EEE

St.
PETERS UNIVERSITY
St. Peters Institute of Higher Education and Research
(Declared Under Section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956) AVADI, CHENNAI 600 054
TAMIL NADU
STUDY MATERIAL
B. Tech. PROGRAMME (Code No. 501 - 516)
(Effective From 2009 2010)
II SEMESTER 209BTT08 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
St. PETERS INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

(Recognized by Distance Education Council and Joint Committee of UGC-AICTE-DEC, New Delhi. Ref. F. No. DEC/SPU/CHN/TN/Recog/09/14 dated 02.04.2009 and Ref. F.No. DEC/Recog/2009/3169 dated 09.09.2009)
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Published by: Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd., 113, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110 002. Tel: 43532500, E-mail: info@laxmipublications.com
PREFACE
St. Peters University has been recognized by the Distance Education Council and Joint Committee of UGC-AICTE-DEC, New Delhi, for offering various programmes including B.Tech., D.Tech., MBA, MCA and other programmes in Humanities and Sciences through Distance Education mode. The Methodology of distance education includes self-instructional study materials in print form, face-to-face counselling, practical classes, virtual classes in phased manner and end assessment. The basic support for distance education students lies on the selfinstructional study materials. Keeping this in mind, the study materials under distance mode are prepared. The main features of the study materials are (1) learning objectives (2) self explanatory study materials unitwise (3) self tests (4) list of references for further studies. The material is prepared in simple English and graded in terms of technical content. It is built upon the pre-requisite knowledge. Students are advised to study the materials several times and get benefitted. The face-to-face session in the counseling centre will help them to clear their doubts and difficult concepts which they would have faced during the learning process. Students should remember that self study and sustained motivation are the two important requirements for a successful learning under the distance education mode. We wish the students to put forth their best efforts to become successful in their chosen field of learning.
Registrar St. Peters University
CONTENTS
Page No. Scheme of Examinations Syllabus of Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Model Question Paper Unit 1: Electrical Circuits and Measurements Unit 2: Electrical Mechanics Unit 3: Semiconductor Devices and Applications Unit 4: Digital Electronics Unit 5: Fundamentals of Communication Engineering (vi) (vii) (ix) 1-84 85-155 156-202 203-253 254-282
Scheme of Examinations
I Semester
Code No. Theory

109BTT01 109BTT02 109BTT03 109BTT04 109BTT05 109BTT06 109BTP01 109BTP02 109BTP03
Course Title
Technical English I Mathematics I Engineering Physics I Engineering Chemistry I Engineering Graphics I Fundamentals of Computing and programming Computer Practices Laboratory I Record Engineering Practices Laboratory I Record *Physics & Chemistry Laboratory - I
Credit EA
1 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 10 90 10 -
Marks Total
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 -
Total
18
800
800
*The Practical Examinations of First Semester will be held only along with those of the second semester.
II Semester
Code No.
Theory
209BTT01 209BTT02 209BTT03 209BTT04 209BTT05 209BTT06 209BTT07 209BTT08 209BTT09 209BTP01 209BTP02 209BTP03 209BTP04 209BTP05
Course Title
Technical English II Mathematics II Engineering Physics II Engineering Chemistry II Engineering Mechanics (For non-circuit branches) Circuit Theory (For branches under Electrical Faculty) Electric Circuits and Electron Devices (For branches under I & C Faculty) Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (For non-circuit branches) Basic Civil & Mechanical Engineering (For circuit branches) Computer Practices Laboratory II Record Physics & Chemistry Laboratory II Record Computer Aided Drafting and Modelling Laboratory(For non-circuit branches) Electrical Circuits Laboratory (For branches under Electrical Faculty) Circuits and Devices Laboratory (For branches under I & C Faculty) Record
Credit EA
2 3 2 2 100 100 100 100 100
Marks Total
100 100 100 100
100
100 3 90 10 90 10 90 90 1 90 100 10 100 100
1 1
100 100 100
Total
18
900
900
SYLLABUS
209BTT08 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
UNIT I ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS & MEASURMENTS Ohms Law Kirchoffs Laws Steady State Solution of DC Circuits Introduction to AC Circuits Waveforms and RMS Value Power and Power factor Single Phase and Three Phase Balanced Circuits. Operating Principles of Moving Coil and Moving Iron Instruments (Ammeters and Voltmeters), Dynamometer type Watt meters and Energy meters. UNIT II ELECTRICAL MECHANICS Construction, Principle of Operation, Basic Equations and Applications of DC Generators, DC Motors, Single Phase Transformer, single phase induction Motor. UNIT III SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS Characteristics of PN Junction Diode Zener Effect Zener Diode and its Characteristics Half wave and Full wave Rectifiers Voltage Regulation. Bipolar Junction Transistor CB, CE, CC Configurations and Characteristics Elementary Treatment of Small Signal Amplifier. UNIT IV DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Binary Number System Logic Gates Boolean Algebra Half and Full Adders Flip-Flops Registers and Counters A/D and D/A Conversion (single concepts) UNIT V FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING Types of Signals: Analog and Digital Signals Modulation and Demodulation: Principles of Amplitude and Frequency Modulations. Communication Systems: Radio, TV, Fax, Microwave, Satellite and Optical Fibre (Block Diagram Approach only). TEXT BOOKS: 1. V.N. Mittle Basic Electrical Engineering,Tata McGraw Hill Edition, New Delhi, 1990. 2. R.S. Sedha, Applied Electronics S. Chand & Co., 2006. REFERENCES: 1. Muthusubramanian R, Salivahanan S and Muraleedharan K A, Basic Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,Tata McGraw Hill, Second Edition, (2006). 2. Nagsarkar T K and Sukhija M S, Basics of Electrical Engineering, Oxford press (2005). 3. Mehta V K, Principles of Electronics, S.Chand & Company Ltd, (1994). 4. Mahmood Nahvi and Joseph A. Edminister, Electric Circuits, Schaum Outline Series, McGraw Hill, (2002). 5. Premkumar N, Basic Electrical Engineering, Anuradha Publishers, (2003).
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MODEL QUESTION PAPER

B.Tech. Degree Examinations Second Semester 209BTT06 - Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (Regulations 2009) Time: 3 Hours
Answer ALL the questions
Maximum: 100 marks
PART A 1. State Kirchhoffs Laws. 2. Define R.M.S. value. 3. List the main constituents used in construction of a DC machine.
(10 2 = 20 MARKS)
4. In a particular d.c. machine, if P = 8, Z = 400, N = 300 rpm and = 100 mWb, calculate generated emf if winding is connected in lap fashion. 5. Explain the effect of temperature on diode parameters. 6. What are the advantages of full wave rectifier? 7. What do mean universal gates? 8. Minimize the Boolean expression AB + ABC + AB (D + E) = AB(1 + C + D + E). 9. Define modulation. Write the types of modulation. 10. Specify the three basic sections in satellite. PART B (5 16 = 80 MARKS)
11. (a) Apply kirchhoffs laws to the circuit shown in figure. Indicate the various branch currents. Write down the equations relating the various branch currents. Solve these equations to find the values of these currents. Is the sign of any of the calculated currents negative? If yes, explain the significance of the negative sign.
15 W + 50 V 20 W 30 W + 100 V
(OR) (b) Describe the construction and working of PMMC instruments. Also drive the equation for deflection in spring controlled PMMC instrument. 12. (a) (i) Explain the principle of operation of DC generator clearly. (ii)Derive the expression for generated emf in a dc machine both for lap and wave winding. (OR) (b) With a neat sketch explain the different types single-phase induction motor.
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13. (a) Draw and Explain zener diode characteristics. Also explain the breakdown action in zener diode. (OR) (b) Explain the input and output characteristics of a transistor in CB configuration. 14. (a) Explain the half adder and full adder with logic diagram, truth table and K-map simplification for carry and sum. (OR) (b) Explain the types of shift register according to the data movement. 15. (a) Explain the principle of Amplitude modulation and derive equation for AM wave. (OR) (b) Explain with a neat sketch a fiber optic communication system. State functions of each block.
UNIT
1
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND MEASUREMENTS
STRUCTURE
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 Basic Concepts and Ohms Law Ohms Law Kirchhoffs Laws Introduction to Alternating Current Generation and Equations of Alternating Voltages and Currents Alternating Voltage and Current Single Phase Circuits Three Phase Balanced Circuit Generation of Three-Phase Voltages Phase Sequence and Numbering of Phases Inter-connection of Three Phases Electrical Principles of Operation Electrical Indicating Instruments Moving-iron Instruments (Ammeters and Voltmeters) Moving-coil Instruments Wattmeters Integrating Meters (Energy Meters) Summary Glossary Review Questions Further Readings
Electrical Circuits and Measurements
NOTES
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to: define Ohms law and Kirchhoffs laws with their limitations and applications. give an introduction to A.C. circuits in terms of waveform and RMS value, power and power factor.
Self-Instructional Material 1
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
describe single phase and three phase circuit. define operating principles of moving coil and moving iron instruments of ammeter and voltmeter, dynamometer type wattmeter and energy meters.
NOTES
1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND OHMS LAW

Electricity
It is not easy to define electricity.
l
Electricity may be defined as a form of energy. It involves making and using energy.
It may also be defined as a way in which materials behave. Sometimes people use the term electricity as the name for a material that flows through a solid wire, motion of this strange material is called electric current.
l
Electron Theory
l
l l
An element is defined as a substance which cannot be decomposed into other substances. The smallest particle of an element which takes part in chemical reaction is known as an atom. All matter is composed of atoms which are infinitesimally small. The atom, itself, is composed of electrons, protons and neutrons. The number and arrangement of these particles determines the type of atom: oxygen, carbon, copper, lead or any other element. Weight, colour, density, and all other characteristics of an element are determined by the structure of the atom. Electrons from lead would be the same as electrons from any other element. The electron is a very light particle that spins around the centre of the atom. Electrons move in an orbit. The number of electrons orbiting around the centre or nucleus of the atom varies from element to element. The electron has a negative () electric charge. The proton is a very large and heavy particle in relationship to the electron. One or more protons will form the centre or nucleus of the atom. The proton has a positive (+) electrical charge. The nucleon consists of neutron and proton bound tightly together in which the neutron is electrically neutral; it has no electrical charge. Normally, the atoms are electrically neutral, that, the number of electrons and protons are the same, cancelling out each others electrical force. Atoms stay together because unlike electrical charges attract each other. The electrical force of the protons holds the electrons in their orbits. Like electrical charges repel each other so negatively charged electrons will not collide with each other.
Self-Instructional Material
Electrons
NOTES
Electron orbits + + Protons Neutrons Nucleus
Fig. 1.1. Atomic structure: Electron, proton and neutron.
Electric Current
l
In order to have electric current, electrons must move from atom to atom (Fig. 1.2). There are quite a few substances in which it is relatively easy for an electron to jump out of its orbit and begin to orbit in an adjoining or nearby atom. Substances which permit this movement of electrons are called conductors of electricity (e.g., copper, aluminium, silver, etc.)
Nucleus Free electron
Fig. 1.2. Current: Flow of electrons within a conductor.

l
The controlled movement of electrons, (or drift) through a substance is called current. Current occurs only when a difference of potential (e.m.f. or voltage) is present. For example, we can get a difference of potential by connecting a battery to the ends of a length of copper wire. The pressure from the battery will then move the electrons.
Refer Fig. 1.3 (a). The electrons of copper are free to drift in random fashion through the copper. If an imaginary line is set up in the copper wire, it will be found that the same number of electrons will cross the line from both the directions. This random movement however will not result in electric current.
NOTES
Fig. 1.3. (a) With no voltage applied: Electrons drift aimlessly.
Refer Fig. 1.3 (b). One end of the wire attracts electrons because it is connected to the battery terminal which has a positive charge (lack of electrons). The electrons in the copper wire drift towards this positive charge. As electrons leave the copper wire and enter the positive terminal, more electrons enter the other end of the copper wire. These electrons are taken from the negative terminal of the battery.
Flow of electrons in one direction
Fig. 1.3. (b) When voltage is applied to the wire: A controlled drift of electrons takes place.
Current is the rate at which electrons move. One ampere (unit of current) represent 6.28 1018 electrons passing a point each second (1 coloumb past a point in 1 second). A moving stream of positive charges also constitutes an electric current and in the case of flow through ionized gases and electrolytes, the current consists partly of positively charged particles moving in one direction and partly of negatively charged particles moving in the opposite direction. (Fig. 1.4). In all other cases the electric current consists of solely of moving electrons.
Fig. 1.4
One ampere is that constant current, which if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section and placed
one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 107 newton per metre of length. Note. Those substances whose atoms have their outermost orbit incomplete act as good conductors of electricity i.e., they permit an easy detachment of their outermost electrons and offer very little hinderance to their flow through atoms. Such substances are known as good conductors. But substances whose electrons are rigidly attached to their atoms are termed as bad conductors. Materials like germanium, silicon, and silicon carbide whose resistances at ordinary temperatures lie in between those of typical metals and typical insulators are called semi-conductors.
NOTES
Electromotive Force and Potential

Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the force that causes a current of electricity to flow.
l
If we have two compressed-air storage tanks, one of which is at a higher pressure than the other, and we connect the two tanks together by means of a pipe, air will flow along this pipe from the higher pressure tank to the low-pressure tank. The force that causes this current of air to flow is the pressure difference between the two tanks. Similarly, in the zinc-copper voltaic cell, the zinc and copper electrodes both contain vast quantities of electrons, but owing to chemical action the zinc electrode is charged to a greater electron pressure than the copper electrode. The electron-pressure difference is the electromotive force that causes the flow of electrons from the zinc electrode to copper electrode through the external connecting circuit.
V I I
The term electron pressure, although descriptive, has no social standing. The word potential had been used to express the same idea for several years before the development of the electron theory. Two conducting bodies are said to be at the same potential if there is no flow of electric current between them when they are joined together by a conducting wire.
Fig. 1.5. Current and p.d. in a simple circuit.
The potential difference (p.d.) V, between two points in a circuit is the electrical pressure or voltage required to drive the current between them (Fig. 1.5). The volt is unit of potential difference and electromotive force. It is defined as the difference of potential across a resistance of 1 ohm carrying a current of 1 ampere.
Resistance
Some materials have an abundance of free electrons, which require a low pressure to move them from atom to atom, and establish a high current. Such materials are known as good conductors. Other materials have few free electrons. In these the same electric pressure can move only a few electrons from atom to atom, establishing a low current. These are considered poor conductors. The progressive motion of free electrons is hindered in all materials, because they collide with atoms of the substance used. The opposition to flow of electrons (due to bonds
between protons and electrons, as well as to collisions) is called electrical resistance (R). Resistance may also be defined as The property of the electric circuit which opposes the flow of current. Resistance is analogous in most of its aspects to friction in mechanics or hydraulics and, like friction, results in heat generation. The heating of an electric iron or stove is due to the resistance of the heat-unit conductor materials. For safety the material and cross-section of the conductors must be such that the temperature is kept well below a value which would result in damage to the conductor or its protective coating of insulating material. The practical unit of electric resistance is ohm (). It (ohm) is defined as the resistance in which a constant current of 1 ampere generates heat at the rate of 1 watt. One volt applied across 1 ohm will produce 1 ampere. 1 Mega-ohm (M ) 1 kilo-ohm (k ) 1 milli-ohm (m ) 1 micro-ohm ( ) = 106 = 103 = 103 = 106 .
NOTES
Laws of Resistance
The resistance of a conductor, such as a wire, of uniform cross-section depends on the following factors: (i) Length (l). Varies directly as its length, l. (ii) Cross-section (A). Varies inversely as the cross-section, A of the conductor. (iii) Nature of the material. (iv) Temperature of the conductor. Neglecting the last factor (iv) for the time being, we can say that
l or A where, l = Length of the conductor,

R
R=
l A
...(1.1)
A = Area of cross-section of the conductor, and = A constant depending on the nature of the material of the conductor and is known as its specific resistance or resistivity. If in eqn. (1.1), l = 1 metre, A = 1 metre, then R = . Hence specific resistance or resistivity of a material may be defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a metre cube of that material (Fig. 1.6). Unit of Resistivity. From eqn. (1.1), we have =
l = 1 metre
A = 1 metre
Current Current R =
RA l
Fig. 1.6
In S.I. system of units = R ohm A m 2 RA ohm-m = lm l
Hence the unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (-m).
NOTES
Volume Resistivity
We know that R=
l A
=
l A V = A A A2
...(i)
LM MMwhere N
Also, i.e.,
V = lA V = volume, l = length, and A = uniform cross -sectional area of a conductor.

l l l 2 = Al V [from (i) and (ii)]
OP PP Q
R=
...(ii) ...(1.2)
2 R = V = l 2 V A
The above eqn. signifies that for a given volume: 1. Resistance of a conductor varies inversely as square of its cross-section. 2. Resistance varies as square of its length. The values of resistivity and temperature coefficients for some materials are given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Resistivities and Temperature Coefficients
Material Copper Aluminium Silver Platinum Iron Mercury German silver (4 Cu; 2Ni; 1 Zn) Constantan or Eureka
Carbon
Resistivity in -m at 20 C 1.59 108 2.8 11 108 108 108 1.52
Temperature coefficient at 20 C 0.00428 0.0020 0.00377 0.00340 0.0070 0.00089 0.00027 0.00004 to + 0.00001
0.0005
(9 to 15) 108 19.9 108 20.2 108 49 108

7000 108
Conductance (G)
Conductance G =
NOTES
FG H
A 1 = R l
IJ K
is the reciprocal of resistance and therefore be
utilised as a measure of the inducement to current flow offered by the circuit. The conductance of circuit is directly proportional to the cross-section of the conductor and inversely proportional to its length. The unit of conductance is reciprocal ohm, or mho ( ).
Conductivity ()
The reciprocal of specific resistance = conductivity. The unit of conductivity = G
In practice, conductivities are used chiefly to compare one conductor material with another. It is therefore convenient to choose one material as the standard and to compare others with it. Accordingly, pure annealed copper has been chosen as the standard and its conductivity is taken as 100 percent. Example 1.1. Find the resistance of copper wire at 20C whose cross-sectional area is 0.02 cm2 and length 400 metres. Take resistivity of copper at 20C as 1.7 108 -m. What is the conductivity of wire? Solution. Resistivity of copper at 20 C, Cross-sectional area, Length of wire, Resistance of copper wire at 20 C, R20: Using the relation, or Conductivity of wire, : Conductivity () =
1 1 = 1.7 10 8
FG H
FG H
l is mho/metre ( /m). A
IJ K
IJ K
of a material is called its
20 = 1.7 108 -m A = 0.02 cm2 = 0.02 104 m2 l = 400 m
R= R20 =
l a
1.7 10 8 400 20 l = = 3.4 . (Ans.) a 0.02 10 4
= 58.8 106 mho/metre.
(Ans.)
1.2 OHMS LAW

Ohms law can be stated as follows: The ratio of potential difference between any two points of a conductor to the current flowing through it, is constant provided the physical conditions (i.e., temperature etc.) do not change.
8 Self-Instructional Material
In other words, Ohms law states that in a closed circuit (Fig. 1.7), when a voltage V is applied across a conductor, then current I flowing through it is directly proportional to the applied voltage, i.e., I V or
NOTES
V
V = constant I
Fig. 1.7
or or
V = R ohm I
V = IR volt I=
...(1.3) ...[1.3 (a)] ...[1.3 (b)]
V amp. R
where, V = Voltage between two points, I = Current flowing in the circuit, and R = The resistance of the conductor. The units of voltage, current and resistance are volt (V), ampere (A) and ohm () respectively.
l
The linear relationship (I V) does not apply to all non-metallic conductors. For example, for silicon carbide, the relationship is given by: V = k Ix
where, k and x are constants and x is less than unity.
Conditions for Applying Ohms Law

Ohms law is applicable under the following conditions: 1. Ohms law can be applied either to the entire circuit or to a part of the circuit. 2. When Ohms law is applied to a part of a circuit, part resistance and the potential difference across that part resistance should be used. 3. Ohms law can be applied to both D.C. and A.C. circuits. However, in case of A.C. circuits, impedance Z, is used in place of resistance. Then,
l
I=
V Applied voltage = Z Impedance in the circuit
Electrical Power. It is the rate of doing work. In other words, the amount of work done in one second is called power. P=
or where P = The power in watt,
W t
...(1.4)
W = The work done in joule, and t = Time in second.
Power is equal to the product of voltage (V) and current (I) in a particular circuit. i.e., P=VI The following relations hold good: (i) P = VI = I2 R =
V2 R
...(1.5)
NOTES
P P = V R 2 (iii) R = P =V P I2 P = PR (iv) V= I Power is expressed in terms of kW (kilowatt = 1000 W)

(ii) I= or
l
where, P = power in watt, R U | | V = voltage in volt, S I = current in ampere, and V | | R = resistance in ohm. T W
MW (megawatt = 1000 kW or 106 W).
Electrical Energy. It is the total amount of work done in an electric circuit. In other words, it is measured by the product of power and time. i.e., W=Pt ...(From eqn. (1.4)] or W = VI t = VQ joules where Q = The quantity of electricity passing through the circuit in coulombs. The unit of electrical energy is joule or watt-sec. It is expressed in kWh (kilowatt hour) 1 kWh (commercial unit) = 1 kW 1 hour = 1000 watt-hour = 1000 60 60 watt-sec = 3.6 106 watt-sec. or joule.
Linear and Non-linear Resistors

A linear resistor is one which obeys ohms law. A circuit which contains only linear components is called a linear circuit. Such elements in which V/I (volt-ampere) plots are not straight lines but curves are called non-linear resistors or non-linear elements. Examples of non-linear elements: Filaments of incandescent lamps, diodes, thermistors and varistors. Varistor (Non-linear resistor):
l
It is a voltage-dependent metal-oxide material whose resistance decreases sharply with increasing voltage.
10
The zinc oxide-based varistors are primarily used for protecting solid-state power supplies from low and medium size voltage in the supply line. Silicon carbide varistors provide protection against high-voltage surges caused by lightning and by discharge of electromagnetic energy stored in the magnetic fields of large coils. 1. Electrolytes where enormous gases are produced on either electrode. 2. Non-linear resistors like vacuum radio valves, semiconductors, gas filled tubes etc. 3. Arc lamps. 4. Metals which get heated up due to flow of current. 5. Appliances like metal rectifiers, crystal detectors, etc., in which operation depends on the direction of current.
NOTES
Ohms law does not apply under the following conditions:
Resistances in Series
Fig. 1.8 shows three resistance connected in series. Obviously current flowing through each resistance will be same but voltage drop across each of them will vary as per value of individual resistance.
I I R1 V1 R2 V2 V R3 V3 I
Fig. 1.8. Resistances in series.
Also the sum of all the voltage drops (V1 + V2 + V3) is equal to the applied voltage (V). i.e., V = V 1 + V2 + V3 IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 i.e., R = R1 + R2 + R3
1 1 1 1 = + + G G1 G2 G3
(Using Ohms law: V = IR) ...(1.6)
where R is the equivalent resistance of series combination. Also ...[1.6(a)]
As seen from above, the main characteristics of a series circuit are: 1. Same current flows through all parts of the circuit. 2. Different resistors have their individual voltage drops. 3. Voltage drops are additive. 4. Applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops. 5. Resistances are additive. 6. Powers are additive.
Resistances in Parallel
Refer Fig. 1.9. In this case voltage across each resistance will be same but current will be different depending upon the value of the individual resistance. i.e., I = I1 + I2 + I3
I1 R1
NOTES
I2
R2
I3
R3
Fig. 1.9. Resistances in parallel.
V V V V = + + R R1 R2 R3 1 1 1 1 = + + R R1 R2 R3
...(1.7)
where R is the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination. R=

R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
...[1.7(a)] ...(1.8)
G = G1 + G2 + G3 The main characteristics of a parallel circuit are: 1. Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit. 2. Different resistors have their individual current. 3. Branch currents are additive. 4. Conductances are additive. 5. Powers are additive.
Example 1.2. In the Fig. 1.10 is shown a combination of resistances. If the voltage across L and M is 75 volt find: (i) The effective resistance of the circuit. (ii) Voltage drop across each resistance.
12
Solution. Refer to Fig. 1.10.

2 L 4 6 4 75 V N 10 P 8 M
NOTES
Fig. 1.10
(i) Effective resistance of the circuit: Resistance between L and N,

1 1 1 1 6 + 3 + 2 11 = + + = = RLN 2 4 6 12 12
12 11 Resistance of branch LNP,

RLN = RLNP =
L 12 11 N 10 P 8
...(Fig. (1.10)
12 122 + 10 = = 11.09 11 11
M
L 11.09 P
...(Fig. 1.11)
M 8
4 75 V
4 75 V
Fig. 1.11
Fig. 1.12
Resistance between L and P

1 1 1 = + RLP 11.09 4
[As there are two parallel paths between points L and P of resistances 11.09 and 4 ]
M
L 2.94
P 8
L 10.94
75 V
75 V
Fig. 1.13
Fig. 1.14
= or RLP =
4 + 11.09 44.36
44.36 = 2.94 15.09
...(Fig. 1.12)
NOTES
Effective resistance of the circuit, RLM = RLP + RPM = 2.94 + 8 = 10.94 Hence effective resistance of the circuit = 10.94 . (Ans.) Total current through the circuit Current through 4 resistor Current in branch LNP =
75 V = 6.85 A = RLM 10.94
11.09 = 5.03 A 11.09 + 4
= 6.85 = 6.85
4 = 1.82 A 11.09 + 4
Voltage drop across 2, 4 and 6 resistors = 1.82 RLN = 1.82 Voltage drop across 10 resistor = 1.82 10 = 18.2 V Voltage drop across 4 resistor = 5.03 4 = 20.12 V Voltage drop across 8 resistor = 6.85 8 = 54.8 V
12 = 1.98 V. (Ans.) 11
(Ans.) (Ans.) (Ans.)
Limitations of Ohms Law

In a series circuit or in any branch of a simple parallel circuit the calculation of the current is easily effected by the direct application of Ohms law. But such a simple calculation is not possible if one of the branches of a parallel circuit contains a source of e.m.f., or if the current is to be calculated in a part of a network in which sources of e.m.f. may be present in several meshes or loops forming the network. The treatment of such cases is effected by the application of fundamental principles of electric circuits. These principles were correlated by Kirchhoff many years ago and enunciated in the form of two laws, which can be considered as the foundations of circuit analysis. Other, later, methods have been developed, which when applied to special cases considerably shorten the algebra and arithmetic computation compared with the original Kirchhoffs method.
1.3 KIRCHHOFFS LAWS

For complex circuit computations, the following two laws first stated by Gutsav R. Kirchhoff (182487) are indispensable.
14
Kirchhoffs Point Law or Current Law (KCL)

It states as follows: The sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. Refer to Fig. 1.15. If the currents towards a junction are considered positive and those away from the same junction negative, then this law states that the algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a common junction is zero. i.e., Currents entering = Currents leaving I1 + I3 = I2 + I4 + I5 or I1 + I3 I2 I4 I5 = 0
I5 I4 I3
NOTES
I1
I2 Junction
Fig. 1.15
...[1.9 (a)] ...[1.9 (b)]
Kirchhoffs Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

It states as follows: The sum of the e.m.fs (rises of potential) around any closed loop of a circuit equals the sum of the potential drops in that loop. Considering a rise of potential as positive (+) and a drop of potential as negative (), the algebraic sum of potential differences (voltages) around a closed loop of a circuit is zero: E IR drops = 0 (around closed loop) i.e., E = IR ...[1.10 (a)] or Potential rises = Potential drops ...[1.10 (b)] To apply this law in practice, assume an arbitrary current direction for each branch current. The end of the resistor through which the current enters, is then positive, with respect to the other end. If the solution for the current being solved turns out negative, then the direction of that current is opposite to the direction assumed. In tracing through any single circuit, whether it is by itself or a part of a network, the following rules must be applied: 1. A voltage drop exists when tracing through a resistance with or in the same direction as the current, or through a battery or generator against their voltage, that is from positive (+) to negative (). Refer to Fig. 1.16.
L + V M L V + M
Fall in voltage (V) L E + Fall in voltage (E) M L
Rise in voltage (+V) M
Rise in voltage (+E)
Fig. 1.16
Fig. 1.17
2. A voltage rise exists when tracing through a resistance against or in opposite direction to the current or through a battery or a generator with their voltage that is from negative () to positive (+). Refer to Fig. 1.17. Illustration. Consider a circuit shown in Fig. 1.18. Considering the loop ABEFA, we get I1R1 I3R3 + E1 = 0 or E1 = I1R1 + I3R3 (where I3 = I1 + I2) ...(i)
E1 F I1 I2 D R + A + I1 + R1 B I3 R2 + C I2 + E2
NOTES
Considering the loop BCDEB, we have I2R2 E2 + I3R3 = 0 or ...(ii) E2 = I2R2 + I3R3
Fig. 1.18
If E1, E2, R1, R2 and R3 are known, then I1, I2 and I3 can be calculated from eqns. (i) and (ii).
Applications of Kirchhoffs Laws

Kirchhoffs laws may be employed in the following methods of solving network : 1. Branch-current method 2. Maxwells loop (or mesh) current method 3. Nodal voltage method. Branch-Current Method For a multi-loop circuit the following procedure is adopted for writing equations: 1. Assume currents in different branch of the network. 2. Write down the smallest number of voltage drop loop equations so as to include all circuit elements; these loop equations are independent. If there are n nodes of three or more elements in a circuit, then write (n1) equations as per current law. 3. Solve the above equations simultaneously. The assumption made about the directions of the currents initially is arbitrary. In case the actual direction is opposite to the assumed one, it will be reflected as a negative value for that current in the answer. The branch-current method (the most primitive one) involves more labour and is not used except for very simple circuits. Example 1.3. In the circuit of Fig. 1.19, find the current through each resistor and voltage drop across each resistor.
16
12 W
6W
A + I1 +
12 W +
B (I1+I2) 10 W
6W +
C I2 + 10 V
12 V
10 W
10 V
12 V
NOTES
Fig. 1.19
Fig. 1.20
Solution. Let the currents be as shown in Fig. 1.20. Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the circuit ABEFA, we get 12I1 10(I1 + I2) + 12 = 0 or Circuit BCDEB gives, 6I2 10 + 10(I1 + I2) = 0 10I1 + 16I2 10 = 0 5I1 + 8I2 5 = 0 Multiplying eqn. (i) by 5 and eqn. (ii) by 11 and subtracting, we get 55I1 + 25I2 30 = 0 55I1 + 88I2 55 = 0 + 63I2 + 25 = 0 i.e., Substituting this value in eqn. (i), we get 11I1 + 5 0.397 6 = 0 i.e., Hence, I1 = 0.365 A Current through 12 resistor, I1 = 0.365 A (Ans.) Current through 6 resistor, I2 = 0.397 A (Ans.) Current through 10 resistor, I1 + I2 = 0.762 A (Ans.) The voltage drop across: 12 resistor = 0.365 12 = 4.38 V (Ans.) 6 resistor = 0.397 6 = 2.38 V (Ans.) 10 resistor = 0.762 10 = 7.62 V (Ans.) Example 1.4. A battery having an e.m.f. of 110 V and an internal resistance of 0.2 is connected in parallel with another battery with e.m.f. of 100 V and a resistance of 0.25 . The two in parallel are placed in series with a regulating resistance of 5 ohms and connected across 220 V mains. Calculate: (i) The magnitude and direction of the current in each battery. (ii) The total current taken from the mains supply.
22I1 10I2 + 12 = 0 + 11I1 + 5I2 6 = 0
...(i)
...(ii)
I2 = 0.397 A
Solution. Refer to Fig. 1.21.

M 110 V 0.2 0.25 S (I1 + I2) N I1 100 V Q (I1 + I2) I2 P
NOTES
220 V 5 T
Fig. 1.21
(i) I1, I2: Let the directions of flow of currents I1 and I2 be as shown in Fig. 1.21. Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to LMNPSQL, we get 110 + 0.2I1 0.25I2 100 = 0 0.2I1 0.25I2 = 10 or Circuit LMNPTL gives, 110 + 0.2I1 220 + 5(I1 + I2) = 0 5.2I1 + 5I2 = 110 I1 + 0.96I2 = 21.15 Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get 2.21I2 = 71.15 and I2 = 32.19 A (Ans.) I1 = 9.75 A (Ans.) I1 1.25I2 = 50 ...(i)
...(ii)
Since I1 turns out to be negative, its actual direction of flow is opposite to that shown in Fig. 1.21. In other words it is not a charging current but a discharging one. However, I2 is a charging current. (ii) (I1 + I2): The total current taken from the mains supply, I1 + I2 = 9.75 + 32.19 = 22.44 A (Ans.)
1.4 INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT

A.C. means alternating currentThe current or voltage which alternates its direction and magnitude every time. Now-a-days 95% of the total energy is produced, transmitted and distributed in A.C. supply. The reasons are the following : (i) More voltage can be generated (upto 33000 V) than D.C. (650 V only).
(ii) A.C. voltage can be increased and decreased with the help of a static machine called the transformer. (iii) A.C. transmission and distribution is more economical as line material (say copper) can be saved by transmitting power at higher voltage. (iv) A.C. motors for the same horse power as of D.C. motors are cheaper, lighter in weight, require less space and require lesser attention in operation and maintenance. (v) A.C. can be converted to D.C. (direct current) easily, when and where required but D.C. cannot be converted to A.C. so easily and it will not be economical. However, D.C. entails the following merits and hence finds wide applications. (i) D.C. series motors are most suitable for traction purposes in tramway, railways, crains and lifts. (ii) For electroplating, electrolytic and electrochemical processes (battery charging etc.), D.C. is required. (iii) Arc lamps for search lights and cinema projectors work on D.C. (iv) Arc welding is better than on A.C. (v) Relay and operating time switches, etc., and circuit-breakers, D.C. works more efficiently. (vi) In rolling mills, paper mills, colliery winding, etc., where fine speed control of speeds in both directions is required, D.C. motors are required.
NOTES
1.5 GENERATION AND EQUATIONS OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents Alternating voltages may be generated in the following two ways: 1. By rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 1.22. 2. By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as shown in Fig. 1.23.
Back coil
Stator N
Flux
Cu
rre
nt
Cut away pole
Rotor
S +
is Ax o
n tio ta o fr
Motion External connections
Fig. 1.22. Rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field.
Fig. 1.23. Rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.

