RESTRICTED

AERODYNAMICS

1.

We have seen that lift depends on five factors: a. b. c. d. e. The Cross-section Shape of the airfoil. The angle of attack The plan form size of the wing The Density of the air The Velocity of flight through the air

All these factors are represented in the Lift equation.

2.

The Lift Equation:

The lift equation is:

L = CL x S x V2
You will notice that there are only four variables contributing to Lift, despite the list above. The elements in the lift equation are: WhereCL = Co efficient of lift.

1 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED S V = = = Wing area. Air density. Velocity

The Coefficient of Lift is a unit-less number which depends on both the cross-sectional shape of the airfoil and on the angle of attack. 3. Unit Analysis of Lift Equation. Unit analysis is based on the observation that in order for any equation to be valid not only the numeric values, but also the units on each side of the equation, must be equal. For example F = ma therefore the units of Force must equal the units of mass times acceleration, since a Newton is equal to a Kg-meter per second squared. 4. Area (S). You may be wondering why we don't use the letter A for area. The reason is that A has been reserved to represent the surface Area of the entire aircraft. S represents the area only of the wing. Based on the Lift equation you should already know what will happen to the amount of lift produced by a wing if its area is doubled (assuming all other variables are not changed.) Therefore, this will make a simple introduction to the scientific research environment. The cornerstone of scientific research is to control the variables so that when we make measurements the results depend only upon one variable. Thus, in this case we must keep the angle of attack, air density, airfoil cross-section shape and velocity constant. 5.

Analysis of Experiment Results

2 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED If you do have results, then as a designer the first thing you will likely do is graph your results so that you can see what they look like. You will notice that the results are clearly "linear". From this a scientist can conclude that the relationship:

6.

Aircraft come in all sorts of speed ranges. Word War I biplanes were very maneuverable, but typically flew at less than 100 mph. Concorde requires hundreds of miles to turn around in cruise at Mach 2. Now we will explore the effect of speed (Velocity) on Lift produced. a. Units of Velocity. In an earlier section we did a unit analysis of the Lift equation which revealed that we must use units of feet per second for velocity if we are to get at lift value in units of pounds. (The units would be meters per second to get lift in Newtons for the metric system.) As a result we will often have to convert Velocity values from Knots to feet per second. Again we should graph our data.

Velocity and Lift.

This time we notice that the results are definitely not linear. Simple inspection of the graph leads us to conclude that the relationship is of the general form: 3 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED

c. Since we have the advantage of already knowing the Lift Equation we know that n in the above equation is equal to two (2). However, if we did not know that we would have to evaluate n using another graphical technique which scientists often perform. To do this we take advantage of the mathematical fact that the logarithm of a number raised to an exponent n is equal to n times the logarithm of the number, IE

This equation will convert the exponential relationship into a normal straight line equation (Y = mx + b, b = 0) with the slope being equal to n (the exponent we are trying to evaluate.) Thus, all we have to do is plot this graph and then measure the slope of the graph. We can then evaluate the "unknown" n value. The above technique is so common in science that special graph paper has been devised for this type of experimental analysis. The graph paper is known as Log-Log graph paper. Using it saves us the need to calculate the logarithm of each of our data values. Instead the graph paper does the "calculations" for us. Following is an example of a log plot.

4 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED

As you can see the slope of the line is indeed two (2) as expected. We now can say that lift is proportional to Velocity squared. Since we know from before that lift is proportional to both Wing area (S) and Air Density (rho) the Lift equation now looks like this:

At this stage in our exploration we have developed almost the entire lift equation. In fact our equation looks almost exactly like the Lift Equation except that we have chosen the variable k to be the constant of proportionality. If we do a unit analysis on the equation at this point we will notice that the equation already produces units of Force (Lift is a force.) Therefore we know that the remaining factor will be a unit-less number.

