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9.

2 Production of Materials
1. Fossil Fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of other substances
Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the refining of petroleum Petroleum is a mixture of crude oil and natural gas which consist of long hydro-carbon chain that undergoes separation through fractional distillation and catalytic cracking. Petroleum undergoes fractional distillation to separate crude oil and other mixtures, like petrol and LPG. Afterwards, the crude oil that has been separated, it undergoes the second separation process which is catalytic cracking. This process is to break long hydro-carbon chains into smaller ones. The major product of catalytic cracking is ethylene, which is the starting material for plastic. Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into many useful products Ethylene is a type of alkene. Alkene, unlike alkane has a double bond thus it is more reactive than alkane. As ethylene is an extremely reactive monomer and has the present of a double bond, it can be used for the production of many materials, for example, plastic Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made Monomers are simple, short-chained compound, which will link together to make a polymer through a process of polymerisation. Polymerisation is a process to describe numerous monomers that are chemically bonded together to make a polymer. As ethylene is short-chained and reactive, it can act easily as a monomer and joins with other ethylene molecule to make polyethylene. Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term Ethylene monomers are joined together to make polyethylene. Polyethylene is known as addition polymer. Addition Polymer is formed when many monomers are chemically bonded together to make a polymer without the loss of atoms or molecules. This process is known as Addition Polymerisation. Addition Polymer can only be formed by monomers that have a double bond. Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially polymer The polymerisation process for addition polymers involves: Initiation The process starts by breaking the double bond of the first monomer Propagation Joining numerous monomers to form a chain of the desired length Termination Ending the process when the desired chain has been produced Polymerisation process of ethylene can either make low density polyethylene (LDPE) or high density polyethylene (HDPE). Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) This is created in high pressure (2000 ATM) and high temperature (300 C) conditions. The catalyst used is a free radical initiator (organic peroxide). The polymer has side branching, therefore it is not packed closely. It is more flexible and soft. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) This is created in normal pressure (3-4 ATM) and low temperature (60 C) conditions.

9.2 Production of Materials


The catalyst used is a Ziegler-Natta catalyst (titanium/organo-metallic aluminium compound). The polymer is unbranched and long, therefore it is packed more closely. It is stronger and rigidity. The use of a catalyst is to activate the ethylene monomer by attaching another ethylene monomer to it. Another normal ethylene monomer then attach to this, activating the new species. Identify the following as commercially significant monomers by both their systematic and common names: Vinyl Chloride Styrene Vinyl Chloride: Common Name: Vinyl Chloride Systematic Name: Chloroethene Styrene: Common Name: Styrene Systematic Name: Ethylbenzene Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties Ethylene: Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) Properties Low Density, Soft Uses: Plastic Bags High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Properties: High Density, Hard Uses: Plastic Buckets, Plastic Toys Vinyl Chloride: Polyvinylchloride (PVC)/ Polychloroethene Properties: Water, Flame and Electrical Resistant Uses: Pipes, raincoats, electrical insulator Styrene: Polystyrene/ Polyethnylbenzene Properties: transparent, heat resistant Uses: Foam cups, CD cases, tool handles Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivity of alkenes and its corresponding alkanes in bromine water Cyclohexane and cyclohexene are used because they are liquid in room temperature and is less toxic than other hydrocarbons. Bromine Water is used because it will dissolve the hydrocarbons because they are both non-polar. Also Bromine Water is brown so visual indication is given as the reaction will decolourise the bromine water. The cyclohexene contains the double bond will react with bromine water, which will separate the water molecule from bromine through addition reaction and so decolourises the bromine water. On the other hand, cyclohexane does not have the double bond; it will react with bromine water instantaneously. However, if sufficient time or under UV light, the bromine water will also decolourises through substitution reaction.