The value of the voltage generated in each case depends upon the following factors:
max cos Y (i) The number of turns in the t= 0 coils ; (ii) The strength of the field; (iii) The speed at which the coil or max sin magnetic field rotates. il Out of the above two methods the co rotating-field method is mostly used in x X O ma practice.
= t
NOTES
max
Equations of Alternating Voltages and Currents Fig. 1.24 shows a rectangular coil of N turns rotating clockwise with an angular velocity radian per second in a uniform magnetic field.
Y
Fig. 1.24. A coil rotating in a magnet field.
Since by Faradays law, the voltage is proportional to the rate at which the conductor its across the magnetic field or to the rate of change of flux linkages, the shape of the wave of voltage applied to the external circuit will be determined by the flux distribution in the air gap. For a uniform field between the poles it is evident that maximum flux will link with the coil when its plane is in vertical position i.e., perpendicular to the direction of flux between the poles. Also it is obvious that when the plane of coil is horizontal no flux will link with the coil. If the position of the coil with reference to the vertical axis be denoted by the flux linking with the coil at any instant, as the coil rotates may be determined from the relation, = max cos where, ...(i) ( = t) = max cos t max = Maximum flux which can link with the coil, and t = Time taken by the coil to move through an angle from vertical
position. Using Faradays law to eqn. (i), in order to determine the voltage equation, e= N
d dt
(where e is the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f.)
or
d ( max cos t ) = N max sin t dt e = Nmax sin

= N As the value of e will be maximum when sin = 1, Emax = Nmax e = Emax sin The eqn. (ii) can be written in simpler form as
...(ii)
...(iii)
20
Similarly the equation of induced alternating current (instantaneous value) is i = Imax sin (if the load is resistive) ...(iv)
Waveforms
A waveform (or wave-shape) is the shape of a curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of voltage or current as ordinate against time as abscissa.
e, i + 0 e, i e, i
NOTES
2p
2p
2p
(a) e, i e, i
(b) e, i
(c)
2p
2p
2p
(d)
(e)
(f)
Fig. 1.25. Waveforms.
Fig. 1.25 ( a, b, c, d, e ) shows irregular waveforms, but each cycle of current/voltage is an exactly replica of the previous one. Alternating e.m.fs and currents produced by machines usually both have positive and negative half waves, the same shape as shown. Fig. 1.25(f) represents a sine wave of A.C. This is the simplest possible waveform, and alternators are designed to give as nearly as possible a sine wave of e.m.f.
In general, an alternating current or voltage is one the circuit direction of which reverses at regularly recurring intervals. The waves deviating from the standard sine wave are termed as distorted waves. Complex waves are those which depart from the ideal sinusoidal form. All alternating complex waves, which are periodic and have equal positive and negative half cycles can be shown to be made up of a number of pure sine waves, having different frequencies but all these frequencies are integral multiples of that of the lowest alternating wave, called the fundamental (or first harmonic). These waves of higher frequencies are called harmonics.
1.6 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Modern alternators produce an e.m.f. which is for all practical purposes sinusoidal (i.e., a sine curve), the equation between the e.m.f. and time being
e = Emax sin t where, e = Instantaneous voltage; Emax = Maximum voltage; t = Angle through which the armature has turned from neutral.
...(1.11)
NOTES
Taking the frequency as f hertz (cycles per second), the value of will be 2f, so that the equation reads e = Emax sin (2f)t. The graph of the voltage will be as shown in Fig. 1.26.
+ +
Volts E.M.F.
Emax Time 1 Cycle
Fig. 1.26. The graph of the sinusoidal voltage.
1. Cycle. One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is known as a cycle. A cycle may also sometimes be specified in terms of angular measure. In that case, one complete cycle is said to spread over 360 or 2 radian. 2. Amplitude. The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity, is known as its amplitude. 3. Frequency (f). The number of cycles/second is called the frequency of the alternating quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz). 4. Time Period (T). The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete the cycle is called its time period. For example, a 50 hertz (Hz) alternating current has a time period of
1 second. 50
Time period is reciprocal of frequency, i.e., T=
1 1 or f = f T
FG H
IJ K
...(1.12)
5. Root Mean Square (R.M.S.) Value. The r.m.s. (or effective) value of an alternating current is given by that steady (D.C.) current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time. R.M.S. value is the value which is taken for power purposes of any description. This value is obtained by finding the square root of the mean value of the squared ordinates for a cycle or half-cycle (See Fig. 1.26).
22
This is the value which is used for all power, lighting and heating purposes, as in these cases the power is proportional to the square of the voltage. Refer to Fig. 1.26. The equation of sinusoidal alternating current is given as: i = Imax sin The mean of squares of the instantaneous values of current over half cycle is I2 = I2 = =
NOTES
1
1
z z
i 2 d ( 0)
i 2 d =
( Imax sin ) 2 d
I 2 max
I 2 max sin 2 d =
I 2max = 2
z FGH
0
1 cos 2 d 2
0
IJ K
I 2max sin 2 (1 cos 2 ) d = 2 2
= or
I 2max I 2max = 2 2
or
I=
I 2 max I = max 2 2
I = 0.707 Imax.
...(1.13)
Note. While solving problems, the values of given current and voltage should always be taken as the r.m.s. values, unless indicated otherwise.
6. Average or Mean Value. The average value of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternating current during the same time. The mean value is only of use in connection with processes where the results depend on the current only, irrespective of the voltage, such as electroplating or battery charging. Refer to Fig. 1.27. The value of instantaneous current is given by i = Imax sin
Current
+ O Imax
Refer to Fig. 1.27. The value of instantaneous current is given by: i = Imax sin Iav =
1 ( 0)
Iav. Imax
LM Limits are taken from 0 to , OP only first half cycle is P MM since considered. For whole cycle, P MM the average value of sine PP PQ MN wave is zero.
[ = t]
id
Fig. 1.27
23
1 = .
=
I max
1 . sin d = . I max cos
NOTES
or Iav
2 1 . Imax [1 ( 1)] = .I max = 0.637 Imax.
...(1.14)
Note. In case of unsymmetrical alternating current viz. half-wave rectified current the average value must always be taken over the whole cycle.
7. Form and Peak Factors Form Factor. The ratio of r.m.s. (or effective) value to average value is the form factor (Kf ) of the waveform. It has use in voltage generation and instrument correction factors. Peak Factor. The ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value is the peak factor (Kp) of the waveform. Reasons for using alternating current (or voltage) of sinusoidal form: An alternating current (or voltage) of sinusoidal form is normally used because of the following reasons: (i) Mathematically, it is quite simple. (ii) Its integrals and differentials both are sinusoidal. (iii) It lends itself to vector representation. (iv) A complex waveform can be analysed into a series of sine waves of various frequencies, and each such component can be dealt with separately. (v) This waveform is desirable for power generation, transmission and utilisation. 8. Phase and Phase Angle. The phase of an A.C. wave may be defined as its position with respect to a reference axis or reference wave and phase angle as the angle of lead or lag with respect to the reference axis or with respect to another wave. Examples. The phase of current at point L is
Current
0 t=0
/2
L
T 4
3/2
T second where T is the time 4
Fig. 1.28
radian (Fig. 1.28). Similar phase of 2 the rotating coil at the instant shown in Fig. 1.29 is t which is therefore called its phase angle.
period or expressed in terms of angle , it is The e.m.fs. induced in both the coils (Fig. 1.29) will be of the same frequency and of sinusoidal shape, although the values of instantaneous e.m.f. induced will
24
be different. However, the alternating e.m.fs. would reach their maximum and zero values at the same time as shown in Fig. 1.29 (b). Such alternating voltages or curves are said to in phase with each other.
Y M L M
= t
NOTES
Y (a)
t (Second) (b)
Fig. 1.29
Refer to Fig. 1.30. M lags behind L by and N lags behind L by ( + ) because they reach their maximum later.
Y L b M a O wt X X N
L M N b (a + b)
t (Second)
Y (a)
(b)
Fig. 1.30
Example 1.5. (a) What is the equation of a 25 cycle current sine wave having r.m.s. value of 30 amps? (b) A 60 cycle engine-driven alternator has a speed of 1200 r.p.m. How many poles are there in the alternator? Solution. We know that, i = Imax sin t = Imax sin 2ft = 30 2 . sin (2 25 t) = 42.42 sin 157 t. (Ans.)
FG H
= 2f )
R.M.S. value 1 = Max. value 2
IJ K
Np 120 where, f = frequency, N = speed in r.p.m., and

Using the relation, f = p = No. of poles 60 =
NOTES
1200 p 120
or p = 6. (Ans.)
Example 1.6. The graph in Fig. 1.31 shows the variation of voltage with time. Use the graph to calculate the average and r.m.s. value of the voltage. What is the frequency of the voltage? What would be the r.m.s. value of sine wave having the same peak value? Solution. Refer to Fig. 1.31. As the graph is symmetrical about time axis, considering only the positive half cycle. Average value, Vav = R.M.S. value, V= = =
0 + 10 + 20 + 40 + 100 + 120 + 100 + 40 + 20 + 10 10 = 46 V (Ans.)
02 + 102 + 20 2 + 40 2 + 1002 + 120 2 + 100 2 + 40 2 + 202 + 102 10

0 + 100 + 400 + 1600 + 10000 + 14400 + 10000 + 1600 + 400 + 100 10 38600 = 3860 = 62.1 V (Ans.) 10
Fig. 1.31
26
Since the time period T is 20 milli sec. Frequency f =
1 1 = = 50 Hz (Ans.) T 20 10 3
= 0.707 120 = 84.84 V (Ans.)
R.M.S. value of a sine wave of the same peak value
NOTES
1.7 SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS

The study of circuits involves three basic types of units (R, L, C i.e., resistance, reactance and capacitance respectively) and four possible series combination of them. The latter, in turn, may be arranged in many kinds of parallel, series-parallel, parallel-series or other complex circuits.
A.C. Through Pure Ohmic Resistance Alone

The circuit containing a pure resistance R is shown in Fig. 1.32 (a). Let the applied voltage be given by the equation, v = Vmax sin = Vmax sin t ...(i)
Power wave
v i
v = Vmax sin wt i = Imax sin wt
+ v i p
+ Vmax Imax Vmax Imax 2 2p t v = Vmax sin wt
p i = Imax sin wt (c)
(b)
Fig. 1.32. A.C. through pure ohmic resistance alone.
Then the instantaneous value of current flowing through the resistance R will be, i=
v Vmax sin t = R R
...(ii)
27
The value of current will be maximum when sin t = 1 or (t = 90) Imax =
NOTES
Vmax R
...(iii)
Substituting this value in eqn. (ii), we get i = Imax sin t Comparing (i) and (iii), we find that alternating voltage and current are in phase with each other as shown in Fig. 1.32 (b), also shown vectorially in Fig. 1.35 (c). Power. Refer to Fig. 1.32 (c) Instantaneous power, p = vi = Vmax sin t Imax sin t = Vmax Imax sin2 t = =
Vmax I max I V 2 sin 2 t = max max (1 cos 2 t ) 2 2
Vmax 2
I max 2
Vmax 2
I max 2
cos 2t
(Constant part) (Fluctuating part) For a complete cycle the average of Hence, power for the whole cycle, P= or
Vmax 2
I max 2
cos 2 t is zero.
Vmax 2
I max 2
= Vr.m.s . I r.m.s.
P = VI watt I = R.M.S. value of the current.
where V = R.M.S. value of applied voltage, and It may be observed from the Fig. 1.32 (c) that no part of the power cycle at any time becomes negative. In other words the power in a purely resistive circuit never becomes zero. Hence in pure resistive circuit we have: 1. Current is in phase with the voltage. 2. Current I =
V where I and V are r.m.s. values of current and voltage. R 3. Power in the circuit, P = VI = I2R.
A.C. Through Pure Inductance Alone

Fig. 1.33 (a) shows the circuit containing a pure inductance of L henry.
28
V I L i
NOTES
v = Vmax sin t (a)
Power wave v
v = Vmax sin t v i 1 2 (b) i = Imax (sin t
v i p
) 2
+ p
+ 2
Vmax Imax 2 t
(c)
Fig. 1.33 (a) (b), (c). A.C. through pure inductance alone. Resultant power zero.
Let the alternating voltage applied across the circuit be given by the equation, v = Vmax sin t ...(i) Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, a back e.m.f. is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil. This back e.m.f. opposes the rise or fall of the current through the coil. Since there is no ohmic drop in this case, therefore, the applied voltage has to overcome this induced e.m.f. only. Thus at every step,
v=L
or or Vmax sin t = L di =
di dt di dt
Vmax sin t dt L Integrating both sides, we get
z z
di =
Vmax sin t dt L
or or
i= i=
Vmax cos t V = max sin t L L 2 Vmax sin t XL 2
FG H
LM N
IJ K
OP Q
LM N
OP Q
...(ii)
29
where XL = L (opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure inductances) and is called Inductive reactance. It is given in ohm if L is in henry and is in radian/second. The value of current will be maximum when sin t Imax =
NOTES
FG H
=1 2
IJ K
Vmax XL
Substituting this value in eqn. (ii), we get i = Imax sin t Power. Refer to Fig. 1.33 (c)
FG H
IJ K FG H
2
...(iii)
Instantaneous power, p = vi = Vmax sin t Imax sin t = Vmax Imax sin t . cos t = = Power for the whole cycle,
IJ K
Vmax I max 2 sin t cos t 2
Vmax 2
I max 2
2
. sin 2t
P=
Vmax I max 2
sin 2 t = 0
Hence average power consumed in a pure inductive circuit is zero. Hence in a pure inductive circuit, we have: 1. Current I = 90. 3. Average power consumed is zero. Variation of XL and f: Since XL = L = 2fL, and here if L is constant, then XL f Fig. 1.34, shows the variation. As frequency is increased XL increases and the current taken by the circuit decreases.
V V V = = amp. X L L 2fL
Fig. 1.34. Variation of XL with f.
2. Current always lags behind the voltage by
A.C. Through Pure Capacitance Alone

The circuit containing a pure capacitor of capacitance C farad is shown in Fig. 1.35 (a). Let the alternating voltage applied across the circuit be given by the equation,
v = Vmax sin t v i
NOTES
2 i = Imax sin (t + ) 2 t
(b)
Fig. 1.35. A.C. through pure capacitance alone. Resultant power is zero.
v = Vmax sin t Charge on the capacitor at any instant, q=Cv Current through the circuit, i= or i= i=
...(i)
dq d = (CVmax sin t) = CVmax cos t dt dt
Vmax sin t + 1/C 2 Vmax XC
FG IJ H K F I sin G t + J H 2K
...(ii)
1 (opposition offered to the flow of alternating current C by a pure capacitor) is known as capacitive reactance.
The denominator XC = It is given in ohms if C is in farad and in radian/second. The value of current will be maximum when sin t + = 1 2 Imax =
FG H
IJ K
Vmax XC
31
Substituting this value in eqn. (ii), we get i = Imax sin t +
NOTES
Power. Refer to Fig. 1.35 (c) Instantaneous power,
FG H
IJ K
...(iii)
p = vi = Vmax sin t Imax sin t + = Vmax Imax sin t cos t = Power for the whole cycle =
FG H
IJ K
2
sin 2t
Vmax 2
I max
sin 2 t = 0 2 2 0 This fact is graphically illustrated in Fig. 1.35 (c). It may be noted that, during the first quarter cycle, what so ever power or energy is supplied by the source is stored in the electric field set-up between the capacitor plates. During the next quarter cycle, the electric field collapses and the power or energy stored in the field is returned to the source. The process is repeated in each alternation and this circuit does not absorb any power. .
Hence in a pure capacitive circuit, we have 1. I =
V = V 2 fC amps. XC
Vmax
I max
2. Current always leads the applied voltage by 90. 3. Power consumed is zero. Variation of XC and f: Since XC =
1 and if C is kept constant, than 2fC
Fig. 1.36
XC
1 f
Fig. 1.36 shows the variation. As the frequency increases XC decreases, so the current increases.
A.C. Series Circuits

Under this heading, we shall discuss R-L, R-C and R-L-C series circuits. R-L Circuit (Resistance and Inductance in Series) Fig. 1.37 (a) shows a pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance L connected in series. Such a circuit is known as R-L circuit (usually met a cross in practice).
32
VL I R VR = IR I V v = Vmax sin t (a) Circuit diagram VR 90 I
L VL = IXL
NOTES
XL = L
R B (c) Impedance triangle

V
I co
s
I
Let
VL = IXL = Voltage drop across L (coil), ahead of I by 90. The voltage drop VR and VL and shown in voltage triangle OAB in Fig. 1.37 (b), I being taken as the reference vector in the phasor diagram. Vector OA represents ohmic drop VR and AB represents inductive drop VL. Vector OB represents the applied voltage V which is the vector sum of the two (i.e., VR and VL). or where Z = V = VR 2 + VL 2 = ( IR ) 2 + ( IX L ) 2 = I ( R 2 + X L 2 ) I=
V R + (X L )
2 2
R 2 + X L 2 (total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by R-L series circuit) is known as impedance of the circuit.
Is in
(e) Resolution of I
Fig. 1.37. R-L circuit (resistance and inductance in series).
V = R.M.S. value of the applied voltage, I = R.M.S. value of the resultant current, VR = IR = Voltage drop across R(in phase with I), and
V Z
NOTES
As seen from the impedance triangle ABC [Fig. 1.37 (c)], Z2 = R2 + XL2 i.e., (Impedance)2 = (Resistance)2 + (Inductive reactance)2 From Fig. 1.37 (b) it is evident that voltage V leads the current by an angle such that, Inductive reactance V IX L X L L = tan = L = = = Resistance VR IR R R = tan1
The same is illustrated graphically in Fig. 1.37 (d). In other words, I lags V by an angle .
FG X IJ HRK
L
R [From Fig. 1.37 (c)] Z Thus, if the applied voltage is given by v = Vmax sin t, then current equation is given as, i = Imax sin ( t ),
Power factor, cos =
V max Z In the Fig. 1.37 (e), I has been shown resolved into two components, I cos along V and I sin in quadrature (i.e., perpendicular) with V. Mean power consumed by the circuit = V I cos (i.e., component of I which is in phase with V i.e., P = V I cos (= r.m.s. voltage r.m.s. current cos )
where
Imax =
The term cos is called the power factor =
It may noted that: In A.C. circuit the product of r.m.s. volts and r.m.s. amperes gives volt - ampere ( i . e., VA ) and not true power in watt . True power ( W ) = volt-ampere (VA) power factor or Watt = VA (Apparent power) cos The power consumed is due to ohmic resistance only since pure inductance consumes no power. i.e., P = V I cos = V I
FG R IJ of the circuit H ZK
R V = IR = I IR = I2R, watts Z Z V ( cos = R/Z and = I) Z
This shows that power is actually consumed in resistance only; the inductor
does not consume any power. The power consumed in R-L circuit is shown graphically in Fig. 1.37 ( f ).
Thus in R-L circuit we have: 1. Impedance, Z =
R 2 + X L 2 (where XL = L = 2 f L)
34
V 2. Current, I = Z
3. Power factor, cos =
R Z
FG = True power = W IJ H Apparent power VA K
NOTES
[or angle of lag, = cos1 (R/Z)]
4. Power consumed, P = V I cos = IZ I Symbolic Notation: Z = R + j XL The numerical value of impedance vector =
FG H
R = I2 R Z
IJ K
R2 + X L2
The phase angle with the reference axis, = tan1 (XL/R). In polar form:
Z = Z .
Apparent, Active (True or real) and Reactive Power: Every circuit current has two components: ( i ) Active component and (ii) Reactive component. Active component consumes power in the circuit while reactive component is responsible for the field which lags or leads the main current from the voltage. In Fig. 1.38 active component is Iactive = I cos , and reactive component is Ireactive = I sin
VI cos f f True power
Ap
Reactive
pa
VI
ren
VI sin f
Fig. 1.38. Active and reactive components of circuit current I.
Fig. 1.39. Apparent, true and reactive power.
So, Refer to Fig. 1.39.
I = ( I active ) 2 + ( I reactive ) 2
(i) Apparent Power (S). It is given by the product of r.m.s. values of applied voltage and circuit current. S = V I = (I Z) . I = I2Z volt-amperes (VA) (ii) Active or True or Real Power (P or W). It is the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance. P = I2R = V I cos watts (iii) Reactive Power (Q). A pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not consume any power, since in a half cycle what so ever power is received from the source by these components the same is returned to the source. This power which flows back
35
NOTES
and forth (i.e., in both directions in the circuit) or reacts upon itself is called reactive power. It may be noted that the current in phase with the voltage produces active or true or real power while the current 90 out of phase with the voltage contributes to reactive power. In a R-L circuit , reactive power which is the power developed in the inductive reactance of the circuit, is given as: Q = I2 XL = I2Z sin = I . (IZ) sin = VI sin volt-ampere-reactive (VAR) These three powers are shown in Fig. 1.39 Relation between VA, W and VR W = VA cos VAR = VA sin and, Power factor (p.f.) VA = VA = =
W cos
...(i) ...(ii) ...[From (i)] ...[From (ii)]
VAR sin W True power = VA Apparent power
The larger bigger units of apparent, true and reactive power are kVA (or MVA), kW(or MW) and kVAR (or MVAR) respectively. The power factor depends on the reactive power component. If it is made equal to the active power component, the power factor becomes unity. Example 1.7. A coil takes 2.5 amp. when connected across 200 volt 50 Hz mains. The power consumed by the coil is found to be 400 watts. Find the inductance and the power factor of the coil. Solution. Current taken by the coil, I = 2.5 A Applied voltage, Power consumed, We know that or V = 200 volt P = 400 W P = VI cos 400 = 200 2.5 cos or cos = Hence power factor of coil is 0.8 (Ans.) Impedance of the coil, Z = Also
400 = 0.8 200 2.5
V 200 = = 80 I 2.5
XL = sin Z XL = Z sin
= 80 sin = 80 1 cos 2 = 80 1 0.8 2 = 80 0.6 = 48
36
But
XL = 2fL L=
XL 48 = = 0.1529 H (henry) (Ans.) 2f 2 50
Example 1.8. A voltage v = 100 sin 314t 50 cos 314t, is applied to a circuit having R = 20 in series with C = 100 F. Obtain expression for instantaneous current, r.m.s. value of current and the power in the circuit. Solution. Given: v = 100 sin 314t 50 cos 314t; R = 20 ; C = 100 F. The R-C circuit and the phasor diagram for the given instantaneous voltage are shown in Figs. 1.40 and 1.41 respectively.
NOTES
Fig. 1.40
Fig. 1.41
Resultant voltage, Vmax(R) =
(100 ) 2 + (50) 2 = 111.8 V
Phase angle with the horizontal, = tan1 Now, t = 314 t or = 314 Capacitive reactance, Circuit impedance, XC = Z=
50 = 26.56 100 v = 111.8 sin (314t 26.56)
FG H
IJ K
1 1 = = 31.85 C 314 100 10 6

R 2 + X C 2 = ( 20)2 + (31. 85)2 = 37.6
Maximum value of current, Imax =
Vmax 111. 8 = = 2.97 A Z 37 . 6
Phase difference between voltage and current, = cos1
FG RIJ = cos FG 20 IJ H ZK H 37. 6 K

1
= 57.86 (leading)
or or
Instantaneous value of current i = 2.97 sin (314t 26.56 + 57.86) = 2.97 sin (314t + 31.3) i = 2.97 [sin 314t . cos 31.3 + cos 314t . sin 31.3] i = 2.54 sin 314t + 1.54 cos 314t (Ans.) RMS value of the current, I = Power in the circuit, = Vmax ( R ) 2
I max
2 2 P = VI cos
111. 8 2
2 . 97
= 2.1 A (Ans.)
I cos =
2.1 cos (57.86) = 88.32 W (Ans.)

R-L-C Circuit (Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in Series) Fig. 1.42 shows a R-L-C circuit.
VL I I L VL =IXL V (a) R-L-C Circuit VC C VC =IXC VL
V=I
NOTES
R VR = IR
VR I
(VL VC)
VR = IR VC Phasor diagram
Z f R
(XL XC)
Impedance triangle (b) XL > XC
VL VR = IR f V=I Z I R f Z VC Phasor diagram (c) XC > XL Impedance triangle
(VC VL)
(XC XL)
Fig. 1.42. Resistance, inductance and capacitance in series.
Important Formulae: 1. Impedance,
V Z R 3. Power factor, cos = Z

2. Current, I=
LMwhere X N
Z=
R 2 + ( X L X C )2
L
= 2fL, L in henry and X C =
1 , C in farad 2fC
OP Q
4. Power consumed
LMangle of lag (when X N
> X C ) or lead ( when X C > X L ), = cos 1
R Z
= VI cos (= I2R)
OP Q
Resonance in R-L-C Circuits Refer to Fig. 1.42 (a).
Fig. 1.43. Reactance (X) Vs frequency (f).
Fig. 1.44. Current in R-L-C circuit Vs frequency.
38
The frequency of the voltage which gives the maximum value of the current in the circuit is called resonant frequency, and the circuit is said to be resonant. At resonance, i.e., XL = XC 2 fr L = fr =
1 2 fr C
1 2 LC
(i.e., Z = R)
NOTES
...(1.15)
where f r = Resonance frequency in Hz ; L = Inductance in henry; and C = Capacitance in farad. Fig. 1.43 shows variation of XL, XC and X (total reactance = XL XC) with variation of frequency f. Fig. 1.44 shows the variation of current (I) with frequency (f). At series resonance, it is seen that: 1. Net reactance of the circuit is zero i.e., XL XC = 0 or X = 0. 2. The impedance of the circuit is minimum and equal to the resistance (R) of the circuit i. e., I =
V . Consequently circuit admittance is maximum. R 3. The current drawn is maximum (i.e., Ir = Imax).
FG H
IJ K
4. The phase angle between the current and voltage is zero; the power factor is unity. 5. The resonant frequency is given by fr =
1 2 LC
; if the frequency is below the
resonant frequency the net reactance in the circuit is capacitive and if the frequency is above the resonant frequency, the net reactance in the circuit is inductive. 6. Although VL = VC, yet Vcoil is greater than VC because of its resistance. Example 1.9. A resistance 12 , an inductance of 0.15 H and a capacitance of 100 F are connected in series across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate : (i) The current. (ii) The phase difference between current and the supply voltage. (iii) Power consumed. Draw the vector diagram of supply voltage and the line current. Solution. Given : R = 12 , L = 0.15 H or XL = 2fL = 2 50 0.15 = 47.1 C = 100 F = 100 106F or XC =
1 1 = = 31.8 2fC 2 50 100 10 6
39
R 12
L 0.15 H
C 100 F V (IXL IXC) I IXC
NOTES
VR = IR
100 V, 50 Hz.
(a) R-L-C circuit Fig. 1.45
(b) Vector/phasor diagram
(i) The current, I: Z =
R 2 + ( X L X C )2
= 122 + ( 47 .1 31. 8 ) 2 = 19.43 Current, I=

V 100 = = 5.15 A. (Ans.) Z 19 . 43
(ii) Phase difference, : = cos1
R X XC or tan 1 L Z R
= cos1
12 15.3 or tan 1 = 52 (lag) 19 . 43 12. 0
LM N
Hence current lags supply voltage by 52. (Ans.) (iii) Power consumed, P: P = VI cos
LM N
OP Q
OP Q
= 100 5.15 cos 52 = 371.1 W. (Ans.) Fig. 1.45 (a), (b) show the circuit and vector/phasor diagrams respectively.
1.8 THREE PHASE BALANCED CIRCUIT

l
Generation, transmission and heavy-power utilisation of A.C. electric energy almost invariably involve a type of system or circuit called a polyphase system or polyphase circuit. In such a system, each voltage source consists of a group of voltages having relative magnitudes and phase angles. Thus, a m-phase system will employ voltage sources which, conventionally, consist of m voltages substantially equal in magnitude and successively displaced by a phase angle of 360/m. A 3-phase system will employ voltage sources which, conventionally, consist of three voltages substantially equal in magnitude and displaced by phase angles of 120. Because it possesses definite economic and operating advantages, the 3-phase system is by far the most common, and consequently emphasis is placed on 3-phase circuits.
40
Advantages of Polyphase Systems

The advantages of polyphase systems over single-phase systems are: 1. A polyphase transmission line requires less conductor material than a singlephase line for transmitting the same amount of power at the same voltage. 2. For a given frame size a polyphase machine gives a higher output than a single-phase machine. For example, output of a 3-phase motor is 1.5 times the output of single-phase motor of same size. 3. Polyphase motors have a uniform torque where most of the single-phase motors have a pulsating torque. 4. Polyphase induction motors are self-starting and are more efficient. On the other hand, single-phase induction motors are not self-starting and are less efficient. 5. Per unit of output, the polyphase machine is very much cheaper. 6. Power factor of a single-phase motor is lower than that of polyphase motor of the same rating. 7. Rotating field can be set up by passing polyphase current through stationary coils. 8. Parallel operation of polyphase alternators is simple as compared to that of single-phase alternators because of pulsating reaction in single-phase alternator. It has been found that the above advantages are best realised in the case of three-phase systems. Consequently, the electric power is generated and transmitted in the form of three-phase system.
NOTES
1.9 GENERATION OF THREE-PHASE VOLTAGES

l
Let us consider an elementary 3-phase 2-pole generator as shown in Fig. 1.46. On the armature are three coils, ll, mm, and nn whose axes are displaced 120 in space from each other.
Armature structure or stator l m N n Field winding excited by direct current through slip rings m Armature winding
Rotation n Field structure or rotor
S l
Field pole produced by direct current in field winding
Fig. 1.46. Elementary 3-phase 2-pole generator.

l
When the field is excited and rotated, voltages will be generated in the three phases in accordance with Faradays law. If the field structure is so
41
NOTES
designed that the flux is distributed sinusoidally over the poles, the flux linking any phase will vary sinusoidally with time and sinusoidal voltages will be induced in three-phases. These three waves will be displaced 120 electrical degrees (Fig. 1.47) in time as a result of the phases being displaced 120 in space. The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 1.48. The equations of the instantaneous values of the three voltages (given by Fig. 1.47) are:
ell emm enn
Emax.
30 60 90 120150180210240270300330360
q = (wt)
Fig. 1.47. Voltage waves generated in windings of Fig. 1.46.
ell = Emax. sin t emm = Emax. sin (t 120) enn = Emax. sin (t 240) The sum of the above three e.m.fs. is always zero as shown below: Resultant instantaneous e.m.f. = ell + em m + enn = Emax. sin t + Emax. sin (t 120) + Emax. sin (t 240)
120
120
En
= Emax. [sin t + (sin t cos 120 cos t sin 120 + sin t cos 240 cos t sin 240)] = Emax. [sin t + ( sin t cos 60 cos t sin 60 sin t cos 60 + cos t sin 60)] = Emax. (sin t 2 sin t cos 60) = Emax. (sin t sin t) = 0.
Em
El
12
Fig. 1.48. Phasor diagram of generated voltages.
1.10 PHASE SEQUENCE AND NUMBERING OF PHASES

l
By phase sequence is meant the order in which the three phases attain their peak or maximum.
42
In the generation of three-phase e.m.fs. in Fig. 1.47 clockwise rotation of the field system in Fig. 1.49 was assumed. This assumption made the e.m.f. of phase m lag behind that of l by 120 and in a similar way, made that of n lag behind that of m by 120 (or that of l by 240). Hence, the order in which the e.m.fs. of phase l, m and n attain their maximum value is lmn. It is called the phase order or phase sequence l m n. If now the rotation of field structure of Fig. 1.46 is reversed i.e., made counter-clockwise, then the order in which three phases would attain their corresponding maximum voltages would also be reversed. The phase sequence would become l n m. This means that e.m.f. of phase n would now lag behind that of phase l by 120 instead of 240 as in the previous case. The phase sequence of the voltages applied to a load, in general, is determined by the order in which the 3-phase lines are connected. The phase sequence can be reversed by interchanging any pair of lines. (In the case of an induction motor, reversal of sequence results in the reversed direction of motor rotation).
l
NOTES
The three-phases may be numbered l, m, n or 1, 2, 3 or they may be given three colours (as is customary).
The colours used commercially are red, yellow (or sometimes white) and blue. In this case sequence is RYB. Evidently in any three-phase system, there are two possible sequences, in which three coils or phase voltages may pass through their maximum value i.e., red yellow blue (RYB) or red blue yellow (RBY). By convention: RYB ...... taken as positive. RBY ...... taken as negative.
1.11 INTER-CONNECTION OF THREE PHASES

Each coil of three phases has two terminals [one start (S) and another finish (F)] and if individual phase is connected to a separate load circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.49, we get a non-interlinked 3-phase system. In such a system each circuit will require two conductors, therefore, 6 conductors in all. This makes the whole
F ER S F EY S F EB S Load Load S = Start F = Finish Load
Fig. 1.49. Non-interlinked 3-phase system.

system complicated and expensive. Hence the three phases are generally interconnected which results in substantial saving of copper. The general method of inter-connections are: 1. Star or Wye (Y) connection. 2. Mesh or delta () connection.
NOTES
Star or Wye (Y) Connection

l
In this method of inter-connection the similar ends either the start or finish are joined together at point N. This common point N [Fig. 1.50 (a)] is called star point or neutral point. Ordinarily only three wires are carried to the external circuit giving 3-phase, 3-wire start connected system but sometimes a fourth-wire, known as neutral wire is carried to the neutral point of the external load circuit giving 3-phase, 4 wire star connected system.
R
IR N
ER ERY EY EBR Neutral wire
IB
IY EB EYB
B ER = EY = EB = Eph ERY = EYB = EBR = EL (a) EB IL = Iph EL = 3 Eph
IB
f
120
120
f
12 0
ER IR
IY
EY (b)
Fig. 1.50. Star-connected three-phase network.
44
The voltage between any line and the neutral point (i.e., voltage across the phase winding) is called the phase voltage (Eph); while the voltage available between any pair of terminals (or outers) is called the line voltage (EL). In star connection, as is evident in Fig. 1.50 (a) there are two-phase windings between each pair of terminals, but since their similar ends have been joined together, they are in opposition . Obviously, the instantaneous value of potential difference between any two terminals is the arithmetic difference of the two-phase e.m.fs. concerned. However, the r.m.s. value of this potential difference is given by the vector difference of the two-phase e.m.fs. Fig. 1.50 (b) shows the vector diagram for phase voltages and currents in a star connection where a balanced system has been assumed. [A balanced system is one in which (i) the voltages in all phases are equal in magnitude and differ in phase from one another by equal angles, in this case, the angle = 360/3 = 120, (ii) the currents in the three phases are equal in magnitude and also differ in phase from one another by equal angles. A three-phase balanced load is that in which the loads connected across the three-phases are identical]. Thus, we have ER = EY = EB = Eph (phase e.m.f.) ERY(= EL) = Vector difference of ER and EY = ER EY EYB = EY EB EBR = EB ER.
NOTES
Line voltage, Line voltage, Line voltage,
(a) Relation between Line Voltages and Phase Voltages. Refer to Fig. 1.51.
EBR EB EY ERY (= EL)
120
120
60
30 ER (= Eph)
12 0
ER
EY
EB
Rotation of vectors
EYB
Fig. 1.51. Vector diagram for star connected network.

