximum emf induced in the loop. The instantaneous value of emf induced in the loop is given by:
the conductors must change direction as must the resultant current flow. Output frequency As the loop rotates, the emf rises to a max in one direction, then falls to zero and then rises to a maximum in the opposite direction before once again falling to zero. One complete revolution is one cycle, the loop having returned to its start position. The number of cycles per second gives the frequency. The faster the loop is rotated the more cycles per second and the higher the frequency. In this simple generator the frequency depends on the number of loop revolutions per second. The output from this generator changes polarity every time the loop rotates 180 degrees and is therefore of little use as a direct current generator.
Where:
And is the angle of the conductor with respect to the field. As the loop passes the neutral point, the direction of travel of the conductors through the field reverses. The conductor that was moving upwards through the field is now moving downwards, therefore, the emf's induced in
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Commutation In order to make the current flow the same way through the load, the external circuit must be switched over every time the loop moves past its neutral position. This is achieved using a commutator. The commutator is used in place of slip rings and connects the rotating loop to the stationary external circuit. The commutator has 2 functions: To transfer current from the rotating loop to the stationary external circuit. To the periodically switch the external circuit to maintain current flow in the same direction. The switching takes place when the loop is moving parallel to the field and has no emf induced in it. Using a single loop generator and a two segment commutator, the output will be as shown.
Although the current now flows in the same direction through the external circuit, it is still of little practical use because the voltage and current fall the zero twice every cycle. Using several loops and a multi-segment commutator a more constant output can be produced.
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Ring wound generator The simple construction of the ring wound generator makes it ideal for explaining the operation of a multi coil machine. The rotor consists of a laminated iron cylinder onto which are wound 8 equally spaced coils. The junction between each pair of coils is connected to a segment of the commutator. The number of segments equals the number of coils, this being true for all dc generator armature windings.
The metal used for the rotor has a very low reluctance; therefore the main field flux flows through it rather than through the air gap in the centre. The parts of the coils on the inside of the rotor therefore have no emf induced in them. The low reluctance rotor creates a radial field in the air gap, as shown below.
The radial field means that the conductors are moving at right angles to the flux for a longer period of time and are therefore producing maximum emf for longer. This results in a flat top to the output waveform as shown above. The brushes are drawn inside for clarity and are positioned so that when they short circuit a coil, that coil is moving parallel to the magnetic field and has no emf induced in it. The 8 coils are split into two parallel paths of four, each group of four coils being connected in series. Because one set of four coils is moving up through the main field and the other set is moving down through the field, the emf's induced in each set of four coils is in the opposite 116
direction, but it is in the same direction with respect to the brushes. The emf induced in four coils is as shown below. The emf in the other four coils is in the opposite direction but in the same direction with respect to the brushes. It can be seen that the emf no longer falls to zero and only has a small ripple on it. The ring wound generator is no longer used. Although simple in construction, there are difficulties in winding the coils through the rotor; also half of each coil has no emf induced.
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Practical dc generator Construction The size and weight of generators vary considerably, but all are constructed in a manner similar to that shown below.
The field assembly consists of a cylindrical frame, or yoke, onto which the pole pieces are bolted. Generators generally have at least four pole pieces, although small machines may have only two. Wound around each pole piece is a field coil. The yoke has a low reluctance and provides a path for the main field of the machine. To reduce eddy currents the yoke is usually laminated; the armature core also provides a path for the main field and is therefore also of low reluctance and laminated. The armature windings are located in slots cut in the core, being wedged in with insulation to prevent them being thrown out by centrifugal forces.
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The coils are normally wound so that they return along a slot in the rotor that is one pole pitch away (see diagram). Pole pitch is a term used to describe the angle between one main pole and the next main pole of the opposite polarity.
The armature windings are connected to risers attached to the commutator. The commutator is made of copper segments separated by mica insulation. The brush gear assembly consists of a holder and rocker. The holder allows the brushes to slide up and down without allowing them to move laterally; the rocker allows the brushes to be rotated around the commutator so that they can be positioned on the magnetic neutral axis. It should be noted that the maximum output power from a dc generator is governed primarily by the generators ability to dissipate heat. Methods of cooling vary, a large, low power generator would normally be cooled naturally by convection and radiation. Smaller, higher power generators will need some form of cooling system that blows or sucks air through the generator.
The emf induced in each side of the coil is again in opposite directions but assisting around the coil. This type of winding is called a drum winding and has the advantage that the coils can be wound and insulated before being fitted into the rotor. There are two types of drum winding, Lap wound and wave wound.
This may use ram air from a propeller slipstream or from movement of the aircraft through the air, or a fan attached to the rotor shaft of the generator.
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Lap wound generator In a lap wound generator the end of each coil is bent back to the start of the next coil, the two ends of any coil being connected to adjacent segments of the commutator (see diagram below).
This form of construction is used on large heavy current machines. The number of parallel paths for current always equals the number of brushes and the number of field poles (see diagram). 120
Wave wound generator In a wave wound generator the end of each coil is bent forward to be connected to the start of another coil located in a similar position under the next pair of main poles (see diagram above).
This type of winding is used in smaller machines and is therefore more common on aircraft generators.
The ends of one coil are connected to segments two pole pitches away. This type of machine has two parallel paths and uses only two brushes, irrespective of the number of poles (see diagram). 121
Internal resistance A dc machine has resistance due to the armature windings, the brushes and the brush to commutator surface contact. This is called internal resistance and can be measured across the terminals of the generator (for the purposes of calculation the internal resistance is represented as a single value in series with the generated emf). Due to internal resistance, the generators terminal voltage varies with load current; as load current is increased the voltage dropped across the internal resistance increases and the terminal voltage decreases.
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Armature reaction When armature current is flowing, a field is produced around the armature conductors. The overall field of the machine is then produced by the interaction between the main field and the armature field. The armature field is at 90 degrees to the main field of the machine and therefore distorts it as shown below. The machine is working near to saturation and therefore the overall effect is a weakening of the field and a reduction in the generator output. Distortion of the field also means that the magnetic neutral axis is moved around, in the direction of rotation, away from the machines geometric neutral axis. This distorting of the field is called armature reaction and has the effect of causing a weaker field at points A and a stronger field at points B. When the brushes now short an armature coil, it is no longer at a point where zero emf is induced in it, therefore the brushes must be moved. The position they are moved to depends upon the armature current, the greater the current the further the brushes must be advanced. 123
Armature reaction can be reduced by fitting compensating windings, these are small windings connected in series with the armature and fitted into slots cut in the pole faces of the main fields. When current flows in the armature it also flows in the compensating windings producing a field that cancels the armature field. With careful design correction is applied for all values of armature current bringing the magnetic neutral axis back onto the geometric neutral axis and restoring the overall strength of the machines field.
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Reactive sparking The diagrams below represent the movement of the commutator under the brush.
Prior to being shorted by the brush, current in coil A is at a maximum value and, after leaving the brush, current will be at a maximum value in the opposite direction. Whilst the coil is shorted by the brush the current must drop to zero. The coil, however, has inductance and when shorted a back emf is produced that tries to maintain current flow. When the coil comes off the brush this back emf results in an excess of current that jumps, as a spark, from the commutator to the brush this is called reactive sparking. One way of overcoming the problem is to increase the resistance of the brushes; this reduces the time constant of the inductive circuit allowing the current to collapse to zero during commutation. Increasing the resistance of the brushes produces a power loss and increases the overall resistance of the machine. Sparking at the commutator may also be caused by: worn or sticking brushes incorrect spring tension commutator flats proud mica 125
EMF Commutation Another way of overcoming the problem is to use emf commutation. The purpose of emf commutation is to neutralise the back emf that leads to the reactive sparking. One way of achieving this is to advance the brushes beyond the magnetic neutral axis, this means the coils are under the influence of the next main pole before being shorted and will therefore have an emf induced in them; the induced emf will be off opposite polarity to the back emf and will reduce it, thereby reducing the current in the coil and allowing time for it to drop to zero whilst the coil is shorted. Unfortunately advancing the brushes is only good for one value of armature current, if the current increases the brushes must be advanced further; advancing the brushes also increases the demagnetising effects of armature reaction. A better way of applying emf commutation is to fit interpoles between the main poles of the machine.
Interpoles have the same polarity as the next main pole and are connected in series with the armature. The interpoles induce an emf into the short circuited coils that exactly cancels the back emf, thus allowing the current to fall to zero instantly. Being in series with the armature means that the reactance voltage is always eliminated irrespective of the value of armature current.
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Generator classifications Generators are usually classified by the method of excitation used. There are three classifications: Permanent magnet. Separately excited. Self excited. A permanent magnet generator has a limited output power and an output voltage that is directly proportional to speed of rotation. A separately excited generator has its field supplied from an external source. The output voltage is controlled by varying the field current. Self excited generators supply their own field current from the generator output; again the output voltage is controlled by varying the field current. This group may be subdivided into three sub-groups: Series. Shunt. Compound.
Series generator The series generator has a field winding consisting of a few turns of heavy gauge wire connected in series with the armature.
On "No-load" there is no armature current and therefore no field current. The only voltage generated is due to residual magnetism within the field. As the load current increases the field current increases and the terminal voltage rises, the increase in voltage more than compensating for the loss due to armature reactance and internal resistance. 127
The voltage continues to rise until saturation of the field occurs. A series generator therefore has a rising characteristic and is generally only used as a line booster. Shunt generator The shunt generator has a field consisting of many turns of fine wire connected in parallel with the armature.
The shunt generator has a falling characteristic and is used for dc generation on aircraft. Compound generator Compound generators have both series and shunt field windings and fall into one of two categories: Differential compound generators, in which the two fields are wound so as to oppose each other. Cumulative compound generators, in which the fields are wound so as to assist each other. The differential type of compound generator is generally used where a high initial voltage is required but only a low running voltage. Devices such as arc welders or arc lighting may use this form of generator. Cumulative machines can be wound to produce over, level or under compounding. Under compounding is more common in aircraft generators, the output voltage falling as the load current is increased.
On "No-load" the terminal voltage is a maximum. As the load current is increased, the terminal voltage decreases due to the resistance of the armature and armature reactance.