5 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 7. Coefficient of Lift. We now begin our exploration of the Coefficient of Lift. We already know that it is a unit-less number and that its value will depend upon the Angle of Attack and the cross-section shape of the airfoil. We will first experiment with changes in angle of attack. We will then consider the effect of different airfoils later. a. The Angle of Attack vs Lift Experiment. We will start by plotting our results on a Lift vs Angle of attack graph. Plotted in this form the results are of little value. However, they do show that the lift always peeks at the same angle of attack, about 14.5 degrees in this case.

Since we know the Coefficient of Lift is going to depend upon two variables (angle of attack and shape of airfoil and also that it is unit-less) it will be more valuable to solve our data for the Coefficient of Lift and plot that against angle of attack. The first step to doing this is to insert the constant .5 into the equation as we have currently developed it. Thus, lift is:

6 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED The precise mathematical justification for inserting the extra constant .5 is beyond the scope of this course. However, you can justify it as being in keeping with both Bernoulli's Equation and the definition of Kinetic Energy. .5 is of course unit-less also, therefore its inclusion simply results in values for Coefficient of Lift which are twice what they otherwise would have been. By making this adjustment we will now evaluate our Coefficient values to be the same values as other Aerodynamicists. We now must re-arrange the equation to solve for Coefficient of Lift:

b. We immediately notice that the results are much more useable now, because the Coefficient of Lift is revealed to be the same at a given angle of attack , regardless of the Velocity, air density, Wing area, etc. For a particular design, you must calculate your max coefficient of lift and stalling angle of attack. We could now repeat this experiment using an airfoil other than the 4412. If we did so we would get different values for Coefficient of Lift for every angle of attack. This confirms our suspicion that lift will depend on the shape of the airfoil as well as the angle of attack. c. Despite the difference in Coefficient of Lift vs. Angle of Attack with different airfoils, it is amazing to discover just how similar the plots are. We notice that although each airfoil has a different Zero lift angle of attack, and a different stalling angle of attack they all have a fundamentally similar shape.

7 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED

8.

Coefficient of Lift vs Angle of Attack graphs. a. Coefficient of Lift vs. Angle of Attack graphs for virtually every airfoil have a very similar shape. The Coefficient of lift is zero at some angle of attack. The more camber the airfoil has the lower the zero lift angle of attack will be. Symmetric airfoils will have a zero lift angle of attack of zero (Why?) The curve then rises in a straight line, at a slope of approximately .1 per degree regardless of the airfoils shape. At some angle of attack the linear rise in Coefficient of Lift begins to break down. This angle is greater for thick airfoils than for thin airfoils. b. At some angle of attack the Coefficient of Lift peaks and then begins to drop off. It drops off quicker for airfoils with smaller radius leading edges than for airfoils with larger radius leading edges. The peak values for conventionally shaped airfoils all fall within the range 1.1 to 1.8 with most falling between 1.4 and 1.6

9.

Coefficient of Lift vs Angle of Attack for a Wing . a. In the previous section we discussed the shape of the Coefficient of Lift vs Angle of Attack curve for an airfoil. When airfoil lift is measured in an wind tunnel the airfoil section is mounted in the tunnel so that it extends from one sidewall of the tunnel to the other. Thus, the air is guaranteed to flow over or under the airfoil, because it can not flow around the wing tip. On an aircraft wing in flight however the 8 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED air can either flow over, under or around the tip of the wing. This is referred to as three dimensional flow, while the wind tunnel values for the airfoil are frequently referred to as two dimensional flow values. b. When Coefficient of Lift vs Angle of Attack values are measured for a wing, in three dimensional flow they are different from the airfoil values discussed above. c. If the wing has a large aspect ratio the values are very close to the two dimensional values. However, for wings with low aspect ratio, or with sweep, the slope of the Coefficient of Lift vs. Angle of attack curve changes significantly. You should be able to identify all the relevant points on the CL vs AOA graph. Here is a page which discusses that subject. The graph to the right show the difference between a straight wing aircraft and an aircraft with swept wings. The maximum CL is slightly reduced, but the biggest difference is the stalling angle of attack. Sept wing aircraft have significantly higher stalling angles of attack than aircraft with straight wings. The reason for these differences will be discussed later.