The potential difference between outers R any Y is ERY = ER EY or ERY = ER + ( EY) [vector difference] [vector sum]
NOTES
Hence, ERY is found by compounding ER and EY reversed and its value is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram (Fig. 1.52). Obviously the angle between ER and EY reversed is 60 and the value of ERY (or EL) = = Similarly, and i.e., Hence, (i.e., Line voltage =
E R 2 + EY 2 + 2 ER EY cos 60
E ph 2 + E ph2 + 2 E ph E ph
1 2
3 Eph
EYB(= EL) = EY EB = EBR(= EL) = EB ER = EL =
3 Eph 3 Eph 3 Eph

...(1.16)
ERY = EYB = EBR = EL =
3 Eph
3 phase voltage)
(b) Relation between Line Currents and Phase Currents. Since in starconnected system each line conductor is connected to separate phase, so the current flowing through the line and phase are same. Current in outer (or line) R = IR Current in outer Y = IY Current in outer B = IB Since IR = IY = IB = say, Iphthe phase current ...(1.17) Line current, IL = Iph (c) Power. If the phase current has a phase difference of with phase voltage, Power per phase = EphIph cos Total power (true), P = 3 power per phase ...(1.18) P = 3 EphIph cos Now Eph =
EL 3 EL 3
and Iph = IL
Hence in terms of line values, the above expression becomes P=3 (Apparent power = IL cos or P = 3 ELIL cos ...(1.19)
3 ELIL).
3 times the phase voltages.
In a balanced star-connected net work the following points are worthnoting: (i) Line voltages are
(ii) Line currents are equal to phase currents. (iii) Line voltages are 120 apart. (iv) Line voltages are 30 ahead of the respective phase voltages. (v) The angle between line currents and the corresponding line voltages is (30 ), +ve for lagging currents, ve for leading currents.
(vi) True power = 3 ELIL cos , where is the angle between respective phase current and phase voltage, not between the line current and line voltage. (vii) Apparent power =
3 ELIL.
(viii) In balance system, the potential of the neutral or star point is zero. Potential at neutral (or star) point =ENR + ENY + ENB = 0. Example 1.10. A balanced star connected load of (8 + j6) /phase is connected to a 3-phase, 230 volts, 50 Hz supply. Find the current, p.f., power, volt ampere and reactive power. Draw the phasor diagram for the above circuit.
NOTES
8W 6W 6W 8W 6W 8W Iph
(a) (b)
EL = 230 V
O f = 36.87
Eph
Fig. 1.52
Solution. Given: R = 8 ; XL = 6 ; EL = 230 volt, f = 50 Hz. The circuit is shown in Fig. 1.52(a), Phase Voltage, Impedence, Current, Power factor, Eph =
EL 3 = 230 3
= 132.8 V
Z= Iph = IL = cos =
R 2 + X L 2 = 8 2 + 6 2 = 10
E ph Z
132.8 = 13.28 A. (Ans.) 10
R 8 = = 0.8. (Ans.) Z 10
( = cos1 (0.8) = 36.87)
3 EL IL cos
Power,
P= =
3 230 13.28 0.8 = 4342.3 W. (Ans.) 3 ELIL = 3 230 13.28 = 5290.4 VA. (Ans.)
3 230 13.28 sin (36.87)
Apparent power Reactive power
= =
3 ELIL sin =
= 3174 VAR.
(Ans.)
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 1.52(b).
47
Example 1.11. Three identical coils are connected in star to a 400 V (line voltage), 3-phase A.C. supply and each coil takes 300 W. If the power factor is 0.8 (lagging). Calculate: (i) The line current; (ii) Impedance; and (iii) Resistance and inductance of each coil. Solution. Line voltage, EL = 400 V Power taken by each coil, Power factor,
EL 3 400 3
NOTES
Pph = 300 W cos = 0.8 (lagging) IL; Z; Rph; Lph

400 3
Phase voltage, Also
Eph =
Pph = EphIph cos 300 = Iph 0.8
(i) Line current,
Iph =
300 3 = 1.62 A 400 0.8 IL = phase current, Iph IL = 1.62 A. (Ans.)
(ii) Coil impedance, (iii) Coil reactance, But Hence,
Zph =
E ph I ph
400 = 3 = 142.5 1.62
Zph = 142.5 (Ans.) Rph = Zph cos = 142.5 0.8 = 114 Xph = Zph sin = 142.5 0.6 = 85.5 Xph = 2fLph Lph = Rph (Ans.)
85.5 = 0.272 H 2f 2 50 = 114 . (Ans.) and Lph = 0.272 H (Ans.) =
X ph
Delta () or Mesh Connection

In a delta or mesh connection the dissimilar ends of the three-phase windings are joined together i.e., the starting end of one phase is joined to the finishing end of the other phase and so on as shown in Fig. 1.53. In other words, the three windings are joined in series to form a closed mesh. Three leads are taken out from the junctions as shown and outward directions are taken as positive. (a) Relation between Line Voltages and Phase Voltages Since in delta or mesh connected system, only one phase is included between any pair of line outers, therefore, potential difference between the line outers, called the line voltage, is equal to phase voltage. i.e.,
Line voltage, EL = phase voltage, Eph.
(b) Relation between Line Currents and Phase Currents From Fig. 1.53 it is obvious that line current is the vector difference of phase currents of two phases concerned.
IR (= IL) R
h)
NOTES
I YR
(I p
) (I ph
ERY IY (= IL)
EBR
IR
IBY (Iph) IB (= IL)
EYB
ERY = EYB = EBR = Eph = EL IR = IY = IB = IL = (3 Iph)
Fig. 1.53. Delta or mesh connected diagram.
Thus, line current, IR = IYR IRB = IYR + ( IRB) Similarly, IY = IBY IYR IR = and IB = IRB IBY Refer to Fig. 1.54. Since phase angle between phase current IYR and IRB is 60.
IYR 2 + I RB 2 + 2 IYR I RB cos 60
IB
(Vector difference) (Vector sum)
IRB
IBY
12
IYR
120
0
30 60
IYR
30
120
IY
IBY
IRB
IR
Fig. 1.54. Vector diagram for delta connected network.
Assuming the delta connected system or network be balanced, the phase current in each winding is equal and let each be equal to Iph (i.e., IYR = IBY = IRB = Iph). IR (= IL) =
I ph 2 + I ph 2 + 2 I ph I ph cos 60 = 2 I ph 2 + 2 I ph2
1 2
3 Iph
Similarly, Hence,
IY = IB = IL = 3 Iph
3 Iph
...(1.20)
NOTES
(i.e., line current = (c) Power Power/phase Total power (true) But = EphIph cos P = 3EphIph cos Eph = EL and Iph =
EL 3
3 phase current).
IL
3 Hence, in terms of line values, the above expression for power becomes
P = 3 EL where = the phase power factor angle. (Apparent power =
cos or P =
3 ELIL cos ...(1.21)
3 ELIL)
In case of delta or mesh connected system the following points are worthnoting: (i) Line voltages are equal to phase voltages. (ii) Line currents are 3 times phase currents. (iii) Line currents are 120 apart. (iv) Line currents are 30 behind their respective phase currents. (v) The angle between line currents and corresponding line voltages is (30 ) as in the star system. (vi) True power = 3 ELIL cos , where is the phase angle between respective phase current and phase voltage. (vii) Apparent power = i.e.,
3 ELIL.
(viii) In balanced system, the resultant e.m.f. in the closed circuit will be zero. ERY + EYB + EBR = 0. Hence, there will no circulating current in the mesh if no-load is connected to the lines. Example 1.12. A delta-connected balanced 3-phase load is supplied from a 3-phase, 400 V supply. The line current is 30 A and the power taken by the load is 12 kW. Find: (i) Impedance in each branch; and (ii) The line current, power factor and power consumed if the same load is connected in star. Solution. Delta Connection: Eph = EL = 400 V IL = 30 A
Iph =
IL 3
30 3
= 17.32 A.
(i) Impedance per Phase Zph = Now P= 12000 = or cos (Power factor) = (ii) Star Connection Eph =
EL 3 = 400 3
E ph Z ph E ph I ph = 400 = 23.09 . 17.32
(Ans.)
3 ELIL cos
3 400 30 cos
NOTES
12000 = 0.577 3 400 30
= 231 V
= 231 = 10 A. (Ans.) 23.09
IL = Iph = Power factor, Power consumed
cos = 0.577 (Since impedance is same) =

3 ELIL cos
= 3 400 10 0.577 = 3997.6 W. (Ans.) Example 1.13. Three 50 ohm non-inductive resistances are connected in (i) star, (ii) delta across a 400 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase mains. Calculate the power taken from the supply system in each case. In the event of one of the three resistances getting opened, what would be the value of the total power taken from the mains in each of the two cases. Solution. Star Connection: Phase voltage, Phase current, Power consumed, Eph = Iph =
EL 3 = 400 3
= 231 V
E ph R ph
231 = 4.62 A 50
P = 3Iph2 Rph = 3 4.622 50 = 3200 W. (Ans.)
[or P = 3 ELIL cos = 3 400 4.62 1 = 3200 W] Delta Connection: Phase voltage, Eph = EL = 400 V Phase current, Power consumed, Iph =
E ph R ph = 400 =8A 50
P = 3Iph2 Rph = 3 82 50 = 9600 W.
(Ans.)
When one of the resistances is disconnected: (i) Star Connection. Refer to Fig. 1.55. When one of the resistances is disconnected, the circuit is no longer 3-phase but converted into single-phase circuit, having two resistances each of 50 ohm connected in series across supply of 400 V.
51
Hence line current, IL = EL 400 = =4A 2 R ph 2 50
NOTES
4A 50 W 400 V 400 V
50 W
8A
Re
d ve mo
Re
ov
400 V
ed
400 V 50 W
400 V
Fig. 1.55
Fig. 1.56
Power consumed, P = 42 (50 + 50) = 1600 W. (ii) Delta Connection. Refer to Fig. 1.56. Potential difference across each resistance, EL = 400 V Current in each resistance Power consumed in both resistances = 2 82 50 = 6400 W. (Ans.) [or P = 2 Eph Iph cos = 2 400 8 1 = 6400 W]. =
400 =8A 50
(Ans.)
[or P = VI cos = 400 4 1 = 1600 W].
1.12 ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

All electrical measuring instruments depend for their action on any of many physical effects of electric current or potential. The following are the effects generally used in the manufacture : (i) Magnetic effect. ...... Voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, power factor meters etc. (ii) Thermal effect. ...... Ammeters, voltmeters, maximum demand meters etc. (iii) Chemical effect. ...... D.C. ampere hour meters (integrating meters). (iv) Electrostatic effect. ...... Voltmeters which can indirectly be used as ammeters and wattmeters. (v) Electro-magnetic induction effect. ...... Voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters and integrating meters used in A.C. only.
52
50
400 V
1.13 ELECTRICAL INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

Almost invariably an indicating instrument is fitted with a pointer which indicates on a scale the value of the quantity being measured. The moving system of such an instrument is usually carried by a spindle of hardened steel, having its ends tapered and highly polished to form pivots which rest in hollow-ground bearings, usually of saphine, set in steel screws. In some instruments, the moving system is attached to thin ribbons of spring material such as beryllium-copper alloy, held taut by tension springs mounted on the frame of movement. This arrangement eliminates pivot friction and the instrument is less susceptible to damage by shock or vibration.
NOTES
Essential Features
Indicating instruments possess three essential features. (i) Deflecting device. ...... whereby a mechanical force is produced by the electric current, voltage or power. (ii) Controlling device. ...... whereby the value of deflection is dependent upon the magnitude of the quantity being measured. (iii) Damping device. ...... to prevent oscillation of the moving system and enable the latter to reach its final position quickly.
Deflecting Device
A deflecting device produces a deflecting torque which is caused by anyone of the previously mentioned effects (i.e., thermal effect, chemical effect, electrostatic effect etc.); with the help of this deflecting torque the needle or the pointer moves from zero position to the final position. The arrangement of the deflecting device with each type of instrument will be discussed individually.
Controlling Devices
There are two types of controlling devices: (i) Spring control (ii) Gravity control. (i) Spring Control. Fig. 1.57 shows a commonly used spring control arrangement. It utilises two spiral hair springs, 1 and 2, the inner ends of which are attached to the spindle S. The outer end of spring 2 is fixed while that of 1 is attached to a lever, the adjustment of which gives zero adjustments. The two springs 1 and 2 are wound in opposite directions so that when the moving system is deflected, one spring winds up while the other unwinds, and the controlling torque is due to the combined torsions of the springs.
53

P JB
NOTES
B 1 S 2 P = Pointer B = Balance weight S = Spindle JB = Jewelled bearing 1,2 = Springs
Fig. 1.57. Spring control.
Since the torsional torque of a spiral spring is proportional to the angle of twist, the controlling torque (Tc) is directly proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer (). i.e., Tc . The spring material should have the following properties: It should be non-magnetic. It must be of low temperature co-efficient. It should have low specific resistance. It should not be subjected to fatigue. (ii) Gravity Control. With gravity control, weights L and M are attached to the spindle S [Fig. 1.58 (a)], 0 the function of L being to balance the P weight of the pointer P. Weight M therefore provides the controlling torque. When the pointer is at zero, M hangs vertically downwards. When P is deflected through angle , the controlling torque is equal to (weight of M distance d ) and is therefore proportional to the sine of the angular deflection [Fig. 1.58 (b)], i.e., Tc sin .
q
q
S L M
P = Pointer S = Spindle L = Balance weight M = Control weight q = Angle of deflection (a)

q
The degree of control is adjusted by screwing the weight up or down the carrying system. It may be seen from Fig. 1.58 (b) that as approaches 90, the distance 1-2 increases by a relatively small amount for a given change in the angle that when is just increasing from its zero value. Hence gravity-controlled instruments have scales which are not uniform but are cramped or crowded at their lower ends.
os
q W sin q W (b)
Fig. 1.58. Gravity control.
Advantages: 1. The gravity controlled instrument is cheaper than corresponding springcontrolled instrument. 2. It is not subjected to fatigue. 3. It is unaffected by temperature. Disadvantages: 1. Gravity control gives a cramped scale. 2. The instrument must be levelled before use.
NOTES
1.14 MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENTS (AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS)

Moving-iron instruments are commonly used in laboratories and switch boards at commercial frequencies because they are very cheap and can be manufactured with required accuracy. Moving-iron instruments can be divided into two types: 1. Attraction type ...... in which a sheet of soft iron is attracted towards a solenoid. 2. Repulsion type ...... in which two parallel rods or strips of soft iron, magnetised inside a solenoid, are regarded as repelling each other.
Attraction Type
Fig. 1.59 shows the sectional front and an end elevation of the attracted-iron type instrument. It consists of a solenoid (or coil) C and oval shaped soft-iron disc D in such a way that it can move in or out of the solenoid. To this iron a pointer P is attached so that it may deflect along with the moving iron over a graduated scale. The soft-iron disc is made of sheet metal specially shaped to give a scale as nearly uniform as possible. When the current to be measured (or a definite fraction of the current to be measured or proportional to the voltage to be measured) is passed through the solenoid, a magnetic field is set up inside the solenoid, which in turn magnetises the iron. Thus the soft-iron disc is attracted into the solenoid/coil, causing the spindle and the pointer to rotate. Damping is provided by vane V attached to the spindle and moving in an air chamber, and control is by hair spring.
P S JB V D C C JB Section of current S = Spindle carrying coil P = Pointer D = Soft iron disc S D C = Solenoid JB = Jewelled bearing Direction of force V = Vane on the disc
Fig. 1.59. Attraction-type moving-iron instrument.

Repulsion Type
Repulsion-type moving-iron instrument is shown in Fig. 1.60. Here there are two irons, one fixed (A) and the other mounted on a short arm fixed (B) to the instrument spindle. The two irons lie in the magnetic field due to a solenoid/coil C. When there is no current in the coil the two iron pieces (moving one and fixed one) are almost touching each other and the pointer rests on zero position. When
JB B
NOTES
S C A B
P S JB A = Fixed iron B = Moving iron C = Solenoid / Coil JB = Jewelled bearing
S = Spring V = Vane P = Pointer
Fig. 1.60. Repulsion-type moving-iron instrument.
the current to be measured (or a definite fraction of it or proportional to the voltage to be measured) is passed through the solenoid, a magnetic field is set up inside the solenoid and the two iron pieces are magentised in the same direction. This sets up a repulsive force so moving iron piece, is repelled by fixed iron piece, thereby results in the motion of the moving iron piece, carrying the pointer. The pointer comes to rest in a deflected position when equilibrium is attained between the repulsive forces of the working elements and the controlling force. Such instruments are commonly provided with spring control and air friction damping. In commercial instruments, it is usual for the moving-iron B to be in the form of a thin curved plate and for the fixed iron A to be a tapered curved sheet. This construction can be arranged to give a longer and more uniform scale than is possible with the rods shown in Fig. 1.60. Deflecting Torque in Moving-iron Instruments In both the attraction and repulsion type moving-iron instruments it is found that for a given position of the moving system, the value of the deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current, so long as the iron is working below saturation. Hence, if the current waveform is as shown in Fig. 1.61, the variation of the deflecting torque is represented by the dotted wave. If the supply frequency is 50 Hz, the torque varies between zero and a maximum 100 times a second, so
56
that the moving system (due to its inertia) takes up a position corresponding to the mean torque, where
Deflecting torque
NOTES
Mean torque
0 Time Current
Fig. 1.61. Deflecting torque in a moving-iron instrument.
mean torque mean value of the square of the current = kI2 where and k = a constant for a given instrument I = r.m.s. value of the current.
Thus the moving-iron instrument can be used to measure both direct current and alternating current, and in the latter case the instrument gives the r.m.s. value of the current. Owing to the deflecting torque being proportional to the square of the current, the scale divisions are not uniform, being cramped at the beginning and open at the upper end of the scale.
Note. For both types of instruments (attraction-type and repulsion type) the necessary magnetic field is produced by the ampere-turns of a current-carrying coil.
In case the instrument is to be used as an ammeter, the coil has comparatively few turns of thick wire so that the ammeter has low resistance because it is connected in series with the circuit. In case it is to be used as a voltmeter, the coil has high impedance so as to draw as small a current as possible since it is connected in parallel with the circuit. As current through the coil is small it has large number of turns in order to produce sufficient ampere-turns.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Moving-Iron Instruments

Advantages: 1. Can be used both in D.C. as well as in A.C. circuits. 2. Robust and simple in construction. 3. Possess high operating torque. 4. Can withstand overload momentarily. 5. Since the stationary parts and the moving parts of the instrument are simple so they are cheapest.
57
6. Suitable for low frequency and high power circuits. 7. Capable of giving an accuracy within limits of both precision and industrial grades. Disadvantages: 1. Scales not uniform. 2. For low voltage range the power consumption is higher. 3. The errors are caused due to hysteresis in the iron of the operating system and due to stray magnetic field. 4. In case of A.C. measurements, change in frequency causes serious error. 5. With the increase in temperature the stiffness of the spring decreases.
NOTES
Sources of Errors
A. Errors with both D.C. and A.C. (i) Errors due to Hysteresis. This source of error is due to hysteresis in the soft iron moving part, due to which too high values are recorded by the instrument, when the current is increasing and too low readings are liable to be indicated when the current is decreasing. (ii) Errors due to Stray Fields. External stray magnetic fields are liable to affect adversely the accurate functioning of the instrument. Magnetic shielding of the working parts is obtained by using a covering case of cast iron. B. Errors with A.C. only Errors may be caused due to change in frequency because change in frequency produces (i) change in impedance of the coil and (ii) change in magnitude of eddy currents. The error due to the former is negligible in ammeters, as the coil current is determined by the external circuit and the error due to the latter can normally be made small.
1.15 MOVING-COIL INSTRUMENTS

The moving-coil instruments are of the following two types: 1. Permanent-magnet type......can be used for D.C. only. 2. Dynamometer type......can be used both for A.C. and D.C.
Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Type (PMMC) Instruments

A permanent-magnet moving-coil type instrument works on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it is acted upon by a force which tends to move it to one side and out of the field. Construction
l
The instrument consists of a permanent magnet M and a rectangular coil C which consists of insulated copper wire wound on light aluminium frame fitted with polished steel pivots resting in jewel bearings. The magnet is
58
made of Alnico and has soft-iron pole-pieces PP which are bored out cylindrically.
l
The rectangular coil C is free to move in air gaps between the soft-iron pole pieces and a soft-iron cylinder A (central core), supported by a brass plate (not shown).
M D N X P
AC
NOTES
S P X M = Permanent magnet PP = Soft iron pole pieces A = Soft iron cylinder (central core) C = Rectangular coil B = Spiral springs D = Pointer
C A P
Fig. 1.62. Permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument.
The functions of the central core A are: (i) To intensify the magnetic field by reducing the length of air gap across which the magnetic flux has to pass. (ii) To give a radial magnetic flux of uniform density, thereby enabling the scale to be uniformly divided. The movement of the coil is controlled by two phosphor bronze hair springs BB (one above and one below), which additionally serve the purpose of leading the current in and out of the coil. The two springs are spiralled in opposite directions for neutralizing the effects of changes in temperature. The aluminium frame not only provides support for the coil but also provides damping by eddy currents induced in it. Deflecting Torque. Refer to Fig. 1.63. When current is passed through the coil, forces are set up on its both sides which produce deflection torque. If I ampere is the current passing through the coil, the magnitude of the force (F) experienced by each of its sides is given by F = BIl newton where B = flux density in WB/m2, and l = length or depth of coil in metre.
59

N F
F S
NOTES
t
Fig. 1.63
For N turns, the force on each side of the coil is = NBIl newton Deflecting torque (Td) = force perpendicular distance = NBIl b = NBI (l b) = NBIA N-m where b = breadth of the coil in metres, and A = face area of the coil. If B is constant, then Td I (i.e., current passing through the coil) = kI where k is a constant for a given instrument. Since such instruments are invariably spring controlled, the controlling torque (Tc) of the spiral springs angular deflection i.e., or where Tc Tc = c c = a constant for given springs, and = angular deflection. For a steady deflection, Controlling torque (Tc) = deflecting torque (Td) Hence c = kI =
k I c
i.e., the deflection is proportional to the current and the scale is therefore uniformly divided. Advantages and Disadvantages. The moving-coil permanent-magnet type instruments have the following advantages and disadvantages: Advantages: (i) Low power consumption. (ii) Their scales are uniform. (iii) No hysteresis loss. (iv) High torque/weight ratio. (v) They have very effective and efficient eddy-current damping. (vi) Range can be extended with shunts or multipliers. (vii) No effect of stray magnetic field as intense polarised or unidirectional field is employed.
Disadvantages: (i) Somewhat costlier as compared to moving-iron instruments. (ii) Cannot be used for A.C. measurements. (iii) Friction and temperature might introduce errors as in case of other instruments. (iv) Some errors are set in due to the ageing of control springs and the permanent magnets. Ranges: D.C. Ammeters (i) Without shunt......0/5 micro-amperes up to 0/30 micro-amperes. (ii) With internal shunts......upto 0/2000 amperes. (iii) With external shunts......upto 0/5000 amperes. D.C. Voltmeters (i) Without series resistance......0/100 milli-volts. (ii) With series resistance......upto 20000 or 30000 volts. Moving-coil permanent-magnet instruments can be used as: (i) Ammeters......by using a low resistance shunt. (ii) Voltmeters......by using a high series resistance. (iii) Flux-meters......by eliminating the control springs. (iv) Basllistic galvanometers......by making control springs of large moment of inertia. Extension of Range The following devices may be used for extending the range of instruments: (i) Shunts (ii) Multipliers (iii) Current transformers and (iv) Potential transformers. Use of ammeter shunts and voltage multipliers is discussed below. (i) Ammeter Shunts. An ammeter shunt is merely a low resistance that is placed in parallel with the coil circuit of the instrument in order to measure fairly large currents. The greater part of the current in the main circuit is then diverted around the coil through the shunt. The connection diagram for a shunt and milli-ammeter for measuring large currents is shown in Fig. 1.64.
Ammeter + Im I Is Shunt Rs Rm
NOTES
Fig. 1.64. Use of a shunt for measuring large currents
The shunt is provided with four terminals, the milliammeter being connected across the potential terminals. If the instrument were connected across the current terminals, there might be considerable error due to the contact resistance at these terminals being appreciable compared with the resistance of the shunt. Let I = current of the circuit to be measured, Im = current passing through the ammeter, Is = current passing through the shunt, Rs = resistance of the shunt, and Rm = resistance of the ammeter (plus its leads to the potential terminals).
Thus
I = Im + Is I s Rs = I m R m Rs =
Im R Is m
... (i)
Also, since the voltage drop across the shunt and the instrument in same,
NOTES
or
Substituting Is = I Im from equation (i), we get Rs =

Im . Rm ( I Im )
or
Rs =
FG I HI
Rm
IJ K
...(ii)
The ratio of
I is known as multiplying power of the shunt. Denoting, the Im Rm N 1
ratio by N, we have shunt resistance, Rs = ...(iii)
The shunts are made of a material such as manganin (copper, manganese and nickel), which has a negligible temperature coefficient of resistance. The material, is employed in the form of thin strips, the ends of which are soldered to two large copper blocks. Each copper block carries two terminals-one current terminal and other potential terminal. The strips which form the shunt are spaced from each other to promote a good circulation of air and thus efficient cooling.
Note. A swamping resistor r , of material having negligible temperature co-efficient of resistance, is connected in series with the instrument (moving coil). The latter is wound with copper wire and the function of r is to reduce the error due to variation of resistance of the instrument with variation of temperature.
(ii) Voltmeter Multipliers. The range of the instrument, when used as a voltmeter can be extended or multiplied by using a high non-inductive series resistance R connected in series with it as shown in Fig. 1.65.
+ Rv R Non-inductive resistance
Load
Fig. 1.65
Let
I = full scale deflection current of voltmeter, V = voltage of the circuit to be measured,
62
Rv = resistance of the voltmeter, and R = external series resistance. Now, voltage across supply leads = voltage drop across the voltmeter + voltage drop across external resistance or V = IRv + IR R=
NOTES
V IRv V = Rv I I The voltage multipliers to be used for D.C. measurements should satisfy the following requirements:
(i) The resistance should not change with time of usage. (ii) The temperature co-efficient of resistance must be very low.
Note. The frequency error introduced by the inductance of the instrument coil can be compensated by shunting R by a capacitor.
Example 1.14. A milliammeter of 2.5 ohms resistance reads upto 100 milli amperes. What resistance is necessary to enable it to be used as: (i) A voltmeter reading upto 10 V. (ii) An ammeter reading upto 10 A. Draw the connection diagram in each case. Solution. Resistance of the milli-ammeter, Rm = 2.5 Maximum current of the milli-ammeter, Im = 100 mA = 0.1 A. (i) Voltage to be measured, V = 10 volt Resistance to be connected in series. R=
10 V Rm = 2.5 = 97.5 (Ans.) 0.1 Im
Connection diagram is shown in Fig. 1.66. (ii) Current to be measured, I = 10 A

Im = 0.1 A 0.25 V 10 V 9.75 V R Rm = 2.5 W Milliammeter
Load
Fig. 1.66
Multiplying power of the shunt, N =
10 I = = 100 Im 0.1
Resistance to be connected in parallel, Rs =

2.5 Rm = = 0.02525 . (Ans.) N 1 100 1

+ I = 10 A Is = 9.9 A Supply Rs Im = 0.1 A Rm = 2.5 W
Milliammeter
NOTES
10 A
Fig. 1.67
Connection diagram is shown in Fig. 1.67. Example 1.15. If the moving coil of a voltmeter consists of 100 turns wound on a square former which has a length of 30 mm and the flux density in the air gap is 0.09 Wb/m2, calculate the turning moment on the coil when it is carrying a current of 10 mA. Solution. Number of turns, N = 100 Length of each side, Flux density, l = 30 mm = 0.03 m B = 0.09 Wb/m2
Current through the coil, I = 10 mA = 0.01 A We know that the force on each side of the coil, F = NBIl newton Turning moment (i.e., deflecting torque), T = F breadth = F l = NBIl2 N-m = 100 0.09 0.01 (0.03)2 N-m = 8.1 105 N-m. (Ans.)
Electrodynamic or Dynamometer Instruments

In an electrodynamic instrument the operating field is produced by another fixed coil and not by permanent magnet. This instrument can be used as an ammeter or as voltmeter but is generally used as a wattmeter. Refer to Fig. 1.68 (a), (b). These instruments essentially consist of fine wire moving coil placed in the magnetic field produced by another fixed coil when carrying currents. The coils are usually air cored to avoid hysteresis, eddy currents and other errors when the instrument is used on A.C. The fixed coil FC is divided into two halves placed close together and parallel to each other in order to provide a fairly uniform field within the range of the movement of the moving coil.
64
Load
P A FC FC MC X I2 X MC FC A I1 FC
NOTES
FC
FC I1 = Current in FC I2 = Current in MC (b)
MC
FC = Field coils (divided into two halves) MC = Moving coils S = Spindle A = Spiral hair springs (a)
Fig. 1.68. Electrodynamic or dynamometer instrument.
The upper diagram in Fig. 1.68 (a) shows a sectional elevation through fixed coil FC and the lower diagram represents a sectional plan on XX. The moving coil MC is carried by a spindle S and the controlling torque is exerted by spiral hair springs A, which may also serve to lead the current into and out of MC. Deflecting Torque. The deflecting torque is due to interaction of the magnetic fields produced by currents in the fixed and moving coils.
l
Fig. 1.69 (a) shows the magnetic field due to current flowing through FC (I1) in the direction indicated by the dots and cross. Fig. 1.69 (b) shows the magnetic field due to current (I2) in MC. Fig. 1.69 (c) shows the combined effect of the above magnetic fields. By combining these magnetic fields it will be seen that when currents (I1 and I2) flow simultaneously through FC and MC, the resultant magnetic field is distorted and effect is to exert a clockwise torque on MC.
l l
Since MC is carrying current (I2) at right angles to the magnetic field produced by FC, deflecting torque, or Td I1 I2 Td = KI1I2 where K is a constant.
Since the instrument is spring-controlled, the restoring of control torque (Tc) is proportional to the angular deflection .
+ + FC
FC
++
FC
FC
FC MC
NOTES
+ MC MC +
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1.69. Magnetic fields due to fixed and moving coils.
Tc or Tc = K
The two torques (Td and Tc) are equal and opposite in the final deflected position. or or Td = Tc KI1I2 = K I1I2
Use of the Instrument as an Ammeter. When the instrument is used as an ammeter then same current passes through both moving coil (MC) and fixed coils (FC) as shown in Fig. 1.70. In this case, I1 = I2 = I, hence I2 or I . The connections of Fig. 1.70. are used when small currents are to be measured.
FC I Supply
MC
FC I Load
Fig. 1.70. Measurement of small currents.
In the case of heavy currents, a shunt is used to limit current through the moving coil as shown in Fig. 1.71.
I Supply
FC
MC
FC Shunt
I Load
Fig. 1.71. Measurement of heavy currents.
66
Use of the Instrument as Voltmeter. When the instrument is used as a voltmeter, the fixed and moving coils are used in series along with a high resistance as shown in Fig. 1.72.
NOTES
FC MC Supply FC Load
Fig. 1.72. Use of the instrument as a voltmeter
Here again I1 = I2 = I, where and or I= I=
V ...... in D.C. circuits R V ...... in A.C. circuits Z
V V or V2 V=
Thus whether the instrument is used as an ammeter or voltmeter its scale is uneven through the whole of its range and is cramped or crowded near the zero in particular.
Note. When the dynamometer instrument is used to measure an alternating current or voltage, the moving coil-due to its inertia-takes up a position where the average deflecting torque over one cycle is balanced by the restoring torque of the spiral springs. For that position, the deflecting torque is proportional to the mean value of the square of current or voltage, and the instrument scale can therefore be calibrated to read the r.m.s. value.
In these instruments the damping is pneumatic (i.e., air damping). Eddy current damping is admissible owing to weak operating field. Ranges:
l
Ammeters. (i) With fixed and moving coils in series......0/0.01 A0/0.05 A (ii) With moving coil shunted or parallel connections......upto 0/30 A. Voltmeters. Upto 0750 volt. Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages: (i) Can be used on both D.C. as well as A.C. systems. (ii) They are free from hysteresis and eddy current errors. (iii) It is possible to construct ammeters upto 10 A and voltmeters upto 600 V with precision grade accuracy.
Disadvantages: (i) Since torque/weight ratio is small, such instruments have low sensitivity. (ii) The scale is not uniform because I . (iii) Cost of these instruments is higher in comparison to those of moving iron instruments. So, these are only used as voltmeters and ammeters for precision measurements. (iv) Higher friction losses.
NOTES
1.16 WATTMETERS
A wattmeter is a combination of an ammeter and a voltmeter and, therefore consists of two coils known as current coil and pressure coil. The operating torque is produced due to interaction of fluxes on account of currents in current and pressure coils. There are following three types of wattmeters: 1. Dynamometer wattmeter 2. Induction wattmeter 3. Electrostatic wattmeter. We shall discuss here only the first and second type.
Dynamometer Wattmeter
In Fig. 1.73, the dynamometer is connected as a wattmeter. This is one of the advantages of this type of meter. If the coils are connected so that a value of current proportional to the load voltage flows in one, and a value of current proportional to the load current flows in the other, the meter may be calibrated directly in watt. This is true because the indication depends upon the product of the two magnetic
4 2 0 P 6 Watts 8 10
F.C. M.C. V Voltage coil
F.C.
F.C. = Fixed coils (current coils) M.C. = Moving coil (voltage coil) P = Pointer
To Load Series resistor
Fig. 1.73. Connection of dynamometer for measuring power.
68
fields. The strength of the magnetic fields depends upon the values of currents flowing through the coils. If one current is proportional to load voltage and other current is the load current, then the meter can be calibrated in terms of watts or true power consumed by the load. Let v = supply voltage, i = load current, and R = resistance of the moving coil circuit. Current through fixed coils, if = i. Current through the moving coil, im = Deflecting torque, Td if im
NOTES
v R
iv . R For a D.C. circuit the deflecting torque is thus proportional to the power. For any circuit with fluctuating torque, the instantaneous torque is proportional instantaneous power. In this case due to inertia of moving parts the deflection will be proportional to the average torque i.e., the deflection will be proportional to the average power. For sinusoidal alternating quantities the average power is VI cos , where V = r.m.s. value of voltage, I = r.m.s. value of current, and = phase angle between V and I. Hence an electrodynamic instrument, when connected as shown in Fig. 1.73, indicates the power, irrespective of the fact it is conected in an A.C. or D.C. circuit. l Scales of such wattmeters are more or less uniform because the deflection is proportional to the average power and for spring control, controlling torque is proportional to the deflection, hence power. Damping is pneumatic. Errors
l
The error may creep in due to the inductance of the moving or voltage coil. However, the high non-inductive resistance connected in series with coil swamps, to a great extent, the phasing effect of the voltage coil inductance. There may be error in the indicated power due to the following:
(i) Some voltage drop in the current circuit. (ii) The current taken by the voltage coil. This error, however, in standard wattmeters may be overcome by having an additional compensating winding connected in series with the voltage coil but is so placed that it produces a field in opposite direction to that of the fixed or current coils. Ranges (i) Current Circuit. 0.25 to 100 A without employing current transformers. (ii) Potential Circuit. 5 to 750 V without employing potential transformers.
69
Advantages: (i) The scale of the instrument is uniform (because deflecting torque is proportional to true power in both the cases i.e., D.C. and A.C. and the instrument is spring controlled.) (ii) High degree of accuracy can be obtained by careful design, hence these are used for calibration purposes. Disadvantages: (i) The error due to the inductance of pressure coil at low power factor is very serious (unless special features are incorporated to reduce its effect). (ii) Stray field may effect the reading of the instrument. To reduce it, magnetic shielding is provided by enclosing the instrument in an iron case.
NOTES
Induction Wattmeter
Induction wattmeters can be used on A.C. circuit only (in contrast with dynamometer wattmeters can be used both on D.C. and A.C. circuits) and are useful only when the frequency and supply voltage are constant. The operation of all induction instruments depends on the production of torque due to reaction between a flux 1 (whose magnitude depends on the current or voltage to be measured) and eddy currents induced in a metal disc or drum by another flux 2 (whose magnitude also depends on the current or voltage to be measured). Since the magnitude of eddy currents also depends on the flux producing them, the instantaneous value of the deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current or voltage under measurement and the value of mean deflecting torque is proportional to the mean square of the current or voltage. Fig. 1.74 shows an induction wattmeter. It has two laminated electromagnets one is excited by the current in the main circuitits exciting winding being joined in series with the circuit, hence it is also called series magnet. The other electromagnet is excited by current which is proportional to the voltage of the circuit. Its exciting coil is joined in parallel with the circuit, hence this magnet is sometimes referred to as shunt magnet.
Shunt or voltage magnet
I2 Supply Aluminium disc I1
Copper shading bands Load
Series or current magnet
Fig. 1.74. Induction wattmeter.