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Self excitation For a dc generator to self excite, certain conditions must be met: The generator must have residual magnetism. The excitation field, when formed, must assist the residual magnetism. For shunt generators additional criteria need to be met: The field resistance must be below a critical value. The load resistance must not be too low. Due to the above conditions, the only way to reverse the output voltage of a dc generator is to reverse the polarity of the residual magnetism. If the field winding supply or the drive direction is reversed the excitation will oppose the residual magnetism and the field will be collapse. INTENTIONALLY LEFTY BLANK
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DC motors If a current carrying conductor is placed at right angles to a magnetic field, a force will be exerted on it, causing it to move. The direction of the force and the resultant movement depends on two factors: Direction of current flow in the conductor. Direction of the magnetic field. The direction of the force and the resultant movement can be found by using Flemings left hand rule as shown below:
The magnitude of the force is dependant upon three factors: The flux density of the field (B). The magnitude of the current flowing through the conductor (I). The length of the conductor within the magnetic field (l).
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Simple single loop motor The simplest form of motor consists of a single loop of wire able to rotate between the poles of a permanent magnet. If a current is applied to the loop through slip rings, a motor torque will be produced, and the loop will start to rotate.
As the loop rotates past vertical, the current appears to change direction, this causes the torque to change direction, so the direction of rotation changes. When the loop passes vertical, the current appears to change direction again, causing rotation to revert to its original direction. If left, the loop simply oscillates back and forth either side of the vertical position. Commutation To make the loop rotate, the current must be made to change direction as the loop passes the vertical position this is achieved using a commutator and brushes. When current is applied to the loop a motor torque is produced and the loop starts to rotate (1).
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When the loop is vertical no rotational torque is produced but momentum keeps it moving; In this position the direction of current within the loop is reversed by the commutator, so that as the vertical position is passed the torque produced is in the original direction, maintaining rotation. To improve the torque and produce smoother running more loops or coils are added to the armature, each having its own commutator segment. Practical dc motors Construction Direct current generators are constructed in the same manner as dc generators, therefore further description is unnecessary. The similarities are as such that one machine can be operated as the other with only minimal adjustment, and in the case of more expensive machines used as starter generators, with no adjustment.
Most motors have some form of rating, this being a limit on the performance. Rating take various forms depending on the type, size and use of the motor, but are generally based on a limit on the speed, duration or altitude of operation. As with generators, the limit on a motors performance depends very much on the ability of the machine to dissipate heat. Cooling may be natural, by convection and radiation, or assisted by rotor mounted fans, blast air or slipstream. Back emf When a conductor moves in a field, an emf is induced in the conductor. The armature coils are moving in a magnetic field and therefore must have an emf induced in them, this emf acts against the applied voltage and is called back emf. The resultant of the two voltages is called the effective voltage. The flow of armature current is due to the effective voltage. 132
To limit the current a starting resistor is often used, the resistor being removed from the circuit once the motor is running. Torque The torque produced by a dc motor is directly proportional to the armature current and the magnetic field strength.
When running, the back emf is almost equal to the applied voltage, therefore the effective voltage and the current taken from the supply are both small. Starting d.c. motors When starting, the rotor is stationary and therefore producing no back emf, this results in a high effective voltage and a large current being taken from the supply.
Some torque is lost within the motor, especially if a fan is fitted to the rotor shaft. The torque lost is not constant, usually increasing with an increase in speed. Armature reaction The overall field of a dc motor consists of the armature field and the stator field. The two fields react, as in the dc generator, producing armature reaction.
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Speed control The effects of back emf make a dc motor a self regulating machine. If the load is increased, load torque exceeds motor torque and the motor slows down, the reduction in speed causing a decrease in the back emf and an increase in the effective voltage across the armature. Armature reaction causes the magnetic neutral axis of the motor to be moved around in the opposite direction to that of the generator, against the direction of rotation. The problem can be overcome as in dc generators, by fitting compensating windings. Reactive sparking The dc motor also suffers from reactive sparking. For fixed load motors this problem is overcome simply by moving the brushes onto the magnetic neutral axis; for variable load motors, interpoles are used as in a dc generator. The increase in effective voltage causes an increase in the current drawn from the supply and an increase in motor torque, the increase in motor torque causes an increase in speed to cope with the load increase. The speed of a dc motor can be varied in two ways: By controlling the field current. By controlling the armature current.
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Field control A decrease in field current will cause the main field flux to decreases, this will in turn decrease the back emf induced into the armature. The decrease in back emf will result in an increase of the effective voltage which will cause the armature current to increase. The increase in armature current increases the motor torque which increases the motor speed. This occurs because a small change in the main field strength causes a large change in the armature current. Of course, this cannot continue uncontrolled because eventually the field will be lost. Field control is generally used for speed control of normal running speed and upwards. Armature control An increase in armature current causes an increase in motor torque and the motor speed increases. A decrease in armature current causes a decrease in motor speed. Armature control is generally used for control of normal running speed and downwards.
Changing the direction of rotation To change the direction of rotation it is only necessary to change the direction of the main field or the armature current. If both are changed the motor will rotate in the same direction. In the majority of cases where a bi-directional dc motor is required on an aircraft, a split field motor is used. This motor will be examined in more detail later in the notes, suffice to say it has two fields windings, one for clockwise rotation and another for anti-clockwise rotation.
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Motor classifications Dc motors are constructed in same manner as dc generators. Armatures are wound in same manner, either wave or lap, the only difference is the positioning of brushes due to armature reaction or reactive sparking. Motors are classified in the same manner as generators shunt, series and compound; each type having its own operating characteristics and uses. Series motor A series motor has a low resistance, heavy gauge winding in series with the armature winding. On light loads speed is high, armature current is low and the field is weak. On heavy loads speed is low, armature current is high and the field is strong. Series motors have a wide speed variation with load. The armature torque is proportional to the magnetic field and armature current. In series motors the magnetic field depends on the armature current.
Theoretically the torque is approximately proportional to the square of the armature current. In practice, however, due to armature reaction and saturation of the magnetic circuit, and particularly on heavy loads, this is not true. As speed increases, the torque decreases, until the load torque and motor torque balance. If the load of a series motor is removed, speed may become dangerously high. It is not normal practice to run these motors off load.
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When starting, a series motor it is normally connected straight to the supply. Initial current is limited by the combined resistance of the field and armature windings and by the inductance of field winding. The field strength builds up quickly, giving a high starting torque, fast acceleration and rapid back emf build up. There is a short period of high current drain on the supply. Where a large speed range is required, as in turbine engine starting, a starter resistor is initially used in series with the motor and removed when the motor is required to increase speed. The starter resistor must be able to carry large current involved. Applications include starter motors, cranes and dc actuators. Some series motors are fitted with two separate windings. This enables motor rotation to be quickly reversed. Applications include fuel valves landing lights.
Shunt motor A shunt Wound motors has a high resistance field winding in parallel with armature. The field current will be constant if the input voltage is constant and no field control resistor is used. When load torque is increased, the motor will slow down, the fall in back emf allows the armature current to rise and the motor torque increases. When the motor torque matches the load torque, the speed again becomes constant. Small decreases in speed cause relatively large increases in the armature current.
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Between no load and full load, the variation in speed of a direct current shunt motor, with a low resistance armature, is small and these motors can be regarded as constant speed; with a high resistance armature, there is a more noticeable variation in speed with load. When a shunt motor has a constant input voltage: On light loads the magnetic field is constant and the torque is directly proportional to the armature current. On heavy loads the magnetic field reduced by armature reaction and torque does not rise in direct proportion to the armature current. If a motor does not increase speed when connected to the supply, then no back emf is produced. This causes a high armature current, large armature reaction and reduced torque and the motor will not start. Several options are available to solve this problem: Motors used on small loads only. Start motors with no load.
Increase armature resistance. Use a starter resistor. A low resistance shunt motor is normally started with a variable resistor, set to maximum resistance, placed in series with the armature. This reduces the armature current and armature reaction, increasing the start torque. As the speed increases, the back emf increases and armature current reduces. As the speed builds the resistance is gradually decreased until at normal running speed it is totally removed from the circuit. An automatic method, used for inserting a resistor in series with the armature for starting and removing it once the back emf has been developed, is referred to as a 'T Start' circuit. When current is applied the armature is stationary and producing no back emf, therefore the voltage at A is almost zero, the relay is de-energized and the resistance is in circuit limiting the current. As the rotor starts to turn and the back emf increases, the potential point A starts to increase. 138
At a pre-determined speed the potential at point A and the current through the coil, will be sufficient to cause the relay to energize, removing the resistor from the armature circuit. Speed control The speed of a shunt motor is normally controlled by a variable resistor placed in series with the field winding.
Separately excited shunt motors Separately excited dc shunt motors have the same operating characteristics as described and the therefore require no additional consideration. Shunt motors have uses where a constant speed is required and will be found in inverter drives and windscreen wipers. Compound motor These are used to meet specific requirements we may require motor with high start torque that will not race off load, or perhaps a motor to increase, decrease or maintain speed as load varies.
When the resistance is increased the field current is reduced, this reduces the back emf, increasing the effective voltage. The increase in effective voltage results in an increase in armature current and an increase in speed. When required to reduce the speed of the motor, the field resistance is decreased.
These requirements can be met with suitable compounding. There are two forms of compound motor: Differential - fields connected to oppose each other Cumulative - fields connected to assist each other
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Split field motor In certain applications it is necessary to change the direction of rotation of a motor. Typical examples would be in valves and actuators. We have already seen that this can be achieved by reversing the direction of the armature or field current, however, there is also a special form of reversible series motor known as a split field motor. A split field motor is simply a series motor with two field windings. The windings are wound in opposite directions, with one of the two windings being used for each direction of rotation. The direction is usually controlled by a single pole, double throw switch as shown below. The above circuit is in fact that of an actuator and includes not only a split field motor, but also a selector switch, limit switches and a brake solenoid. The motor is shown as having driven to position 1; this can be seen because limit switch A is not connected to the field winding. Whether this position is fully open, fully closed, extended or retracted depends on the device being driven. When it is required that the actuator drive to position 2, the selector switch is moved to position 2. Current flows through the field winding, brake solenoid and armature winding. The brake is released and the motor starts to turn. As soon as the motor moves, it is no longer in position 1, so switch A moves across. This allows the direction to be reversed by returning the selector switch to position 1 should the need dictate. When the motor reaches the limit of travel at position 2, switch B moves across, removing the power supply from the motor. 140