10. Lift in Level Flight. Up to this point in the course we have been considering lift as it varies with the factors, angle of attack, Wing area, Air Density, Velocity, etc. Most of the time in flight however, the objective is not to produce some random amount of lift, but rather to produce just exactly the right amount of lift to support the airplane. At this early 9 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED stage in our study of Aerodynamics we will assume that in straight and level flight the required lift is equal to the weight of the airplane. We will also assume that in a Cimb or descent the lift is also approximately equal to the weight of the airplane. In turns the required lift is greater than weight. We will discuss this extensively in the coming pages. 11. Controlling the amount of lift produced. Since we need a specific amount of lift in order to maintain straight and level flight, turn, climb or descend, we must be able to control the amount of lift produced. Consider the Lift Equation again:

a. Generally the value of S is fixed (Can you imagine the possibility of an aircraft design in which S is variable?) b. Air Density is determined by the altitude we fly at. Later in the course we will consider the benefits of changing altitude (ie changing Air Density.) For now we will consider Air Density to be not under the pilots control. That only leaves Coefficient of Lift and Velocity as variables for us to work with as pilots. 12. Coefficient of Lift and Velocity management. As pilots we spend our time managing the balance between Coefficient of Lift and Velocity, so that we keep Lift constant (or increase it in turns, etc.). If we wish to fly faster (increase in V) we will need to reduce Coefficient of Lift (less angle of attack or change in airfoil shape.) If we slow down we will need to increase the angle of attack or extend the flaps in order to maintain lift equal to weight (L=W). Note that we can control Coefficient of lift only by changing the shape of the airfoil (as in extending or retracting flaps) or by changing the angle of attack, using the elevators. You should learn how to rearrange the lift equation to determine the required CL. Generally you can assume that the same lift is required in a climb or a descent as in Straight and Level Flight. Lift vs Velocity. You can now learn how much the angle of attack must change as you speed up or slow down in Straight and Level flight. You have probably learned a rule of thumb which stated that speed would change by 5 knots if you changed the pitch attitude by half a degree. If you followed the link above and spent some time experimenting you now know that this rule of thumb is very limiting. Generally, the faster your airplane flies the less the pitch must be changed for a given speed change. Does Pitch or Throttle Control Speed. One of the common points of contention which frequently arises when pilots get together to talk is whether or not speed is controlled with the throttle or the elevators. In a slow aircraft (with a low Wing Loading) the pitch attitude changes noticeably even for a speed change as small as 5 knots. Thus, the flying instructor tells his student to control speed by changing the attitude. On the other hand for a fast aircraft (with a high Wing Loading) the pitch attitude changes by only a small fraction of a degree when the aircraft is slowed down by 5 knots. Therefore, from 10 RESTRICTED

13.

14.

RESTRICTED the pilots perspective the only noticeable change is the reduction in power. This explains why the jet pilot will often say that "thrust controls speed." 15. Stall Speed. We know that we must increase Coefficient of Lift as we reduce Velocity. But, we also know from the previous section that there is a maximum Coefficient of Lift value for any given airfoil. Thus, we can conclude that there will be a speed below which we can not fly. Stall speed is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can produce sufficient Lift for Level Flight. In the coming pages we will develop accurate equations for many aspects of flight including the stall speed. For now we need to visualize that the stall speed necessarily occurs at the angle of attack which produces the max Coefficient of Lift. We will call this CL max AOA.

In the graph to the right the Lift vs. Velocity is plotted for four different Angles of Attack, ranging from zero to the CL max AOA. The Blue line represents the Weight of the Airplane. We can see that zero degrees angle of attack produces just the right amount of lift if we are flying at 116 knots.