A thin aluminium disc is mounted in such a way that it cuts the fluxes of both the magnets. Hence two eddy currents are produced in the disc. The deflection torque is produced due to the interaction of these eddy currents and the inducing fluxes. Two or three copper rings are fitted on the central limb of the shunt magnet and can be so adjusted as to make the resultant flux in the shunt magnet lag behind the applied voltage by a suitable angle. This instrument is spring controlled, the spring being fitted to the spindle of the moving system which also carries a pointer. The scale is uniformly even and extends over 300. Such wattmeters can handle current upto 100 A. For handling greater currents they are used in conjunction with current transformers. Advantages: (i) Fairly long scale (extending over 300). (ii) Free from the effects of stray fields. (iii) Good damping. (iv) Practically free from frequency errors. Disadvantages: Sometimes subjected to serious temperature errors.
NOTES
1.17 INTEGRATING METERS (ENERGY METERS)

Integrating or energy meters are used to measure the quantity of electric energy supplied to a circuit in a given time. They give no direct indication of power i.e., as to the rate at which energy is being supplied because their registrations are independent of the rate at which at given quantity of electric energy is being consumed. The main difference between an energy meter and a wattmeter is that the former is fitted with some type of registration mechanism whereby all the instantaneous readings of power are summed over a definite period of time whereas the latter indicates the value at a particular instant where it is read.
Essential Characteristics of Energy Meters

The essential characteristics of energy meters are given below: 1. They must be simple in design and must not contain any parts which may rapidly deteriorate. 2. The readings may be given directly by the dials and must avoid any multiplying factors. 3. The casing of the meter should be dust, water and insect proof. 4. Permanency of calibration is a prime requisite and to attain it, the friction at the pivots etc., and retarding torque of the magnetic brakes must remain constant. The magnets should be so placed that they are not affected in their strength by the magnetic field of the current coil.
NOTES
5. The friction losses should be minimum (being unavoidable) and must remain practically constant over long periods of time. This requires that the moving parts should be light, and the jewels and pivots should be of best quality and kept in good order. 6. There should be minimum possible friction in the counter device. The torque of the meter should be high so that the unavoidable irregularities in friction may not cause inaccuracies. 7. The energy meter should maintain its accuracy under reasonably varying conditions of voltage and load. 8. The energy loss in the meter itself must be small.
Types of Energy Meters

Energy meters are generally of the following three types: 1. Electrolytic meters 2. Motor meters 3. Clock meters. Here only motor meters will be discussed.
Motor Meters
The motor meters can be used in D.C. as well as in A.C. circuits. In principle the motor meter is a small motor of D.C. or A.C. type whose instantaneous speed of rotation is proportional to the circuit current in case of an ampere-hour meter and to the power of the circuit in case of a watt-hour meter. The following are the essential parts of the motor meters: (i) An Operating Torque System. It produces a torque and causes the moving system to rotate continuously. (ii) A Braking Device. It is usually a permanent magnet, known as brake magnet. This brake magnet induces current in some part of the moving system which in turn produces the braking torque. Thus the braking torque is proportional to the induced currents whereas the induced currents are proportional to the speed of the moving system (and hence the braking torque is proportional to the speed of the moving system (disc). When the braking torque is equal to the driving torque the moving system attains a steady speed. (iii) Revolution Registering Device. This device is obtained by having a worm cut on the spindle of the instrument. The worm engages with a pinion and thus drives the train of wheels and registers ampere-hours and watt-hours directly. Types of Motor Meters. The various types of motor meters are: (i) Mercury motor meters (ii) Commutator motor meters (iii) Induction motor/energy meters. Mercury motor meters and commutator meters are used on D.C. circuits Induction meters are used on A.C. circuit.
Motor-driven MeterWatt-hour Meter

The motor-driven meter shown in Fig. 1.75 can be used on direct or alternating current. It contains a small motor and an aluminium retarding disc. The field winding is connected in series with the load, and the field strength is proportional to the load current. The armature is connected across the source, and the current in the armature is proportional to the source or line voltage. The torque produced in the armature is proportional to the power consumed by the load. The armature shaft drives a series of counters that are calibrated in watt-hours. The power that is used can be read directly from the dials. The aluminium disc attached to the armature is used to control the armature speed. The disc turns in a magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets, and the retarding force increases as the rotation increases and stops when the disc stops. The retarding force is produced by the aluminium conductor cutting through the lines of force of the permanent magnets. This is a form of magnetic damping.
To counter
NOTES
Series resistor
Armature
Power source
Field coils
Aluminium disc Load Permanent magnets
Fig. 1.75. Motor-driven meter (watt-hour meter)designed to operate on direct or alternating current.
The meter must overcome the friction of the bearings and indicators at very light loads. A portion of the field is produced by the armature current (coil in series with the armature winding). This coil is (called as compensating coil) wound to aid the field and is adjusted to the point where it just overcomes the meter friction.
Induction Type Watt-hour Meter

This is the most commonly used meter on A.C. circuits for measurement of energy. Advantages: (i) Simple in operation (ii) High torque/weight ratio (iii) Cheap in cost (iv) Correct registration even at very low power factor (v) Unaffected by temperature variations
(vi) More accurate than commutator type energy meter on light loads (owing to absence of a commutator with its accompanying friction).
Induction Type Single Phase Energy Meters

NOTES
These are, by far, the most common form of A.C. meters met with in everyday domestic and industrial installations. These meters measure electric energy in kWh. The principle of these meters is practically the same as that of induction watt meters. Instead of the control spring and the pointer of the watt-meter, the watthour meter, (energy meter) employs a brake magnet and a counter attached to the spindle . Just like other watt-hour meters, the eddy currents induced in the aluminium disc by the brake magnet due to the revolution of the disc, are utilised to control the continuously rotating disc. Construction. The construction of a typical meter of this type is shown in Fig. 1.76. The brake-magnet and recording wheel-train being omitted for clearances. It consists of the following: (i) Series magnet M1 (ii) Shunt magnet M2 (iii) Brake magnet (iv) A rotating disc. The series electromagnet M1 consists of a number of U-shaped iron laminations assembled together to form a core, wound with a few turns of a heavy gauge wire.
Line
I2
M2
PC I1 M1 = Series or current magnet M2 = Shunt or voltage magnet D = Disc C = Copper shading bands CC = Current coil PC = Pressure coil D
CC M1 Load
Fig. 1.76. Induction type single phase energy meter.

This wound coil is known as current coil and is connected in one of the lines and in series with the load to be metered. The series electromagnet is energized and sets up a magnetic field cutting through the rotating disc, when load current flows through the current coil C.C. The rotating disc is an aluminum disc mounted on a vertical spindle and supported on a sapphire cup contained in a bottom screw. The bottom pivot, which is usually removable, is of hardened steel, and the end, which is hemispherical in shape, rests in the sapphire cup. The top pivot (not shown) merely serves to maintain the spindle in a vertical position under working condition and does not support any weight or exert any appreciable thrust in any direction. The shunt magnet M2 consists of a number of M shaped iron laminations assembled together to form a core. A core having large number of turns of fine wire is fitted on the middle limb of the shunt magnet, this coil is known as pressure coil P.C. and is connected across the supply mains. The brake magnet consists of C shaped piece of alloy steel bent round to form a complete magnetic circuit, with the exception of a narrow gap between the poles. This magnet is mounted so that the disc revolves in the air gap between the polar extremities. The movement of the rotating disc through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in the disc which react with the field and exerts a braking effect. The speed of the rotating disc may be adjusted by changing the position of the brake magnet or by diverting some of the flux there from. Working. The shunt electromagnet produces a magnetic field which is of pulsating character; it cuts through the rotating disc and induces eddy currents there in, but normally does not in itself produce any driving force. Similarly series electromagnet induces eddy currents in the rotating disc, but does not in itself produce any driving force. In order to obtain driving force in this type of meter, phase displacement of 90 between the magnetic field set up by shunt electromagnet and applied voltage V is achieved by adjustment of copper shading band C (also known as power factor compensator or compensating loop). The reaction between these magnetic fields and eddy currents set up a driving torque in the disc. Sources of Errors. The various sources of errors in an induction-type energy meter are given below: (i) Incorrect magnitude of the fluxes. These may arise from abnormal voltages and load currents. (ii) Incorrect phase relation of fluxes. These may arise from defective lagging, abnormal frequencies, changes in the iron losses etc. (iii) Unsymmetrical magnetic structure. The disc may go on rotating while no current is being drawn but pressure coils alone are excited. (iv) Changes in the resistance of the disc. It may occur due to changes in temperature. (v) Changes in the strength of the drag magnets. It may be due to temperature or ageing. (vi) Phase-angle errors due to lowering of power factor. (vii) Abnormal friction of moving parts.
NOTES
75
(viii) Badly distorted waveform. (ix) Changes in the retarding torque due to the disc moving through the field of the current coils. Example 1.16. A 5 A, 230 V meter on full load unity power factor test makes 60 revolutions in 360 seconds. If the normal disc speed is 520 revolutions per kWh, what is the percentage error? Solution. Energy consumed in 360 seconds = = where, t is in seconds. Energy recorded by the meter = % age error =
VI cos t kWh 3600 1000 230 5 1 360 = 0.115 kWh 3600 1000
NOTES
60 = 0.11538 kWh 520 0.11538 0.115 100 = 0.33% (fast). (Ans.) 0.115
Example 1.17. The constant of a 230 V, 50 Hz, single phase energy meter is 185 revolutions per kWh. The meter takes 190 seconds for 10 revolutions while supplying a non-inductive load of 4.5 A at normal voltage. What is the percentage error of the instrument? Solution. Energy consumed in 190 seconds =
190 VI cos 230 4.5 1 t= = 0.0546 kWh 3600 1000 1000

[cos = 1, since load supplied is non-inductive]
Energy registered by the meter = % age error =
10 = 0.054 kWh 185
0.054 0.0546 = 0.06% (slow). (Ans.) (0.054)
SUMMARY
1. Electricity may be defined as a form of energy. It involves making and using energy. 2. The controlled movement of electrons (or drift) through a substance is called current. Current is the rate at which electrons move. 3. Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the force that causes a current of electricity to flow. The volt is a unit of potential difference and electromotive force.
4. Ohms law may be stated as : For a fixed metal conductor, the temperature and other conditions remaining constant, the current (I) through it is proportional to the potential difference (V) between its ends. 5. A linear resistor is one which obeys ohms law. Such elements in which the V/I (volt-ampere) plots are not straight lines but curves are called non-linear resistors or non-linear elements. 6. In a series combination : R = R1 + R2 + R3 where R1, R2 and R3 are the resistance in series and R is the equivalent resistance of the combination. 7. In a parallel combination :
1 1 1 1 = + + R R1 R2 R3
NOTES
where R1, R2 and R3 are the resistances connected in parallel and R is the equivalent resistance of the combination. 8. Kirchhoffs law : First law : Currents entering = Currents leaving Second law : potential rises = potential drops. 9. Applications of Kirchhoffs laws include the following : (i) Branch-current method (ii) Maxwells loop (or mesh) current method (iii) Nodal voltage method 10. Modern alternators produce an e.m.f. which is for all practical purposes sinusoidal (i.e. a sine curve), the equation between the e.m.f. and time being e = Emax sin t where e = instantaneous voltage ; Emax = maximum voltage; t = angle through which the armature has turned from neutral. 11. The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (D.C.) current which when flowing through a given circuit produces the same heat as is produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time. Irms = 0.707 Imax. 12. The average or mean value of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternating current during the same time. Iav = 0.637 Imax Form factor is the ratio of r.m.s. value to average value of the wave form. Peak factor is the ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value of the wave form.
77
13. In a star-connected system, Eph =

EL 3
NOTES
3 ELIL cos . 14. In a single-phase as well as in a three-phase system, the kVA is directly proportional to the current I. The disadvantage of a lower power factor is that the current required for a given power is very high, which fact leads to many undesirable results. The power factor may be improved by the following :
Iph = IL , P = Static capacitors Phase advancers Synchronuous capacitors Capacitors boosters High power factor motors. 15. Essential features of indicating instruments are: (i) Deflecting device (ii) Controlling device (iii) Damping device. 16. Moving iron instruments are of the following two types: (i) Attraction type (ii) Repulsion type. 17. Moving-coil instruments are of the following two types: (i) Permanent magnet type (ii) Dynamometer type.
GLOSSARY
Resistance: The property of the electric current which oppose the flow of current is called resistance, denoted by (R). Conductance: Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance, denoted by (G). Alternating current: The current or voltage which alternate its direction and magnitude every time. Amplitude: The maximum value, positive or negative of an alternating quantity. Frequency: The number of cycle per second of an alternating quantity denoted by (f). Time period: The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete the cycle. It is denoted by (T). Reactive power (Q): The power which flow back and forth (i.e., in both directions in the circuit) or reacts upon itself is called reactive power.
Apparent power (S): It is the product of r.m.s. values of applied voltage and current circuit. S = V.I. = (I z) = I2z volt-amp. Wattmeter: It is a combination of an ammeter and a voltmeter, consist of two coils known as current coil and pressure coil. The operating torque is produced due to interaction of fluxes on account of currents in both coil.
NOTES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the term electricity. 2. Write a short-note on Electron theory ? 3. What is an electric current ? 4. What is the difference between electromotive force and potential difference ? 5. What do you mean by the term resistance ? On what factors does it depend ? 6. Define the terms conductance and conductivity. 7. What is temperature co-efficient of resistance ? 8. Derive the relation 2 =
1 1 + (t2 t1 ) 1
where 1 and 2 are the temperature
co-efficients of resistance at temperatures t1 and t2C respectively. 9. State and explain Ohms law. 10. What is the difference between linear and non-linear resistors ? 11. Derive an expression for the equivalent resistance in the following cases : (a) When the resistances are connected in series. (b) When the resistances are connected in parallel. 12. How does a conductor differ from an insulator ? 13. Derive an expression for insulation resistance of a cable. 14. Define the following terms : Circuit, Electrical network, Active network, Node and Branch. 15. What are the limitations of Ohms law ? 16. State and explain Kirchhoffs laws. 17. Discuss briefly application of Kirchhoffs laws. 18. Calculate the resistance of a manganin wire having the following particulars : Length of the wire = 100 m Uniform cross-sectional area = 0.1 mm2 Resistivity of the material = 50 108 m. [Ans. 500 ]
79
NOTES
19. Calculate the area of cross-section and diameter of a copper wire to have a resistance of 0.13 ohm per kilometre ; given that resistivity for copper is 1.7 [Ans. 12.9 mm] 108 -m. 20. Find the area of cross-section of a cable of 1 km length to transmit 500 amperes so that total drop in voltage along the cable may not exceed 25 volts. Assume : = 1.7 108 -m. [Ans. 3.4 cm2]
V 25 = = 0.05 . ] I 500 21. Find the resistance between the points A and B in the series-parallel network shown in Fig. (A).
[Hint. R =
100
180 60 90 L 12 M 20 N
10 S B
Fig. (A)
22. A resistance of 10 ohms is connected in series with a combination of two resistances arranged in parallel each of value 20 ohms. Determine the resistance R3 which should be shunted across the parallel combination so that current drawn by the circuit is 1.5 A with applied voltage of 20 V. [Ans. 5 ohms] 23. A series parallel resistor circuit is shown in Fig. (B). Determine (i) Equivalent resistance across the battery terminals. (ii) Current supplied by the battery. (iii) Current through 4 resistor. (iv) Equivalent resistance of the circuit with an open circuit at point L. (v) Equivalent resistance of the circuit with an open circuit at point M. (vi) Equivalent resistance of the circuit with points N and P short circuited. (vii) Equivalent resistance of the circuit with points L and N short circuited. [Ans. (i) 12 (ii) 2 A (iii) 1 A (iv) Infinite (v) 12.66 (vi) 8 (vii) 10 ]
4 6 L 8 8 M N 4
24 V
Fig. (B)
24. Find the resistance of the circuit shown in Fig. (C).

2 4 4 6 5 4
[Ans. 4.2 ]
NOTES
8.4
Fig. (C)
25. State the maximum power transfer theorem and explain its importance. 26. Define the following terms as applied to an alternating current : Cycle, frequency, time period, amplitude. 27. What do you mean by the term Phase difference ? 28. Explain the following terms relating alternating current : (i) R.M.S. value (iii) Form factor (i) Resonance frequency (ii) Average value (iv) Peak factor. (ii) Q-factor.
29. Explain briefly the following as applied to A.C. series and parallel circuits : 30. An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of 120 A. Write down the equation for its instantaneous value. Reckoning time from the instant the current is zero and is becoming positive, find : (i) The instantaneous value after
1 second ; 360
[Ans. 103.9 A, 0.00245 second]
(ii) The time taken to reach 96 A for the first time. 31. An alternating current of frequency 50 Hz has a maximum value of 100 A. Calculate : (i) Its value 1/600 second after the instant the current is zero and its value decreasing thereafter wards. (ii) How many seconds after the instant the current is zero (increasing thereafter wards) will the current attain the value of 86.6 A ? [Ans. 50 A, 1/300 s] 32. Calculate the r.m.s. value, the form factor of a periodic voltage having the following values for equal time intervals changing suddenly from one value to the next : 0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 60, 50, 20, 10, 5, 0, 5, 10 V etc. What would be the r.m.s. value of sine wave having the same peak value ? [Ans. 31 V ; 23 V ; 1.35 ; (app.) ; 42.2 V]
81
33. A sinusoidally varying alternating current has an average value of 127.4 A. When its value is zero, then its rate of change is 62,800 A/s. Find the analytical expression for the sine wave. [Ans. i = 200 sin 100 t] 34. A resistance, a capacitor and a variable inductance are connected in series across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. The maximum current which can be obtained by varying the inductance is 314 mA and the voltage across the capacitor is then 300 V. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor and the values of the inductance and resistance. [Ans. 3.33 F, 3.04 H, 637 ] 35. A circuit consisting of a coil of resistance 12 and inductance 0.15 H in series with a capacitor of 12 F is connected to a variable frequency supply which has a constant voltage of 24 V. Calculate : (i) The resonant frequency, (ii) The current in the circuit at resonance, (iii) The voltage across the capacitor and the coil at resonance. [Ans. (i) 153 Hz, (ii) 2 A, (iii) 224 V] 36. A resistance of 24 , a capacitance of 150 F and an inductance of 0.16 H are connected in series with each other. A supply at 240 V, 50 Hz is applied to the ends of the combination. Calculate ( i) the current in the circuit (ii) the potential differences across each element of the circuit (iii) the frequency to which the supply would need to be changed so that the current would be at unity power-factor and find the current at this frequency. [Ans. (i) 6.37 A (ii) VR = 152.8 V, VC = 320 V, VL = 123.3 V (iii) 32 Hz ; 10 A] 37. State the advantages of A.C. polyphase supply system over single-phase system. 38. Why is the number of phases in a polyphase system always three rather than any other number ? 39. Explain clearly what is meant by phase sequence of 3-phase voltages. 40. What are the two systems in which three-phases can be connected ? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each system ? 41. Deduce an expression for power in a 3-phase balanced load circuit. Show that it is the same irrespective of the load being connected in star or delta. 42. Compare the star and delta connections in a 3-phase system. 43. Three equal impedances each having a resistance of 20 ohm and reactance of 15 ohm are connected in star to a 400 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz system. Calculate : (i) The line current, (iii) The power consumed. (ii) The power factor, [Ans. 9.24 A ; 0.8 (lag) ; 5120 W]
NOTES
44. Three equal impedances are star-connected to a 3-phase, 50 Hz supply. If the resistance and reactance of each branch are 25 ohm and 38 ohm respectively, calculate : (i) The line current (ii) The power consumed. [Ans. 5.28 A ; 2086 W]
82
45. Three identical coils connected in delta across 400 V, 50 Hz, 3- phase supply takes a line current of 17.32 A at power factor 0.5 lagging. Determine : (i) The current in each phase, (ii) Resistance, inductance and impedance of each phase winding. [Ans. 10 A ; 20 ; 0.11 H ; 40 ] 46. A 220 V, 3-phase voltage is applied to a balanced delta-connected 3-phase load of phase impedance (15 + j20) . Find : (i) The phasor current in each line. (ii) What is the power consumed per phase ? (iii) What is the phasor sum of the three line currents ? Why does it have this value ? [Ans. 15.24 A ; 1161.6 W ; zero] 47. Calculate (i) line current and (ii) the total power absorbed when three coils each having a resistance of 10 and reactance of 7 are connected (a) in star and (b) in delta across a 400 V, 3-phase supply. [Ans. 18.93 A, 10750 W ; 56.7 A, 32250 W] 48. What are the essential features of an indicating instrument? 49. What are the advantages and disadvantages of gravity controlled instruments? 50. Explain the construction and working of a dynamometer type instrument. How it can be used as an ammeter and a voltmeter. 51. What is a wattmeter? 52. Enumerate types of wattmeter. 53. Discuss the construction working of a dynamometer wattmeter with the help of a neat diagram. 54. Draw a neat sketch of an induction wattmeter and explain its working. Also state its advantages and disadvantages. 55. What is an integrating or energy meter? 56. What are the essential characteristics of energy meters? 57. With the help of a neat sketch explain the construction and working of an induction type single phase energy meter. Also discuss the sources of errors prevalent in this type of energy meter. 58. A moving-coil instrument gives full-scale deflection with 15 mA and has a resistance of 5 . Calculate the resistance to be connected: (i) in parallel to enable the instrument to read upto 1 A. (ii) in series to enable it to read upto 100 V. [Ans. (i) 0.076 (ii) 6661.7 ] 59. A moving-coil instrument has a resistance of 10 ohms and gives a full-scale deflection when carrying 50 mA. Show how it can be adopted to measure voltage upto 750 volts and current upto 100 amperes. [Ans. R = 14990 , Rs = 0.005 ]
NOTES
83
NOTES
60. The total resistance of a moving-iron voltmeter is 1000 and coil has an inductance of 0.765 H. The instrument is calibrated with a full-scale deflection of 50 V D.C. Calculate the percentage error when the instrument is used on (i) 25 Hz supply, (ii) 50 Hz supply, the applied voltage being 50 V in each case. [Ans. (i) 0.72%, (ii) 36%]
FURTHER READINGS
Nagasarkar TK and Sukhija MS, Basics of Electrical Engineering, Oxford Press (2005). Mahmood Nahvi and Joseph A. Edminister, Electric Circuits, Schaum Online Series, Mchraw Hill (2002). Yaduvir Singh, Mandhir Varma, Fundamental of Electrical Engineering, University Science Press.
84
Electrical Mechanics
UNIT
2
ELECTRICAL MECHANICS
STRUCTURE
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Principle of Energy Conversion 2.3 Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 2.4 Construction of D.C. Machines 2.5 F.M.F. Equation of a Generator 2.6 Types of D.C. Generators 2.7 Direct Current Motor 2.8 Basic Definitions: Transformer 2.9 Working Principle of a Transformer 2.10 Transformer Ratings 2.11 Kinds of Transformers 2.12 Transformer Construction 2.13 Transformer Windings, Terminals, Tapping and Bushings 2.14 Transformer Cooling 2.15 Single Phase Transformer 2.16 Induction Machines 2.17 Classification of A.C. Motors 2.18 Constructional Details 2.19 Theory of Operation of an Induction Motor 2.20 Slip 2.21 Frequency of Rotor Current 2.22 Rotor E.M.F. and Rotor Current 2.23 Torque and Power 2.24 Induction Generator 2.25 Single Phase Motors Summary Glossary Review Questions Further Readings
NOTES
85
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to: discuss about construction, principle of operation, basic equations and applications regarding D.C. generators. define D.C. motors. give details about transformer, its construction, working principle in addition to single phase transformer. classify A.C. motors and their constructional details. illustrate the concepts of single phase induction motor.
NOTES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
l
The main advantage of electric energy over other forms of energy is that it can be transmitted over long distances with ease and high efficiency. Its main use is in the form of a transmitting link for transporting other forms of energy, e.g., mechanical, sound, light etc. from one physical location to another. An electromechanical energy conversion device is one which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electromechanical energy conversion takes place via the medium of a magnetic or electric field. The magnetic field being most suited for practical conversion devices. The conversion process is basically a reversible one though practical devices may be designed and constructed to particularly suit one mode of conversion or other. From the view-point of magnitudes of energy involved rotating or linear electrical machines are the most important energy converters. These are primarily used for bulk energy conversion and utilisation.
Examples: Motors and generator (continuous energy-conversion equipment). A second category includes devices for measurement and control, frequently referred to as transducers. These generally operate under linearoutput conditions and with relatively small signals. A third category of devices encompasses force-producing devices.
Examples: Microphones, pictures, sensors, and loudspeakers. Examples: Solenoids, relays and electromagnets.
2.2 PRINCIPLE OF ENERGY CONVERSION

For converting energy from one form to another the principle of conservation of energy (which states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can merely be converted from one form to another) can be invoked. In
an energy conversion device, out of the total input energy, a larger part of the energy is converted into useful output energy, some energy is stored and rest is converted to heat (called energy loss). Thus energy balance, which should include the above terms, can be written for a motor and a generator as follows: Motor (action):
NOTES
LMTotal electricalOP = LMMechanical energyOP Q Nenergy input Q Noutput LTotal energy storedOP + LMEnergy convertedOP +M N(in magnetic field) Q Ninto heat Q
...(2.1)
Eqn. (2.1) is written so that the electrical and mechanical energy terms have positive values for motor action. The equation applies well to generator action; these terms then simply have negative values. Generator (action):
LMTotal mechanicalOP = LMElectrical energyOP Nenergy input Q Noutput Q LTotal energy storedOP + LMEnergy convertedOP +M Q...(2.2) N(in magnetic field) Q Ninto heat
In the above cases, the sign of the heat generation term(s) is such that heat generation within the system results in a flow of thermal energy out of the system. In the systems, to be considered here, the conversion of energy into heat occurs by such mechanisms as ohmic heating due to current flow in the windings of the electric terminals and mechanical friction due to the motion of the system components forming the mechanical terminals. Thus, energy balance equation may be written as:
Fig. 2.1 shows the flow of energy in electromechanical energy conversion via a coupling field.
Gross electrical input Net electrical input Gross mechanical output Net mechanical output
dWinput =
dWoutput +
dWmagnetic field +
dWheat
...(2.3)
Electrical source
Coupling field
Mechanical sink
Electrical losses (ohmic and iron) (a)
Mechanical losses
87
Gross mechanical input Net mechanical input
Gross electrical output Net electrical output
NOTES
Mechanical source Coupling field Electrical sink
Mechanical losses (b)
Electrical losses
Fig. 2.1. Energy flow in electromechanical energy conversion via a coupling field.
l
Owing to the inertia associated with mechanical components, electromechanical energy conversion devices are slow-moving. Therefore, the coupling field necessary for energy conversion must vary slowly and as such this field is quasi-static in nature. Electromagnetic radiation from the coupling field is almost negligible.
2.3 FARADAYS LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

The phenomenon whereby an e.m.f. and hence current is induced in any conductor which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux is known as electromagnetic induction. Faradays First Law. It states as follows: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always induced in it. Or Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. induced in that conductor.
Conductor +
+ (a)
(b) (c)
(a) Voltage induced (b) Voltage induced (c) No voltage is induced across a wire moving across a wire moving in a wire moving parallel downward. upward. to the field. Fig. 2.2. When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field a voltage is induced in the conductor.
88
Faradays Second Law. It states as follows: The magnitude of induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux-linkages. Mathematically, where,
e=N d volt dt
...(2.4)
NOTES
e = induced e.m.f.,
d = rate of change of flux, and dt
N = number of turns of the coil. [Usually, a minus sign is given to the right-hand side expression to signify the fact that the induced e.m.f. sets up current in such a direction that magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very cause producing it.] Induced e.m.f.: Induced e.m.f. may be of the following two types: 1. Dynamically induced e.m.f. 2. Statically induced e.m.f. Dynamically Induced e.m.f.: Refer to Fig. 2.2. The e.m.f. induced (e) in the conductor is given by: e = Blv volt where, B = flux density of the magnetic field in tesla, l = length of the conductor in metres, and v = velocity of the conductor in m/s. If the conductor moves at an angle with the direction of flux then the induced e.m.f. e = Blv sin volt Statically Induced e.m.f.: The e.m.f. induced by variation of flux is termed as statically induced e.m.f.. Statically induced e.m.f. can be further subdivided as follows: (i) Self-induced e.m.f. (ii) Mutually induced e.m.f. ...(2.6) The direction of the induced e.m.f. is given by Flemings Right hand rule. ...(2.5)
2.4 CONSTRUCTION OF D.C. MACHINES

A D.C. machine consists of two main parts: (i) Stationary Part. It is designed mainly for producing a magnetic flux. (ii) Rotating Part. It is called the armature, where mechanical energy is converted into electrical (electrical generator), or conversely, electrical energy into mechanical (electric motor).
89
Typical line of magnetic flux
Main frame Field pole
NOTES
N Air gap
Sh
aft
re atu c Arm gnetire maructu st
Typical slot to allow for winding coil space needs (one of many)
S Air gap between faces of pole and armature surface
Field pole
Fig. 2.3. Generator or motor magnetic structure.

l
The stationary and rotating parts are separated from each other by an air-gap. The stationary part of a D.C. machine consists of main poles, designed to create the magnetic flux, commutating poles interposed between the main poles and designed to ensure sparkless operation of the brushes at the commutator (in very small machines with a lack of space commutating poles are not used); and a frame/yoke. The armature is a cylindrical body rotating in the space between the poles and comprising a slotted armature core, a winding inserted in the armature core slots, a commutator and brush gear.
Fig. 2.3 shows generator or motor magnetic structure. Description of parts of D.C. machines are given as follows:
Frame
Fig. 2.4 shows the sectional view of four pole D.C. machine.
l
The frame is the stationary part of a machine to which are fixed the main and commutating poles and by means of which the machine is bolted to its bed plate. The ring-shaped portion which serves as the path for the main and commutating pole fluxes is called the yoke.
Cast iron used to be the material for the frame/yoke in early machines but now it has been replaced by cast steel. This is because cast iron is saturated by a flux density of about 0.8 Wb/m2 while saturation with cast steel is at about 1.5 Wb/m2. Thus the cross-section of a cast iron frame is about twice that of a cast steel frame for the same value of magnetic flux. Hence, if it is necessary to reduce the weight of machine, cast steel is used. Another disadvantage with the use of
90
(+) Field rheostat
Load () terminals Shunt pole Field winding Pole shoe Interpole S

S N
NOTES
Commutator
Frame N
Rotatio
n
S
Armature conductors
Fig. 2.4. Sectional view of a four pole D.C. machine.
cast iron is that its mechanical and magnetic properties are uncertain due to the presence of blow holes in the casting. Lately, rolled steel yokes have been developed with the improvements in the welding techniques. The advantages of fabricated yokes are that there are no pattern charges and the magnetic and mechanical properties of the frame are absolutely consistent. It may be advantageous to use cast iron for frames but for medium and large sizes of frames, usually rolled steel is used.
l
If the armature diameter does not exceed 35 to 45 cm, then, in addition to the poles, end shields or frame-heads which carry the bearings are also attached to the frame. When the armature diameter exceeds 1 m, it is common practice to use pedestal-type bearings, mounted separately, on the machine bed plated outside the frame. The end shield bearings, and sometimes the pedestal bearings, are of ball or roller type. However, more frequently plain pedestal bearings are used. In machines with large diameter armatures a brush-holder yoke is frequently fixed to the frame.
Field Poles
l
Formerly the poles were cast integral with the yoke. This practice is still being followed for small machines. But in present day machines it is usual

l
to use either a completely laminated pole, or solid steel poles with laminated pole shoes. Laminated construction is necessary because of the pulsations of field strength that result when the notched armature rotor magnetic structure passes the pole shoe. Variations in field strength result in internal eddy currents being generated in a magnetic structure. These eddy currents cause losses; they may be largely prevented by having laminated magnetic structures. Laminated structures allow magnetic flux to pass along the length of the laminations, but do not allow electric eddy currents to pass across the structure from one lamination to another. The assembled stack of laminations is held together as a unit by appropriately placed rivets. The outer end of the laminated pole is curved to fit very closely into the inner surface of the main frame. Fig. 2.5 shows the constructional details of a field pole. The pole shoe acts as a support to the field coils and spreads out the flux in the air gap and also being of larger cross-section reduces the reluctance of the magnetic path.
Frame for holding wire ends Holes for holding bolts Rivet heads Complete construction Pole shoe
NOTES
Wire ends
Assumed direction of lines of force
Wire wound on frame
Fig. 2.5. Constructional details of a field pole.

l
Different methods are used for attaching poles to the yoke. In case of smaller sizes, the back of the pole is drilled and tapped to receive pole bolts (see Fig. 2.6). In larger sizes, a circular or a rectangular pole bar is fitted to the pole. This pole bar is drilled and tapped and the pole bolts passing through laminations screw into the tapped bar (see Fig. 2.7).
Yoke
Laminations
Fig. 2.6. Fixing pole to the yoke.

Fig. 2.7
Commutating Poles
l
A commutating pole (also called interpole) is similar to a main pole and consists of core terminating in a pole shoe, which may have various shapes, and coil mounted on the core. The commutating poles are arranged strictly midway between the main poles and are bolted to the yoke. Commutating poles are usually made of solid steel, but for machines operating on sharply varying loads they are made of sheet steel.
NOTES
Armature
l
The armature consists of core and winding. Iron being the magnetic material is used for armature core. However, iron is also a good conductor of electricity. The rotation of solid iron core in the magnetic field results in eddy currents. The flow of eddy currents in the core leads to wastage of energy and creates the problem of heat dissipation. To reduce the eddy currents the core is made of thin laminations. The armature of D.C. machines (see Fig. 2.8) is built up of thin laminations of low loss silicon steel. The laminations are usually 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick and are insulated with varnish.
Laminations Key way
Slot
Air holes
Fig. 2.8. Armature of a D.C. machine.

l
The armature laminations, in small machines, are fitted directly on to the shaft and are clamped tightly between the flanges which also act as supports for the armature winding. One end of flange rests against a shoulder on the shaft, the laminations are fitted and other end is pressed on the shaft and retained by a key. The core (except in small size) is divided into number of packets by radial ventilation spacers. The spacers are usually I sections welded to thick steel laminations and arranged to pass centrally down each tooth.
93
NOTES
Fig. 2.9. Drum armature stamping with axial flow ventilation system.
For small machines the laminations are punched in one piece (see Fig. 2.9). These laminations are built up directly on the shaft. With such an arrangement, it is necessary to provide axial ventilation holes so that air can pass into ventilating ducts. The armature laminations of medium size machines (having more than four poles) are built on a spider. The spider may be fabricated. Laminations up to a diameter of about 100 cm are punched in one piece and are directly keyed on the spider (see Fig. 2.10).
Armature core
End flange
Cast spider
Fig. 2.10. Clamping of an armature core.

l
In case of large machines, the laminations of such thin sections are difficult to handle because they tend to distort and become wavy when assembled together. Hence circular laminations instead of being cut in one piece are cut in a number of suitable sections or segments which form part of a complete ring (see Fig. 2.11). A complete circular limination is made up of four or six or even eight segmental laminations. Usually two keyways are notched in each segment and are dove-tailed or wedge shaped to make the laminations self-locking in position. The armature winding is housed in slots on the surface of the armature. The conductors of each coil are so spaced that when one side of the coil is under a north pole, the opposite is under a south pole.
94
Slots Air holes
NOTES
Segmental lamination
Key way
Fig. 2.11. Segmental stampings.
Fig. 2.12 shows the arrangement of conductors and insulation in a slot.

l
In D.C. machines two layer winding with diamond shaped coils is used. The coils are usually former wound. In small machines, the coils are held in position by band of steel wire, wound under tension along the core length. In large machines, it is useful to employ wedges of fibre or wood to hold coils in place in the slots. Wire bands are employed for holding the overhang. The equilizer connections are located under the overhang on the side of the commutator. Fig. 2.13 shows a typical arrangement for equilizers. The equilizers can be accommodated on the other end of the armature also.
Upper coil side
Hardwood or Fibre wedge Copper conductor Varnished cambric Mica wrapper Cotton tape
Lower coil side
Armature coils
Equalizer rings
Fig. 2.12. Cross-section of an armature slot.
Fig. 2.13. Ring type equilizers.
Commutator
l l
A commutator converts alternating voltage to a direct voltage. A commutator is a cylindrical structure built up of segments made of hard drawn copper. These segments are separated from one another and from the frame of the machine by mica strips. The segments are connected to the winding through risers. The risers have air spaces between one another so that air is drawn across the commutator thereby keeping the commutator cool.
Fig. 2.14 shows the components of a commutator. The general appearance of a commutator when completed is as shown in Fig. 2.15 (a). The commutator and armature assembly is shown in Fig. 2.15 (b).
Riser or lug Segment Riser or lug Micanite vee rings Segment End clamp ring Clamp bolt Micanite separator
NOTES
Shaft Hub combined with end ring
Fig. 2.14. Commutator components.