The brake solenoid, field winding and armature deenergise, the brake is applied and the motor stops. If the selector switch is now moved to position 1, the upper field winding, brake solenoid and armature are energised. The brake is released and the motor runs in the opposite direction towards position 1. Rating Most motors have a rating, a limit on performance or operation. Ratings take various forms: Output. Time. Speed. Altitude. As with generators output depends very much on machines ability to dissipate heat. All machines require some form of cooling. Low output motors or those that are not used for continuous operation may be cooled naturally. Others may be fitted with centrifugal or straight fan to drive air through the
machine - usual small machines. Others use air ducted from slipstream. Starter generators Many gas turbine aircraft are equipped with startergenerator systems. These starting systems use a combination startergenerator which operates as a starter motor to drive the engine during starting, and after the engine has reached a self-sustaining speed, operates as a generator to supply the electrical system power. The starter-generator unit, shown below, is basically a shunt generator with an additional heavy series winding. This series winding is electrically connected to produce a strong field and a resulting high torque for starting. Starter-generator units are desirable from an economical standpoint, since one unit performs the functions of both starter and generator. Additionally, the total weight of starting system components is reduced, and fewer spare parts are required. 141
The starter-generator shown below has four windings: A series field. A shunt field. A compensating field. An interpole winding.
During starting, the series, compensating, and interpole windings are used. The unit is similar to a directcranking starter since all of the windings used during starting are in series with the source. While acting as a starter, the unit makes no practical use of its shunt field. A source of 24 volts and 1,500 amperes is usually required for starting. When operating as a generator, the shunt, compensating and interpole windings are used. The series field is used only for starting purpose. The shunt field is connected in the conventional voltage control circuit for the generator. Compensating and interpole windings provide almost sparkless commutation from no load to full load.
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3.13
AC THEORY
Production of a sine wave The only feasible way of generating an electromotive force (emf) by mechanical means is to rotate a conductor in a magnetic field. As the direction of motion through the field is changing, the induced emf in the conductor will also change. In addition, the induced emf will start at zero, rise to a maximum value, decay to zero and then repeat the process in the reverse direction. It is in this way that basic alternating emfs are produced, leading, when there is a complete circuit, to alternating current (ac) flow.
By making the conductor in the form of a loop, we have the basis of the simple ac generator. All generators, both dc and ac, have this basic design. In a dc machine the output to the load is continually switched by the commutator so that the load current always flows in one direction. In the ac machine the current through the load is continually reversing. If the generated emf of the loop is measured and plotted as the loop rotates, the result will be as shown in the diagram below.
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It can be seen that when the conductors are moving parallel to the lines of flux, and not cutting them, the induced emf is zero. When the conductors are cutting the lines of flux at right angles, maximum emf is induced in them. By convention, the part of the waveform above the zero line is labelled positive and the part below the line is labelled negative. The sine wave If the conductor is rotated at uniform speed in a uniform magnetic field, then the output waveform is said to be sinusoidal and we refer to this type of waveform as a sine wave. There are many other wave shapes that can be generated or developed, but it is the sine wave that is used for main power supply systems. It is therefore necessary for the engineer to be very familiar with this particular waveform and he is expected to be able to remember and use the various figures and formulae associated with it.
The wave generated is called a sine wave because its amplitude (height) at any instant can be calculated from sine tables, i.e. plotting the sines of all angles between 0 and 360. When the conductor has completed 360 of rotation, it is said to have completed one cycle.
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Peak and Peak-to-Peak values Amplitude values and their calculation apply equally to current and to voltage measurement. Peak or Maximum Value The maximum value attained by the wave in either direction is called the maximum value or, more usually, the peak value.
not be confused with peak value, which is measured in one direction only and which is normally used in calculations. Peak-to-peak values are often used on oscilloscopes because it is easier to measure from top to bottom of the waveform. It must be remembered to divide the peak-to-peak value by two in order to obtain the peak value for calculations. Instantaneous Value As previously stated, the value at any instant can be calculated by multiplying the peak value by the sine of the angle (from 0) through which the conductor has rotated. Average values The amplitude of an ac waveform may be defined in terms of its average values. Over one complete cycle this would mathematically be zero (the wave goes as far positive as it does negative); if the pulses of voltage or current are always in one direction, the average value can be calculated from: 145
Peak-to-Peak Value The maximum in one direction to the maximum in the other direction is called the Peak-to-Peak value. It must
For single-phase full-wave rectification Average Value = Peak Value 0.637 For single-phase half-wave rectification Average Value = Peak Value 0.318 RMS values Whilst the Peak and Average values of ac have their place and uses, they are not a lot of use for everyday work on ac. What is required is a value of ac which relates to an equivalent value of dc. Suppose that an electric fire is operating with 5 amperes of dc flowing through it, and it is giving out a certain amount of heat, we want to able to say that 5 amperes of ac is flowing through it. Such a value is given by the Root Mean Square (rms) value of ac. For a sinusoidal waveform, the rms value = peak value 0.707. In other words, a sine wave of peak value Y produces a certain amount of heat when passed through a given resistor.
To produce the same heating effect in the same resistor using dc would require a dc with a steady current of only 0.707 of Y. By convention, it is not necessary to add rms to a voltage or current value but, if peak or average values are being referred to, then the word peak (Pk) or average (Av) must be added after the value.
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Periodic time The time taken to complete one cycle is called the periodic time (t), measured in seconds or fractions of a second. Frequency In electrical terms, the frequency is the number of cycles completed in one second (cycles per second) which is expressed in Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz = 1 cycle per sec 10 Hz = 10 cycles per sec etc. 1,000 Hz (1 x103 Hz) = 1 Kilo-Hertz (1 kHz) 1,000,000 Hz (1 x106 Hz) = 1 Mega-Hertz (1 MHz) 1,000,000,000 Hz(1 x109 Hz) = 1 Giga-Hertz (1GHz) Periodic time and frequency are naturally related:
Angular Velocity The velocity at which the phasor rotates is very important and can be calculated from:
Where:
And
Then or
(A proper understanding of this formula is essential as it is used in other formulae). 147
Referring back to our simple loop it can be seen that, if the loop was rotating at 120 revs per second, then the output frequency would be 120 Hz. It therefore follows that the frequency of the output of an ac generator is directly proportional to its speed of rotation. Phase Difference (Angular Difference) If two conductors are caused to rotate at the same angular velocity, then two waves would be generated. Any angle between them is said to be their phase difference. In the following diagram, the phase difference is 90. As the conductors rotate in an anti-clockwise direction, the dotted wave is said to lead the solid wave by 90. When two waves are 90 apart, they are said to be in quadrature with each other. When two waves are 180 apart, they are said to be in anti-phase with each other.
Phasor or vector diagrams Waveform diagrams are difficult to visualise and engineers have devised a diagrammatic method known as a phasor or vector diagram to simplify the problem. The terms vector and phasor are interchangeable, however, the term vector is more general, being used to denote any quantity that has both magnitude and direction i.e. velocity, whereas the term phasor tends to be associated more with electrical engineering. To avoid repetition the word phasor will be used in these notes. Imagine a line (Vm) rotating in an anticlockwise direction, rather like the conductor rotating in the magnetic field. If you plot the vertical displacement of the tip of the line at various angular intervals, the curve traced out is a sine wave.
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When the line is horizontal, the vertical displacement of the tip of the line is zero, corresponding to the start of the sine wave at point A. After 90 of anti-clockwise rotation, the line points vertically upwards (point B on the diagram). After 180 of rotation the line points to the left of the page (point C on the diagram), and the vertical displacement is again zero. Rotation through a further 180 returns the line to its start point. A phasor is a line representing the rotating line Vm, frozen at some point in time. Although line Vm was drawn to represent the maximum values, a phasor is normally scaled to represent the rms values, and can be used to represent voltage current, power or indeed flux. One rotation of the phasor produces one cycle of the waveform; therefore the number of rotations completed per second gives the frequency.
The 3 'o-clock position, on a phasor diagram, is the reference point of the diagram. Whether the current, voltage, mmf or flux is drawn pointing in this direction depends on the circuit being considered. If two or more phase displaced waveforms are to be drawn on the same phasor diagram they must have the same frequency, their phase displacements are indicated by the angles between the phasors. It must be remembered that phasors rotate anticlockwise; therefore if a voltage leads a current by 90 , the two phasors should be drawn so that as they are rotated, the voltage phasor is leading the way. Addition of phasors The addition of sine waves is greatly simplified by the use of phasor addition, however it should be remembered that, phasors can only be used to add two sine waves of the same frequency.
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To add two phasors a parallelogram is produced, the two extra sides being drawn parallel to the phasor already present ( see diagram).
Once the parallelogram has been produced, the resultant voltage is represented by a line from the origin to the intersection of the two new lines. The length of this new phasor represents the magnitude of the new voltage and the angle between it and the other phasors is the phase angle between them. When adding more than two phasors, it is simply a matter of reducing pairs to a single phasor, as described, until a single resultant remains.
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Addition of ac & dc It is possible for both ac and dc to exist in the same circuit or conductor. In such cases the ac is said to be superimposed on the dc, or that the dc has an ac ripple. The resultant waveform depends on the relative values of ac and dc, as shown in the diagrams below.
Other types of waveforms Fourier (1768-1830), a French mathematician, was one of the first to realise that all periodic waves could be built-up by combining sine waves of the appropriate amplitude, frequency and phase. When considering waveforms made up of a number of sine waves it is customary to call the sine wave with the lowest frequency, the fundamental. The resultant waveform will have the same frequency as the fundamental frequency. The harmonics are those sine waves with frequencies that are twice, three-times, four times etc. the fundamental frequency. Square waves A perfect square wave has vertical sides and a flat top. Such a theoretically perfect wave has an infinite number of odd harmonics and no even harmonics. Such a waveform is not possible to achieve in electronic circuits, however, by using the fundamental and the lowest nine odd harmonics (3rd to 19th) a good 151
resemblance can be obtained. Limiting the number of harmonics causes a sloping of the sides of the wave. A voltage with a square waveform is often used as a test signal applied to the input of a system. If the system does not respond well to higher frequencies, the sides will slope, if it does not respond well to lower frequencies the flat portions will become curved. If an amplifier does not function correctly when a square wave is applied to the input, it is unlikely to function correctly when other periodic waves are applied. A skilled experimenter can make deductions about the response of an amplifier by observing the output waveforms. Triangular or saw tooth waves A perfect saw tooth wave contains an infinite number of both odd and even harmonics; again this is not possible practically. The lower harmonics affect the rising portion of the wave, the higher harmonics affect the decay time.
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3.14 RESISTIVE, CAPACITIVE AND INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS

The type of load placed on an ac power supply affects the phase angle relationship between the voltage and current. Each type of load produces a different effect, so they are examined individually. Resistive loads When a pure resistance is placed in an ac circuit, the instantaneous current is given by the instantaneous voltage divided by the resistance (Ohms Law). This means that the current waveform is in phase with the voltage waveform. If the voltage and current values are known, then resistance may be calculated from:
Capacitive loads The diagram shows a pure capacitance or capacitor connected in an ac circuit. This cannot actually happen in practice as there must always be some resistance, but we will introduce the resistive element later in these notes.
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A capacitor will always charge, or discharge, to the voltage which is being applied to it. In other words, it follows the supply voltage. If we take the point where the capacitor is charged in one direction, when connected across an ac supply and the ac supply voltage starts decreasing, then a discharge current will flow (conventionally) from the capacitors positive plate through the supply source to the negative plate. This current flow will be small at first as the supply voltage starts to drop but will increase to a maximum value when the supply is at zero volts. It will continue to flow in the same direction but decrease as the capacitor is charged up in the reverse direction, dropping to zero at the point of full charge. The diagram below illustrates this point and it can be seen that the current is leading the supply voltage by 90.
The operation of the capacitor produces an opposition to the flow of current. It will therefore act in a similar manner to resistance in a circuit. This effect is called capacitive reactance; it is calculated in Ohms and is given the symbol XC. Capacitive reactance is dependent on frequency such that XC varies inversely with variations in the frequency. If the frequency is increased, XC decreases and so the current flow increases. If frequency is decreased, XC increases and so the current flow decreases. (This is why, after the initial charge current, no current flows through a capacitor on dc).
However:
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It should be clearly understood that, although we refer to alternating currents and signals flowing through capacitors, no current actually passes through the dielectric between the plates. Electrons circulate from plate to plate through the circuit, being affected by the electrostatic fields on the plates. Inductive loads The diagram shows a pure inductance or inductor connected across an ac supply. These notes assume that there is no resistance in the circuit. This is a situation which cannot exist in practice, but we shall introduce the resistive element later.
An inductance always opposes any change in current flow. When the current is ac, and constantly changing in value, the result is that it always lags behind the supply voltage. For a pure inductance the angle of lag is 90.
The constantly changing current means that the magnetic field produced by the inductance is also constantly changing. This gives rise to an emf being induced into the inductors own windings in such a direction as to oppose the applied emf. This self-induced emf is therefore known as a back-emf. The back-emf is dependent on the rate of change of current and on the value of the inductor (in Henrys).
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Note that the minus sign indicates that the back-emf is in opposition to the applied emf. Note also that point F on the following diagram is a maximum negative value because the current at that instant (point A) is changing at maximum rate.
It has already been stated that back-emf and therefore reactance, depends on the rate of change of current in the circuit, this is obviously dependent on the frequency of the ac supply. As frequency increases, XL will increase and so current flow will decrease. As frequency decreases, XL will decrease and so current flow will increase. It can thus be seen that equipment marked For use on ac only is depending on the reactance to control the current flow. If it was used on dc at the same voltage, XL would not exist, the current flow would be too high and the equipment would burn out.
However: The appearance of this back-emf in the circuit means that there is an opposition to the flow of current from the supply. The opposition due to an inductance, L, is called inductive reactance, and given the symbol XL. 156
Impedance When inductance, capacitance and resistance appear together in an ac circuit, in any combination, the total opposition to current flow is referred to as impedance and given the symbol Z. Resistance, inductance and capacitance in a circuit can be represented by phasors in the same way as currents and voltages. The position of each phasor relative to the reference position (3 o'clock) depends on whether a series or parallel circuit is being considered and therefore will be studied under the appropriate heading.
For the purpose of deriving the impedance formula shown below, it is only necessary to understand that phasors for XL and R or XC and R are at 90 to each other and as such form a right angled triangle. In a circuit containing all three components the values of XL and XC cancel out leaving one dominant value that again forms a right angled triangle with R. The resultant in each case is the circuit impedance, which can be calculated quite easily using Pythagoras. The total impedance in a circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C, is calculated using the formula:
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AC power Power in ac circuits also needs to be examined under the three headings of resistive loads, inductive loads and capacitive loads, as the calculation of power in each type of load produces different results. Resistive loads When the instantaneous values of voltage and current are multiplied, the resultant power waveform is as shown in this diagram below.
It can be seen that all of the power waveform is above the zero line, indicting that it is all being dissipated in the resistance. The shaped area under the power graph is the product of power time and represents the electrical energy consumed in the circuit.
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Inductive loads No power is developed in a purely inductive circuit. Power is calculated by multiplying the instantaneous values of voltage and current. If this is done for the two waveforms when they are 90 out-of-phase, then the resultant power waveform will be as shown below. It can be seen from the diagram that each half-cycle of voltage and current produces one full cycle of power (Power wave frequency is twice the supply frequency).
When the power curve is positive, the inductor takes power from the supply source. When the power curve is negative, the inductor returns power to the supply source. Over a complete cycle, the net absorption of power is zero watts. It must be fully understood that current is flowing in the circuit but that no work is being done when that current is 90 out-of-phase with the voltage.
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Capacitive loads As with pure inductance, a pure capacitance also produces a current flow which does no work. On one half-cycle, power is delivered to the capacitor (charging) from the supply source but the on the next half-cycle the capacitor returns power to the supply source (discharging). Each half cycle of the voltage and current again produces a full cycle of power. When the power curve is positive, the capacitor takes power from the supply source.
When the power curve is negative the capacitor returns power to the supply source. Over a complete cycle, the net absorption of power is zero watts. Again it must be understood that the current is flowing in the circuit, but no work is being done.
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The total load on a generator The following facts regarding power in ac circuits have already been established in these notes: In a purely resistive circuit, all of the current does work. In a purely inductive circuit, none of the current does work. In a purely capacitive circuit, none of the current does work. We have also established that, depending on the relative values of resistance, inductance and capacitance, the current can be at any angle, from 0 to 90, leading or lagging the supply voltage. If a number of individual loads are switched on to an ac generator, the individual currents will all combine to give one load current at one particular angle of lead or lag. As the angle is usually designed to be one in which the current lags the voltage, we will concentrate on that but the same arguments which we are going to use also apply to a leading current.
If the instantaneous values of two sine waves are added together, the result will be another sine wave. Conversely, any sine wave can be thought of as being comprised of two separate sine waves. If we assume generators load current to be lagging the voltage by angle we can say that, irrespective of the individual loads that produced it, the load current is comprised of one current which is in phase with the voltage and one current which is 90 lagging the voltage.
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Apparent Power & actual current The load current (lagging the voltage by ) is called the actual current. This is the current that would be indicated on an ammeter inserted into the circuit. If the supply voltage is multiplied by this current, the power that is apparently being dissipated is found. This however, is not the true power being dissipated and so it is called the apparent power and is given the units of volts amps.
If the rating plate on an ac generator is examined, it will be seen that the generator is rated at, say 200 volts (rms); 30 kVA. The rating is not given in watts because the designer has no way of knowing what the phase angle will be when it is loaded. True power & Real Current The component of the actual current that is in phase with the voltage is known as the Active or Real load current because it is the part of the load current that is doing all the work.
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This component can only be calculated as it is not possible to measure anything other than actual current. In order to find the real load current, it is necessary to multiply the actual current load by the Cosine of the angle, . If the supply voltage is multiplied be the real load current, the true power being dissipated in the circuit is found. True power is given the unit of the Watt. It is brought into being by the nature of the capacitive and inductive loads. Again, it can only be calculated, and is found by multiplying the actual load current by the sine of the angle . If the supply voltage is multiplied by the reactive load current, the reactive power is found and is given the units of Volt Amps Reactive (VAR).
Reactive power & reactive current The component of the actual current that is lagging the supply voltage by 90 is known as the Reactive or Wattless load current because it is the part of the load current that does no work at all, even though it exists and has to be carried by the cables, etc.
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Power Factor The angle which the actual load current makes with the supply voltage is known as the power factor of the circuit. The power factor is given by the Cosine of the angle, . When the current is in phase with the voltage, the angle is 0. The Cosine of 0 = 1 and so the power factor = unity. When the current is in quadrature with the voltage, the angle is 90. The Cosine of 90 = 0 and so the power factor = zero (0).