9.2 Production of Materials


2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the petrochemical industry Petrochemical are chemical products that are derived from petroleum. Fossil fuels have been our main energy source for many years, however, fossil fuels are nonbiodegradable and non-renewable resources, thus it will run out one day. Also, fossil fuel is harmful to both human beings and the environment because it contributes to global warming and can cause pollution. Therefore, there is a need for alternative sources of energy. Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer A condensation polymer is a polymer produced by two or more monomers that does not contain double bonds. During the process, a small molecule is also produced (usually water). Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed A condensation polymer is formed through a process known as condensation polymerisation. The process involves: Two or more monomers Involves a reaction between the functional group of each monomer Produces a by-product (usually water) Is much slower than addition polymerisation as more energy is required Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass Glucose is a biological monomer that has a structure based on a hexose ring. To produce cellulose, the glucose monomer will alternate as they combine. This is formed through a process known as condensation polymerisation and is found as a major component of biomass. Biomass is wasted organic materials that are from living organisms. The process of glucose polymerising to produce cellulose is as below: HO-C6H10O4-OH + HO-C6H10O4-OH + HO-C6H10O4-OH + - (O - C6H10O4 - O - C6H10O4 - O - C6H10O4 O)-n + (n-1)H20 Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material The structure of cellulose is the combination of glucose with the elimination of water molecules. The elements in cellulose are similar to that of crude oil (hydrogen, carbon and oxygen). Therefore, cellulose can be used as a source of energy. As cellulose is a biopolymer, it provides a renewable source of carbon and energy as a replacement of crude oil. At current stage, cellulose is widely used in the cotton and paper industries. However, to use cellulose in the petrochemical industries, cellulose must first be converted into ethylene via the production of ethanol. However, this process uses large amount of energy which is often powered by crude oil. Also, the conversion is also more expensive. Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analyse should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is one of the new biopolymers that have been recently developed.

9.2 Production of Materials


Its structure is as of : PHB has a different structure as polypropylene but has similar properties that are they are brittle, and have effective resistance to temperature and water. To produce PHB, a microorganism like Alcaligeines Eutrophus is placed in a medium with glucose and pentanoic acid, and is fed appropriate nutrients so that the quantity is multiple. After sometime, nitrogen is neglected so that the microorganism will stop reproducing and will instead produce the desire biopolymer. Hot chloroform is added, so that the PHB produce will dissolve into it. Afterwards, the chloroform is evaporated and contained. The PHB can now be obtained a powder. The organism can produce up to 80% of PHB from its dry weight. Although PHB is expensive to produce, however, there are application that uses PHB, such as disposable nappies and packaging for bottles and bags. It can also be used in biomaterials for medical applications. PHB is biodegradable and is not obtained from petrochemicals, these are its advantages. Disadvantages are that, it uses high energy and is not economically efficient.

9.2 Production of Materials


3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used Ethanol is the only simple alcohol that is not toxic to human and is found in alcoholic beverages in various concentrations. Ethanol is converted into ethylene by a process of dehydration. This is achieved by heating ethanol with excess sulfuric acid at about 170 C at normal pressures. C2H5OH C2H4 + H2O A catalyst is needed as it can lower the activation energy needed to break off the bond between C-OH and the C-H bonds. Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used Ethylene is converted into ethanol by a process of hydration (adding water). This is achieved by adding diluted sulfuric acid to ethylene at 280 C at 60ATM. C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH A catalyst is needed as it can lower the activation energy needed to break off the double bond and allow water to attach to it. Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar substances Ethanol is used as a solvent for both polar and non-polar substances. This is due to its molecular structure. Like dissolve Like, the polar end of ethanol is able to dissolve in polar substances, while the non polar end is able to dissolve in non-polar substances. Ethanol is used as a solvent in many instances: Solvent in the pharmaceutical industry to dissolve medicine that does not dissolve in water. Used in the cosmetic industry to dilute creams and perfume etc. Food colourings and flavourings Cleaners and household substance Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource Ethanol is a renewable resource because it can be made from plant material, and its product from combustion, CO2 and H2O, are raw materials used by plants for photosynthesis. C2H5OH(aq) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) H = 29.1 kj/g Ethanol can be easily transported, as it is in liquid form in room temperature and it is not toxic to human beings, therefore it makes ethanol, an ideal fuel. Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted Fermentation is a process where a nutrient molecule is broken down. The final product often includes ethanol. This is often used to preserve food. The most common fermentation process is that of sugar to alcohol using yeasts. The conditions needed for the fermentation of sugar is: Presence of a suitable micro-organism (e.g. yeast) Water Exclude air Suitable temperature at 37 C