Insulated copper segments
Commutator lugs
End clamp
Fig. 2.15. (a) General appearance of a commutator after assembly.
Shaft Spider Commutator

L in am atio ns
Spacing rings Key rings Key
Armature Key
Fan
Fig. 2.15. (b) Commutator and armature assembly.

Brush Gear
To collect current from a rotating commutator or to feed current to it use is made of brush-gear which consists of: (i) Brushes (ii) Brush holders (iii) Brush studs or brush-holder arms (iv) Brush rocker (v) Current-collecting busbars. Brushes. The brushes used for D.C. machines are divided into five classes: (i) Metal graphite (ii) Carbon graphite (iii) Graphite (iv) Electro-graphite (v) Copper. 2 l The allowable current density at the brush contact varies from 5 A/cm in 2 case of carbon to 23 A/cm in case of copper.
l
NOTES
The use of copper brushes is made for machines designed for large currents at low voltages. Unless very carefully lubricated, they cut the commutator very quickly and in any case, the wear is rapid. Graphite and carbon graphite brushes are self lubricating and, are, therefore, widely used. Even with the softest brushes, however, there is a gradual wearing away of the commutator, and if mica between the commutator segments does not wear down so rapidly as the segments do, the high mica will cause the brushes to make poor contact with segments, and sparking will result and consequent damage to commutator. So to prevent this, the mica is frequently undercut to a level below the commutator surface by means of a narrow milling cutter.
Pig tail Brush Spring
Brush Holders. Box type brush holders are used in all ordinary D.C. machines. A box type brush holder is shown in Fig. 2.16. At the outer end of the arm, a brush box, open at top and bottom is attached. The brush is pressed on to the commutator by a clock spring. The pressure can be adjusted by a lever arrangement provided with the spring. The brush is connected to a flexible conductor called pig tail. The flexible conductor may be attached to the brush by a screw or may be soldered.
l
Pressure adjusting lever
Brush box Commutator
Fig. 2.16. Box type brush holder.
The brush boxes are usually made of bronze casting or sheet brass. In low voltage D.C. machines where the commutation conditions are easy galvanised steel box may be used. l Some manufacturers use individual brush holders while others use multiple holders, i.e., a number of single boxes built up into one long assembly. Brush Rockers. Brush holders are fixed to brush rockers with bolts. The brush rocker is arranged concentrically round the commutator. Cast iron is usually, used for brush rockers.
Armature Shaft Bearings

l l
NOTES
l l
With small machines roller bearings are used at both ends. For larger machines roller bearings are used for driving end and ball bearings are used for non-driving (commutator) end. The bearings are housed in the end shields. For large machines pedestal bearings are used.
Armature Windings
The armature winding is very important element of a machine, as it directly takes part in the conversion of energy from one form into another. The requirements which a winding must meet are diverse and often of a conflicting nature. Among these requirements the following are of major importance:
l
The winding must be designed with the most advantageous utilisation of the material in respect to weight and efficiency. The winding should provide the necessary mechanical, thermal and electrical strength of the machine to ensure the usual service life of 1620 years. For D.C. machines proper current collection at the commutator (i.e., absence of detrimental sparking) must be ensured. According to the degree of closure produced by winding, armature windings are of the following two types:
1. Open coil winding 2. Closed coil winding. The closed armature windings are of two types: (i) Ring winding (ii) Drum winding In general there are two types of drum armature windings: (i) Lap winding (ii) Wave winding. Lap winding is suitable for comparatively low voltage but high current generators whereas wave of winding is used for high voltage, low current machines. In lap winding the finish of each coil is connected to the start of the next coil so that winding or commutator pitch is unity. In wave winding the finish of coil is connected to the start of another coil well away from the fixed coil.
2.5 E.M.F. EQUATION OF A GENERATOR

Let p = number of poles, = flux/pole, webers (Wb), Z = total number of armature conductors, = number of slots number of conductors/slot, N = rotational speed of armature, r.p.m.,
a = number of parallel paths in armature, and Eg = generated e.m.f. per parallel path in armature. Average e.m.f. generated per conductor =
d volt dt
NOTES
Now, flux cut per conductor in one revolution, d = p Wb Number of revolutions/second =

N 60 60 seconds N
Time for one revolution, dt =
Hence, according to Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction, E.m.f. generated per conductor = For a lap wound generator: Number of parallel paths, a = p Z Number of conductor (in series) in one path = p E.m.f. generated per path = pN Z ZN = 60 p 60 volt
p N volt 60
For a wave wound generator: Number of parallel paths, a = p Number of conductor (in series) in one path =
Z 2
E.m.f. generator per path = In general, generated e.m.f. Eg =
pN Z pZN = volt 60 2 120
ZN p pZN volt = 60 a 60a
where a = p ...... for lap winding = 2 ...... for wave winding.
FG IJ H K
...(2.7)
Example 2.1. A six pole lap wound D.C. generator has 720 conductors, a flux of 40 m Wb per pole is driven at 400 r.p.m. Find the generated e.m.f. Solution. Number of poles, Total number of conductors, Flux per pole, Speed of rotation, Number of parallel paths, p=6 Z = 720 = 40 m Wb = 40 103 Wb N = 400 r.p.m. a = p = 6 [Since the generator is lap wound.]
Generated e.m.f. Eg: Using the relation, Eg =
NOTES
pZN 6 40 10 3 720 400 = = 192 V. 60a 60 6
Hence, generated e.m.f. Eg = 192 V. (Ans.) Example 2.2. The armature of a 6-pole D.C. generator has a wave winding containing 650 conductors. Calculate the generated e.m.f. when the flux per pole is 0.055 Wb and the speed is 300 r.p.m. Calculate speed at which the armature must be driven to generate an e.m.f. of 550 V if the flux per pole is reduced to 0.05 Wb. Solution. Number of poles, Total number of conductors, Flux per pole, Speed of rotation, E.m.f. generated, Generated e.m.f. (2nd case) Flux per pole (2nd case) Speed of rotation, Case I. E.m.f. generated, Eg: Using the relation, Eg = =
pZN 60a
p=6 Z = 650 = 0.055 Wb N = 300 r.p.m. Eg = ? = 550 V = 0.05 Wb N=?
6 0.055 650 300 60 2 [ a = 2, as the generator is wave wound]
= 536.25 V. Hence, e.m.f. generated = 536.25 V. (Ans.) Case II. Speed of rotation, N: Eg = 550 = N=
pZN 60a
6 0.05 650 N 60 2 550 60 2 = 338.46 r.p.m. 6 0.05 650
Hence, speed of rotation = 338.46 r.p.m. (Ans.)
2.6 TYPES OF D.C. GENERATORS

l
The power stations of modern design generate practically only three-phase alternating current. A large part of this power is used in the form of
100
alternating current in industry, for lighting and domestic needs. When industrial needs make it necessary too or when it is of greater advantage to use direct current (for chemical and metallurgical plants, electric traction, etc.) it is generally obtained by converting A.C. to D.C. with the help of converters of ionic or machine types. In the latter case wide use is made of such installations as motor generator sets in which A.C. motor is coupled to a D.C. generator on a common shaft.
l
NOTES
As primary sources of power, D.C. generators are mainly used in self-contained plants such as automobiles and air planes, for electric arc welding, train car lighting, in sub-marines, etc.
Classification
According to method of excitation D.C. generators are classified as follows: 1. Separately excited generators, 2. Self-excited generators. Separately Excited Generators These are those generators whose field magnets are energised from an independent external source of D.C. current. Such a generator is shown in Fig. 2.17.
I + + Armature Ia R Field If Separate source of excitation If = Field current I = Load current Ia = Armature current
Load
Fig. 2.17. Separately excited generator.
Self-excited Generators These are those generators whose field magnets are energised by the current produced by the generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in the poles. When the armature is rotated, some e.m.f. and hence some induced current produced which is partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the pole flux. Self-excited generators can be divided, in accordance with how the field winding is connected into generators, as follows: 1. Shunt wound generators 2. Series wound generators 3. Compound wound generators: (i) Short shunt (i) Long shunt 1. Shunt Wound Generators: Refer Fig. 2.18. In these generators the field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature conductors, and have the full voltage of the generator across them.
Important Relations: Refer to Fig. 2.18. (i) Ish = V Rsh

Shunt field
Ish + Armature
NOTES
V Ia
(ii) Ia = Ish + I (iii) V = Eg IaRa (iv) Power developed = EgIa (v) Power delivered = VI where Ish = shunt field current, Ia = armature current, I (or Il) = load current, V = terminal voltage 2. Series Wound Generators: Refer to Fig. 2.19. In this case, the field windings are joined in series with armature conductors. As they carry full load current, they consist of relatively few turns of thick wire or strip. The use of such generators is limited to special purposes (as boosters etc.). Important Relations. (see Fig. 2.19): (i) Ia = Ise = I (Ise = series field current)

Fig. 2.18. Shunt wound generator.
Ra = armature resistance,
Rsh = shunt field resistance, Eg = generated e.m.f., and

Ise = Ia = I Series field
V Armature Ia
(ii) V = Eg I(Ra + Rse) (Rse = series field resistance) (iii) Power developed = EgI (iv) Power delivered = VI.
Fig. 2.19. Series wound generator.
3. Compound Wound Generators: It is a combination of a few series and a few shunt windings and be either short shunt or long shunt as shown in Figs. 2.20 and 2.21 respectively. Important Relations: (a) Short Shunt Compound Wound. (see Fig. 2.20): (i) Ise = I (ii) Ish =
V + I se Rse Rsh
(iii) Ia = I + Ish (iv) V = Eg IaRa IseRse (v) Power developed = EgIa (vi) Power delivered = VI.
102
Load
Load
I Ise
Ish Ise + Rse
Ish
Load
V Armature Ia
Armature Shunt field
V Ia
Fig. 2.20. Short shunt compound wound generator.
Fig. 2.21. Long shunt compound wound generator.
(b) Long Shunt Compound Wound. (see Fig. 2.21): (i) Ish = V Rsh
(ii) Ia = Ise = I + Ish (iii) V = Eg IaRa IseRse = Eg Ia(Ra + Rse) (iv) Power developed = EgIa (v) Power delivered = VI.
2.7 DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR

General Aspects
The electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. It depends for its operation on the force which is known to exist on a conductor carrying current while situated in a magnetic field. Construction. A D.C. motor is similar in construction to a D.C. generator. As a matter of fact any D.C. generator will run as a motor when its field and armature windings are connected to a source of direct current. The field winding produces the necessary magnetic field. The flow of current through the armature conductors produces a force which rotates the armature. Though the essential construction of D.C. motor is identical to that of a generator, the external appearance of a motor may be somewhat different from that of a generator. This is mainly due to the fact that the frame of a generator may be partially open because it is located in relatively clean environment and only skilled operators are present in its vicinity. A motor, on the other hand, may be operating in a rather dusty environment and only unskilled operators may be working in its vicinity. Therefore, frames of motors are to a large extent closed. The body of D.C. mill motors is made in two halves bolted together for easy access to the field windings and inter-poles.
Load
NOTES
103
Applications. Because of their inherent characteristics D.C. motors find extensive application in: (i) Steel plants (ii) Paper mills (iv) Printing presses (vi) Winches (iii) Textile mills (v) Cranes
NOTES
(vii) Excavators etc. where precise and accurate speed control over a wide range is required. Advantages. The D.C. motors possess the following advantages: (i) High starting torque. (ii) Speed control over a wide range, both below and above the normal speed. (iii) Accurate stepless speed control with constant torque. (iv) Quick starting, stopping, reversing and accelerating. Disadvantages. The disadvantages of D.C. motors are: (i) High initial cost. (ii) Increased operating and maintenance costs because of the commutators and brushgear.
Principle of Operation of D.C. Motor

The principle of motor action can be stated as follows: Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force whose direction is given by Flemings left hand rule.
l
Fig. 2.22 illustrates this principle. Fig. 2.22 (a) shows the field set up by the poles. Fig. 2.22 (b) shows the conductor field due to flow of current in the conductor.
Fig. 2.22 (c) shows the resultant field produced when the current carrying conductor wire of Fig. 2.22 (b) is inserted in the air gap of Fig. 2.22 (a) with the axis of the conductor at right angles to the direction of the flux. On the upper side of the conductor in Fig. 2.22 (c) the magnetizing forces of the field and of the current in the conductor are additive while on the lower side these are subtractive. This explains why the resultant field is strengthened above and weakened below the conductor (wire). The above experiment shows that the wire in Fig. 2.22 (c) has a force on it which tends to move it downward. Thus the force acts in the direction of the weaker field. When the current in the wire is reversed, the direction of the force is also reversed, as in Fig. 2.22 (d). The force (F) developed in the conductor is given by the relation, F = BIl Newton where B = flux density, T (Wb/m2), I = current in conductor, A, and l = exposed length of conductor, m.
NOTES
(a) Pole field (b) Conductor field Force
(c)
force
(d)
Fig. 2.22. The principle of motor action.
Now consider the magnetic field of a D.C. motor in which there is no current in the armature conductors; the lines of force will be distributed as shown in Fig. 2.23.
Conductors Armature
Fig. 2.23. Distribution of lines of force in a motor due to magnetic field only.
If, now, the armature carries current, each of its conductors will produce a magnetic field which, when super-imposed on the main field, causes a distribution of magnetic lines as shown in Fig. 2.24.
+ + A N + B + + S
Fig. 2.24. Distribution of lines of force in a motor, on load, due to the armature and magnetic field.
The magnetic field is said to be distorted, since the lines of force no longer follow approximately straight paths.
NOTES
These lines of force have the property of tending to shorten themselves, so that they may be regarded as being in tension. Each conductor in Fig. 2.24 will experience a force like that exerted on a stone in a catapult. Since these conductors are embedded in slots in the armature, the latter is caused to rotate in a clockwise direction.
Back or Counter E.M.F.

Refer to Fig. 2.25. In a D.C. motor when the armature rotates, the conductors on it cut the lines of force of magnetic field in which they revolve, so that an e.m.f. is induced in the armature as in a generator. The induced e.m.f. acts in opposition to the current in the machine and, therefore, to the applied voltage, so that it is customary to refer to this voltage as the back e.m.f. That this is so can be deduced by Lenzs law, which states that the direction of an induced e.m.f. is such as to oppose the change causing it, which is, of course, the applied voltage.
N
Force Motion
Ia
Eb
+ Armature
The magnitude of the back or counter e.m.f. can Fig. 2.25. Motoring operation. be calculated by using formula for the induced e.m.f. in a generator, and it is important in the case of the motor, to appreciate that this is proportional to the product of the flux and the speed. Thus if Eb denotes the back e.m.f., the flux and N the speed, we may write, Eb = k N where k is a number depending on nature of armature winding. The value of back e.m.f. (Eb) is always less than the applied voltage, although difference is small when the machine is running under normal conditions. It is the difference between these two quantities which actually drives current through the resistance of the armature circuit. If this resistance is represented by Ra, the back e.m.f. by Eb and the applied voltage by V, then we have V = Eb + IaRa where Ia is the current in the armature circuit.
Types of D.C. Motors

There are three main types of motors characterised by the connection of the field winding in relation to the armature. These are: 1. Shunt wound motor or the shunt motor, in which the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature. 2. Series motor, in which the armature and field windings are connected in series. 3. Compound motor, which has two field windings, one of which is connected in parallel with the armature and the other in series with it. Shunt Wound Motor. Fig. 2.26 shows the connections of a shunt motor. From these connections it may be observed at once that the field current is constant,
since it is connected directly to the supply which is assumed to be at constant voltage. Hence the flux is approximately constant and, since also the back e.m.f. is almost constant under normal conditions the speed is approximately constant. This is not strictly true, but nevertheless, it is usual for all practical purposes to regard the shunt motor as a constant speed machine. It is, therefore, employed in practice for drives, the speeds of which are required to be independent of the loads. The speed can, of course, be varied when necessary and this is done by the inclusion of a variable resistor in series with the field winding, as shown in Fig. 2.26.
Divertor I Resistor Armature Rsh V Armature Rse
NOTES
Fig. 2.26. Connections of a shunt motor. Fig. 2.27. Connections of a series motor.
Series Motor. Fig. 2.27 shows the connections for the series motor. The current passing through the field winding is the same as that in the armature, since the armature current increases as the mechanical load on the shaft increases, so also does the field current. The resultant increase in magnetic flux causes a reduction in the speed, as can be observed from a consideration of the formula: Eb = or where or
pZN 60a
Eb = kN k= N=
pZ being constant 60a

Eb . k
This is a useful property for many drives in which it is desirable that a heavy increase in the load should automatically bring about a compensating reduction in speed. As with the shunt motor, the speed may also be varied independently of the load by the inclusion of a variable resistor in the field circuit. In this case, however, it is connected in parallel with the series winding as shown in Fig. 2.27, and is called a divertor compound motor. Refer to Fig. 2.28. The compound motor has a shunt field winding in addition to the series winding so that the number of magnetic lines of force produced by each of its poles is the resultant of the flux produced by the shunt coil and that due to the series coil. The flux so produced depends not only on the current and number
107
NOTES
of turns of each coil, but also on the winding direction of the shunt coil in relation to that of the series coil. When the two fluxes assist each other the machine is a cumulative compound motor, while if they oppose each other , it is said to be a differential Rsh compound motor.
+ Rse Armature V
Fig. 2.29 shows the field windings and Fig. 2.28. Connections of a cominterpole connections of a differential pound motor. compound wound motor. The shunt coil is made up of many turns of fine wire, whilst the series coil comprises relatively few turns of thickwire.
Fig. 2.30 shows the field windings of a cumulative compound motor. The flow of currents in the shunt and series coils is worth noting in Figs. 2.29 and 2.30.
Series coil Shunt coil
+
S S N
+
S N
S S
Fig. 2.29. Field windings of a differential compound motor.
Fig. 2.30. Field windings and interpole connections of a cumulative compound wound motor.
Speed of a D.C. Motor

We know that the voltage equation of a motor is given by V = Eb + IaRa or or Eb = V IaRa
pZN = V IaRa 60a
But
N=
(V I a Ra ) 60a Zp
V IaRa = Eb N=
Eb 60a Zp
or where
Eb N = k
...(2.8)
k =
60a = constant. Zp
NOTES
The equation (2.8) shows that speed is directly proportional to back e.m.f. and inversely to the flux or For series motor: Let N1 = speed in the first case, Ia1 = armature current in the first case, and 1 = flux in the first case. N2, Ia2 and 2 = corresponding quantities in the second case. Using the above relation i. e., N
Eb1 1 Eb 2 2
Eb .
FG H
Eb , we get
IJ K
N1 and where, and, N2
Eb1 = V Ia1Ra Eb2 = V Ia2Ra

N 2 E b2 1 = N1 E b1 2
...(2.9)
Prior to saturation of poles: Ia For shunt motor: Applying the same equation in this case also, we get
N 2 E b2 1 = N1 E b1 2 N 2 Eb2 I a1 = N1 Eb1 I a 2
...(2.10)
If
1 = 2
N 2 E b2 . = N1 Eb1
...(2.11)
109
Speed Regulation
The speed regulation of a D.C. motor is defined as follows: The change in speed when the load on the motor is reduced from rated value to zero, expressed as percent of the rated load speed. Percent speed regulation = no load speed full load speed . full load speed
NOTES
Motor Characteristics
The properties of all motors and, in particular, D.C. motors are defined as a totality of the following characteristics: 1. Starting; 2. Operating and mechanical; 3. Braking; and 4. Regulation. Starting Characteristics. The starting characteristics determine the operation of starting from the moment the motor begins running to the moment when steady-state operation is established and include:
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The starting current Istart generally determined by the ratio The starting torque Tstart, determined by the ratio
Tstart ; Trun
I start ; I run
l l l
The duration of starting tstart; The economy of operation determined by the amount of energy consumed in starting; and
The cost and reliability of the starting equipment. Operating Characteristics. The operating characteristics are those that give the relation between speed, torque and efficiency as functions of the useful power or the armature current for V = constant and constant resistances in the armature and field circuit.
l
Mechanical Characteristics. Of major importance for industrial drive mechanisms are the mechanical characteristics, which are the relation N = f(T) (where N and T stand for speed and torque respectively) for conditions of constant voltage and resistances in the armature and field circuits. These also include the braking characteristics. Regulation Characteristics. These characteristics determine the properties of motors when their speed is controlled. These include:
l
The regulation range determined by the ratio
N max ; N min
The efficiency of regulation from the point of view of the initial cost of the equipment and maintenance; The nature of regulationcontinuous or stepped; and The simplicity of the control apparatus and methods.
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110
The D.C. motors possess versatile and diverse regulation characteristics, and for this reason are indispensable in installations where wide-range control of speed is necessary. The characteristic curves of a motor are those curves which show relation between the following quantities: 1. Torque and armature current i.e., Ta/Ia characteristic. This is also known as electrical characteristic. 2. Speed and armature current i.e., N/Ia characteristic. 3. Speed and torque i.e., N/Ta characteristic. This is also known as mechanical characteristic. This can be obtained from (1) and (2) above. Following relations are worth keeping in mind while discussing motor characteristics: N
Eb and Ta Ia.
NOTES
Torque-current Characteristics Shunt Motor

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When running on no-load, a small armature current flows to supply the field and to drive the machine against the friction and other losses in it. As the load is applied to the motor, and is increased, the torque rises almost proportionally to the increase in current. This is not quite true, because the flux has been assumed to be constant, whereas it decreases slightly owing to armature reaction. The effect of this is to cause the top of the curve connecting torque and line current to bend over as shown in Fig. 2.31.
Torque
Line current
The starting torque of a motor is determined characteristic of a shunt motor. by the starting resistance, which in turn, governs the initial current through the machine when the main switch is closed. At this moment the speed is zero, so that the back e.m.f. is zero and the starting current is given by I = V/R, where V is the supply voltage and R is the total resistance, which includes the armature and starting resistance.
Fig. 2.31. Torque-current
If the starting current is limited by heating considerations to twice the full load current, then with normal supply voltage the starting torque of a shunt motor is twice the full load torque. If, however, the supply voltage is below normal, the flux is also less than twice full load torque. The importance of this will be appreciated when the starting torque of a series motor is compared with that of the shunt motor.
111
Series Motor
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NOTES
In a series motor the torque (Ta Ia) increases much more than does the armature current. This is because the flux itself increases with the armature current, though, owing to the magnetic saturation, the two are not strictly proportional. Nevertheless, for all but the heavy loads which tend to produce saturation of the field system, it may be said that the torque is approximately proportional to the square of the load current.
This property of a series motor, by virtue of which a heavy current gives rise to a very high torque, also influences its starting characteristics. In a case of a shunt motor, it has already been seen, that the current at the Current (Ia) moment of starting may be as high as twice the full-load value; if we allow for the Fig. 2.32. Torque-current characteristic of a series armature of the magnetisation characteristic motor. and for weakening effect of armature reaction and assume that the flux is increased to 1.5 times its full-load value, then it is obvious that the starting torque of a series motor is three times the full-load torque. Further more, if the supply voltage falls, the starting current may still be maintained at twice full-load value by cutting out some of the starting resistance, so that the high value of starting torque may still be maintained.
This type of motor (series motor) is superior to shunt motor for drives in which machines have to be started and accelerated from rest when fully loaded, as is the case with traction equipment. Compound Motors (i) Differential Compound Motor. Refer Fig. 2.29. In this type of motor the two field windings (shunt and series) oppose each other. On light loads, such a machine runs as a shunt motor, since the series field winding, carrying only a small current, has relatively little effect. On heavy loads, the series coils strengthen and since they are in opposition to the shunt winding, cause a reduction in the flux and a consequence decrease in torque. On heavy overloads or when starting up on load, the series winding may become as strong as shunt, or it may even predominate, in which the torque will be reduced to zero or may even be reversed. In the latter case, the motor would tend to start-up in the wrong direction.
112
Torque
Fig. 2.32 shows the relationship between torque and current. Here the current commences at the no-load value, rises parabolically at first, but increases more slowly as the effects of armature reaction and magnetic saturation becomes appreciable.
It is obvious that such characteristics may cause dangerous results, so that differential compound motors have only very limited applications in practice. Fig. 2.33 shows the torque-current characteristic of a differential compound motor.
NOTES
Torque
Current
Torque
Current
Fig. 2.33. Torque-current characteristic of a differential compound motor.
Fig. 2.34. Torque-current characteristic of a cumulative compound motor.
(ii) Cumulative Compound Motor. In this type of motor the two field windings assist each other as shown in Fig. 2.30. The flux on no-load is that due to the shuntwinding, while on load the flux and torque rise with the load current. The torque, therefore, increase more rapidly than in the case of the shunt machine, and on heavy loads it resembles the characteristic of the series motor. Fig. 2.34 shows the torque-current characteristic of a cumulative compound motor. The torque-current characteristics of shunt, series and compound (differential and cumulative) motors are showing in Fig. 2.35 from which their properties, may be compared, as far as torque is concerned.
Series
Torque
Cumulative Shunt
Differential Current
Fig. 2.35. Torque-current characteristics of shunt, series and compound motors.
Speed-current Characteristics
The speed-current characteristics of various motors can be deduced from the following motor equation,
N Shunt Motor
Eb
or N
V IR .
NOTES
In the shunt motor, the field circuit is connected to the supply terminals so that the exciting current remains constant as long the temperature of the machine is constant, and field regulator is not adjusted. Actually as the machine warms up, the field resistance increases and the exciting current decreases by about 4% for every 10C rise in temperature. Neglecting this effect and also due to armature reaction, it is seen that the speed of a shunt machine falls slightly as the load increases. The fall in speed is proportional to the volt drop IR in the armature circuit. If, however, we consider the effect of armature reaction, an increase of load Noload causes a slight decrease in flux, unless speed the machine is fitted with compensating windings. This weakening of the field tends to raise the speed, so that the actual fall in speed is less than that calculated by a consideration of the volt drop in the armature.
Speed
Armature current
On the whole, the shunt motor may be regarded as one in which the speed is approximately constant, falling slightly as the load increases (see Fig. 2.36).
l
Fig. 2.36. Speed-current characteristic of a shunt motor.
The speed of a shunt machine can be increased by inserting resistance in the field by means of a field regulator. This weakens the field and causes the motor to run faster in order to generate the necessary back e.m.f. Of course, it is impossible to reduce the speed by this method below that at which it runs with no field resistance in the circuit. In case of a series motor the flux does not remain constant, or even approximately constant, because the field winding is in series with the load, so that as the load increases so also does the strength of the magnetic field. At first the flux increases approximately in proportion to the load, but as the field approaches saturation, owing to the heavier loads, the increase is not so rapid. The effects of temperature changes and of armature reaction may be neglected (in comparison with the above mentioned effect). It will be appreciated, while considering motor equation, that the back e.m.f. decreases as the armature current increases, as in shunt motor; in the latter, however, the decrease is due to the volt drop in the armature, while in the series machine the loss in volts occurs in the field as well as in the armature, since they are in series. The back e.m.f. in a series motor, therefore, decreases more rapidly than in a corresponding shunt machine. The speed, however, is proportional to the back e.m.f. divided by the flux;
Series Motor
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114
the former decreases, while the latter increases with increasing load so that the speed decreases rapidly as the armature current increases. This property is a valuable feature in a drive of which the speed is required automatically to adjust to compensate for changes in load. The speed-current characteristic of a series motor are shown in Fig. 2.37 (a).
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NOTES
On very low current, a series motor runs at very high speeds, or tends to race, as it is termed. This is dangerous, since the machine may be destroyed by the centrifugal forces set up in the rotating parts. For this reason, when installing a series motor it must be positively connected to its load by gearing or by direct connection and never by belting. Moreover, the minimum load should be great enough to keep the speed within safe limits, as is the case, for example, with railway motors, hoists and rolling mills.
Differential
Speed
Speed
Cumulative
Load current
Current
Fig. 2.37. (a) Speed-current characteristic of a series motor.
Fig. 2.37. (b) Speed-current characteristic of compound motors.
Compound Motor
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A compound motor runs on no-load at a speed determined by its shunt winding since the series field contributes little to the total flux in this condition. In a cumulative compound motor at no-load, the series field strengthens the shunt winding so that the speed falls as in a series machine. Since the flux at any load is equal to the shunt and series fluxes, the speed is less than it would be if running on either field alone. The speed-current characteristic of such a machine is shown in Fig. 2.37 (b ). Such a characteristic has two important advantages. These are:
(i) The machine has the compensating action of reducing its speed on heavy loads, as is the case with series machine. (ii) The maximum speed on no-load is limited by the shunt winding, since this produces a maximum flux even on no-load. This type of motor, therefore, is suitable for driving machines which operate on a cycle consisting of a power or working stroke followed by a return or idle stroke. The series winding produces a fall in speed on the working stroke, while the shunt winding permits the return stroke to be completed at a high, but safe, speed. A flywheel is also provided to act as a load equilizer in such a drive.
NOTES
In case of a differential compound motor, since the series winding opposes the shunt, the resultant flux decreases as the load increases; thus the machine runs at a higher speed than it would do as a shunt motor. If the series windings were relatively weak, this reduction in flux might be just sufficient for the fall in speed, brought about by the volt drop in the machine. Such a motor would have a useful application in driving loads at a constant speed. If the series field were strong, however, an increase in load would result in a decrease in the magnetic flux and a rise in speed would take place, the heavier the load, the faster would the motor tend to run. This is the property which may have dangerous consequences, since a heavy overload would result in such a high speed that the motor would destroy itself.
Speed-Torque (or Mechanical) Characteristics

The speed-torque characteristics of the four types, i.e. shunt, series, cumulative and differential of motors drawn on the same diagram are shown in Fig. 2.38 for the purpose of comparison. The main properties of individual motors, from this diagram, may be summarised as under: ( i ) Shunt Motor. As the load torque increases the speed falls somewhat, but the machine may be regarded as an approximately constant speed motor. The shunt motor is used:
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Differential Shunt
Speed
Cumulative Series
When the speed is required to remain approximately constant from no-load to full-load. When the load has to be driven at a number of speeds, any one of which is required to remain approximately constant.
Torque
Fig. 2.38. Speed-torque characteristic of D.C. motors.
(ii) Series Motor. As the load torque increases the speed falls rapidly. At low torque the speed becomes very high and machine tends to race. The series motors are used:
l l
When large starting torque is required (as in traction motors). When the load is subject to heavy fluctuations, and a reduced speed is desired to compensate for the high torque, provided that there is no possibility of the machine losing its load.
(iii) Cumulative Compound Motor. In this type of motor the speed falls appreciably as the torque increases, but on low torques the maximum speed is limited to a safe value. These motors are used:
l
When a large starting torque is required but when the load may fall so low that a series motor would race. When the load is of a fluctuating nature and a reduced speed is desirable on the heavy loads.
116
In such a case a flywheel is usually fitted so that when speed is so reduced the kinetic energy stored in the flywheel at high speeds is given up to assist the motor in driving the heavy load. When the supply voltage is subject to fluctuations (as in traction systems). (iv) Differential Compound Motor. The speed at low torque is limited by the shunt winding, as in the cumulative compound machine. At high torques, the speed may be arranged to remain constant or, with a stronger series field, the speed may rise with increasing load.
l
NOTES
On very heavy loads the machine may tend to race. Its use is usually restricted to applications which require a constant speed.
Industrial Applications of D.C. Motors

1. Shunt Motors: (i) Drills and milling machines (ii) Line-shaft drives (iii) Boring mills (iv) Grinders and shapers (v) Spinning and weaving machines (vi) Wood working machines (vii) Small printing presses (viii) Light machine tools generally. 2. Series Motors: (i) Traction drives generally (ii) Tram cars and railway cars (iii) Cranes, derricks, hoists, elevators and winches (iv) Fans and air compressors (v) Vacuum cleaners, hair driers, sewing machines (vi) Universal machines generally. 3. Cumulative Compound Motors: (i) Punching, shearing and planing machines (ii) Lifts, haulage gears and mine hoists (iii) Pumps and power fans (iv) Rolling mills, stamping presses and large printing presses (v) Trolley buses. 4. Differential Compound Motors: (i) Battery boosters (ii) Experimental and research work.
2.8 BASIC DEFINITIONS: TRANSFORMER

l
A transformer is a static electromagnetic device designed for the transformation of the (primary) alternating current system into another (secondary) one of the same frequency with other characteristics, in particulars, other voltage and current.
As a rule a transformer consists of a core assembled of sheet transformer steel and two or several windings coupled electromagnetically, and in the case of autotransformer, also electrically. A transformer with two windings is called double-wound transformer; a transformer with three or more windings is termed a triple wound or multi-winding one. According to the kind of current, transformers are distinguished as singlephase, three-phase and poly-phase ones. A poly-phase transformer winding is a group of all phase windings of the same voltage, connected to each other in a definite way. Primary and secondary windings. The transformer winding to which the energy of the alternating current is delivered is called the primary winding; the other winding from which energy is received is called the secondary winding. In accordance with the names of the windings, all quantities pertaining to the primary winding as, for example, power, current, resistance etc., are also primary, and those pertaining to the secondary winding secondary. h.v. and l.v. windings. The winding connected to the circuit with the higher voltage is called the high-voltage winding (h.v.), the winding connected to the circuit with the lower voltage is called the low-voltage winding. (l.v.). If the secondary voltage is less than the primary one, the transformer is called a step-down transformer and if more-a step-up transformer. A tapped transformer is one whose windings are fitted with special taps for changing its voltage or current ratio. Oil and dry transformers. To avoid the deterimental effect of the air on the winding insulation and improve the cooling conditions of the transformer its core together with the windings assembled on it is immersed in a tank filled with transformer oil. Such transformers are called oil transformers. Transformers not immersed in oil are called dry transformers.
NOTES
2.9 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER

A transformer operates on the principle of mutual inductance, between two (and sometimes more) inductively coupled coils. It consists of two windings in close proximity as shown in Fig. 2.39. The two windings are coupled by magnetic induction. (There is no conductive connection between the windings). One of the windings called primary is energised by a sinusoidal voltage. The second winding, called secondary feeds the load. The alternating current in the primary winding sets up an alternating flux () in the core. The secondary winding is linked by most of this flux and e.m.fs are induced in the two windings. The e.m.f. induced in the secondary winding drives a current through the load connected to the winding. Energy is transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit through the medium of the magnetic field.
In brief, a transformer is a device that: (i) transfers electric power from one circuit to another; (ii) it does so without change of frequency; and (iii) it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction (or mutual inductance).
Laminated core
NOTES
f Secondary winding Primary winding
Fig. 2.39. Two-winding transformer.
2.10 TRANSFORMER RATINGS

The rated quantities of a transformer, its power, voltage, frequency, etc., are given in Manufacturers name plate, which should always be arranged so as to be accessible. But the term rated can also be applied to quantities not indicated on the name plate, but relating to the rated duty, as for example, the rated efficiency, rated temperature conditions of the cooling medium, etc.:
l
The rated duty of a transformer is determined by the quantities given in the name plate. The rated power of the transformer is the power at the secondary terminals, indicated in the name plate and expressed in kVA. The rated primary voltage is the voltage indicated in the transformer name plate; if the primary is provided with taps, the rated tapped voltage is specially noted. The rated secondary voltage is the voltage across the transformer secondary terminals at no-load and with the rated voltage across the primary terminals; if the secondary winding has taps, then their rated voltage is specially indicated. The rated currents of the transformer, primary and secondary, are the currents indicated in the name plate of the transformer and calculated by using the corresponding rated values of power and voltage.
119
2.11 KINDS OF TRANSFORMERS

The following kinds of transformers are the most important ones: 1. Power transformers. For the transmission and distribution of electric power. 2. Auto-transformers. For converting voltages within relatively small limits to connect power systems of different voltages, to start A.C. motors etc. 3. Transformer for feed installations with static convertors. (Mercury arc rectifiers, ignitrons, semi-conductor valves, etc.) When converting A.C. into D.C. (rectifying) and convering D.C. into A.C. (inverting). 4. Testing transformers. For conducting tests at high and ultra-high voltages. 5. Power transformers for special applications. Furnace, welding etc. 6. Radio-transformers. It is used in radio engineering etc.
Note. Distribution transformers should be designed to have maximum efficiency at a load much lower than full-load (about 50 per cent). Power transformers should be designed to have maximum efficiency at or near full-load.
NOTES
2.12 TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

All transformers have the following essential elements: 1. Two or more electrical windings insulated from each other and from the core (except in auto-transformers). 2. A core, which in case of a single-phase distribution transformers usually comprises cold-rolled silicon-steel strip instead of an assembly of punched silicon-steel laminations such as are used in the larger power-transformer cores. The flux path in the assembled core is parallel to the directions of steels grain or orientation. This results in a reduction in core losses for a given flux density and frequency, or it permits the use of higher core densities and reduced size of transformers for given core losses. Other necessary parts are:
l l
A suitable container for the assembled core and windings. A suitable medium for insulating the core and its windings from each other and from the container. Suitable bushings for insulating and bringing the terminals of the windings out of the case.
The two basic types of transformer construction are: 1. The core-type. 2. The shell-type.
120
The above two types differ in their relative arrangements of copper conductors and the iron cores. In the core-type, the copper virtually surrounds the iron core, while in the shell-type, the iron surrounds the copper winding.
Core-type T ransformer
The completed magnetic circuit of the core-type transformer is in the shape of the hollow rectangle, exactly as shown in Fig. 2.40 in which I0 is the no-load current and is the flux produced by it. N1 and N2 are the number of turns on the primary and secondary sides respectively.
f I0 Primary A.C. Supply V1 N1 Secondary N2 V2
NOTES
Fig. 2.40. Magnetic circuit of a core-type transformer.
The core is made up of silicon-steel laminations which are, either rectangular or L-shaped. With the coils wound on two legs the appearance is that of Fig. 2.41. If the two coils shown were the respective high and low-side coils as in Fig. 2.41, the leakage reactance would be much too great. In order to provide maximum linkage between windings, the group on each leg is made up of both high-tension and lowtension coils. This may be seen in Fig. 2.42, where a cross-sectional cut is taken across the legs of the core. By placing the high-voltage winding around the low-voltage winding, only one layer of high-voltage insulation is required, that between the two coils. If the high-voltage coils were adjacent to the core, an additional high-voltage insulation layer would be necessary between the coils and the iron core.
Primary and secondary coils
Primary and secondary coils
Fig. 2.41. Core-type transformer.
Core Low voltage insulation Low voltage winding High voltage insulation High voltage winding
Fig. 2.42. Cross-section of a core-type transformer.