Because of considerations of automatic control over varying conditions, the power factor in aircraft systems is kept well away from unity. It is usual to operate at power factors in the order of 0.75 or 0.8 on aircraft. Power factor can be obtained from anything that gives the Cosine of the angle:
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Series LCR circuits It has already been stated that it is not possible to have an ac circuit consisting only of inductance or only of capacitance. There must be some resistance in each of these circuits and this resistance can be thought of as being in series with the inductance or in series with the capacitance. Of course, many circuits have resistors deliberately inserted in series with the other components and some circuits have all three components in series. It is these combinations of series circuits that we will now consider. Inductance and resistance in series As the inductance and the resistance are in series, the current is the same through each component. Current passing through the inductance gives rise to a potential across the inductance which leads the current by 90. At the same time, the voltage developed across the resistor is in phase with the current. As I is the common value in the circuit, it is called the reference phasor and is usually drawn horizontally when drawing the phasor diagram.
This is shown below, along with the circuit diagram.
The applied voltage VS is the phasor sum of VL and VR and leads I by phase angle , which can be any angle between 0 and 90 depending upon the ratio of XL to R. If required the phasor diagram could be re-drawn with the supply voltage VS in the horizontal position showing the current lagging this voltage.
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Capacitance and resistance in series As the capacitance and the resistance are in series, the current is the same through each component. Current passing through the capacitance gives rise to a potential across the capacitance which lags the current by 90. At the same time, the voltage developed across the resistor is in phase with the current. As I is the common value in the circuit, it is called the reference phasor and is usually drawn horizontally when drawing the phasor diagram. This is shown below, along with the circuit diagram.
The applied voltage VS is the phasor sum of VC and VR and lags I by phase angle , which can be any angle between 0 and 90 depending upon the ratio of XC to R. If required the phasor diagram could be re-drawn with the supply voltage VS in the horizontal position and showing the current lagging this voltage.
Inductance, capacitance and resistance in series As in the paragraphs above, the current I is again common all three components and so is used as the reference phasor when drawing the phasor diagram. This will obviously be a combination of the two diagrams shown previously and is drawn below, along with the circuit. In this example, XL is greater than XC and therefore VL is greater than VC.
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Series resonance It has already been shown that XL varies directly with frequency and that XC varies inversely with frequency. If therefore, the frequency applied to the above circuit was altered to decrease XL and at the same time increase XC, then at one particular frequency XL would be equal to XC.
Resolution of the diagram results in the applied voltage VS being shown to lead the current I by phase angle . The circuit is therefore acting as though it were inductive. The opposite effect would be obtained if XC was greater than XL and the circuit would then act as though it were capacitive.
This frequency is called the resonant frequency and is denoted by the symbol fo. At resonant frequency, the applied voltage and the circuit current are in phase, as shown in this phasor diagram below and the impedance of the circuit equals the resistance. 167
In a Series Circuit at Resonant Frequency: XL = XC VL = VC VR = VS Z=R As XL and XC are equal and anti-phase they cancel each other, so the only opposition to the flow of current comes from the resistive element of the circuit; the Current, therefore, rises to a maximum value. Because current is at its maximum value, this series resonant circuit is known as an acceptor circuit. This high current causes VL and VC rise to very high values. They can be far higher than the supply voltage and can therefore be very dangerous. For this reason, it is very rare for this type of circuit to be operated continuously at resonant frequency. Because
Then by transposition:
If graph of current against frequency is made for a series circuit containing both inductance and capacitance, the result is as shown below.
XL = XC then:
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Voltage magnification At resonance, VL and VC can rise to very large values and be greater than the supply voltage. This is known as voltage magnification and given the symbol QO. Off resonance the magnification factor is represented by the symbol Q. The amount of magnification is expressed by the fractions:
And:
The actual increase in voltage depends on the resistive element of the circuit. Below fO the circuit is capacitive, at resonance it is resistive and above fO inductive.
and is sometimes called the Q factor of the circuit.
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Selectivity Selectivity is the ability of a tuned circuit to respond strongly to its resonant frequency and to give a poor response to nearby frequencies.
capacitor thus making the
ratio large. This
increases the circuit impedance off resonance. Making the value of the resistor smaller. This reduces the impedance at resonance. Since both selectivity and the magnification factor are proportional to the inductance and inversely proportional to the capacitance and resistance, the magnification factor may be used as a measure of selectivity. Bandwidth The bandwidth (B) of a circuit is the difference between two frequencies either side of the resonant frequency at which the power has fallen to half its value at resonance, i.e. the half power points (these are also called the 3db points: see Decibel notation later in the course). If the power has fallen to half its value at resonance then since:
A sharp response curve indicates high selectivity; a flat response curve indicates low selectivity. High selectivity may be obtained by: Making the values of XL and XC large, that is by using a large value inductor and a small value
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We can then say:
By definition:
Therefore the current has fallen to 0.707 of its value at resonance.
As the bandwidth of the circuit narrows theselectivity of a circuit increases. Thus bandwidth may also be used as a measure of selectivity as well as magnification factor (QO). A useful relationship is:
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Parallel LCR circuits This section studies the effects of connecting inductors, capacitors and resistors in parallel. Inductance and capacitance As with the series circuit, variation of frequency will again effect the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance and there will again be one particular frequency at which the two will be equal for a given capacitor and inductor. This is the resonant frequency of the circuit. At resonant frequency, the current circulating between the capacitor and the inductor is high but the current drawn from the supply is low. This type of circuit is therefore commonly known as a rejector circuit. The best way of understanding its operation is to imagine a capacitor and an inductor connect as shown in the diagram.
Imagine also that the capacitor is charged to a given voltage and that there is no resistance in the circuit. When the switch is closed the capacitor will discharge through the inductor, transferring energy to it in the form of a magnetic field. Once the capacitor has discharged and current ceases to flow the magnetic field will collapse, inducing and emf into the inductor in the opposite direction, this will charge the capacitor up in the reverse direction.
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This action will repeat itself ad infinitum and the current will continue to circulate backwards and forwards at a natural frequency which, of course, is the resonant frequency of the circuit. This ideal condition would need no external force to keep operating. In practice, however, there must be some resistance in our circuit and so the current will oscillate at resonant frequency but will gradually decay as power is lost across the resistance. In order to keep our circuit oscillating it is only necessary to keep the circulating current topped-up from the supply. The current drawn from the supply at resonant frequency is therefore very small. At supply frequencies less than resonance, the current through the inductor increases and that through the capacitor decreases. The reverse occurs at supply frequencies above resonance. If a graph is drawn of supply current (or line current, as it is sometimes known) against frequency, the result will be as follows:
The very high impedance at resonance associated with parallel circuits is most often used in the tuning circuits of radio or television receivers. When tuned to a particular frequency, that frequency will not pass through the parallel circuit. It is therefore available for the amplifier to amplify and use it. All the other (unwanted) frequencies coming in at the aerial are passed through the parallel circuit to the chassis, thereby by-passing the amplifier.
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At frequencies above resonance, the circuit acts as though it was capacitive and at frequencies below resonance, as though it was inductive. Parallel resonance Unlike the series tuned circuit, the resistance does have an effect on the resonant frequency of a parallel tuned circuit, the equation being:
The value of the resonant current is given by:
In a Parallel Circuit at Resonant Frequency (fO):
If, however, the resistance is very small, the term involving resistance may be ignored and for most practical purposes the resonant frequency is given by: Because the impedance is a maximum, the parallel resonant circuit is known as a rejector circuit.
At resonance, the supply current (IS) is at its minimum value and is in phase with the applied voltage. 174
Impedance The impedance of a parallel circuit can be calculated using the formula shown below, although knowledge of this formula is not essential on this course.
Current Magnification In a parallel tuned circuit at resonance, current magnification occurs, that is IL and IC will be very large compared with IS. At any instant IL and IC act in the same direction round the internal circuit, and IS, flowing in the external circuit, is the difference between IL and IC. Thus, as IL and IC are large and very nearly equal, IS will be small.
At resonance, the impedance is a maximum and called the dynamic impedance (ZD) of the circuit. If the supply frequency is increased above or decreased below fO then the circuit impedance will decrease. The dynamic impedance is given by the equation:
At any instant Kirchhoffs first law applies, that is:
The circulating current is the smaller of the two currents (IL or IC) and IS is the make-up current. Remember that QO for a series tuned circuit is its voltage magnification whereas QO for a parallel tuned circuit is its current magnification at the resonant frequency.
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Bandwidth Bandwidth is defined as the difference between two frequencies f1 and f2, one either side of resonance, at which the impedance, has fallen to 0.707 of the maximum value. As for the series circuit:
Selectivity As for the series circuit, selectivity is the ability of the tuned circuit to respond strongly to its resonant frequency and to give a poor response to nearby frequencies. Again, as for the series circuit, QO is used as a measure of selectivity.
If the resistance is increased, or the ratio
L C decreased,
then the impedance at resonance is decreased, QO is decreased and hence bandwidth increased.
Below fO 1. Z small due to small XL 2. XC > XL 3. Thus IL > IC 4. Thus circuit inductive
Above fO 1. Z small due to small XC 2. XL > XC 3. Thus IC > IL 4. Thus circuit capacitive
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3.15
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are highly efficient, solid state, devices that use the principle of mutual induction to increase or decrease AC voltage or current in a circuit. Because the flux must be changing state, static transformers can only be used on alternating current. In order for a transformer to be used on direct current, part of the transformer must be rotated. Power transformers Power transformers consist of: Primary and secondary windings. Laminated core and coil former A mounting and terminal strip The windings consist of insulated wire wound onto the laminated former. The primary winding is wound first and the secondary wound on top; between each winding is a layer of insulating material. The size of wire used depends on the current rating of the transformer.
The ends of both primary and secondary windings are connected to the terminal strip for connection into the circuit. The laminated core consist of thin strips of iron approximately 07mm to 3mm thick, each sheet being insulated from the next. This laminated form of construction is used to prevent eddy currents joining and producing large circulating current within the core. The core is invariably one of two types, core or shell. With a core type, the laminations are U shaped and either I or L shaped, staggered when assembled to provide a single circular magnetic circuit.
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The windings may be placed on one limb or split between the two. With a shell type core, the laminations are usually T and U shaped, staggered when assembled to produce a three limbed core. When used for single phase, both windings are wound on the centre limb, when used for three phase, each phase is allocated to a separate limb. Whilst more expensive, the provision of two magnetic paths make the shell type former more suitable for large current use. All of the energy transferred from the primary winding to the secondary must be stored in the magnetic field created in the core, therefore, sufficient iron must be provided to store the energy of each half cycle of the ac waveform. If the total power is kept the same, there will be less energy in half a high frequency cycle than in half a low frequency cycle, therefore the higher the supply frequency, the smaller and lighter the transformer.
Circuit symbols & dot codes The basic symbol used for a transformer with one primary winding and one secondary winding is as shown.
The two dots are used to indicate the polarity of the windings. When the top of the left winding is positive, the bottom of the right winding is positive and vice versa. Whilst it should be understood that there is a phase difference of 180 between the primary and secondary voltages, the polarity of the secondary winding with respect to the primary, depends purely on the way the transformer is wound. 178
To indicate the type of core material used, additional markings are added to the basic transformer symbol.
The two coils on the right show that the transformer has two secondary windings, and the dot notation indicates on these windings are wound in opposite directions. The top of one winding being positive whilst the top of the other is negative. The dashed lines between the windings of this transformer indicate that it has a ferrite core and as such would be used at medium to high frequencies. When there are no lines between the two windings, the transformer is air cored and as such would be used at VHF and above.
The core material is determined primarily by the frequency of the supply on which the transformer is to be operated. The three lines drawn between the primary and secondary windings of this transformer indicate that it has a laminated iron core. As such this transformer would be used at low frequencies and may be found on ac power supply systems.
Losses Transformer losses are very small, 98% efficiency easily being obtained, however some losses occur in all transformers. Generally the losses can be divided into three groups: Copper losses. Iron or core losses. Flux leakage losses. 179
Iron losses Iron or core losses are divided into two groups: Hysteresis losses. Eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses arise through continually magnetising and demagnetising the transformer core, the energy required for this being dissipated as heat. Hysteresis loss is dependent on frequency and the type of material used for making the core. As frequency, or flux density within the core increases, so the losses increase. Transformers are therefore designed to operate at a specific frequency and the material used has a narrow hysteresis loop such as Stalloy, Permalloy or Mumetal. Eddy current loss is due to the formation of eddy currents within the transformer core, the energy being dissipated as heat.
Any conducting material within the field of a transformer has emf's induced in it; these emf's produce small circulating current flows called eddy currents. The metal core of the transformer therefore has eddy currents flowing in it. Providing the currents are small, loss is minimal, but large circulating currents represent a large power loss, the loss being proportional to the square of the frequency. Eddy currents are kept to a minimum by laminating the transformer core, thus preventing the small eddy currents joining into large circulating currents. Copper losses Copper losses are the I2R losses in the windings. Part of the applied voltage is used in overcoming the resistance of the primary winding; this reduces the flux available for inducing an emf in the secondary winding. Also, when the secondary circuit is connected, the secondary voltage falls due to the resistance of the winding. 180
Copper losses are therefore dependent upon the primary and secondary currents and the resistance of the windings and are independent of the supply frequency. Flux leakage losses Flux leakage losses as the name implies, results from the fact that not all of the primary flux links with the secondary coil. The reduction in flux linkages results in a reduced secondary voltage. With modern production methods this loss is negligible. Skin Effect Another loss that takes place at higher frequencies is caused by skin effect. Any current carrying cable produces a field around the conductor. In a cable carrying ac current, the alternating field expands from and collapses to the centre of the conductor, producing a back emf within the conductor. As the field is denser at the centre of the conductor, the back emf is larger, and consequently the current tends
to flow in the surface region of the cable, almost as though the cable were a hollow tube. As frequency increases the skin effect also increases. The problem can be overcome by using Litz wire, or by reducing the resistance of the surface region of the cable, this can be achieved by silver plating the conductor. Turns ratio A simple transformer consists of two coils, a primary and a secondary, wound on a high permeability, soft iron core.
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The changing current in the first coil creates a changing magnetic field that induces a voltage in the secondary coil. The size of the secondary voltage compared to the voltage applied to the primary depends on turns ratio, or transformation ratio. That is, the number of turns of wire in the secondary winding compared to number of turns in the primary. If losses are very small, the turns ratio may be expressed as:
step up type and the output voltage will be greater than the input voltage. By convention, when writing the transformation ratio, the secondary voltage is put before the primary; therefore, a 4:1 transformer is a step up transformer, the secondary voltage being 4 times the primary voltage. Power transference If losses are ignored, the power in the secondary equals the power in the primary:
If the number of turns on the secondary is less than the number of turns on the primary, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage, and the transformer is called a step down transformer. If the number of turns on the secondary is greater than the number of turns on the primary, the transformer is a
But:
Therefore:
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Transformer efficiency The transformers efficiency, , is given by the ratio of output power to input power:
Loading a transformer No load conditions In a practical transformer there are losses in the primary due to: Resistance. Hysteresis. Eddy currents These losses produce a current flow within the primary that is in phase with the applied voltage, and termed loss current.
The value of eta ranges from about 90% for small power transformers in receivers, to 98-99% for large power transformers. Transformer regulation As the load on the secondary is increased, the output voltage will fall. The amount by which the voltage falls is expressed as a percentage of the no load voltage and is termed the % regulation.
Regulation of power transformers is generally less than 4%. 183
The iron core and the number of coils make the primary circuit highly inductive, the resistance by comparison being very small. The magnetising current therefore lags the applied voltage by 90 degrees. The total current flowing in the primary, with the secondary winding off load, is the vector sum of the magnetising current and the loss current. Due to the large reactance of the primary circuit, the primary current is very small. If, however, the transformer is operated at a lower than rated frequency, the inductive reactance will be less, and a larger primary current will flow, therefore, transformers should not be operated below their rated minimum frequency without reducing the applied voltage. It is the magnetising current that produces the field, and it is this alternating field that induces an emf in the secondary windings. The induced emf depends on the rate of change of flux, and therefore lags the field by 90.
As the field already lags the applied (primary) voltage by 90 the induced emf in the secondary will lag the applied voltage by 180. The secondary voltage is anti-phase with respect to the applied voltage. On connecting a load to the transformer, a current will be set up in secondary windings and a flux will be produced. The secondary flux opposes the primary flux and effectively decreases the primary inductance. If the applied voltage is kept constant, the decrease in inductance results in an increase in the primary current. This increase in current is known as the load component of primary current. The load current in the primary sets up a flux that is equal and opposite to the secondary flux. The ampere turns of the primary flux equalling the ampere turns of the secondary flux. The total primary current is the vector sum of the no load current and the load current. As the secondary current increases so the primary current will increase.
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Under normal conditions, the load current is so much larger than the no load current that the latter can be ignored. Resistive load If the load on the secondary is purely resistive, the secondary voltage and current are in phase. The secondary current decreases the inductance of the primary circuit and the primary current increases, the increase being the load element of primary current.