9.2 Production of Materials


Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process The industrial method of producing ethanol is the fermentation of sugar canes: Sugar cane is fermented ethanol and water mixture is produced Mixture is distilled (fractional distillation) pure ethanol is formed The concentration of ethanol in mixture can only go up to 14% as the alcohol will poison the yeast and ceased production. During the reaction, bubbles of carbon dioxide are given off. Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol from first hand data The molar heat of combustion is the amount of heat produced when one mole of a fuel is burnt in excess oxygen gas. As heat is produced, this is an exothermic process/ As there is excess oxygen, the combustion will always be completed, that is, carbon dioxide and water is always produced. Molar heat of combustion can be calculated by this formula and the data from a first-hand investigation. H = -mCT H energy change m mass of water C Specific heat capacity of water (4.18 J/g/K) T change in temperature (final - initial) Molar heat of combustion is found by dividing energy by moles H/mol = -mCT/moles of fuel Heat of combustion per gram is found by dividing energy by moles H/gram = -mCT/grams of fuel burnt Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use As ethanol is a renewable source of energy and undergoes complete combustion, it is considered as an alternative fuel. In the last fuel years, Australia has introduced the E10 petrol as the preferred petrol for cars, as it is cheaper for consumer and burns cleaner for the environment. However, there are limitations to the use of ethanol as a fuel. For example, ethanol does not produce as much energy as normal petrol, so more ethanol is burnt to achieve the same distance. Also, large amount of land must be used to grow sugar canes only to produce ethanol. Advantages of ethanol as a fuel includes: Complete combustion will ensure minimal pollution, therefore environmentally friendly Renewable resource, therefore reduce our reliance on fossil fuel Disadvantages of ethanol as a fuel includes: Car engines must be modified to run on fuel with greater than 15% of ethanol Largely tracts of land is needed just for this purpose A lot of energy is used to produce ethanol, which comes from fossil fuel. Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8 C1 meth-, C2 eth-, C3 prop-, C4 but-, C5 pent-,C6 hex-, C7 hept-, C8 oct Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane Sugar Cane is one of the main materials for producing ethanol as it has high content of sugar.

9.2 Production of Materials


High content of sugar are those that are commonly used for fermentation. Molasses are left-over syrup from sugar milling; it is used to produce ethanol, as it contains high content of sucrose. Diluted sulfuric acid is added to turn cellulose to glucose, calcium hydroxide is added to neutralise the glucose. The glucose then undergoes fermentation. Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage In 1970s, Brazil has specifically modified car engines to use ethanol as its major fuel for cars. Thus, sugar canes are grown specifically for this purpose. The purpose was to lower the use of crude oil and to balance out the trade as oil imports are expensive; therefore, they replaced oil imports to domestic made fuel. However, this was abandoned as it is very expensive to operate. In the 21 st century, there are plans to re-establish this.

9.2 Production of Materials


4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of energy When a solid metal is placed into a solution containing ions of a weaker metal, then the stronger solid metal will displace the ions of the weaker one from solution. This is called a displacement, or redox reaction. A displacement reaction refers to a reaction in which a metal converts another metal that is in ion form to a neutral form. Redox stands for reduction-oxidation Reduction (gain of electron) x y + e Oxidation (loss of electron) x + e y Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals In redox reaction, the stronger metal will donate its electrons to the ions of the weaker metal (strong displace weak) The table of standard potential is used to identify reactive metals from those that are less reactive K Na Li Ba Ca Mg Al Cr Zn Fe Co Ni Sn Pb Cu Hg Ag Pt Au Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons The oxidation state of ions is the valence of ions. In monatomic ions, the oxidation state is its sign and the charge of the ions. The oxidation state of an element in its stable elemental state is always zero A change in oxidation state of species is a response of a loss or a gain of electron An increase in oxidation state refers to a loss of electrons (oxidation) An decrease in oxidation state refers to a gain of electrons (reduction) Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions The galvanic cell is a device constructed so that two metals are physically separated, but connected in a circuit by an external conducting wire and an internal salt bridge. Galvanic cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Oxidation occurs in the anode and reduction occurs in the cathode (An Ox, Red Cat) Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow Galvanic cell uses a redox reaction to generate electricity. In a galvanic cell, it consist of two cell, each containing a solution of metal ions, with two electrodes of the same metal soaked in the solution, connected through a wire. The salt bridge soaked in potassium nitrate also connects the two cells to allow ions to flow and complete the circuit. Oxidation occurs in the more reactive metal (anode), reduction occurs in the less reactive metal (cathode) The more reactive metal becomes more positively charged, while the less reactive metal becomes more negatively charged. As the salt bridge contains Potassium Nitrate, it will neutralise the ions as it flow through the salt bridge. As this occurs, the negatively charged ions will move to the cathode, while the positively charged ions will move to the anode.