Fig. 2.43 shows the coils and laminations of a core-type transformer with a cruciform core and circular coils.
l
Fig. 2.43 shows the different types of cores used in core-type transformers.
NOTES
Rectangular cores [Fig. 2.44 (a)] with rectangular cylindrical coils can be used for small size core-type transformers. For large size transformers it becomes wasteful to use rectangular cylindrical coils and so circular cylindrical coils are preferred. For such purposes, square cores may be used as shown in Fig. 2.44 (b) where circles represent the tubular former carrying the coils. Evidently a considerable amount of useful space is still wasted. A common improvement on the square core is to employ a cruciform core [Fig. 2.44 (c )] which demands, atleast, two sizes of core strips. For very large transformers, further core stepping is done as in Fig. 2.44 (d) where atleast three sizes of core plates are necessary. Core stepping not only gives high space factor but also results in reduced length of the mean turn and the consequent I2R loss. Three Fig. 2.43. Coils and laminations of a core-type transstepped core is the most commonly used although former. more steps may be used for very large transformers as shown in Fig. [2.44 (e)].
d
0.85d
0.71d
0.53d
0.71d (a) (b)
0.53d 0.85d (c)
0.90d
0.70d
0.92d
0.78d
0.42d
0.60d
0.42d 0.70d 0.90d

0.36d
0.36d
0.60d 0.78d 0.92d
(d)
(e)
Fig. 2.44. Various types of cores.
122
Shell-type T ransformer
In the shell-type construction the iron almost entirely surrounds the copper (Fig. 2.45). The core is made up of E-shaped or F-shaped laminations which are stacked to give a rectangular figure eight. All the windings are placed on the centre leg, and in order to reduce leakage, each high-side coil is adjacent to a low-side coil. The coils actually occupy the entire space of both windows, are flat or pencake in shape, and are usually constructed of strip copper. Again, to reduce the amount the high-voltage insulation required, the low-voltage coils are placed adjacent to the iron core.
Insulation f f
NOTES
Low voltage winding
High voltage winding
Fig. 2.45. Shell-type transformer.
Fig. 2.45 shows the coils and laminations of a typical shell-type transformer. Choice of Core- or Shell-type Construction. In general, the core-type has a longer mean length of core and a shorter mean length of coil turn. The core-type also has a smaller cross-section of iron and so will need a greater number of turns of wire, since, in general, not as high a flux may be reached in the core. However, core-type is better adopted for some high-voltage service since there is more room for insulation. The shell-type has better provision for mechanically supporting and bracing the coils. This allows better resistance to the very high mechanical forces that develop during a high-current short circuit.
Fig. 2.46. Coils and laminations of a shell-type transformer.
The choice of core- or shell type construction is usually one of cost, for similar characteristics can be obtained with both types. Both core and shell forms are used, and selection is based upon many factors such as voltage rating, kVA rating, weight, insulation stress, mechanical stress, and heat distribution.
Spiral-core T ransformer
The typical spiral core is shown in Fig. 2.47. The core is assembled either of a continuous strip of transformer steel wound in the form of a circular or elliptical cylinder or of a group of short strips assembled to produce the same elliptical-shaped core. By using this construction the core flux always follows along the grain of the iron. Coldrolled steel of high silicon content enables the designer to use higher operating flux densities with lower loss per kg. The higher flux density reduces the weight per kVA.
Wound cores
NOTES
Fig. 2.47. Spiral-core transformer.
2.13 TRANSFORMER WINDINGS, TERMINALS, TAPPINGS AND BUSHINGS

T ransformer Windings
The most important requirements of transformer windings are: 1. The winding should be economical both as regards initial cost, with a view to the market availability of copper, and the efficiency of the transformer in service. 2. The heating conditions of the windings should meet standard requirements, since departure from these requirements towards allowing higher temperature will drastically shorten the service life of the transformer. 3. The winding should be mechanically stable in respect to the forces appearing when sudden short circuit of the transformer occur. 4. The winding should have the necessary electrical strength in respect to over voltages. The different types of windings are classified and briefly discussed below: 1. Concentric windings (i) Cross-over (ii) Helical (iii) Disc. Concentric Windings Refer to Fig. 2.48. These windings are used for core-type transformers. Each limb is wound with a group of coils consisting of both primary and secondary turns which may be concentric cylinders. The l.v. winding is placed next to the core and h.v. winding on the outside. But the two windings can be sub-divided, and interlaced with high tension and low tension section alternately to reduce leakage reactance. These windings can be further divided as follows: 2. Sandwich windings
124
Core l.v. l.v.
h.v.
h.v.
NOTES
Fig. 2.48. Concentric coils.
(i) Cross-over Windings. Cross-over windings are used for currents up to 20 A and so they are suitable for h.v. winding of small transformers. The conductors are either cotton covered round wires or strips insulated with paper. Cross-over coils are wound over formers and each coil consists of a number of layers with a number of turns per layer. The complete winding consists of a number of coils connected in series. Two ends of each coil are brought out, one from inside and one from outside. The inside end of a coil is connected to the outside end of the adjacent coil. (ii) Helical Winding. A helical winding consists of rectangular strips wound in the form of a helix. The strips are wound in parallel radially and each turn occupies the total radial depth of winding. Helical coils are well suited for l.v. windings of large transformers. They can also be used for h.v. windings by putting extra insulation between layers in addition to insulation of conductors. (iii) Continuous Disc Winding. This type of winding consists of a number of flat strips wound spirally from inside (radially) outwards. The conductor is used in such lengths as are sufficient for complete winding or section of winding between tappings. The conductor can either be a single strip or a number of strips in parallel, wound on the flat. This gives a robust construction for each disc. The discs are wound on insulating cylinders spaced from it by strips along the length of cylinder. The discs are separated from each other with press board sectors attached to the vertical strips. The vertical and horizontal spacers provide ducts for free circulation of oil which is in contact with every turn. Sandwich Coils Sandwich coils (Fig. 2.49) are employed in transformers of shell-type. Both high and low voltage windings are split into a number of sections. Each high voltage section lies between the low voltage sections. The advantage of sandwich coils is that their leakage can be easily controlled and so any desired value of leakage reactance can be had by the division of windings.
125
Core
NOTES
l.v. h.v. l.v. h.v. l.v.
Fig. 2.49. Sandwich coils.
T erminals and Leads

The connection to the windings are of insulated copper rods or bars. The shape and size of leads is important in high voltage transformers owing to dielectric stress and corona which are caused at bends and corners. Connections from windings are directly taken to the busbars in the case of air-cooled transformers while they are taken to insulated bushings in the case of oil-cooled transformers.
T appings
In a supply network the voltage can be controlled by changing the transformation ratio. This can be done by tapping the winding in order to alter the number of turns. The change in number of turns may be effected when the transformer is out of circuit (known as off load tap changing) or when on load (known as on load tap changing). The tappings are provided on the high voltage winding because a fine voltage variation is obtained owing to large number of turns. It is difficult to obtain voltage variation within close percentage limits in low voltage winding as there are few turns and voltage per turn is a large percentage of the total voltage. In transformers, the tappings can be provided at: (i) phase ends; and (ii) neutral point or in the middle of the windings.
l
The advantage of providing tappings at phase ends is that the number of bushing insulators is reduced, this is important where the cover space is limited. Some transformers have reinforced insulation at the phase ends. It is essential that in such cases either the tapping should not be provided at end turns or the reinforcement should be carried beyond the lower tap. When the tappings are made at the neutral point the insulation between various parts is small. This arrangement is economical especially in the case of high voltage transformers.
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Bushings
The bushings are employed for insulating and bringing out terminals of the winding from the container to the external circuit. For low-voltage transformers this is accomplished by employing bushings of porcelain around the conductor at the point of entry. For high voltages it is necessary to employ bushings of larger sizes. In modern transformers the problem is met by using large porcelain or composition bushings for voltages as high as 33 kV, above that oil filled or condenser type bushings are used.
NOTES
2.14 TRANSFORMER COOLING

Cooling Methods
The transformers get heated due to iron and copper losses occurring in them. It is necessary to dissipate this heat so that the temperature of the windings is kept below the value at which the insulation begins to deteriorate. The cooling of transformers is more difficult than that of rotating machines because the rotating machines create a turbulent air flow which assists in removing the heat generated due to losses . Luckily the losses in transformers are comparatively small. Nevertheless the elaborate cooling arrangements have been devised to deal with the whole range of sizes. As far as cooling methods are concerned, the transformers are of following two types: 1. Dry type. 2. Oil immersed type. Dry Type Transformers. Small transformers upto 25 kVA size are of the dry type and have the following cooling arrangements: (i) Air Natural. In this method the natural circulation of surrounding air is utilized to carry away the heat generated by losses. A sheet metal enclosure protect the winding from mechanical injury. (ii) Air Blast. Here the transformer is cooled by a continuous blast of cool air forced through the core and windings (Fig. 2.50). The blast is produced by a fan. The air supply must be filtered to prevent accumulation of dust in ventilating ducts. Oil Immersed Transformers. In general most transformers are of oil immersed types. The oil provides better insulation than air and it is a better conductor of heat than air. Mineral oil is used for this purpose. Oil immersed transformers are classified as follows:
Coils
Core
Fan
Fig. 2.50
(i) Oil Immersed Self-cooled Transformers. The transformer is immersed in oil and heat generated in cores and windings is passed to oil by conduction. Oil in contact with heated parts rises and its place is taken by cool oil from the bottom.
NOTES
Transformer The natural oil transfers its heat to the body tank walls from where heat is taken away by the ambient air. The oil gets cooler and Cooling falls to the bottom from where it is tubes dissiptated into the surroundings. The tank surface is the best dissipator of heat but a plain tank will have to be excessively large, if used without any auxiliary means for high rating transformers. As both space and oil are costly, these auxiliary means should not increase the cubic capacity of Fig. 2.51. Transformer with the tank. The heat dissipating capacity can cooling tubes. be increased by providing (i) corrugations, (ii) fins, (iii) tubes (Fig. 2.51) and (iv) radiator tanks.
The advantages of oil natural cooling is that it does not clog the ducts and the windings are free from effects of moisture. (ii) Oil Immersed Forced Air-cooled Transformers. In this type of cooling, air is directed over the outer surfaces of the tank of the transformer immersed in oil. (iii) Oil Immersed Water-cooled Transformers. Heat is extracted from the oil by means of a stream of water pumped through a metallic coil immersed in the oil just below the top of the tank. The heated water is in turn cooled in a spray pond or a cooling tower. (iv) Oil Immersed Forced Oil-cooled Transformers. In such transformers heat is extracted from the oil by pumping the oil itself upward through the winding and then back by way of external radiators which may themselves be cooled by fans. The extra cost of oil pumping equipment must of course be economically justified but it has incidentally the advantage of reducing the temperature difference between the top and bottom of enclosing tank.
Conservator
Buchholz relay
Radiator
Fan Transformer tank Windings Air circulation Pump
Fig. 2.52. Air blast cooling radiator.

Fig. 2.52 shows the cooling of transformers having capacities from 10000 kVA and higher. In such cases air blast cooling of radiator is used.
Transformer Oil
It is a mineral oil obtained by refining crude petroleum. It serves the following purposes: Provides additional insulation. Carries away the heat generated in the core and coils. Protects the paper from dirt and moisture. The transformer oil should possess the following properties: 1. High dielectric strength. 2. Low viscosity to provide good heat transfer. 3. Good resistance to emulsion. 4. Free from inorganic acid, alkali and corrosive sulphur. 5. Free from sludging under normal operating conditions. 6. High flash/fire point.
NOTES
Conservator and Breather

Conservator. The oil should not be allowed to come in contact with atmospheric air as it may take up moisture which may spoil its insulating properties. Also air may cause acidity and sludging of oil. To prevent this, many transformers are provided with conservators. The function of a conservator (Fig. 2.52) is to take up contraction and expansion of oil without allowing it to come in contact with outside air. The conservator consists of an air tight metal-drum fixed above the level of the top of the tank and connected with it by a pipe. The main tank is completely filled with oil when cold. The conservator is partially filled with oil. So the oil surface in contact with air is greatly reduced. The sludge thus formed remains in the conservator itself and does not go to the main tank. Breather. When the temperature changes, the oil expands or contracts and there is a displacement of air. When the transformer cools, the oil level goes down, and air is drawn in. This is known as breathing. The air, coming in, is passed through an apparatus called breather for the purpose of extracting moisture. The breather consists of a small vessel which contains a drying agent like silica get crystal impregnated with cobalt crystal.
Note. Sludging means the slow formation of solid hydrocarbons due to heating and oxidation. The sludge deposit itself on the windings and cooling ducts producing overheating. This makes transformer still hotter producing more sludge. This process may continue till the transformer becomes unusable due to overheating. So the contact of oil with air should be avoided as the air contains oxygen.
129
2.15 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Elementary Theory of an Ideal Transformer
NOTES
The basic theory of a transformer is not difficult to understand. To simplify matters as much as possible, let us first consider an ideal transformer, that is, one in which the resistance of the windings is negligible and the core has no losses. Let the secondary be open (Fig. 2.53), and let a sine wave of potential difference v1 (Fig. 2.54) be impressed upon the primary. The impressed potential difference causes an alternating current to flow in the primary winding. Since the primary resistance is negligible and there are no losses in the core, the effective resistance is zero and the circuit is purely reactive. Hence the current wave i m lags the
Primary winding (N1 turns) V1 E1 f Secondary winding (N2 turns) E2 V2
Induced emf in primary = E1
Induced emf in secondary = E2
Fig. 2.53. Elementary diagram of an ideal transformer with an open secondary winding.
impressed voltage wave v1 by 90 time degrees, as shown in Fig. 2.55. The reactance of circuit is very high and the magnetizing current is very small. This current in the N1 turns of the primary magnetizes the core and produces a flux that is at all times proportional to the current (if the permeability of the circuit is assumed to be constant), and therefore in time phase with the current. The flux, by its rate of change, induces in the primary winding E1 which at every instant of time is equal in value and opposite in direction to V1. It is called counter e.m.f. of the primary. The value which the primary current attains must be such that the flux which it produces in the core is of sufficient value to induce in the primary the required counter e.m.f.
e1 u1 f 0
1m
V1 e2 90 p Im 2p E2 90 f
V1
E1
Fig. 2.54, 2.55. Current, voltage and flux curves of an ideal (no loss) transformer.
Since the flux also threads (or links) the secondary winding a voltage e2 is induced in the secondary. This voltage is likewise proportional to the rate of change of flux and so is in time phase with e1, but it may have any value depending upon the number of turns N2 in the secondary.
NOTES
E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Let N1 = number of turns in primary, N2 = number of turns in secondary, m = maximum flux in the core, Wb. = Bm A, [where Bm is the maximum flux density in the core and A is the core area], and f = frequency of a.c. input, Hz.
Cycle
Flux, f
fmax. Time, t fmax.
T=1 4 4f 1 f
T=
Fig. 2.56
Refer Fig. 2.56. Since the flux increases from its zero value to maximum value T 1 or m in one quarter of the cycle i.e., in second (T being time-period of the 4 4f cycle), Average rate of change of flux =
m = 4 f max Wb/s or volt 1 4f
If flux varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s. (root mean square) value of inducted e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying the average value with form factor.
r.m.s. value = 1.11 average value r.m.s. value of e.m.f./turn = 1.11 4fmax = 4.44fmax volt Now, r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding, E1 = 4.44fmax N1 ...(2.12) Similarly r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. in secondary is, E2 = 4.44fmax N2 ...(2.13) In an ideal transformer on no-load V1 = E1 and V2 = E2 (Fig. 2.53).
But, form factor =
131
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to primary voltage. It is denoted by the letter K. From eqns. (2.12) and (2.13),
l l
NOTES
E2 N = 2 =K E1 N1
...(2.14)
If N2 > N1 i.e., K > 1, then transformer is called step-up transformer. If N2 < N1 i.e., K < 1, then transformer is called step-down transformer. Input (VA) = Output (VA) V1I1 = V2I2 or E1I1 = E2I2
I2 E N 1 = 1 = 1 = N2 K I1 E2
Again for an ideal transformer
or
...(2.15)
i.e., Primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns. Example 2.3. A 40 kVA, single phase transformer has 400 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the secondary. The primary is connected to 2000 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine: (i) The secondary voltage on open circuit. (ii) The current flowing through the two windings on full-load. (iii) The maximum value of flux. Solution. Primary turns, Secondary turns, Rating = 40 kVA N1 = 400 N2 = 100
Primary induced voltage, E1 = V1 = 2000 V (i) Secondary voltage on open, circuit V2: Using the relation,
E2 N 2 = E1 N 1
E2 = E1 Hence, (ii) Primary current, I1: Secondary current, I2: Primary full-load current, I1 =
N2 N1
E2 = V2 = 2000
100 = 500 V 400 V2 = 500 V. (Ans.)
kVA 1000 40 1000 = 20 A (Ans.) = V1 2000
132
Secondary full-current,
kVA 1000 40 1000 I2 = = 80 A (Ans.) = V2 500
(iii) Maximum value of flux, max: Using e.m.f. equation, Hence, E1 = 4.44fmax N1 2000 = 4.44 50 max 400 max =
2000 = 0.0225 Wb. 4.44 50 400
NOTES
max = 0.0225 Wb. (Ans.)
Example 2.4. The voltage per turn of a single-phase transformer is 1.1 V. When the primary winding is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz A.C. supply, the secondary voltage is found to be 550 V. Find: (i) Primary and secondary turns. (ii) Core area if the maximum flux density is 1.1 T. Solution. Voltage per turn Primary, Secondary, Max. flux density, (i) Primary turns, N1 = Secondary turns, N2 = (ii) Core area A: Using the relation, E1 = 4.44fmax N1 220 = 4.44 50 max 200 max = Core area, A = 220 = 0.004955 Wb 4.44 50 200
0.004955 max = 0.004504 m2 Bmax 1.1
= 1.1 V E1 = 220 V E2 = 550 V
Bmax = 1.1 T
E1 220 = = 200. (Ans.) 1.1 1.1
E2 550 = = 500. (Ans.) 1.1 1.1
= 45.04 cm2. (Ans.)
Transformer Losses
The losses in a transformer are classified as follows: 1. Iron losses (or core losses). 2. Copper losses. Iron or Core Losses. It includes hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. (i) Hysteresis Loss. Since the flux in a transformer core is alternating, power is required for the continuous reversals of the elementary magnets of which the iron is composed. This loss is known as hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis loss
= Khf B1.6max
...(2.16)
where, f is the frequency in Hz, Bmax is the maximum flux density in core and Kh is a constant. (ii) Eddy Current Loss. This is due to the flow of eddy currents in the core. Thin laminations, insulated from each other, reduce the eddy current loss to small proportion. Eddy current loss where Ke is a constant. Iron or core loss is found from open circuit test. The input of the transformer when on no-load measures the core loss. Copper Losses. These losses are due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Total copper loss = I12R1 + I22R2 = I12R01 + I22R02 These losses, as is evident, are proportional to square of the current (or kVA)2. The value of copper losses is found from the short-circuit test. = Ke f 2 B2max ...(2.17)
NOTES
Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as the ratio of power output to power input. Efficiency = = or Efficiency = output input output output = output + losses output + cu loss + iron loss input losses losses =1 input input ...(2.18) ...(2.19)
It may be noted that efficiency is based on power output in watts and not in volt-amperes, although losses are proportional to volt-ampere. Hence at any volt-ampere load, the efficiency depends on power factor, being maximum at unity power factor. Efficiency can be calculated by determining core losses from open-circuit test and copper losses from short-circuit test. Condition for Maximum Efficiency: Iron losses, Pi = hysteresis loss + eddy current loss Copper losses,Pc = = Ph 2 I1 R01 + Pe or I22R02
Considering Primary Side: Input to primary = V1I1 cos 1 Efficiency,

V1 I1 cos 1 losses V1 I1 cos 1 I1 R01 Pi = = V1 I1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
2
134
I1 R01 Pi = =1 V1 cos 1 I1V1 cos 1
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. I1, we get

R01 Pi d =0 + 2 dI1 V1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
NOTES
For to be maximum, d = 0. Hence the above equation reduces to dI1

R01 Pi + 2 V1 cos 1 V1 I1 cos 1
or or
Pi = I12R01 or I22R02 Copper losses = Iron losses The output current corresponding to maximum efficiency is I2 =
Pi R02
...(2.20)
...(2.21)
By proper design it is possible to make the maximum efficiency occur at any desired load.
2.16 INDUCTION MACHINES

Introduction. An induction motor is simply an electric transformer whose magnetic circuit is separated by an air gap into two relatively movable portions, one carrying the primary and the other, the secondary winding. Alternating current supplied to the primary winding from an electric power system induces an opposing current in the secondary winding, when latter is short-circuited or closed through an external impedance. Relative motion between the primary and secondary structures is produced by the electromagnetic forces corresponding to the power thus transferred across the air gap by induction. The essential feature which distinguishes the induction machine from other types of electric motors is that the secondary currents are created solely by induction, as in a transformer instead of being supplied by a D.C. exciter or other external power source, as in synchronous and D.C. machines. Advantages. Three-phase induction motor is the most commonly used motor in industrial applications because of the advantages listed below: 1. Simple design 2. Rugged construction 3. Reliable operation 4. Low initial cost 5. Easy operation and simple maintenance
6. High efficiency 7. Simple control gear for starting and speed control. Applications. Induction motors are available with torque characteristics suitable for a wide variety of loads as follows: (i) The standard motor has a starting torque of about 120 to 150 per cent of full-load torque. Such motors are suitable for most applications. (ii) For starting loads such as small refrigerating machines or plunger pumps operating against full pressure or belt conveyors, high torque motors with a starting torque of twice normal full-load torque, or more, are used. (iii) For driving machines that use large flywheels to carry peak loads, such as punch presses and shears, a high-torque motor with a slip at full-load up to 10 per cent is available. The high slip permits enough change in speed to make possible the proper functioning of the flywheel. (iv) By the use of a wound-rotor with suitable controller and external resistances connected in series with the rotor winding, it is possible to obtain any value of starting torque up to the maximum breakdown torque. Such motors are well adapted as constant-speed drives for loads that have large friction loads to overcome at starting.
NOTES
2.17 CLASSIFICATION OF A.C. MOTORS

Different A.C. motors may be classified as follows: 1. According to the type of current: (i) Single-phase 2. According to speed: (i) Constant speed (iii) Adjustable speed. 3. According to principle of operation: (A) Synchronous motors (i) Plain (B) Asynchronous motors (ii) Super. (ii) Variable speed (ii) Three-phase.
(a) Induction motors: (i) Squirrel cage single double (ii) Slip-ring (external resistance) (b) Commutator motors: (i) Series single-phase universal
136
(ii) Compensated conductively inductively. 4. According to structural features: (i) Open (iii) Semi-enclosed (v) Pipe-ventilated (vii) Splash proof (ix) Explosion proof (ii) Enclosed (iv) Ventilated (vi) Riveted frame eye (viii) Totally enclosed fan-cooled (x) Water proof.
NOTES
2.18 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

The Stator
l
The stator frame consists of a symmetrical and substantial casting, having feet cast integral with it. The stator core, consisting of high grade, low loss electrical sheet-steel stampings, is assembled in the frame under hydraulic pressure. The thickness of stampings/laminations is usually from 0.35 to 0.6 mm. The stator laminations are punched in one piece for small induction motor (Fig. 2.57). In induction machines of large size the stator core is assembled from a large number of segmental laminations.
The slots are sometimes of the open type (i.e., having parallel walls) for the accommodation of former wound coils. But the usual practice is to have practically enclosed slots in order to reduce the effective length of air-gap.
l
The stator windings are given the utmost care to make them mechanically and electrically sound, so as to ensure long life and high efficiency. After the winding is in position it is thoroughly dried out whilst still hot and is completely immersed in a high grade synthetic resin varnish. It is then acid, alkali, moisture and oil proof.
Fig. 2.57. Stator stamping.
For small motors working at ordinary voltages, single layer mush winding is used. For medium size machines double layer lap winding with diamond shaped coils is used. Single layer concentric windings are used for large motors working at high voltages.
l
Frames of electrical machines house the stator core. Frames of small and medium sizes of induction motors have hollow cylindrical form and that of larger motors have the shape of a circular box. In small induction motors,
NOTES
having a frame diameter of up to about 150 cm, the frame also supports the end shields. The frame should be strong and rigid as rigidity is very important in the case of induction motors of large dimensions. This is because the length of the air gap is very small and if the frame is not rigid, it would create an irregular air gap around the machine resulting in production of unbalanced magnetic pull. Frames for small machines are made as a single unit and are usually cast. The frames of medium and large sized machines are fabricated from rolled steel plates.
The Rotor
The rotors are of two types: 1. Squirrel-cage; 2. Wound rotor. Squirrel-cage. The squirrel-cage rotor is made up of stampings (Fig. 2.58) which are keyed directly to the shaft. The slots are partially closed and the winding consists of embedded copper bars to which the short-circuited rings are brazed. The squirrel cage rotor is so robust that it is almost indestructible. The great majority of present day induction motors are manufactured with squirrel-cage rotors, a common practice being to employ winding of cast aluminium. In this construction the assembled rotor laminations are placed in a mould after which molten aluminium is forced in, under pressure, to form bars, end rings and cooling fans as extension of end rings. This is known as die cast rotor and has become very popular as there are no joints and thus there is no possibility of high contact resistance. In this type of rotor, it may be noted that slots are not made parallel to the shaft but they are skewed to serve the following purposes:
Fig. 2.58. Rotor stamping.
(i) To make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum. (ii) To reduce the locking tendency of the rotor. Wound Rotor. The wound rotor has also slotted stampings and the windings are former wound. The wound rotor construction is employed for induction motors requiring speed control or extremely high values of starting torque. The wound rotor has completely insulated copper windings very much like the stator windings. The windings can be connected in star or delta and the three ends are brought out at the three slip rings. The current is collected from these slip rings with carbon brushes from which it is led to the resistances for starting purposes. When the motor is running, the slip rings are short-circuited by means of a collar, which is pushed along the shaft and connects all the slip rings together on the inside. Usually the brushes are provided with a device for lifting them from the slip rings when the motor has started up, thus reducing the wear and the frictional losses.
Stator winding Stator punchings Endshields Air deflector and inner dust cap Ball bearings Terminal box
NOTES
Ball bearing Rotor Bearing housing
Outer dust cap
Terminal box cover
Outer dust cap
Fig. 2.59. Component parts of a small squirrel-cage induction motor.
The number of slots in the rotor should never be equal to the number of slots in the stator. If they are, there would be a variation of reluctance of the magnetic path from maximum, when teeth are opposite slots, to minimum when teeth are opposite teeth. The resulting flux pulsations would have a high frequency, since the periodic time would be the interval period for a tooth to occupy similar positions opposite two successive teeth. This will not only cause extra iron loss but the rotor will tend to lock with the stator if at the time of starting teeth are opposite teeth. The best plan is to make the number of the stator and the rotor teeth prime to each other.
Skewed rotor Slip-rings
Fig. 2.60. Induction motor with phase-wound rotor showing the three slip rings on the rotor shaft.
Figs. 2.61 and 2.62 show squirrel-cage and phase-wound induction motors respectively.
139
Stator
Main switch
Main switch
NOTES
Sliprings Starting resistance
Fig. 2.61. Squirrel-cage motor.
Fig. 2.62. Phase-wound motor connected to a three-phase star-connected starting resistance.
Advantages of a squirrel-cage motor over a phase-wound induction motor. As compared with a wound rotor a squirrel-cage induction motor entails the following advantages: 1. Slightly higher efficiency. 2. Cheaper and rugged in construction. 3. No slip rings, brush gear, short-circuiting devices, rotor terminals for starting rheostats are required. The star-delta starter is sufficient for starting. 4. It has better space factor for rotor slots, a shorter overhang and consequently a small copper loss. 5. It has a smaller rotor overhang leakage which gives a better power factor and a greater pull out torque and overload capacity. 6. It has bare end rings, a large space for fans and thus the cooling conditions are better. The major disadvantage of squirrel-cage motor is that it is not possible to insert resistance in the rotor circuit for the purpose of increasing the starting torque. The cage rotor has a smaller starting torque and large starting current as compared with wound rotor.
Slip Rings
The slip rings for wound rotor machines are made of either brass or phosphor bronze. They are shrunk on to a cast iron sleeve with moulded silica insulation. This assembly is passed on to the rotor shaft. The slip rings are rotated either between the core and the bearing or on the shaft extension. In the latter case the shaft is made hollow to allow the three connections from rotor to slip rings to pass through bearings.
Shaft and Bearings

In an induction motor the air gap is made as small as possible. Therefore the shaft is made short and stiff in order that the rotor may not have any significant deflection, as even a small deflection would create large irregularities in the air gap which would lead to production of an unbalanced magnetic pull. There is also a
possibility of rotor and stator fouling with each other. Ball and roller bearings are generally used as with their use, accurate centering is much simpler than with journal bearings. Also the overall length of machine is reduced. For small motors, a roller bearing may be used at the driving end and a ball bearing at the nondriving end. For large and heavy rotors journal bearings are used.
NOTES
2.19 THEORY OF OPERATION OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR

When a three-phase is given to the stator winding a rotating field is set-up. This field sweeps past the rotor (conductors) and by virtue of relative motion, an e.m.f. is induced in the conductors which form the rotor winding. Since this winding is in the form of a closed circuit, a current flows, the direction of which is, by Lenzs law, such as to oppose the change causing it. Now, the change is the relative motion of the rotating field and the rotor, so that, to oppose this, the rotor runs in the same direction as the field and attempts to catch up with it. It is clear that torque must be produced to cause rotation, and this torque is due to the fact that currents flow in the rotor conductors which are situated in, and at right angles to, a magnetic field.
Np
Ns Force Rotor Ns = Synchoronous speed, r.p.m. N = Rotor speed, r.p.m. Sp = South pole Np = North pole N
Rotating field Ns
Stator
Sp
Ns N
Rotor
Fig. 2.63. Induction motor action.
Fig. 2.63 shows the induction motor action.

l
When the motor shaft is not loaded, the machine has only to rotate itself against the mechanical losses and the rotor speed is very close to the synchronous speed. However, the rotor speed cannot become equal to the synchronous speed because if it does so, the e.m.f. induced in the rotor winding would become zero and there will be no torque. Hence the speed remains slightly less than the synchronous speed. If the motor shaft is loaded, the rotor will slow down and the relative speed of the rotor with respect to the stator rotating field will increase. The e.m.f. induced in the rotor winding will increase and will produce more rotor current which will increase the electromagnetic torque produced by the motor. Conditions of equilibrium are attained when the rotor speed has adjusted to a new value so that the electromagnetic torque is sufficient to balance the mechanical or load torque applied to the shaft. The speed of the motor when running under full load conditions is somewhat less than the no-load speed.
2.20 SLIP
l
NOTES
As earlier stated, the rotor speed must always remain less than the synchronous speed. The difference between the synchronous speed and the rotor speed is known as slip. It is usually expressed as a fraction of the synchronous speed. Thus slip s is s=
Ns N Ns
...(2.22) ...(2.23)
or
N = Ns(1 s) where Ns = synchronous speed (r.p.m.) N = motor speed (r.p.m.).
In practice the value of slip is very small. At no-load, slip is around 1% or so and at full-load it is around 3%. For large efficient machines the slip at full-load may be around 1% only. The induction motor, is therefore, a motor with substantially constant speed and fills the same role as D.C. shunt motor.
l
When the rotor is stationary (standstill) its speed is zero and s = 1. The rotor cannot run at synchronous speed because then there will be no rotor e.m.f. and no rotor current and torque. If the rotor is to run at synchronous speed an external torque is necessary. If the rotor is driven such that N > Ns, the slip becomes negative, the rotor torque opposes the external driving torque and the machine acts as induction generator. The induction motor derives its name from the fact that the current in the rotor circuit is induced from the stator. There is no external connection to the rotor except for some special purposes.
If the rotor reactance at standstill is X2 its value at slip s becomes sX2. This is very desirable, for at no-load the reactance becomes almost negligible and the rotor impedance is now all resistance. Further if the rotor resistance is small the rotor current is large, so that motor works with a large torque which brings the speed near to synchronous speed, i.e., the slip is reduced.
2.21 FREQUENCY OF ROTOR CURRENT

At standstill (i.e., when the rotor is stationary), the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the supply frequency (f). But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends upon the relative speed or slip-speed. If fr is the frequency of the rotor current, then Ns N = Also
120 fr p
...(i) ...(ii)
Ns =
120f p
142
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get

N s N fr = Ns f fr = sf
or s =
fr f
or
...(2.24)
NOTES
2.22 ROTOR E.M.F. AND ROTOR CURRENT