Zero angle of attack would not be enough at 65 knots however. At that speed we will require 10 degrees angle of attack. From the graph we can see that the lowest speed at which the wings can produce Lift equal to the Weight of the airplane is 40 knots. Therefore, 40 knots is the stall speed (see definition of stall speed of the airplane in straight and level flight (with the S and Air Density values as fixed in the experiment.) How will the stall speed change if we reduce the weight of the airplane? How will the stall speed change in a turn?

11 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED When an airplane is in a level turn it is in a state of acceleration. However, all the acceleration is confined to a plane parallel to the horizon. Therefore, the vertical component of the Lift Vector must completely balance the Weight Vector (which is vertical by definition.) The Figure to the right shows the two Vectors established at an angle b (the angle of bank.) From the diagram a very simple relationship is immediately apparent between the Load Factor and the angle of bank.

Using the equation for Load factor in a turn, shown to the left calculate the load factor at 10,20,30,40,50,60,70 and 80 degrees of bank. (What is the Load Factor at 90 degrees of bank?)

12 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED The results of the calculation requested above are plotted to the right. We can see that load factor increases very slowly at first. It is almost insignificant at 30 degrees of bank and only 1.4gs at 45 degrees of bank. It reaches 2 gs at 60 degrees of bank and then escalates at a very rapid rate going almost straight up at 80 degrees of bank.

16.

Stall Speed in a Turn. In the last few sections we developed the equation for Stall Speed. Now we will perform a similar process for the Maneuvering speed. It was quite easy to develop the stall speed equation once we understood the definition of stall speed. The same will be true of the Maneuvering speed. Thus, we start with a definition. One of the most commonly stated definitions of the Maneuvering speed, is the speed at which the pilot can use full control deflections without over-stressing the airplane. a. The above definition is reasonably correct, although it should be limited to full nose up control deflections without over-stressing the airplane. b. This definition however does not give us the insight we need to create an equation which will give us the Maneuvering speed of our airplane. To do that we need to consider why there is a speed below which it is impossible to overstress the airplane.

13 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED In the diagram to the right the maximum lift the wing can produce is shown in red. The LF=1 line shows the stall speed, as we learned in the previous section. The LF=n (n=3.8) line shows the minimum speed at which the wing can produce lift equal to the design Load Factor. This is the definition of Maneuvering speed we need.

c. The Maneuvering Speed is the minimum speed at which the wing can produce lift equal to the design load limit. Below this speed the wing can not produce enough lift to overstress the aircraft, no matter what angle of attack is used. For most normal aircraft the design load limit is 3.8g. 17. Maneuvering Speed Formula . a. It is obvious that the Maneuvering speed is closely related to the stall speed. We could in fact create a formula for Maneuvering speed which is identical to the stall speed equation except with lift equal to n times the weight:

This equation is virtually identical to the Stall speed equation:

The only difference is that the Maneuvering speed depends upon the square root of nW not just the square root of W. Therefore we can express Va in terms of Vs as:

14 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED

b. Radius of turn refers to the amount of horizontal room required to turn an airplane is level flight. Other techniques are available for turning an airplane around, such as the Immelmann turn, etc. However, for the purpose of this section we will assume a coordinated level turn. c. In a turn the aircraft is in a state of acceleration. In other words there is a net force acting on the aircraft. We must start by determining the origin and nature of that force. A turn is coordinated when there is no slip (no velocity) along the lateral axis. Thus, in a coordinated turn the lift force must lie entirely along the normal axis, as shown in the diagram to the right. A component of the Lift vector acts horizontally. It is this component of the Lift vector which provides the Force of Centripetal Acceleration to turn the airplane.