The load element of primary current is anti-phase with respect to the secondary current and equal to the secondary current the turns ratio. The primary current consists of the vector sum of the no-load and load current. From the diagram it can be seen that the primary current is brought closer into phase with the applied voltage. The primary voltage and current become more in phase as the resistive load applied to the secondary is increased and it appears as though the secondary load has been reflected into the primary winding. Inductive load If a purely inductive load is applied to the secondary, the secondary current will lag the voltage by 90. The load element of primary current, equal to the secondary current T, will still be anti-phase with respect to the secondary current and therefore in phase with the magnetising current. The primary current is again the vector sum of the noload and load currents. From the diagram it can be seen that the primary current now lags the applied voltage by 185
almost 90. Again it appears as though the load on the secondary has been reflected into the transformer primary winding.
Combination loads Capacitive load If a purely capacitive load is applied to the secondary, the load will appear to have been reflected into the primary winding, and the primary current will lead the applied voltage by 90. Introducing resistance into purely inductive and capacitive circuits simply has the effect of reducing the angle of lag, or lead, of the primary current with respect to the applied voltage. 186
Reflected impedance The load placed on the secondary winding of a transformer always affects the primary current by altering its phase angle in relation to the primary voltage. Neglecting losses the reflected values of LRC can be shown to depend on the transformation or turns ratio.
the transformers turns ratio, makes it useful for impedance matching. Impedance matching transformers Maximum power is transferred from the source to the load only when the load impedance is equal to the internal impedance of the source. If this is not the case an impedance matching transformer can be used. The necessary turns ratio being calculated using the formula:
For example a transformer could be used to match a pre-amplifier of 20 000 ohms input impedance to a moving coil microphone of 200 ohms. In a step down transformer T is less than unity and Z primary is greater than Z secondary. The fact that the impedance reflected from the secondary winding into the primary winding depends on The turns ratio required would be calculated as follows:
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Therefore:
When the primary terminals are connected to an ac source, current flows between P1 and P2. The alternating flux produced links with all of the turns on the former, inducing a voltage in each. The output is taken from terminals S1 and S2. The voltage ratio is calculated from the turns ratio:
Auto-transformers Auto transformers have only one winding, this winding serving as both primary and secondary. They may be used as "step up" or "step down" transformers.
In the step up transformer shown, the turns on the primary are those between points A and B, the turns on the secondary, those between points A and C. If the transformer were a step down type, the input and output terminals would be reversed. The effects of different loads on the transformer are as for the power transformer; it should, however, be noted that the primary and secondary currents oppose each other in the common portion of the winding. This enables smaller conductors to be used in the common portion of the transformer, producing a weight 188
saving especially if the input and output voltages are almost the same. Auto transformers are used for: Line boosters to compensate for voltage drops in long cable runs. Motor starting, several tappings being used in sequence to apply an increasing voltage to the motor Impedance matching To step the 115V ac supply down to 26V for aircraft lighting circuits. The major disadvantage of auto transformers, especially step down types, is that should the common portion of the winding go open circuit, the primary voltage is applied directly to the load on the secondary. It was for this reason that autotransformers were rarely used on aircraft but improved reliability, through modern manufacturing methods, has made them increasingly more common.
Three phase transformers Although it is possible to use three, interconnected, single phase transformers for three phase ac it is more common to use a single, three limbed, transformer.
Using a three limbed transformer, the primary and secondary windings for each phase are allocated a single limb.
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Once the layout of the transformer has been established, it is only necessary to decide how to interconnect the primary and secondary windings. There are four possible alternatives:
The preferred methods of connection are the last two, however, the requirements of the circuit must come first.
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3.16
Filters
High pass filters High pass filters allow all frequencies above a certain cut-off frequency to be passed from the input terminals to the output terminals. All frequencies below the cutoff frequency are filtered off or attenuated. The diagrams below show a simple high pass filter together with its circuit symbol.
Filter circuits are four terminal networks designed to pass a certain required band of frequencies from input to output terminals, or to filter off, or attenuate the remainder of signal frequencies present at the input terminal. Such filter circuits use as their basis the facts that the reactance of inductors and capacitors and the impedances of acceptor and rejector tuned circuits alter with frequency. They are thus made up from the reactive elements of inductance and capacitance. Filter circuits take four main forms: High pass filters Low pass filters Band pass filters Band stop filters
The Capacitor allows the high frequencies to pass onto the output terminals, but offers a high reactance to the low frequencies. The Inductor offers a low reactance to low frequencies, so they are filtered off through it, but offers a high reactance to the high frequencies and thus does not filter them off. 191
A typical attenuation/frequency graph for a simple high pass filter is shown below.
The circuit symbol and an attenuation / frequency graph for a simple low pass filter are shown below.
In practice a number of these filter circuits are used in succession as shown. This improves the attenuation of the lower frequencies and so the cut off region becomes more abrupt and clearly defined. Low pass filters Low pass filters allow all frequencies below a certain cutoff frequency to be passed from the input terminals to the output terminals. All frequencies above the cut-off frequency are filtered off or attenuated.
In this circuit, the inductor offers a low reactance to the lower frequencies, allowing them to pass easily onto the output terminals, but offers a high reactance to the higher frequencies. The capacitor offers a low reactance to the higher frequencies, so they are filtered off through it, but offers a high reactance to the required low frequencies and therefore does not attenuate them appreciably. In practice a number of these filter circuits are used in succession. This improves the attenuation of the higher frequencies, and so the cut off region becomes more sharply defined. 192
No mutual coupling exists between L1 and L2. The acceptor circuit offers low impedance to the resonant frequencies and passes them onto the output terminals, but offers high impedance to all the other input frequencies. Band pass filters These filters allow a certain narrow band of frequencies to be passed onto the output terminals and filter off, or attenuate the frequencies above and below this band. A simple band pass filter is shown below. The rejecter circuit offers low impedance to the unwanted frequencies above and below the band and so they are filtered off through it. The circuit symbol and attenuation / frequency curve for a band pass filter are shown below.
A more practical band pass filter circuit is shown below. Rejecter circuit L1 and C1 and acceptor circuit L2 and C2 are tuned to the same frequency, the centre frequency of the required band. 193
Acceptor circuit L1 and C1 and rejecter circuit L2 and C2 are tuned to the same frequencies; the midpoint frequency of the unwanted band. No mutual coupling exists between L1 and L2. The rejecter circuit offers low impedance to all the required frequencies and so passes them onto the output terminals, but offers high impedance to the unwanted band of frequencies. The acceptor circuit L1 and C1 offers low impedance to the unwanted band of frequencies and so they are filtered off through it; it offers high impedance to the wanted frequencies and so, does not attenuate them appreciably. The circuit symbol and frequency / attenuation graph for a simple band stop filter are shown below.
This ' type' band pass filter circuit will give more clearly defined cut off regions. Band stop filters These filters pass onto the output terminals all frequencies a certain narrow band which is attenuated or filtered off. The circuit diagram shows a simple band stop filter.
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A more practical ' type' band stop filter is shown below; again this will give more clearly defined cut-off regions.
A Decoupling circuit removes any unwanted ac from a dc voltage. Such a circuit offers a high reactance to dc and a low reactance to ac Smoothing & decoupling circuits Smoothing and Decoupling circuits are special applications of filters. A smoothing circuit changes a pulsating dc to a smooth dc in power supply circuits. In order to achieve this, the filter circuit offers a high reactance to ac and a low reactance to dc
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3.17
AC GENERATORS
Output voltage The instantaneous value of emf induced in the loop is given by:
Principles The generation of an alternating current has already been examined in the section on dc generation. The rules concerning the size of the generated emf and the direction of current flow are as previously described. Instead of using a commutator to ensure the current flows in one direction through the load, the load is connected via slip rings and the current flow is alternating, as shown below.
Where EMax = lV and is the angle of the conductor with respect to the field. Output frequency Referring back to our simple loop it can be seen that, if the loop was rotating at 120 revs per second, then the output frequency would be 120 Hz. It therefore follows that the frequency of the output of an ac generator is directly proportional to its speed of rotation. Another factor which determines the output frequency of the ac generator is its physical construction. A generator with 4 field poles will produce two complete cycles of output for each revolution of the shaft. 196
Similarly, a generator with six field poles will produce three complete cycles for each revolution and so on. A cycle is complete whenever a conductor has passed under the influence of two dissimilar magnetic poles. It stands to reason then that the output frequency of an ac generator is given by:
From the foregoing, it will be seen that one cycle is completed in: 360 mechanical degrees for a machine, 180 mechanical degrees for a machine, 120 mechanical degrees for a machine, 90 mechanical degrees for an machine, and so on. two-pole four-pole six-pole eight-pole
The speed of rotation is normally given in revolutions per minute (rpm), therefore the output frequency of is calculated from the following formula:
It is therefore necessary to use electrical degrees when referring to angular motion in the cycle.
One cycle = 360 (electrical) degrees.