Rotor e.m.f When the rotor is stationary, an induction motor is equivalent to a 3-phase transformer with secondary short-circuited. Therefore, the induced e.m.f. per phase E2 in the rotor at the instant of starting is given as: E2 = E1 where
N2 N1
...(2.25)
E1 = applied voltage per phase to primary i.e., stator winding, N1 = number of stator turns, and N2 = number of rotor turns.
When the rotor starts gaining speed, the relative speed of the rotor with respect to stator flux i.e., slip, is decreased. Hence induced e.m.f. in the rotor, which is directly proportional to the relative speed i.e., slip, is also decreased and is given by sE2. Hence for slip s, the induced e.m.f. in the rotor is s times the induced e.m.f. in the rotor at standstill. Rotor Current Let R2 = rotor resistance/phase, L2 = rotor inductance/phase, and E2 = induced e.m.f. of rotor/phase at standstill. At Standstill Induced e.m.f. of rotor/phase Rotor winding resistance/phase = E2 = R2
2 2
Rotor winding reactance/phase, X2 = 2fL2 where f is the supply frequency Rotor impedance/phase, Rotor current/phase = At Slip s Induced e.m.f. of rotor/phase Rotor winding resistance Rotor winding reactance = sE2 = R2 = 2frL2 = 2sfL2 = s(2fL2) = sX2 Z2 = E2 = Z2
R2 + X 2
E2 R2 + X 2
2 2
143
Rotor winding impedance/phase = Rotor current/phase, I2 = sE 2
R2 + ( sX 2 ) 2
sE 2 R2 + ( sX 2 ) 2 = E2 ( R2 / s ) 2 + X 2
2 2
NOTES
R2 + s 2 X 2
...(2.26)
The rotor currrent I2 lags the rotor voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle 2 given by 2 = tan1 Power factor of rotor current, cos 2 = R2 R2 + s X 2
2 2 2
FG sX IJ HRK
2
R2 / s ( R2 / s ) 2 + X 2
2
...(2.27)
2.23 TORQUE AND POWER

The torque of an induction motor (being due to interaction of a rotor and stator fields), T I2 cos 2 where = flux of rotating stator, I2 = rotor current/phase, and cos 2 = rotor power factor. Since rotor e.m.f./phase at standstill, E2 or T E2I2 cos 2 T = kE2I2 cos 2 where k is any constant T = kE2 sE 2 R + s X2
2 2 2
...(2.28) R2 R + s2 X 2
2 2
i.e.,
T=
ksR2 E2 2 R2 2 + s 2 X 2 2
...(2.29)
Starting Torque
At start slip s = 1. Therefore, expression for starting torque may be obtained by putting s = 1 in eqn. 2.29. Starting torque, Tst =
kR2 E2 2 R2 2 + X 2 2
...(2.30)
144
Condition for Maximum Torque

The value of torque when motor is running is given by T= Torque will be maximum when,
ksR2 E2 2 R2 2 + s 2 X 2 2
R2
NOTES
R2 + s 2 X 2
or
sR2
or
R2 2 + sX 2 s
R2 s
FG R X s IJ + 2R X H s K
2 2 2
R2
is maximum, viz.,
2
X2 s = 0
or
s (= smT) =
R2 X2
...(2.31)
(where smT = slip corresponding to maximum torque) Maximum torque, Tmax =

kE 2 2X 2
2
...(2.32)
From the above expression, the following conclusions can be drawn: Maximum torque is independent of rotor circuit resistance. Maximum torque varies inversely as standstill reactance of the rotor. Therefore to have maximum torque, standstill reactance (i.e., inductance) of the rotor should be kept as small as possible. l The slip at which the maximum torque occurs depends upon the resistance of the rotor. The condition for getting maximum torque at starting can be obtained by putting s = 1 in eqn. (2.32). Thus, starting torque will be maximum if
l l
R2 = s = 1 or R2 = X2. X2
Starting Torque of a Squirrel-cage Motor

The squirrel-cage rotor resistance is fixed and small as compared to its reactance which is very large especially at start (because at standstill the frequency of rotor current is equal to that of supply frequency). Hence, the starting current I2 of the rotor, though very large in magnitude, lags by a very large angle behind E2; consequently the starting torque per ampere is very poor. It is roughly 1.5 times the full-load torque although the starting current is 5 to 7 times the full-load current. Thus such motors are not suitable for applications where these have to be started against heavy loads.
Starting Torque of a Slip Ring Motor

In a slip ring motor the torque is increased by improving its power factor by adding external resistance in the rotor circuit from the star- connected rheostat; as
NOTES
the motor gains speed the rheostat resistance is gradually cut out. This additional resistance, however, increases the rotor impedance and so reduces the rotor current. At first, the effect of improved power factor predominates the current-decreasing effect of impedance, hence starting torque is increased. But after a certain point, the effect of increased impedance predominates the effect of improved power factor and so the torque starts decreasing.
Torque-Slip and Torque-Speed Curves

The expression for torque is as follows: T=
ksR2 E 2 2 R2 2 + s 2 X 2 2
From the above expression, it is evident, that

l l
Torque is zero when slip s = 0 (i.e., speed is synchronous). When slip s is very low the value of the term sX2 is very small and is negligible in comparison with R2, therefore torque T is approximately proportional to slip s if rotor resistance R2 is constant. This means that at speeds near to synchronous speed the torque-speed and torque-slip curves are approximately straight lines (Figs. 2.64 and 2.65). When the slip s increases (i.e., as the speed decreases with increase in load) torque increases and reaches its maximum value when s =
R2 . X2
The maximum torque is also known as pull-out or break-down torque.

l
When the slip is further increased the torque decreases. The result is that motor slows down and eventually stops. The motor operates for the value of slip between zero and that corresponding to maximum torque.
With higher slip, R2 becomes negligible as compared to sX2 and torque varies as follows: T
s s X2
2 2
1 if standstill reactance is constant. s
With large rotor resistance

Torque
With medium resistance With low resistance
0.25 Ns
0.5 Ns
0.75 Ns
Ns
Fig. 2.64. Torque-speed curves.
146
With low rotor resistance
Torque
NOTES
With medium rotor resistance With large rotor resistance 0 0.25 0.5 Slip 0.75 1.0
Fig. 2.65. Torque-slip curves.
This means that speed-torque or slip-torque curves are rectangular hyperbola with the speed or slip beyond that corresponding to maximum torque. Figs. 2.64 and 2.65 show the torque-speed and torque-slip curves for different values of rotor resistance. It is observed that although maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance R2, yet the exact location of Tm is dependent on it. Greater the R2, greater is the value of slip at which maximum torque occurs. Example 2.5. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 50-Hz induction motor is running at 1440 r.p.m. Determine the slip speed and slip. Solution. Number of poles, p = 4 Frequency, Slip speed =? Slip =? Synchronous speed, Ns = Slip speed Slip, 120f 120 50 = = 1500 r.p.m. p 4
N s N 1500 1440 = = 0.04. (Ans.) Ns 1500
f = 50 Hz
Actual speed of rotor,N = 1440 r.p.m.
= Ns N = 1500 1440 = 60 r.p.m. (Ans.) s=
Example 2.6. A 3-phase alternator having 12-poles is driven at a speed of 500 r.p.m. It supplies power to an 8-pole, 3-phase induction motor. If the slip of the motor at full-load is 4%, calculate the full-load speed of the motor. Solution. Number of poles of the alternator Speed of alternator Number of poles of induction motor Percentage slip Full-load speed, N: Supply frequency, f=
12 500 = 50 Hz 120
= 12 = 500 r.p.m. =8 = 4%
147
Synchronous speed, Ns = % slip = 4=
120 50 = 750 r.p.m. 8

Ns N 100 Ns
NOTES
750 N 100 750
4 750 = 720 r.p.m. 100 Hence, full-load speed, N = 720 r.p.m. (Ans.)
N = 750
2.24 INDUCTION GENERATOR

l
Any induction motor, if driven above its synchronous speed when connected to an A.C. power source, will deliver power to the external circuit. This generator operation is easily visualised for motor-circle diagram corresponding to the lower half of the circle in which the current vector is described below the OS line. A unique feature is that the power factor of the output is fixed in value by the generator characteristics and is always leading, independent of the external circuit. The explanation is that the generator draws all its excitation from the system and so must receive a definite amount of lagging kVA for a given voltage and load currents. For this reason, induction generators alone cannot supply a power system but must always operate in parallel with synchronous machines or with capacitors. They are, therefore, no more helpful in system stability than the addition of parallel reactors with a rating equal to the generator magnetizing reactance. An induction generator delivers an instantaneous 3-phase short-circuit current equal to the terminal voltage divided by its standstill reactance, but its rate of decay is much faster than that of a synchronous generator of the same rating, and its sustained short-circuit current is zero. Such an induction generator must have a laminated rotor, to provide for the slip frequency rotor magnetic field, its construction is not adapted to high speeds as synchronous machines employing solid steel rotors. For these various reasons, induction generators have found few practical applications, their chief use being perhaps in variable-ratio frequency converter sets, where the induction end of the set operates as a motor or a generator depending on the direction of power flow through the set. The principle of the induction generator is important, however, in the dynamic braking of induction motors; the machine acts as an overspeed device and produces braking action when the motor speed exceeds synchronous speed, such an induction motor will automatically become an induction generator in that event. It is also important in computing short-circuit system protection when induction motors are used.
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Advantages: 1. It does not hunt or drop out of synchronism. 2. Simple and rugged in construction. 3. Cheaper in cost. 4. Easy maintenance. 5. Induction regulators provide a constant voltage adjustment depending on the loading of the lines. Disadvantages: 1. Cannot be operated independently. 2. Can deliver only leading current (whereas most commercial loads require lagging current). 3. Dangerously high voltages may occur over long transmission lines if the synchronous machines at the far end become disconnected and the line capacitance excites the induction machines. 4. The induction generators are not helpful in system stability. Applications: The induction generator is very useful in the following cases/applications: 1. When the prime-mover does not run at constant speed (such as in hydroelectric) stations having a variable low-head water supply. 2. For installation in small power stations where it can be operated in parallel and feeding into a common mains without attendant. 3. For braking purposes in railway work.
NOTES
2.25 SINGLE PHASE MOTORS

General Aspects
The number of machines operating from single-phase supplies is greater than all other types taken in total. For the most part, however, they are only used in the smaller sizes, less than 5 kW and mostly in the fractional H.P. range. They operate at lower power-factors and are relatively inefficient when compared with polyphase motors. Though simplicity might be expected in view of the two-line supply, the analysis is quite complicated.
l
Single phase motors perform a great variety of useful services in the home, the office, the factory, in business establishments, on the farm, and many other places where electricity is available. Since the requirements of the numerous applications differ so widely, the motor-manufacturing industry has developed several types of such machines, each type having operating characteristics that meet definite demands. For example, one type operates satisfactorily on direct current or any frequency up to 60 cycles; another rotates at absolutely constant speed, regardless of load; another develops considerable starting torque and still another, although not capable of
149
developing much starting torque, is nevertheless extremely cheap to make and very rugged.
NOTES
Types of Single-phase Motor

The single-phase motors may be of the following types: 1. Single-phase Induction Motors: A. Split-phase motors (i) Resistance-start motor (ii) Capacitor-start motor (iii) Permanent-split (single-value) capacitor motor (iv) Two-value capacitor motor. B. Shaded-pole induction motor. C. Reluctance-start induction motor. D. Repulsion-start induction motor. 2. Commutator-Type, Single-Phase Motors: A. Repulsion motor. C. A.C. series motor. A. Reluctance motor. B. Repulsion-induction motor. D. Universal motor. B. Hysteresis motor.
3. Single-phase Synchronous Motors: C. Sub-synchronous motor.
Single-phase Induction Motors

Applications and Disadvantages Applications: Single phase induction motors are in very wide use in industry especially in fractional horse-power field. They are extensively used for electric drive for low power constant speed apparatus such as machine tools, domestic apparatus and agricultural machinery in circumstances where a three-phase supply is not readily available.
l l
There is a large demand for single-phase induction motors in sizes ranging from a fraction of horse-power upto about 5 H.P.
Disadvantages: Though these machines are useful for small outputs, they are not used for large powers as they suffer from many disadvantages and are never used in cases where three-phase machines can be adopted. The main disadvantages of single-phase induction motors are: 1. Their output is only 50% of the three-phase motor, for a given frame size and temperature rise. 2. They have lower power factor. 3. Lower-efficiency.
150
4. These motors do not have inherent starting torque. 5. More expensive than three-phase motors of the same output. Construction and Working Construction:
l
NOTES
A single phase induction motor is similar to a 3- squirrel-cage induction motor in physical appearance. Its rotor is essentially the same as that used in 3- induction motors. Except for shaded pole motors, the stator is also very similar. There is a uniform air-gap between the stator and rotor but no electrical connection between them. It can be wound for any even number of poles, two, four and six being most common. Adjacent poles have opposite magnetic property and synchronous speed equation, Ns = 120f also applies. p
The stator windings differ in the following two aspects: Firstly single phase motors are usually provided with concentric coils. Secondly, these motors normally have two stator windings. In motors that operate with both windings energised, the winding with the heaviest wire is known as the main winding and the other is called the auxiliary winding. If the motor runs with auxiliary winding open, these windings are usually referred as running and starting. In most of motors the main winding is placed at the bottom of the slots and the starting winding on top but shifted 90 from the running winding.
Working: When the stator winding of a single phase induction motor is connected to single phase A.C. supply, a magnetic field is developed, whose axis is always along the axis of stator coils. The magnetic field produced by the stator coils is pulsating, varying sinusoidally with time. Currents are induced in the rotor conductors by transformer action, these currents being in such a direction as to oppose the stator m.m.f. Then the axis of the rotor m.m.f. wave coincides with that of the stator field, the torque angle is, therefore, zero and no torque is developed on starting. However, if the rotor is given a push by hand or by other means in either direction, it will pick-up the speed and continue to rotate in the same direction developing operating torque. Thus a single phase induction motor is not inherently self starting and requires some special means for starting. The above mentioned behaviour of this type of motor can be explained by any one of the following theories: 1. Double revolving field theory 2. Cross-field theory. The results given by both the theories are approximately same.
151
SUMMARY
1. An electromechanical energy conversion device is one which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and mechanical energy into electrical energy. 2. The phenomenon where by an e.m.f. and hence current is induced in any conductor which is cut across or cut by a magnetic flux is known as electromagnetic induction. 3. The examples of singly-excited magnetic field system are electromagnetic relays, reluctance motor. 4. The examples of multiply-excited magnetic field systems are synchronous motor, alternator on which stator and rotor have A.C. and D.C. excitation respectively. 5. The expression for mechanical force developed in a current excited system is given as:
NOTES
W fld (i, x) . x 6. Basic type of D.C. machine is that of commutator type. This is actually an alternating current (A.C.) machine, but furnished with a special device, a commutator, which under certain conditions converts alternating current into direct current. Ffld =
7. An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical energy (or power). It works on the following principle: Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic induction. 8. The function of a transformer is to transform alternating current energy from one voltage into another voltage. 9. A transformer operates on the principle of mutual inductance between two (sometimes more) inductively coupled coils. 10. Both core and shell types of transformers are used, and selection is based upon many factory such as voltage rating, kVA rating, weight insulation stress, mechanical stress, and heat distribution.
GLOSSARY
Electromagnetic induction: It is a phenomenon whereby an e.m.f. and hence current is induced in any conductor which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux. Yoke: It is a ring shaped portion of a D.C. machine which serve as the path for the main and commutating pole fluxes. Commutator: It is a device which converts alternating voltage to a direct voltage.
Speed regulation: The change in speed when the load on the motor is reduced from rated value to zero, expressed as percent of the rated load speed. Transformer: A transformer is a static electromagnetic device designed for the transformation of the (primary) alternating current system into another (secondary) one of the same frequency with other characteristics, in particular other voltage and current. Transformer efficiency: The efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as the ratio of power output to power input. Efficiency =
Output Input
NOTES
Slip: The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and the rotor speed (N) is known as slip. It is usually expressed as a fraction of the synchronous speed. Thus, slip (s) is s=
Ns N Ns
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction. 2. Explain briefly an electromechanical energy conversion device with the help of a block diagram. 3. For a singly excited magnetic field system, derive the relation for the magnetic stored energy. 4. Show that the torque developed in a doubly excited system is equal to the rate of increase of field energy with respect to displacement at constant. 5. Derive an expression for the magnetic force developed in a multiplyexcited translational magnetic system. 6. Discuss briefly about torque production in rotating machines. 7. Discuss briefly general analysis of electromechanical system, and derive an expression for the mechanical force developed in a current excited system. 8. What is a basic type of D.C. machine ? 9. Explain the principle on which a generator works. 10. Explain the construction and working of an elementary generator. 11. Describe briefly various parts of a D.C. machine. 12. Why is a commutator and brush arrangement necessary for operation of a D.C. machine ? 13. Name the main parts of a D.C. machine and state the materials of which each part is made. 14. Enumerate all parts of a D.C. machine and indicate their functions.
153
15. Draw up the winding table for a 4 pole, wave connected armature having 30 coil sides and give a developed diagram of the winding showing the polarity and position of the brushes, the main poles and the direction of motion of the armature for a D.C. motor. 16. Draw the developed winding diagram of lap winding for 6 poles, 18 slots with two coil sides/slot, double layer showing therein position of poles, direction of motion, direction of generated e.m.f. and position of brushes. 17. Derive the e.m.f. equation of a D.C. generator. 18. How are D.C. generators classified? 19. What is the difference between a separately excited and a self-excited generator? 20. Sketch the following types of D.C. generators : (i) Shunt (iii) Compound. State with reason(s) where each is used ? 21. What is the difference between the short-shunt and long shunt compound generators ? 22. With the help of a neat diagram show power division in a D.C. generator. 23. What is the working principle of a D.C. motor? 24. In every D.C. generator motor action occurs and in every D.C. motor a generator action occurs. Explain. 25. What is torque ? What is the source of the torque force in a D.C. motor? 26. What is back e.m.f. or counter voltage? 27. Explain speed-current and torque-current characteristics of a series motor? 28. What is meant by a compound motor? 29. What conditions require the use of a compound motor? 30. What is a transformer? How does it transfer electric energy from one circuit to another? 31. Explain the principle of operation of a transformer. 32. What is meant by transformer action? Under what conditions will it take place? 33. If an alternating current is impressed on one coil, what will be the frequency of the induced voltage in another coil with which it is coupled? 34. Derive an expression for induced e.m.f. in a transformer in terms of frequency, the maximum value of flux and the number of turns on the windings. 35. Derive an expression for the e.m.f. of an ideal transformer winding. 36. Losses and efficiency of a transformer. Explain briefly. 37. Explain the principle of operation of the polyphase induction motor. 38. Show that a rotating magnetic field can be produced by the use of 3-phase currents of equal magnitude. (ii) Series
NOTES
154
39. What is meant by slip in an induction motor? Develop an expression for the frequency of rotor currents in it. 40. What are the applications of single-phase motors?
NOTES
FURTHER READINGS
Muthusubramanian R., Salivahanan S. and Murleedharan K.A., Basic Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, Tata Mchraw Hill, Second Edition, (2006). Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd. Prem Kumar N., Basic Electrical Engineering, Anuradha Publishers, (2003).
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UNIT
NOTES
3
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS
STRUCTURE
3.1 Semiconductors 3.2 P-N Junction Diode 3.3 Zener Diode 3.4 Rectifiers 3.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) 3.6 Point-contact Transistor 3.7 Junction Transistor 3.8 P-N-P and N-P-N Transistors 3.9 Transistor Circuit Configuration 3.10 Common-base (CB) Configuration 3.11 Common-emitter (CE) Configuration 3.12 Common-collector (CC) Configuration 3.13 Small Signal Amplifiers 3.14 Common Emitter Amplifier Design 3.15 Capacitor Coupled Two-stage Common Emitter Amplifier 3.16 Direct Coupling between Stages Direct Coupled Circuit 3.17 Two-stage Circuit with Emitter Follower Output 3.18 Small-signal High Frequency Amplifier Summary Glossary Review Questions Further Readings
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to: determine characteristics of semiconductors, P-N junction diode, Zener effects and Zener diode.
156
give concepts about half wave and full wave rectifiers with voltage regulation. define Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), regarding its characteristics and configurationsCB, CE and CC. describe small signal amplifiers in a simple conceptual way.
Semiconductor Devices and Applications
NOTES
3.1. SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are solid materials, either non-metallic elements or compounds, which allow electrons to pass through them so that they conduct electricity in much the same way as a metal.
Characteristics of Semiconductors
Semiconductors possess the following characteristics : 1. The resistivity is usually high. 2. The temperature coefficient of resistance is always negative. 3. The contact between semiconductor and a metal forms a layer which has a higher resistance in one direction than the other. 4. When some suitable metallic impurity (e.g., Arsenic, Gallium etc.) is added to a semiconductor, its conducting properties change appreciably. 5. They exhibit a rise in conductivity in the increasing temperature, with the decreasing temperatures their conductivity falls off and at low temperatures semiconductors become dielectrics. 6. They are usually metallic in appearance but (unlike metals) are generally hard and brittle.
3.2 P-N JUNCTION DIODE

In an N-type material (Fig. 3.1) the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole of the minority carrier. In a P-type material (Fig. 3.2) the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier. The N- and P-type materials represent the basic building blocks of semiconductor devices.
Donor ions + + + Majority carriers Minority carrier Majority carriers Acceptor ions + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Minority carrier
Fig. 3.1. N-type material.
Fig. 3.2. P-type material.
157
NOTES
The semiconductor diode is simply bringing these materials together (constructed from the same base-Ge or Si). At instant the two materials are joined the electrons and holes in the region of the junction will combine resulting in a lack of carriers in the region near the junction. This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region due to the depletion of carriers in this region.
Construction and Types of P-N Junction Diodes

The most extensively used elements in the manufacture of junction diodes are germanium and silicon (although some other materials are also assuming importance in recent years). A P-N junction diode (known as a semiconductor or crystal diode) consists of a P-N junction, formed either in germanium or silicon crystal. The diode has two terminals namely anode and cathode. The anode refers to the P-type region and cathode refers to the N-type region as shown in Fig. 3.3 (a). Its circuit symbol is as shown in Fig. 3.3 (b).
A Anode (a) Construction (b) Symbol K Cathode
Fig. 3.3. P-N junction diode.
The arrow head, shown in the circuit symbol, points the direction of current flow, when it is forward biased (It is the same direction in which the movement of holes takes place). The commercially available diodes, usually have some notations to identify the P and N terminals or leads. The standard notation consists of type numbers preceded by IN, such as IN 240 and IN 1250. Here 240 and 1250 correspond to colour bands. In some diodes, the schematic symbol of a diode is painted or the colour dots are marked on the body.
A A(Anode) A A
Red Colour band Blue K (d)
K(Cathode) (a)
K (b)
K (c)
(a), (b) = Low current diodes ; (c) = Medium current diode ; (d) = High current or power diode. Fig. 3.4. Low, medium and high current diodes.
158
Fig. 3.4 shows low, medium and high current diodes. Refer Fig. 3.4 (a). The diode shown has a colour band located near one of the ends. The end, which is near the colour band, is identified as cathode; and the other end, obviously, is the anode (A). Refer Fig. 3.4 (b). The diode has a schematic symbol actually painted at its cathode (K) and the other end as anode. The diodes of Fig. 3.4 (a) and 3.4 (b) can pass a forward current of 100 mA and are known as low current diodes. Refer Fig. 3.4 (c). The diode has colour dots marked on its body. The end lying near the blue dot is a cathode, while the other end is anode. Sometimes this diode is shown bigger in size than that of diodes shown in Fig. 3.4 (a) and (b). The diodes of this size can pass a forward current of 500 mA and are known as medium current diodes. Refer Fig. 3.4 (d). It shows a diode, which can pass a forward current of several amperes. Therefore it known as a power diode or a high current diode.
l
NOTES
The outstanding property of P-N junction/crystal diode to conduct current in one direction only permits it to be used as a rectifier.
Potential Barrier and Biasing

A P-N junction diode which consists of P- and N-type semiconductors formed together to make a P-N junction is shown in the Fig. 3.5. The place dividing the two zones is known as a junction. Potential Barrier As a result of diffusion some electrons and holes migrate across the junction there by forming a depletion layer on either side of the junction by Potential barrier neutralisation of holes in the P-regional and of free electrons in the N-region. This diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction continues till a potential Width barrier is developed in the depletion layer which then Fig. 3.5 prevents further diffusion. By the application of an external voltage this potential barrier is either increased or decreased.
Depletion layer
Height (VB)
The barrier voltage of a P-N junction depends upon three factors namely density, electronic charge and temperature. For a given P-N junction, the first two factors are constant, thus making the value of VB dependent only on temperature. It has been observed that for both germanium and silicon the value of VB decrease by 2mV/C. Mathematically, the decrease in barrier voltage, VB = 0.002 t, where t is the increase in temperature in C. Forward Biasing The junction is said to be biased in the forward direction when then positive battery terminal is connected to P-type region and the negative battery terminal
NOTES
to the N-type (Fig. 3.6). This arrangement permits the flow of current across the P-N junction. The holes are repelled by the positive battery terminal and electrons by the negative battery terminal with the result that both holes and electrons will be driven towards the junction where they will recombine. Hence as long as the battery voltage is applied large current flows. In other words, the forward bias lowers the potential barrier across the depletion layer thereby allowing more current to flow across the junction.
Potential barrier decreased Fig. 3.6. Forward biasing.
Potential barrier increased Fig. 3.7. Reverse biasing.
Reverse Biasing (Zener Diode) The junction is said to be reversed biased when battery connections to the battery are reversed as shown in Fig. 3.7. In this arrangement holes are attracted by the negative battery terminal and electrons by the positive battery terminal so that both holes and electrons move away from the junction. Since there is no recombination of electron-hole pairs, diode current is negligible and the junction has high resistance. Reverse biasing increases the potential barrier at the junction, thereby allowing very little current to flow through the junction.
V-I Characteristics of a P-N Junction Diode

The V-I (volt-ampere) characteristic of a typical P-N junction diode with respect to breakdown voltage (VBR) is shown in Fig. 3.8.
l
+
Current
Forward
For typical junction concentrations and VBR current densities at a temperature of + Voltage 300 K, forward voltage ranges between 0.2 and 0.3 V in germanium and between Reverse 0.5 and 0.75 V in silicon. The reverse current is related to minority carrier concentration, which depends Fig. 3.8. Characteristic of a P-N junction diode. upon temperature and the energy gap of the material. Reverse current increases exponentially with temperature. It is a limiting factor in the high-temperature junction of semiconductor junction devices. The high-frequency response of a semi-conductor diode may be seriously limited by charge stored in the depletion region. This charge gives a
160
capacitive effect since it changes with voltage. The value of the stored charge is that of the ionized impurity atoms in the depletion regions on either side of the junction. The width of the depletion region increases with higher reverse voltage and higher doping. The result is lower capacitance, as in the case of a parallel-plate capacitor with wider spacing between plates. The maximum reverse voltage of a P-N junction is limited by the field in the depletion region. The field accelerates carriers, which may gain enough energy to create new hole-electron pairs by colliding with atoms of the lattice structure. Each of these carriers may also create a hole-electron pair. As reverse voltage is increased, as avalanche breakdown point is reached at which this multiplicative action causes the current to increase abruptly. Avalanche breakdown voltage is higher in lightly doped regions, since depletion region is wider, making the internal electric field smaller for any given voltage. P-N junction diodes usually made of germanium or silicon, are commonly used as power rectifiers.
NOTES
The circuit arrangements for obtaining forward and reverse characteristics of a P-N junction diode in a laboratory are shown in Fig. 3.9 (a) and (b) and 3.9 (a) and (b) respectively.
B Diode + mA
Forward current (mA)
+ V AA P
+ V R
A 0.6 V Forward voltage (b) Forward characteristic.
O (a) Circuit arrangement.
Fig. 3.9
l
Refer Fig. 3.9. It may noted that if excessive current is permitted to flow through the diode, it may get permanently damaged. Refer Fig. 3.9. The circuit is similar to that shown in Fig. 3.10 (a), except two changes namely the diode terminals are reversed and milliammeter is
Reverse voltage Diode + A VBR
IRS
O
Reverse current (A)
+ V AA P
+ V R
D (a) Circuit arrangement. (b) Reverse characteristic.
Fig. 3.10
replaced by a microammeter. It may be noted that negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode of a diode and positive terminal to the cathode. Hence, the diode is reversed.
NOTES
3.3 ZENER DIODE

A properly doped P-N junction crystal diode which has a sharp breakdown voltage is known as Zener diode. The voltage-regulator diode is commonly called a Zener diode. It is a voltage limiting diode that has some applications in common with the older voltage-regulator gas tubes but serves a much wider field of application, because the devices cover a wide spectrum of voltages and power levels.
Performance/Operations
The electrical performance of a zener diode is based on the avalanche characteristics of the P-N junction. When a source of voltage is applied to a diode in the reverse direction (negative to anode), Reverse bias a reverse current IR is observed (see Fig. 3.11). As the reverse potential is Zener Forward bias increased beyond the Zener knee voltage Zener knee avalanche breakdown becomes well developed at zener voltage VZ. At voltage VZ, the high counter resistance drops to a low value and the junction current increases rapidly. The current must of necessity be limited by an external Fig. 3.11 resistance, since the voltage VZ developed across the zener diode remains essentially constant. Avalanche breakdown of the operating zener diode is not destructive as long as the rated power dissipation of the junction is not exceeded. Externally, the zener diode looks much like other silicon rectifying devices, and electrically it is capable of rectifying alternating current. The following points about the Zener diode are worth noting : (i) It looks like an ordinary diode except that it is properly doped so as to have a sharp breakdown voltage. (ii) It is always reverse connected i.e., it is always reverse biased. (iii) It has sharp breakdown voltage, called Zener voltage VZ. (iv) When forward biased, its characteristics are just those of ordinary diode. (v) It is not immediately burnt just because it has entered the breakdown region (The current is limited only by both external resistance and power dissipation of Zener diode). l The location of Zener region can be controlled by varying the doping levels. An increase in doping, producing an increase in the number of added impurities, will decrease the Zener potential.
Reverse current (IR)
Forward current
Zener diodes are available having Zener potentials of 1.8 to 200 V with 1 power ratings from to 50 W. Because of its higher temperature and 4 current capability, silicon is usually preferred in the manufacture of Zener diodes.
NOTES
Applications of Zener Diode

Zener diode serves in the following variety of applications : Voltage Reference or Regulator Element The primary use of a zener diode is as a voltage reference or regulator element. Fig. 3.12 shows the fundamental circuit for the Zener diode employed as a shunt regulator. In the circuit, diode element and load RL draw current through the series resistance RS. If Ein increases, the current through the Zener element will increase and thus maintain an essentially fixed voltage across RL. This ability to maintain the desired voltage is determined by the temperature coefficient and the diode impedance of the zener device.
RS + Zener diode
RS = Series resistance RL = Load resistance
E in
RL
Fig. 3.12. Basic Zener-diode regulator circuit.
Shunt Transistor Regulator The Zener diode may also be used to RS control the reference voltage of a transistor Zener regulated power supply. An example of this in diode a shunt transistor regulator is shown in Fig. 3.12, where Zener element is used to + control the operating point of the transistor. + Fig. 3.13. Shunt transistor The advantage of this circuit over that shown regulator. in Fig. 3.13 are increased power handling capability and a regulating factor improved by utilizing the current gain of the transistor. Audio or r-f Applications The Zener diode also finds use in audio or r-f (radio frequency) applications where a source of stable reference voltage is required, as in bias supplies. Frequently, Zener diodes are connected in series package, with, for example, one junction operating in the reverse within a single direction and possessing a positive temperature VZ coefficient ; the remaining diodes are connected to operate in the forward direction and exhibit negative temperature VZ coefficient characteristics. The net result is close neutralization of VZ drift vs. temperature change ; such reference units are frequently used to replace standard voltage cells.
Computer Circuits Zener diodes also find use in computer circuits designed for switching about the avalanche voltage of the diode. Design of the Zener diode permits it to absorb overload surges and thereby serves the function of protecting delicate circuitry form overvoltage. The usual voltage specifications VZ on Zener diodes are 3.3 to 200 V with 1, 2, 5, 10 or 20% tolerances. Typical power dissipation ratings are 500 mW, 1, 10 and 50 W. The temperature co-efficient range on VZ is as low as 0.001% C.
NOTES
3.4 RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is a circuit, which uses one or more diodes to convert A.C. voltage into pulsating D.C. voltage. A rectifier may be broadly categorized in the following two types : 1. Half-wave rectifier, and 2. Full-wave rectifier.
Half-wave Rectifier
Fig. 3.14 (a) shows a half-wave rectifier circuit. It consists of a single diode in series with a load resistor. A P-N junction diode can easily be used as a rectifier because it conducts current only when forward biased voltage is acting, and does not conduct when reverse bias voltage is acting. The input to the half-wave rectifier is supplied from the 50 Hz A.C. supply, whose wave form is shown in Fig. 3.14 (b). Operation When and A.C. voltage source is connected across the junction diode as shown in Fig. 3.14 (a) the positive half cycle of the input acts as a forward bias voltage and the output across the load resistance varies correspondingly. The negative half cycle of the input acts as a reverse bias and practically no current flows in the circuit. The output is, therefore, intermittent, pulsating and unidirectional. It is evident from the above discussion, that as the circuit uses only one-half cycle of the A.C. input voltage, therefore, it is popularly known as a half-wave rectifier.
Input A.C. A i + t
A.C. Supply
Vin
RL
Vout
B (a)
t Output (b)
Fig. 3.14. Half-wave rectifier.

Disadvantages The main disadvantages of a half-wave rectifier are : (i) The A.C. supply delivers power only half the time ; therefore, its output is low. (ii) The pulsating current in the load contains alternating component whose basic frequency is equal to the supply frequency. Therefore, an elaborate filtering is required to produce steady direct current. Efficiency of Half-wave Rectifier The ratio of D.C. power output to the applied A.C. input power is known as rectifier efficiency. i.e., Rectifier efficiency, =
D.C. power output A.C. input power
v i O A.C. Supply v = Vm sin RL Vout
NOTES
i O d
Fig. 3.15
Consider a half-wave rectifier shown in Fig. 3.15. Let v = Vmax sin be the alternating voltage that appears across the secondary winding. Let, rf = Diode forward resistance, and RL = Load resistance. D.C. Power Output The output current is pulsating direct current. Therefore, in order to find D.C. power, average current has to be found out, Iav. = Idc = 1 2
i d =
1 2
= =
Vmax 2(rf + RL )
Vmax sin d (rf + RL )
sin d =
Vmax cos 2(rf + RL )
Vmax Vmax 1 2= 2(rf + RL ) (rf + RL )
LM N
OP Q
= D.C. power,
Imax
2 R Pdc = Idc L
LM MN
Imax =
Vmax (rf + RL )
OP PQ
FG I IJ H K
max
RL
...(3.1)
A.C. Power Input The A.C. power input is given by,

2 Pac = Irms (rf + RL)
NOTES
For a half-wave rectified wave, Ir.m.s. = Pac = Rectifier efficiency = = i.e., rectifier(half-wave) =
FG I IJ H 2K
max
Imax 2
...(3.2)
(rf + RL)
D.C. output power A.C. input power
( Imax /2) 2 ( rf + RL )
0.406 RL 0.406 = rf rf + RL 1+ RL
( Imax /) 2 RL
...(3.3)
The efficiency will be maximum when rf is negligible as compared to RL. Maximum rectifier (half-wave) efficiency = 40.6%. This means in half-wave rectification, a maximum of 40.6% of A.C. power is converted into D.C. power. Example 3.1. A diode crystal having internal resistance rf = 25 is used for half-wave rectification. If the applied voltage v = 60 sin t and load resistance = 725 , find : (i) Imax, Idc, Irms . (iii) D.C. output voltage. (i) Imax, Idc, Irms: Now, i.e., (ii) A.C. input power and D.C. output power. (iv) Efficiency of rectification.
Solution. Given : rf = 25 ; RL = 725 ; v = 60 sin t. v = 60 sin t Vmax = 60 V Imax = Idc =

Vmax 60 = 0.08 A or 80 mA = rf + RL 25 + 725
...(Given)
(Ans.)
Imax 60 = 25.46 mA = 2 2
(Ans.)
Irms = Imax = 80 = 40 mA (ii) A.C. input power, D.C. output power: Pac = (Irms)2 (rf + RL) = Pdc = (Idc)2 RL =
(Ans.)
2
FG 25.46 IJ H 1000 K
FG 40 IJ H 1000 K
(25 + 725) = 1.2 W (Ans.)
725 = 0.47 W (Ans.)
166
(iii) D.C. output voltage, Vdc :
25.46 725 = 18.46 V (Ans.) 1000 (iv) Efficiency of rectification:

Vdc = Idc RL = Efficiency of rectification =
Pdc 0.47 = = 0.3917 or 39.17% (Ans.) 1.2 Pac
NOTES
Full-wave rectifier
A full-wave rectifier is a circuit, which allows a unidirectional current to flow through the load during the entire input cycle. This can be achieved with two diodes working alternately. For the positive half-cycle of input voltage, one diode supplies current to the load and for the negative half-cycle, the other diode does so ; current being always in the same direction through the load. For full-wave rectification the following two circuits are commonly used : 1. Centre-tapped full-wave rectifier 2. Full-wave bridge rectifier. Centre-tapped Full-wave Rectifier Fig. 3.16 shows the circuit of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier. The circuit uses two diodes (D1 and D2) which are connected to the centre-tapped secondary winding AB of the transformer. Operation:
l
During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of the secondary winding is positive and end B negative. This makes the diode D1 forward biased and diode D2 reverse biased. Therefore, diode D1 conducts while diode D2 does not. The conventional current flows through diode D1, load resistor RL and the upper half of secondary winding as shown by the dotted arrows. During the negative half-cycle, the end A of the secondary becomes negative and end B positive. Therefore, D2 conducts while diode D1 does not. The conventional current flow is through D2, RL and lower half winding as shown by solid arrows.
A + Vmax D1 Input A.C. t
A.C. supply
+O Vmin
RL
Rectified output
D1 B D2
D2
D1
D2
(a)
(b) Waveforms of full-wave rectifier.
Fig. 3.16. Centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.