15 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED In the diagram to the left we see the airplane flying in a circular path. The force of centripetal acceleration pulls the aircraft toward the center of the turn. From Physics we remember the definition of the force of centripetal acceleration: Fac=mV2/r But, we also remember that mass and weight are related such that: m = W/g Once we make the substitution for m, we have the relationship shown above (F ac = WV2/gr.) Solving this equation for r, and substituting the value F ac = W Tan(b) developed above, we get the equation for radius of turn: The equation to the left is very important since it clarifies what determines the radius of turn. Radius of turn depends on three variables: 1. g 2. Velocity squared (V2) 3. Angle of bank b g is dependant on the size and density of planet earth. Thus, it is not a variable until such time as we start flying aircraft around other planets. Therefore, the two variables of significance are Velocity and angle of bank. 18. Effect of Weight on Radius of turn .

Notice in the development of the radius of turn equation that the weight (W) canceled out of the equation. This is a very important observation since it means that the size of the aircraft has no effect on the radius of turn. Thus, two aircraft flying at the same angle of bank and velocity will make the same radius of turn even if one is 1000 times larger than the other. 19. Effect of Velocity on Radius of turn. We can see that if the aircraft is flying twice as fast the radius of turn will be four times as great. This is very important for pilots transitioning to faster aircraft to remember. Radius of turn depends on Velocity squared.

16 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED

R is proportional to V2
20. Effect of Bank on Radius of turn. Radius of turn is inversely proportional to the tangent of the angle of bank.

R is inversely proportional to Tan(b)

a. As the Tan of b approaches zero (wings level) tan(b) approaches zero and the radius becomes infinite. Thus, the equation correctly shows that there is no turn with the wings level. d. As the Tan of b approaches 90, tan(b) approaches infinity and the radius of turn approaches zero. Thus, the equation indicates that a turn of zero radius can be made at 90 degrees of bank. c. Previously we developed the equation LF= 1/cos(b). This equation indicates that the LF becomes infinite at 90 degrees of bank. d. Thus, these two equations indicate that it is not possible to make a turn at or near 90 degrees of bank because the forces involved become infinite. Most of us have seen aircraft flying at 90 degrees of bank (and not making infinitely tight turns.) This is possible only by slipping, which was assumed not 21. Minimum Radius of Turn. a. In this section we will consider how to turn an airplane with the minimum radius of turn (ie how, to turn in the smallest possible area.) This will be very important if we must manoeuvre in a confined area such as mountain valley. It is also very important to military pilots since tight radius of turn may be the difference between life and death in a dog fight. As before we will have to place certain restrictions on our analysis. For example we will only consider level flight turns, maneuvers such as the Immelmann can turn an airplane with no horizontal component, but are not practical in many situations. We also will not consider a spin, even though it to can turn an airplane in a very small horizontal area. Few pilots would consider a turn spin in a mountain valley to be a good technique for turning around in poor weather. b. We will also assume that we can not exceed to design load limits of the airplane. Thus, for a normal category airplane we will be limited to 3.8 g. For a utility category airplane we are limited to 4.4 gs. c. For the purpose of simple calculations we will assume that we can fly at the stall speed, since this will provide the maximum theoretical performance. However, it should be remembered that operating exactly at the stall speed, while theoretically possible, is not actually practical. Generally at least a 10% margin above the stall speed should be maintained. 17 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED Looking at the radius of turn equation (shown to the right) we can see two obvious strategies to follow in making the smallest radius turn. The first is to slow down to the slowest possible speed. d. If we were flying a helicopter that would be the best possible strategy. By slowing to a hover (zero velocity) we can turn "on a dime" as they say. IE, the radius of turn would be zero. However, in an airplane, we can not slow below the stall speed. Thus, the minimum radius of turn is automatically limited by the stall speed of a given airplane. There is a catch 22 which becomes apparent at this point however. Simply slowing down to the stall speed will not give us a turn unless we also bank. (See the equation to confirm this.) Thus, we must also increase the bank angle from zero. As mentioned in the previous section the radius of turn will become smaller as the bank is increased, but the stress on the aircraft will become infinite at 90 degrees of bank. Thus, we are limited to approximately 75 degrees of bank, at which angle the g force will be 3.8gs. The stall speed of the airplane will increase as we increase the angle of bank. Thus, we will have to fly at a higher speed if we use a large angle of bank. So,