Where:
N is the speed of rotor rotation in RPM. P is the number of pairs of poles.
It is not usual to use the word electrical in this respect, but the concept should be clearly understood.
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Practical generator construction Two forms of construction are used for alternating current generators, the rotating field type and the rotating armature type. The rotating field type generator is the one most commonly used for main power production. Rotating armature type A rotating armature generator is constructed in a similar manner to a dc generator. The field is located on the stator and the emf is induced in windings located on the rotor. The output is then taken from the generator using slip rings as previously described.
Rotating field type It is possible however, to obtain the same output by rotating the field inside stationary windings that are located around the frame of the machine, the output is then taken from the stationary armature, or stator.
This type of generator is called a rotating field generator and has several advantages over the rotating armature type: Because the output windings are now stationary they are no longer subject to high centrifugal forces and can therefore be larger. 198
By having the output windings on the outside of the machine there is more room for good insulation and higher voltages can be used. With the output windings on the outside of the machine they are more easily cooled and can therefore carry larger currents. Using a rotating field only requires the use of two slip rings and two brushes; also the current required is relatively small. These advantages mean a larger output can be obtained from a smaller machine. Single phase generator A single phase ac generator consists of a single output winding wound on a pair of poles and a rotor fitted with either a permanent or an electromagnet.
The electromagnet is energised from a dc supply via brushes and slip rings. The output frequency is dependent on the speed of rotor rotation and the number of poles on the rotor. If the generator shown was rotated at the same speed, but had two pairs of poles the frequency would double. Two phase generator A two phase generator consists of two output windings wound on separate pairs of poles and a single, common, rotor.
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The two output windings are located at 90 to each other, so that when maximum emf is induced in one winding, zero emf is induced in the other winding. The output from the generator will be two voltages of equal amplitude and frequency but phase displaced from each other by 90 . Three phase generator A three phase ac generator has three sets of output windings, each being physically displaced from the other two by 120 . The rotor is the same as that used in a single phase or two phase generator.
The Three phase ac generator is really three single phase generators on one stator, all using a common field. Due to the construction of the machine, the emf's generated in each of the windings is phase displaced by 120 degrees, as shown. The normal order of rotation is: Red 1 A Yellow 2 B Blue 3 C
If required, the three single phases can be used independently; this, however, is not common practice. Star & delta systems The three armature windings of a three phase generator can be connected in two ways Star One end of each winding is connected to a common or Neutral point and the other ends to the output terminals. 200
Delta the end of each winding is connected to the start of the next, so that the three windings form a triangle. Star connection Although a star connected system is considered to be a four wire system, if the loads are balanced, the neutral line need not be connected. The neutral line only carries out of balance currents.
The neutral, although connected to earth, should not be confused with the earth in a three pin plug which is there for protection. Under the majority of conditions, an aircraft star connected system will have current flow in the neutral line. The voltage from the neutral line or star point to the other end of each phase winding is called the phase voltage; the voltage from one phase to another is called the line voltage. In a star connected system:
And:
In aircraft ac systems the phase voltage is 115V and the line voltage is 200V. 201
The frequency is always expressed as the frequency of a single phase. On some systems the frequency may be variable, or wild, on a controlled frequency system the frequency is 400 Hz. With a star connected generator two possible systems are available: three single phase systems each operating at phase voltage. a single three phase system operating at line voltage. If the instantaneous values of two phases are added together to produce a line voltage, and the process is repeated for the other phases, three line voltages will be produced; each line voltage will be displaced 120 degrees from the other two. One point to note is that there is a 90 degree phase angle between a phase voltage and its opposite line voltage, this relationship is used in several control and monitoring systems.
Delta connection A Delta system is a three wire system, one wire coming from each of the armature winding interconnection points.
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In a delta connected system:
And:
A delta connected system has no neutral line and is generally used on small generators supplying virtually fixed, balanced loads. Balanced loads If the currents in each phase are equal in size and phase displaced from one another by 120 degrees, the loads are said to be balanced. Under balanced conditions, the loads on each phase are identical. Symmetrical loads If the phase voltages are the same magnitude, and phase displaced from one another by 120 degrees, the system is said to be symmetrical. Aircraft systems are naturally symmetrical. 203 INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
3.18
AC MOTORS
With few exceptions, the operation of ac motors rely on the production of a rotating magnetic field, therefore, we will examine the production of a rotating field first. Production of a rotating field Alternating current supplies are generally available in one of three forms: Single phase. Two phase. Three phase. Any of these three supplies can be used to produce a rotating magnetic field, but there are some differences in their use so they will be examined individually. Single phase To produce a rotating field from a single phase ac supply requires a minimum of two pairs of field windings and four pole stator.
To create a rotating field, the current in one pair of field windings must be in quadrature with the current in the other pair. This can be achieved by placing an inductor or capacitor in series with one pair of field windings. A capacitor is generally used because it is more efficient.
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The direction of rotation of the magnetic field depends on the order in which the poles become magnetised. The direction of rotation of the field can be reversed either by swapping the supply to one pair of field windings, or by switching the capacitor from one field winding to the other. The latter method is normally used on aircraft motors. If the supply to both field windings is reversed, the motor will run in the same direction. Two phase To produce a rotating field from a two phase supply also requires a minimum of four field poles and two pairs of field windings. A two phase supply comprises two phases at 90 degrees to each, therefore no capacitor is required. The only way to reverse the direction of rotation of such a motor is to swap the supply connections to one pair of field windings.
A two phase supply can be obtained from a three phase ac supply, by using a phase voltage and the opposite line voltage.
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Three phase To produce a rotating field from a three phase ac supply requires the use of a six pole stator and three pairs of field windings. The stator of a three phase ac motor is the same as that of a rotating field ac generator.
The direction of rotation of the field depends on the order in which the windings are energised. To reverse the direction of rotation, it is only necessary to swap the connection to any two of the field windings. Types of ac motor The two main types of ac motor used on aircraft systems are the induction motor and the synchronous motor. Another type of ac motor often found on aircraft is the shaded pole motor. Induction motor The rotor of an induction motor consists of a number of copper or aluminium bars connected by two end rings to form a cage, the cage being enclosed in a laminated iron core to reduce reluctance. When the rotor is placed in a rotating magnetic field, the bars are cut by the flux causing emf's to be induced in them, because the bars are shorted by the end rings, currents flow in the bars.
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Current flow in the bars produces a magnetic field around them which, reacts with the main field of the machine, causing the rotor to turn.
At switch-on, the emf induced in the rotor bars are at the same frequency as the supply voltage and because the circuit is highly inductive the current lags the voltage by almost 90 degrees. This means, that by the time the rotor field has been produced, the main field has moved on by almost 90 degrees and the rotor field can only react with the trailing edge of the main field, resulting in a small starting torque. As the rotor speed increases the frequency of the emf in the rotor decrease, reducing the inductive reactance. This brings the current more in phase with the induced emf, producing a good running torque. It is not possible for the rotor to rotate at synchronous speed, because there would be no emf induced in the rotor bars, no current flow and no magnetic field produced. The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip speed and is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed. 207
When first started, the back emf is almost at 90 degrees to the applied voltage and therefore the initial current demand is high. Where: In order to reduce the start current, some motors are designed to be started with the field windings connected in star and run with them connected in delta. This increases the impedance during starting and reduces the current drawn from the supply, but it does not improve the poor starting torque. If it is required that the motor be started on-load, then the poor starting torque must be improved. To achieve this, the rotor current must be made to appear more in phase with the voltage. This can be achieved by increasing the resistance of the rotor windings, however, if the resistance is left in the rotor circuit during running there will be: An increase in the slip speed. A greater speed variation with load changes. An increase the current taken from the supply. 208
When running, the rotor field induces an emf into the stator windings, this back emf is almost at 180 degrees to the applied voltage, resulting in a small effective voltage across the field and a low current drain on the supply. If the load on the motor is increased, it slows down, this causes the angle of the back emf to change, increasing the effective voltage, the current from the supply and the motor torque. The increase in motor torque accelerates the motor back to its original running speed.
A compromise often used on aircraft induction motors is to fit a second, high resistance, cage into the rotor. This gives an improved starting torque, with minimal running problems. Synchronous motor The synchronous motor gets its name from the fact that the rotor runs at synchronous speed, for it to do this, the rotor must be a permanent or electro-magnet.
In order for the magnet to lock-on to the field it must be brought up to about 75% of synchronous speed, to achieve this, the majority of synchronous motors have the cage of an induction motor built into them. The motor starts as an induction motor and when sufficient speed as been attained, the electromagnet is energised, allowing the rotor to lock onto the field. Once running, no emf is induced in the rotor bars; however, they are useful in holding the rotor and rotor windings in place and also assist in smooth running during load changes. The rotor, although running at synchronous speed, will lag the field, the angle of lag is proportional to the load placed on the motor.
209
If whilst running the load is increased, the angle of lag increases, changing the angle of the back emf and increasing the effective voltage. This increases the current taken from the supply, producing an increase in torque to cope with the load. Should the angle become too great, the magnetic link will snap, the motor will run down, stop, and possibly burn out due to the high current from a lack of back emf. Shaded pole motor The shaded pole motor uses only a single set of poles to create an apparent rotating field.
Part of each pole is shaded by a copper or aluminium ring or a shorted coil. When the field winding is energised an alternating field appears across the main poles, this alternating field induces an emf into the shaded ring or shorted winding, creating a current flow within it; this current flow produces another field, this field lagging the main field by approximately 90 degrees. The overall effect is to produce a field that appears to move through an angle determined by the positioning of the poles, because the field is not fully rotating the, starting torque is low and the motor can only be used for small, fixed loads. The operation of the rotor is as for an induction motor.
210
END OF MODULE
211

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EASA PART 66 Course Notes

Amendment and Annual Review Record

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

6.29 x 1018 electrons

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

One coulomb = 6.29 x

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

Thus the ratio:

And this ratio is called the resistance of 34

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 0.1 0.01 -

+1% + 2% + 0.5% + 0.25% + 0.1% + 5% + 10% + 20%

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

Tolerance % 0.1 0.25 0.5 1.0 2 B C D F G 5 10 20 30 J K M N

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

extreme ends is the sum of the individual potential differences.

Thus IRTOTAL= IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I (R1 + R2 + R3) So RTOTAL = R1 + R2 + R3

School of Aeronautical Engineering

School of Aeronautical Engineering

RTOTAL = 12 + 6 + 36 = 54 54 12 And 6 And 36 36V and 1 = 36/54 = 36/54 = 36/54 36/54V

12 = 8V across AB 6 = 4V across BC 36 = 24V across CD