9.2 Production of Materials


Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cell Anode: The electrode at which oxidation takes place, negatively charged Cathode: The electrode at which reduction takes place, positively charged Electrode: A solid electrical conductor, piece of metal Electrolyte: An ionic solution Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell and evaluate it in comparison to a button cell in terms of: Chemistry Cost and practicality Impact on society Environmental impact Dry Cell: Chemistry Anode: Zinc container: Zn Zn2+ + 2e Cathode: Carbon rod surrounded by ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide paste Mn(IV) + e- Mn(III) Electrolyte: Ammonium Chloride and Zinc Chloride Paste Voltage: 1.5V Cost and Practicality Cost: Relatively cheap and easily accessible Practicality: It can power up portable devices. As it is a dry cell, it will have less liquid, therefore, low chances of the batter leaking. Impact on Society: It has less liquid, prevents it from leaking Power up portable devices in a more safer way Cost effective due to low cost and long life Environmental Impact: It is not biodegradable, thus it can cause harm to the environment However, rechargeable dry cell battery has been invented; therefore it will reduce the waste generated. Button Cell: Chemistry: Anode: Powered zinc: Zn + 2OH- ZnO + 2H2O 2e Cathode: Carbon and AgO paste: Ag2O + H2O + 2e- 2Ag +2OH Electrolyte: Potassium Hydroxide Cost and Practicality: Cost: Relatively expensive because of silver involve Practicality: small size, portable; provides a constant voltage Impact on Society: Low moisture prevents leaking Enabled use of small electrical devices Huge impact on the lifestyle of those requiring hearing aid Environmental Impact Non-rechargeable, therefore harmful to environment Contains heavy metal, e.g. silver

9.2 Production of Materials


5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable A stable element is one that maintain a specific proton-neutron ratio (1:1 for first 20) An unstable nucleus is formed when the composition of the nucleus of an atom changes, that is the proton-neutron ratio become too large. An unstable nucleus will release different radiation and forms other elements, usually all isotopes are radioactive, hence the name radioactive isotopes. These isotopes are not stable thus it will emit radiation until it reaches a stable state. Describe how transuranic elements are produced Transuranic Elements are artificial elements that is greater 92 (Uranium) Transuranic Elements are created through the bombardment of existing nuclei with subatomic particles. Particle Accelerator is used to produce proton-rich elements that mainly emit alpha radiation. This is done by bombarding a large nucleus element with the nuclei of another element. Nuclear reactors are used to produce neutron-rich radioisotopes that release mainly beta radiation. As neutron has no charge. It is based on nuclear fission. In a nuclear reactor, a targeted nucleus is bombarded by a neutron, causing it to split which hits other particles causing more splits. Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced In Australia, the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) produce commercial radioisotopes for industrial, medical and research uses. ANSTO produces a range of neutron-rich isotopes: Technitium-99m is produced by neutron bombardment of molybdenum-98 Cobalt-60 is produced by neutron bombardment of the stable cobalt-59 Americium-241 is produced by neutron bombardment of plutonium-241 Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation Geiger Counters Used to detect ionising radiation It has an inert gas filled tube that conducts electricity when particles of radiation which temporary makes the gas conductive The tube amplifies the conductor and output a current pulse which is displayed by a needle and/or audible clicks Identify one use of a named radioisotope: in industry in medicine In industry: Cobalt-60 is a radioisotope used in industries to inspect metal parts for defect In medicine: Technetium-99 is a radioisotope used for medical purpose to pinpoint brain tumours Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical properties Cobalt-60: Co-60 is used in industries to inspect metal parts as it is emitter of gamma rays As Co-60 has a long half-life (5.3 years), it can be stored for a period of time with regular maintenance Technetium-99: Tc-99 is used in medicine and is used to pinpoint brain tumours.

9.2 Production of Materials


This is useful as it has a very short half-life (6hrs) which will cause less harm to the body as it is quickly eliminated

Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements Newly discovered elements has a prefix of unun on the periodic table that are not confirmed. This is because it is only detected for mere seconds before disintegrating. The discovery of Copernicium: In 1996, Element 112 was discovered by Sigurd Hufmann and his team. This is created by using a 1-2m long particle accelerator to fire a beam of zinc ions at lead atoms. However, the element only lasted a few seconds and was unable to be verified. Its original name was ununbium by IUPAC. In June 2009, IUPAC verified this element an d was renamed to Copernicium. Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine Although radiation is useful for both medical and industrial uses. It can cause harm to the body due to high ionising power and frequency. This can cause electrons to be removed from atoms and molecules in DNA and protein and can lead to cancer. Strontium-90 is chemically similar to calcium which can replace them in bones and cause bone cancer.

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