the question is would it be better to do the turn at a slower speed, and a lower angle of bank, or at a higher speed and a higher angle of bank? 22. Analysis of Turn Factors. To answer the question posed above we must break out our calculators and use the radius of turn equation to settle the question. We will calculate the radius of turn at a variety of speeds ranging from zero to 200 knots and at angles of bank ranging from 10 degrees up to 80 degrees of bank. Angle of Bank Velocity 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 10 0 202.5 809.9 1822.3 3239.6 5061.8 7289.0 9921.2 0 98.1 392.4 882.8 1569.4 2452.2 3531.2 4806.4 20 0 61.8 247.3 556.5 989.4 1545.9 2226.1 3030.0 30 0 42.5 170.2 382.9 680.8 1063.7 1531.7 2084.8 40 0 30.0 119.8 269.6 479.3 748.9 1078.5 1467.9 50 0 20.6 82.4 185.5 329.8 515.3 742.0 1010.0 60 0 13.0 52.0 116.9 207.9 324.9 467.8 636.7 70 0 6.3 25.2 56.7 100.7 157.4 226.6 308.5 80

18 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 160 180 200 12958 16400 20247 6277.7 7945.2 9808.9 3957.5 5008.8 6183.7 2723.0 3446.3 4254.7 1917.3 2426.5 2995.7 1319.2 1669.6 2061.2 831.6 1052.5 1299.4 402.9 509.9 629.5

The graph below shows the data from the table above plotted.

23.

Maneuvering Speed.

a. In the graph above the red lines represent the radius of turn for any airplane, at 10,20...80 degrees of bank. Keep in mind that the radius of turn equation is universal, therefore this graph is valid for any airplane, from a C-150 to a Boeing 747. b. The blue line in the graph is for an airplane with a stall speed of 60 knots in straight and level flight. This line will be different for every airplane of course. c. Note that the stall speed increases with angle of bank, slowly at first, then quite rapidly beyond 45 degrees of bank. Nevertheless we can see from the graph that the minimum radius of turn, represented by the intersection of the blue and red lines, improves with increasing angle of bank. 19 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED d. Therefore, we can conclude that the minimum radius of turn will occur at the angle of bank which produces the maximum load factor the airplane is designed for. However, we recall from the previous section that this is the Manoeuvring speed, by definition. e. It should now be obvious why Va is known as the Manoeuvring speed. It is the speed at which the airplane is most manoeuvrable, especially in the sense of "dog fighting." It was in fact the military which designated the term manoeuvring speed.

24.

Recommended angle of bank for Maneuvering.

a. Although the theoretical minimum radius of turn occurs at approximately 75 degrees of bank, with the airplane operating at 3.8gs and at the maneuvering speed, this is not a very practical method of manoeuvring, in civilian flying. b. Looking once again at the graph above we can see that the radius of turn is greatly diminished by increasing the angle of bank from zero to 45 degrees. However, very little more is gained by increasing the angle of bank beyond 45 degrees. By limiting the angle of bank to 45 degrees the g forces are reduced to 1.4gs. This is much more comfortable for pilot, passenger and aircraft. 25. Use of flaps when turning.

b. Most airplanes are equipped with flaps. By extending the flaps the stall speed is reduced, which shifts the blue line in the graph to the left and down.

20 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED c. In the graph above the red line represents the stall speed with flaps extended. Pilots must remember that most airplanes are limited to 2 gs with the flaps extended however. This means that the maximum bank angle is reduced to 60 degrees. However, if the pilot has chosen to limit the bank angle to 45 degrees the use of flaps is recommended

26. Pitch controls Airspeed. Based on our observations in this Module we now know just how true this statement is. In fact there is only one Coefficient of Lift, and therefore one angle of attack for any speed in straight and level flight. 27. Airplane Types and Moment Coefficient.

Besides lift and drag coefficients, the moment coefficient cm is of importance for the behaviour of an airplane - it has a big impact on the longitudinal stability. While a conventional airplane can compensate the moment of the wing with its horizontal tail, a tailless plane obviously can't. It is possible to divide tailless airplanes in three groups, depending on how they achieve longitudinal stability. The requirements for the moment coefficient of the airfoil is a direct result of the stabilizing mechanism. a. Wing without sweep (plank) . Longitudinal stability is created solely by the airfoil. A plank requires an airfoil with a positive moment coefficient. b. Swept wing. It is possible to use any airfoil, because longitudinal stability can always be achieved by selecting a suitable combination of sweep and twist. For best allround performance, airfoils with low moment coefficients (around zero) are better suited although. They need smaller amounts of twist, which results in a broader speed range without paying too much penalties off the design point. c. Wing with a low position of the center of gravity (parafoil) . The moment coefficient is less important and it is possible to use traditional airfoils with negative moment coefficients. The position of the c.g. can be chosen to guarantee stability, but usually airfoils with medium moment coefficients are chosen to achieve higher penetration speeds and a wider speed range.

21 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED

Classes of tailless airplanes and their typical moment coefficients. Remark: To achieve static longitudinal stability, the center of gravity (c.g.) must be located in front of the neutral point, which makes the momentum derivative dCm/dAlfa (rel. c.g.) negative. Placing the c.g. in the neutral point results in dCm/dAlfa = 0, making the plane indifferent, i.e. it will not stabilize itself after a disturbance. These requirements lead to the moment coefficients presented above. To achieve dynamic stability oscillations must be damped out, which can be difficult, when the c.g. is located too far ahead of the neutral point and the moments of inertia around a spanwise axis are small (as with an unswept flying wing). 28. Location of Camber and Moment Coefficient.

a. Luckily, there is still one parameter left to compensate for the destabilizing effect of increased camber - it is the location of the maximum camber. Its location has a small influence on the lift vs. drag polar, but a strong impact on the moment coefficient. Below, the moment coefficient vs. the angle of attack for a family of airfoils is shown. The airfoils differ in the location of the maximum camber xc/c.

22 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED

Influence of the location of the camber (xc/c) on the moment coefficient. b. As we can see, moving the location of the maximum camber backwards, also shifts the moment coefficient down towards negative values. Thus it might be advisable, to concentrate the camber in the first quarter of the chord length, if we want to compensate the lift loss (introduced by the reflexed camber line) by an increased amount of camber 29. Reflex and Moment Coefficient.

a. We already know, that the moment coefficient Cm and the shape of the camber line are closely connected. If we examine airfoils with a reflexed camber line more closely, we find, that the shape of the rear part of the camber line has a big influence on Cm. In fact, it is possible to adjust the shape near the trailing edge to achieve nearly any desired Cm. The figure below shows how cm can be controlled: starting from a symmetrical airfoil, a flap is deflected smoothly upwards by 5 and 10 - the moment coefficient follows the deflection.

23 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED

The plot of moment coefficient how cm depends on the amount of reflex.

vs.

angle

of

attack

shows,

b. Using this trick, the problem seems to be solved. We simply bend the railing edge upward until we achieve the moment coefficient necessary to stabilize our tailless plane. c. But we probably prefer an airplane, which not only flies safe and stable, but also performs with a low sink speed, a high penetration speed and a good L/D ratio - that's where all the trouble begins. 30. Reflex and Lift & Drag.

a. The shape and location of the lift and drag polar of the airfoil is the key to airplane performance. The images below show, how the cd-cl polar changes, when the camber line

Gets reflexed. Lift vs. drag coefficients for different amounts of reflex. 24 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED b. Now we have a problem: while we add reflex to the camber line, in order to shift the moment coefficient towards the positive values, we shift the lift vs. drag polar down. This means, that we actually reduce the lift at a certain angle of attack and, what's even worse, we also reduce the maximum lift coefficient. A reduced maximum lift coefficient leads to higher stall and landing speeds, which is not exactly our aim. Of course the aerodynamicist already knows a remedy against low lift: he increases the amount of the maximum camber. Indeed, this increases the lift, but also reduces the positive moment coefficient. 31. Dangers everywhere. We have already learned, that several parameters, linked closely together, have an influence on the design of a low moment, high lift airfoil. We have not yet talked about the additional problems, introduced by the behavior of the boundary layer.

Problems facing the designer of an airfoil for tailless airplanes. The Figure above and the enumeration below show the most important parameters and how they are linked together.

Moving the maximum camber towards the leading edge + more stable moment coefficient (more positive). - puts more stress on the boundary layer near the leading edge (suction peaks). Increasing the amount of camber + better lift (cl vs. cd shifts towards positive cl values). + cl-max may be increased. - less stable moment coefficient (more negative). - puts more stress on the boundary layer (more pressure drop towards the trailing edge). Increasing the amount of reflex + more stable moment coefficient (more positive).

25 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED - less lift (cl vs. cd shifts towards negative cl values). - cl-max decreases. 32. Problems to test knowledge.

a. Write the lift equation. Can you prove the units are equal on both sides of the equation? b. ou are designing a new airplane which you estimate will weigh 5000 lb. The chosen wing will be most efficient operating at a Coefficient of Lift of .4. You believe the aircraft should cruise at 10,000' at 250 KTAS. What size wing should the airplane have? c. ume the following data to be reasonably valid for a C-172. W=2400 lb , S= 174 square feet , Assume the slope of the Coefficient of Lift vs Angle of attack curve is .1 d. alculate the Coefficient of Lift for cruise at 100 KTAS (169 fps) at sea level. e. ssume that a change of AOA of one degree produces a change in Coefficient of lift of . 1 Based on this relationship calculate how much the airplane must slow down if the nose is raised one degree in straight and level flight. How does this compare to the rule of thumb you use? f. Repeat the calculations from question 2 for further pitch changes to two then three, four and finally five degrees nose up from 100 knot cruise. Is the relationship between pitch change and airspeed linear? g. Based on your answer in 3 state a rule of thumb relating changes in pitch to changes in Airspeed. h. Does it make any difference if we are talking about IAS vs TAS? What effect will different altitudes have on your answers? i. density altitude of 25,000' what is the density of the air? What is the Density ratio?

j. me a particular airplane is known to be most efficient when operated at a Coefficient of Lift of .6 Over the course of a flight, as fuel is consumed the aircraft will become lighter. If the pilot wished to continue to operate at the optimum Coefficient of Lift, what other elements in the Lift equation can he adjust? Consider the pros and cons of each choice. 33. a. Other Sample Questions. Define Load Factor

26 RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED b. Calculate the Load Factor in a 60 degree bank turn.

c. You are designing a new airplane which you propose to have the following characteristics: Weight Wing Area CLMax 3000 lb 100 ft2 1.8

Calculate the expected stall speed for your aircraft in KEAS. (Hint: the formula gives the stall speed in units of fps.) d. By law, the stall speed of a single engine aircraft must be 61 KEAS or less. The stall speed you calculated above was more than 61 knots. How much do you need to increase the wing area by in order to reduce the stall speed to 61 KEAS? e. An airplane has a stall speed of 51 KEAS. What is the maneuvering speed of this airplane, in the normal category? f. You are flying a light aircraft, performing a turn at 30 degrees of bank and 80 KTAS. What is your radius of turn? (Hint: the equation requires velocity in units of fps.) g. You are flying a supersonic transport aircraft, cruising at mach 3. You need to perform a 180 degree turn to go back to base following an emergency route. Your company policy is to limit the turn to 25 degrees of bank, for passenger comfort. What will your radius of turn be? How long will it take to make the turn?

27 RESTRICTED