It may be noted [Fig. 3.16 (a)] that the current in the load RL is in the same direction for both the cycles of input A.C. voltage. Therefore, D.C. is obtained from the load RL. Also, Peak inverse voltage (PIV) = Twice the maximum voltage across the half-secondary winding i.e., Advantages: 1. The D.C. output voltage and load current values are twice than those of half-wave rectifiers. 2. The ripple factor is much less (0.482) than that of half-wave rectifier (see Fig. 3.14). 3. The efficiency is twice that of half-wave rectifier. For a full-wave rectifier, the maximum possible value of efficiency is 81.2% while that of half-wave rectifier is 40.6%. Disadvantages: 1. The diodes used must have high peak inverse voltage. 2. It is difficult to locate the centre tap on the secondary winding. 3. The D.C. output is small as each diode utilises only one-half of the transformer secondary voltage. Full-wave Bridge Rectifier It uses four diodes (D1, D2, D3, D4) across the main supply, as shown in Fig. 3.17 (a). The A.C. supply to be rectified is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge through the transformer. Between other two ends of the bridge, the load resistance RL is connected.
+ L D1 A.C. supply A D4 B RL D2 M (a) O D1 D3 D2 D4 D1 D3 (b) D3 + t O Vout Vout Vin Secondary voltage + + t
NOTES
PIV = 2 Vmax.
Fig. 3.17. Full-wave bridge rectifier.
Operation:
l
During positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end L of the secondary winding becomes positive and end M negative. This makes D1 and D3 forward biased while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased. Therefore, only dioded D1 and D3 conduct. These two diodes will be in series through the load RL as shown in Fig. 3.18 (a). The current flows (dotted arrows) from A to B through RL.
168

D1 A
A.C. supply
B D3 RL +
NOTES
(a) D4 B RL + + (b)
A.C. supply
A D2
Fig. 3.18
l
During the negative half-cycle of the secondary voltage, end L becomes negative and M positive. This makes D2 and D4 forward biased whereas diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Therefore, only diodes D2 and D4 conduct. These two diodes will be in series with RL as shown in Fig. 3.18 (b). The current flows (solid arrows) from A to B through RL i.e., in the same direction as for positive half-cycle. Therefore, D.C. output is obtained across R L.
Further it may be noted that peak inverse voltage (PIV) of each diode is equal to the maximum secondary voltage of transformer. Advantages: 1. It can be used with advantage in applications allowing floating input terminals i.e., no output terminal is grounded. 2. The transformer is less costly as it is required to provide only half the voltage of an equivalent centre-tapped transformer used in a full-wave rectifier circuit. 3. No centre-tap is required on the transformer. 4. The output is twice that of the centre-tapped circuit for the secondary voltage. Disadvantages: 1. It uses four diodes as compared to two diodes for centre-tapped full wave rectifier. 2. Since during each half-cycle of A.C. input two diodes that conduct are in series, therefore, voltage drop in the internal resistance of the rectifying unit will be twice as great as in the centre-tapped circuit. This is objectionable when secondary voltage is small.
169
These days, the bridge rectifiers are so common that manufacturers are packing them as a single unit with bakelite or some other plastic encapsulation with external connections brought out.
NOTES
Efficiency of full-wave Rectifier Fig. 3.19 shows the process of full rectification. The instantaneous current i is given by i= V sin v = max (rf + RL ) (rf + RL )
where rf and RL are the diode forward resistance and load resistance respectively. D.C. output power (Pdc): Idc =
2 Imax
v
O q
2
D.C. power output,

2 R = Pdc = Idc L
FG 2 I IJ H K
max
RL
O dq
A.C. input power (Pac): Pac = (Irms)2 (rf + RL) For a full-wave rectified wave, we have Irms =
Imax 2
2 max
Fig. 3.19
Pac
F I IJ =G H 2K
(rf + RL)
...(3.4)
Full-wave rectification efficiency, =
Pdc (2 Imax /) 2 RL = Pac ( Imax / 2 ) 2 (rf + RL )

RL 0.812 RL 8 = 2 (rf + RL ) (rf + RL )
0.812 rf 1+ RL
i.e.,
...(3.5)
The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL. max = 81.2% This is double the efficiency than that of half-wave rectifier. Therefore, a fullwave rectifier is twice as effective as a half-wave rectifier.
170
Example 3.2. A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode may be assumed constant at 25 . The transformer r.m.s. secondary voltage from centre tap to each end of secondary is 60 V and load resistance is 750 . Find : (i) The mean load current. (ii) The r.m.s. value of load current. Solution. Given : rf = 25 ; RL = 750 (i) The mean load current, Idc : Vmax = 60 Maximum load current, Imax = = Idc =
NOTES
2 = 84.85 V
Vmax (rf + RL )
84.85 = 0.109 A or 109 mA 25 + 750
2 Imax 2 109 = = 69.39 mA. (Ans.) (ii) The r.m.s. value of load, Irms :
Irms =
Imax 2 = 109 2
= 77.1 mA.
(Ans.)
Ripple Factor
The output voltage (or load current) of a rectifier consists of two components namely D.C. component and A.C. component. (Any wave which varies in a regular manner has an A.C. component). The A.C. component present in the output is called a ripple. As a matter of factor, the ripple is undesirable and accounts for pulsations in the rectifier output : The effectiveness of a rectifier depends upon the magnitude of ripple in the output. Smaller the ripple, more effective will be the rectifier. Mathematically, the ripple factor, = = where,
The r.m.s. value of A.C. component of output voltage The D.C. component of output voltage
Vr (r.m.s) Vdc
Ir (r.m.s.) Idc
Vr(r.m.s) = The r.m.s. value of the A.C. component of the output voltage, Vdc = The average or D.C. value of the output voltage, Ir(r.m.s) = The r.m.s. value of the A.C. components of current, and Idc = The average or D.C. value of the load current.
We know that the r.m.s. value of the rectified load current, Ir.m.s. =
( Idc ) 2 + ( Ir (r.m.s.) )2
171
Dividing both sides by Idc, we get

Ir.m.s. = I dc ( I dc ) 2 + ( I r (r.m.s.) ) 2 I dc =
NOTES
LR I U OP 1 + MS MNT I V W PQ
2 r ( r.m.s.) dc
Squaring and rearranging the above expression,
Ir(r.m.s.) = Idc
or Ripple factor, =
FG I HI FG I HI
LM (I N (I
r.m.s. dc
r.m.s. dc
IJ K IJ K
1
2
...(3.6)
(i) Ripple factor of a half-wave rectification. In half wave rectification, Ir.m.s. =
Imax I ; Idc = max 2

max /2)
Ripple factor,
max
OP /) Q
1 = 1.21
This indicates that A.C. component exceeds the D.C. component in the output of a half-wave rectifier. This results in greater pulsations in the output, hence half-wave rectifier is not very successful for conversion of A.C. into D.C. (ii) Ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier. In full-wave rectification, Ir.m.s. =
Imax 2
; Idc =
2 max /
2 Imax
2
Ripple factor,
FI GH 2 I
max /
I JK
1 = 0.48
Voltage Regulation
The change in D.C. output voltage from no load to full load with respect to full load voltage of a power supply is known as its voltage regulation. Mathematically, % voltage regulation =
VNL VFL 100 VFL
where, VNL = No-load D.C. voltage at the output terminals of the power supply, and VFL = Full load D.C. voltage at the output terminals of the power supply. In a well designed power supply percentage regulation should not be more than 1 per cent.
172
3.5 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

A transistor may be defined as follows: The word transistor was derived from the two word combination, transferresistance (Transfer + resistor Transistor). A transistor is a device to transfer a low resistance into a circuit having a high resistance. A transistor is a semiconductor device in which current flows in semiconductor materials. When a thin layer of P-type or N-type semiconductor is between a pair of opposite types it constitutes a transistor. l The transistor is a solid state device, whose operation depends upon the flow of electric charge carriers within the solid. A transistor is a semiconductor device having both rectifying and amplifying properties. The main difference between a vacuum triode and a transistor is that while a vacuum triode is a voltage controlled device, a transistor is a current controlled device. The transistor was invented by a team of three scientists at Bell Laboratories, USA in 1947. Although the first transistor was not a bipolar junction device, yet it was the beginning of a technological revolution that is still continuing in the twenty first century. All of the complex electronic devices and systems developed or in use today, are an outgrowth of early developments in semiconductor transistors. The two basic types of transistors are : 1. Bipolar junction transistor (BJT). 2. Field-effect transistor (FET). The bipolar junction transistor is used in the following two broad area of electronics : (i) As a linear amplifier to boost an electric signal. (ii) As an electronic switch. Transistors are of the following two types : 1. Point-contact transistors. 2. Junction transistors. We will discuss about them as follows:
NOTES
3.6 POINT-CONTACT TRANSISTOR

Refer to Fig. 3.20. A point-contact transistor has a block of P-type germanium mounted on a metal plate with two wire contacts attached to the opposite side of the crystal. The two wire contacts are very close together ; one is referred to as the emitter (E) ; the other is collector (C) ; and P-type germanium block is termed the base (B). The emitter and the base form a point-contact rectifier having a forward direction from the wire contact toward the plate contact.
Wire contacts E C Germanium block P Metal plate
0.2 V
+6V
NOTES
P
B
B
E = emitter, C = collector, B = base
Fig. 3.20. Basic construction of a point-contact transistor.
Fig. 3.21. A basic point-contact transistor.
Fig. 3.21 shows the emitter being acted on by a negative e.m.f. of 0.2 V causing an electron flow of 0.008 A. In the same manner, the collector and the base combination are acted on by an e.m.f. in the reverse direction. Normally the positive 6 volts produce only 0.00024 A of electron flow to the collector due to the small number of free electrons within the P-type crystals. However, with the emitter injecting a great number of electrons into the crystal very near the collector, the flow of electrons to the collector becomes at least double that to the emitter. It is important to know that the emitter injects electrons (or holes) into the crystal to effect a reduction of the reverse resistance between the base and the collector. When the base of the point-contact transistor is of the N-type germanium material, the polarities of electromotive forces will be reversed and the emitter will literally inject holes.
3.7 JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

A trade transistor consists of two P-N junction diodes placed back to back. The following are the two common types of junction transistors : 1. Grown junction type 2. Alloy-junction type.
Grown Junction Transistor

Emitter E Base Collector C E C N-type Germanium N B B
(a) (b) (c)
P B
Indium
Fig. 3.22
Fig. 3.22 (a) shows a grown P-N-P Junction triode transistor. Fig. 3.22 (b) shows the form of N-P-N junction transistor.
In the manufacture of grown junction transistors the single crystal growing process is employed. The left hand section or region is called the emitter. The right hand section or region is called the collector. The middle section is called the base region or base. It is extremely thin as compared to either the emitter or collector and is lightly doped. Function of the emitter is to inject majority charge carriers into the base and that of the collector is to collect or attract these carriers through the base.
NOTES
Alloy-junction Transistor
Fig. 3.22 (c) shows an alloy-junction transistor which consists of two leads of indium metal alloyed on the opposite sides of a thin slice of an N-type germanium. Collector is larger in size than the emitter. These transistors may be also of P-N-P type or N-P-N type. Junction TransistorsIllustration of Emitter, Base and Collector :
Collector Collector
N Reverse voltage + N Collector P
Emitter
Base
Emitter
Reverse voltage + Forward voltage + N N Emitter
Forward voltage +
P Emitter N
P Collector
Base
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.23. Junction transistors illustrating emitter, base and collector.
As shown in Fig. 3.23, the transistor consists of a P-N junction and an N-P junction, by making either P or N semiconductor between opposite types. The purpose is to have the first section supply charges, either holes or electrons, to be collected by the third section, through the middle section. The electrode that supplies charges is emitter ; the electrode at the opposite end to collect the charges is the collector. The base in the middle forms two junctions between emitter and collector, to control the collector current. Emitter
l
It is more heavily doped than any of other regions because its main function is to supply majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes) to the base. The emitter-base junction is biased with forward voltage. (Typical values : Ge = 0.2 V, Si = 0.6 V).
Base
P
Base
NOTES
As shown for the P-N-P transistor in Fig. 3.23 (a), the P emitter supplies hole charges to its junction with the base. This direction is indicated by the emitter arrow for forward hole current in the schematic symbol. The arrow pointed into the base shows a P-N junction between emitter and base, corresponding to the symbol for a P-N diode. For the N-P-N transistor in Fig. 3.23 (b), the emitter supplies electrons to the base. Therefore, the symbol for the N emitter shows the arrow out from the base, opposite to the direction of electron flow. In the schemic symbols, only the emitter has an arrow. The arrow pointing into the base means a P-N-P transistor, the arrow out from the base means an N-PN transistor. Practically all small transistors for audio and r.f. amplifiers are N-P-N, made of silicon, with a typical forward bias of 0.6 V between base and emitter collector. The function of a collector is to remove charges from the junction with the base. In Fig. 3.23 (a), the P-N-P transistor has a P collector receiving hole charges. For the N-P-N transistor in Fig. 3.23 (b), the N collector receives electrons. The collector base junction always has reverse voltage. Typical values are 4 to 100 V. This polarity means no majority charges can flow from collector to base. However, in the opposite direction, from base to collector, the collector voltage attracts the charges in the base supplied by the emitter. Base
l
l l
The base in the middle separates the emitter and collector. The base-emitter junction is forward based. As a result, the resistance is very low for the emitter circuit. The base-collector junction is reverse biased, providing a much higher resistance in the collector circuit. It is very lightly doped. It is very thin (106 m) as compared to either emitter or collector.
Collector Current The final requirement for transistor action is to have the collector current controlled by the emitter-base circuit. The emitter has heavy doping to supply majority charges. However, the base has only light doping and is very thin, so that its charges can move to the collector junction. The collector voltage is relatively high. Because of these factors, practically all the charges supplied by the emitter to the base are made to flow in the collector circuit. Typically, 98 to 99% or more of the emitter charges provide collector current (IC). The remaining 1 to 2% or less becomes base current (IB).
l
The key to the transistor action is the lightly doped thin base between the heavily doped emitter and moderately doped collector. A transistor has two junctions (emitter-base and collector-base junctions), and each of these two junctions, may be forward biased or reverse biased, therefore, there are four possible ways of biasing these two junctions. Accordingly it may operate in different conditions as listed below :
176
Condition 1. Forward-Reverse (FR) 2. Forward-Forward (FF) 3. Reverse-Reverse (RR) 4. Reverse-Forward (RF)
Emitter-Base (EB) Junction Forward-Biased Forward-Biased Reverse-Biased Reverse-Biased
Collector-Base (CB) Junction Reverse-Biased Forward-Biased Reverse-Biased Forward-Biased
Region of Operation Active Saturation Cut-off Inverted
NOTES
3.8 P-N-P AND N-P-N TRANSISTORS

To understand the basic mechanism of transistor operation the following facts need to be kept in mind : 1. Since emitter is to provide charge carriers, it is always forward biased. 2. First letter of transistor type indicates the polarity of the emitter voltage with respect to base. 3. Collectors job is to collect or attract those carriers through the base, hence it is always reverse-biased. 4. Second letter of transistor type indicates the polarity of collector voltage with respect to the base. The above points apply both to P-N-P and N-P-N transistors.
Working of P-N-P Transistor

Fig. 3.24 shows a P-N-P transistor connected in the common-base (or grounded-base) configuration (it is so called because both the emitter and collector are returned to the base terminals). The emitter junction is forward-biased whereas the collector junction is reverse-biased. The holes in the emitter are repelled by the positive battery terminal towards the P-N or emitter junction. The potential barrier at the junction is reduced due to the forward-bias, hence holes cross the junction and enter the N-type base. Because the base is thin and lightly-doped, majority of the holes (about 95%) are able to drift across the base without meeting electrons to combine with. The balance of 5% of holes are lost in the base region due to recombination with electrons. The holes which after crossing the N-P collector junction enter the collector region are swept up by the negative collector voltage VC.
Emitter (E) P IE Base (B) N Collector (C) P IC Emitter (E)
IE
Collector (C)
IC
VEB
Hole flow IB
Hole flow
VCB
IB
Base (B)
Fig. 3.24. P-N-P transistor.

The following points are worth noting: 1. In a P-N-P transistor majority charge carriers are holes. 2. The collector current is always less than the emitter current because some recombination of holes and electrons take place. (IC = IE IB). 3. The current amplification ( ) (or gain of P-N-P transistor) for steady conditions when connected in common base configuration is expressed as : =
IC (collector current) < 1. I E (emitter current)
NOTES
4. Emitter arrow shows the direction of flow of conventional current. Evidently, electron flow will be in the opposite direction.
Working of N-P-N Transistor

Fig. 3.25 shows a N-P-N junction transistor. The emitter is forward-biased and the collector is reverse-biased. The electrons in the emitter region are repelled by the negative battery terminal towards the emitter or N-P junction. The electrons cross over into the P-type base region because potential barrier is reduced due to forward bias. Since the base is thin and lightly doped, most of the electrons (about 95%) cross over to the collector junction and enter the collector region where they are readily swept up by the positive collector voltage VC . Only about 5% of the emitter electrons combine with the holes in the base and are lost as charge carriers.
Emitter (E) N IE Base (B) P Collector (C) N IC Emitter (E)
IE
Collector (C)
IC
VE
Electron flow
IB
Electron flow
VC
IB
Base (B)
Fig. 3.25. N-P-N transistor.
The following points are worth noting : 1. In a N-P-N transistor, majority charge carriers are electrons. 2. IC (collector current) is less than IC (emitter current) so that < I. 3. Emitter arrow shows the direction of flow of conventional current.
l
The choice of N-P-N transistor is made more often because majority charge carriers are electrons whose mobility is much more than that of holes.
Note. The junction transistors have been made in power ranges from a few milliwatts to tens of watts. The tiny junction transistor is unparalleled in that it can be made to work at power levels as I microwatt.
178
3.9 TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS

A transistor is a three-terminal device (having three terminals namely emitter, base and collector) but we require four terminals-two for the input and two for the output for connecting it in a circuit. Hence one of the terminals of the transistor is made common to the input and output circuits. Thus there are three types of configurations for operation of a transistor. These configurations are: (i) Common-base (CB) configuration. (ii) Common-emitter (CE) configuration. (iii) Common-collector (CC) configuration. The term common is used to denote the electrode that is common to the input and output circuits. Because the common electrode is generally grounded, these modes of operation are frequently referred to as ground-base, groundemitter and grounded-collector configurations as shown in Fig. 3.26 for a N-P-N transistor. Each circuit configuration has specific advantages and disadvantages. It may be noted here that regardless of circuit connection, the emitter is always biased in the forward direction, while the collector always has a reverse bias.
C E C B
Output Output Input Input
NOTES
E B
Output Input
(a) CB configuration
(b) CE configuration
(c) CC configuration
Fig. 3.26. Different circuit configurations for N-P-N transistor.
3.10 COMMON-BASE (CB) CONFIGURATION

In this circuit configuration, input is applied between emitter and base and output is taken from collector and base. Here, base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common base configuration. A common-base configuration for N-P-N transistor is shown in Fig. 3.27.
IE E C IC E Input B IB VEE RC Output B VCC ICBO Open C
Fig. 3.27. Common-base N-P-N transistor.
Fig. 3.28
Current Amplification Factor ()

It is the ratio of output current to input current. In CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and output current is the collector current IC . The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current at constant collector-base voltage VCB is known as current amplification factor i.e., =
IC at constant VCB I E IC IE
NOTES
...(3.7) ...(3.8)
If only D.C. values are considered, then =
is less than unity. This value can be increased (not more than unity) by decreasing the base current. This is accomplished by making the base thin and doping it lightly. In commercial transistors, practical value of varies from 0.9 to 0.99.
Collector Current (IC)

Total collector current, IC = IE + Ileakage (IE is the part of emitter current that reaches the collector terminal) where, IE = Emitter current, and Ileakage = Leakage current (This current is due to movement of minority carriers across base-collector junction on account of it being reversed; it is much smaller than IE) When emitter is open (Fig. 3.28) IE = 0, but a small leakage current still flows in the collector circuit. This Ileakage is abbreviated as ICBO , meaning collector-base current with emitter open. IC = IE + ICBO or or IC = (IC + IB) + ICBO IC(1 ) = IB + ICBO IC = ...(3.9) ( IE = IC + IB)
FG IJ I H 1 K
ICBO (1 )
...(3.10)
In view of improved construction techniques, the magnitude of ICBO for general-purpose and low-powered transistors (especially silicon transistors) is usually very small and may be neglected in calculations. For high power calculations, ICBO appears in A range. ICBO is temperature dependent, therefore, at high temperature it must be considered in calculations. Example 3.3. In a common-base configuration, current amplification factor is 0.92. If the emitter current is 1.2 mA, determine the value of base current.
180
Solution. Given : We know that, or Also,
= 0.94 ; IE = 1.2 mA
IC IE IC = IE = 0.92 1.2 = 1.1 mA IE = IC + IB IB = IE IC = 1.2 1.1 = 0.1 mA. (Ans.)
NOTES
Characteristics of Common-base Transistor

Curves representing the variation of current with voltage in a transistor triode circuit are called transistor characteristic curves. There are the following two types of characteristic curves : 1. Input characteristic curves of IE versus emitter-base voltage (VEB). 2. Output characteristic curves of collector current (IC) versus collectorbase voltage (VCB). Fig. 3.29 shows the circuit of an N-P-N junction triode (common-base) studying characteristic curve.
IE IC
N-P-N
E C
VEB mA
B
IB
VCB Emitter (E) = Forward biased Collector (C) = Reverse biased mA
Fig. 3.29. Circuit of an N-P-N junction triode.
Input Characteristic Curves To plot these curves the collector voltage is first put at zero potential (say), i.e., VCB = 0. The emitter-base voltage (VEB) is now increased from zero onwards and emitter current (IE) is recorded. A graph is plotted between IE and VEB as shown in Fig. 3.30.
Emitter current, IE
VCB = 30 volts
VCB = 0
Collector current, IC
IE = 6 mA IE = 4 mA IE = 2 mA
Emitter-base voltage, VEB
Collector-base voltage, VCB
Fig. 3.30. Input characteristic curves.
Fig. 3.31. Output characteristic curves.
181
Another similar graph is plotted for VCB = 30 volts (say). From the graph we observe that : (i) For a given collector voltage, the emitter current rises rapidly even with a very small increase in emitter potential. It means that the input resistance Ri
NOTES
FG = V H I
EB E
at constant VCB of the emitter-base circuit is very low.
IJ K
(ii) The emitter current is nearly independent of collector-base voltage. The Output Characteristic Curves These curves are obtained by plotting the variation of collector current (IC) with collector-base voltage (VCB) at different constant values of emitter current (IE). These curves shown in Fig. 3.31, indicate that some collector current is present even when the collector voltage is zero. To make the collector current zero, we have to give a certain amount of negative potential to the collector. The curves also indicate that the collector current attains a high value even at a very low collector voltage and further increase in collector voltage does not produce any appreciable increase in collector current. It means that the output resistance collector-base circuit is very large.
FR GH
VCB at constant I E IC
I JK
of the
The collector current is always a little less than the emitter current because of the neutralisation of a few holes and electrons within the base due to recombination. Feedback Characteristic Curves These curves represent the variation of collector current (IC) with emitterbase voltage (VEB) for a constant-emitter current. A number of emitter current values are selected at which measurements are made. The nature of curves is shown in Fig. 3.32.
=4
Collector-base voltage, VCB
Collector current, I C
=3 =2 =1
=5
=4
= 3 = 2 IC = 1 A
IE = 0 Emitter-base voltage, VEB
Emitter current, I E
Fig. 3.32. Feedback characteristic.

Fig. 3.33. Forward characteristic.
Forward Characteristic Curves Refer to Fig. 3.33. This type of curve is a graph between emitter current (IE) and collector-base voltage at constant value of collector current.
NOTES
3.11 COMMON-EMITTER (CE) CONFIGURATION

In CE configuration, input is applied between base and emitter and output is taken from the collector and emitter. Here, emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common-emitter configuration. Fig. 3.34 shows common-emitter N-P-N transistor circuit: Base Current Amplification Factor () In CE configuration, input current is IB and output current is IC. The ratio of change in collector current (IC ) to the change in base current (IB) is known as base current amplification factor i.e., =
IC I B IC IB
IC C IB B E Input IE RC Output
VBB
VCC
Fig. 3.34. Common emitter N-P-N transistor.
...(3.11) ...[3.11 (a)]
If D.C. values are considered, =
In almost every transistor 5% of emitter current flows as the base current. Therefore the value of is generally greater than 20, usually varies from 20 to 500. l CE configuration is frequently used as it gives appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain. Relation between and . The relation between and is derived as follows: = = Now, or
IC I B
IC I E
...(i) ...(ii)
IE = IB + IC IE = IB + IC =
IC I E IC IC /I E = (I E /I E ) (IC / I E ) 1
or
IB = IE IC ...(iii)
Inserting the value of IB in (i), we get
Dividing the numerator and denominator of R.H.S. by IE, we get =
FG H
IC I E
IJ K
183
...(3.12)
NOTES
It is evident from the above expression that when approaches unity, approaches infinity. In other words the current gain in CE configuration is very high. It is due to this reason that this circuit arrangement is used is about 90 to 95 percent of all transistor applications.
Collector Current
In CE configuration, IB is the input current and IC is the output current : Now, and or or or IE = IB + IC IC = IE + ICBO IC = (IB + IC) + ICBO IC(1 ) = IB + ICBO IC =
1 I IB + 1 1 CBO
...(i) ...(ii)
...(iii)
It is evident from (iii) that if IB = 0 (i.e., base circuit is open), the collector current will be the current to the emitter. This is abbreviated as ICEO meaning collector-emitter current with base open. Inserting the value of
1 I = ICEO in (iii), we get 1 CBO I + ICEO 1 B
IC = or
IC = IB + ICEO It may be noted that, ICEO = ( + 1) ICBO
...(3.13)
FG H
IJ K
...(3.14)
Example 3.4. Find the rating of the transistor shown in Fig. 3.35. Hence determine the value of IC using both and . Solution. Refer to Fig. 3.35.
= 1
IC
...[Eqn. (3.12)]
IB = 200 mA
or or or Also
(1 ) = = = (1 + ) =
49 = = 0.98 1 + 1 + 49
b = 49
IE = 10 mA
Fig. 3.35
IC = IE = 0.98 10 mA = 9.8 mA. (Ans.) IC = IB = 49 200 A = 49 0.2 mA = 9.8 mA. (Ans.)
184
Characteristics of Common-emitter Transistor

Fig. 3.36 shows the circuit of a N-P-N common-emitter junction transistor for the study of characteristic curves.
IB (A)
IC C IB B VBE E IE VCE
NOTES
4 3 2 1
V V 1
CE
mA
0.7
1.4
CE
10
2.1
VBE (Volts)
Fig. 3.36. Circuit of N-P-N common emitter junction transistor.
Fig. 3.37
Input Characteristic Curves It is the curve between base current IB and the base-emitter voltage VBE at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE (Refer to Fig. 3.37). Input resistance, Ri = hundred ohms. Fig. 3.38 shows the graph of collector current (IC) with base current (IB) at constant collector-emitter voltage. It may be noted from the curve that there is a collector current even when the basic current is zero. This is known as collector leakage current: It increases with rise in temperature and also arises due to the reverse biasing between base and collector. The value of leakage current ranges from 100 A to 500 A.
l
VBE at constant VCE . Its value is of the order of a few I B
Collector current, IC (mA)
Collector current, IC (mA)
VCE = Constant
4 3 2 1
= 50 A = 40 A = 30 A IB = 20 A
10 20 30 Base current, IB, (mA)
2 4 6 8 10 12 Collector-emitter voltage, VCE
Fig. 3.38
Fig. 3.39
185
Output Characteristic Curves The collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is varied and the corresponding collector current (IC) is noted for various fixed values of base current (IB). The shape of the curves is shown in Fig. 3.39. Such common-emitter characteristics are widely used for design purpose. It may be noted IC >> IB Output resistance Ro =
VCE at constant IB. Its value is of the order of 50 k I C
NOTES
(less than that of CB circuit).
3.12 COMMON-COLLECTOR (CC) CONFIGURATION

In this type of configuration, input is applied between base and collector while output is taken between the emitter and collector. Here, collector of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name commoncollector connection. Fig. 3.40 shows the commoncollector N-P-N transistor. Current Amplification Factor () In CC configuration, the input current is the base current IB and output current is the emitter current IE. The ratio of change in emitter current (IE) to the change in base current (IB) is known as current amplification factor i.e., =
I E IB
VBB VEE IE E IB B C IC RC
Output
AC input
Fig. 3.40. Common-collector N-P-N transistor.
This circuit provides the same gain as the common-emitter configuration as IE ~ IC. However, its voltage gain is always less than one. Relation between and = = Now, or
I E IB IC I E
...(i) ...(ii)
IE = IB + IC IE = IB + IC or IB = IE IC
Inserting the value of IB in (i), we get =

I E I E IC
186
Dividing the numerator and denominator of R.H.S. by IE , we get = =

IE /I E 1 = (IE /I E ) (IC /IE ) 1
F GH
IC IE
I JK
1 1
...(3.15)
NOTES
Collector Current
We know that, Also, or or or IC = IE + ICBO IE = IB + IC = IB + (IE + ICBO) IE(1 ) = IB + ICBO IE =
I IB + CBO 1 1
1 + 1= 1 1
...(From Eqn. 3.9)
Commonly used transistor connection:
LM = N 1
IC , IE = ( + 1)IB + ( + 1)ICBO
+ 1=
OP Q
...(3.16)
Out of the three configuration, the CE configuration is the most efficient. It is used in about 90 to 95% of all transistor applications. This is due to following reasons : 1. High current gain ; it may ranges from 20 to 500. 2. High voltage and power gain. 3. Moderate output to input impedance ratio (this ratio is small, to the tune of 50). This makes this configuration an ideal one for coupling between various transistor stages.
3.13 SMALL SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS

A single-stage circuit may be employed as a small signal amplifier, but two cascaded stages gives much greater amplification. For very high input impedance, a field effect transistor may be used as an input stage, with a bipolar junction transistor as the second stage. Calculation of circuit resistor values merely involves application of Ohms law, after selecting suitable voltage and current levels throughout the circuit. Each capacitor is calculated at the circuit low 3 dB frequency in terms of the resistance in series with the capacitor.
3.14 COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER DESIGN

Bias circuit design for the common emitter amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3.41 (a). To design this circuit, it is necessary to work from a specification
which might state the supply voltage to be used, the desired voltage gain, the frequency response, the signal source impedance, and the load impedance. Selection of IC, RC and RE. Designing for a particular voltage gain requires the use of ac negative feedback to stabilize the gain. The circuit in Fig. 3.41 (a) has no provision for negative feedback ; thus, it is designed to achieve the largest possible gain. The voltage gain of the equation is given by Av = hFe (RC || RL)/hie
+ VCC RC IC VRC C3
NOTES
R1 C1 I2 R2
VCE C4 VE RL
VB RE C2
(a) Common emitter amplifier circuit
XC1 hib E XC2 VS Zi Vi
XC3
RL
Vo
(b) hib is in series with XC2
(c) Small signal voltage is potentially divided across XC and Zi

1
(d) The collector ac voltage is potentially divided across XC and RL

3
Fig. 3.41. Circuit for designing a common emitter amplifier.
Since Av is directly proportional to RC || RL, design for the greatest voltage gain normally requires selection of the largest possible value of collector resistance RC. However, an extremely large value of RC may make the collector current too small for satisfactory operation. For most small-signal transistors, IC should be not less than 500 A. A good minimum to aim for is 1 mA. (Special low noise transistors operate with much lower collector current levels). The transistor collector current might be selected high to gives the largest hFe value, again to achieve the greatest Av. But a high level of IC results in a small values of RS. So a high IC may actually produce a lower voltage gain, although hFe may be relatively large. For a given level of IC, the largest possible voltage drop rRC gives the greatest value of RC, (RC = VRC/IC). To make VRC as large as possible, VCE and VE should be held to a minimum. The collector-emitter voltage should typically be at least 3 V,
to ensure that the transistor operates in its active region. This easily allows a maximum output voltage swing of 1 V, which is usually quite adequate for small signal amplifiers. For good bias stability, the emitter resistor voltage drop VE should be much larger than the transistor base-emitter voltage VBE. This is because VE = VB VBE, and when VE >> VBE, any variation in VBE (due to temperature or other effects) has only a slight effect on VE. Consequently, I E and IC remain fairly stable at IC IE = VE/RE. In most circumstances, a minimum VE of 5 V gives good bias stability. Where the supply voltage is less than 10 V, VE may have to be reduced to 3 V to allow for reasonable levels of VCE and VRC. Normally, a voltage much less than 3 V is likely to result in poor bias stability. Only VE, VCE, and IC are decided upon, VRC is determined VRC = VCC VCE VE Then RC and RE are calculated, RC =
VRC V , RE = E . IC IC
NOTES
Bias Resistors. The selection of potential divider current I2 as IC/10 gives good bias stability and high input resistance. Where the input resistance is not important, I2 may be made equal to IC for excellent bias stability R1 and R2 are calculated as follows : R2 =
V VB VB , R1 = CC . I2 I2 + I B
Bypass Capacitor. The bypass and coupling capacitors should be chosen to have the smallest possible capacitance value, both for economy and to minimize the physical size of the circuit since each capacitor has its highest impedance at the lowest operating frequency, the capacitor values are calculated at the lowest signal. Frequency that the circuit is required to amplify. This frequency is the circuit lower cutoff frequency, or low 3 dB frequency, Fi. Bypass capacitor C2 in Fig. 3.41 (a) is normally the largest capacitor in the circuit. The circuit low 3 dB frequency F1 is determined by C2 is developed for a common emitter circuit with an unbypassed emitter resistor RE. Rewriting this equation to include X C2 in parallel with RE gives Av =
hFe ( RC | | RL ) hie + (1 + hFe )( RE | | XC 2 )
Normally, RE >> X C2 . Also, X C2 is capacitive. Therefore Av or | Av | hFe ( RC | | RL ) hie j (1 + hFe )( X C2 )

hFe ( RC | | RL ) hie [(1 + hFe )( X C2 )]2
2
When
hie = (1 + hFe) ( X C2 ), | Av |
hFe ( RC | | RL ) hie 12 + 12
(mid Frequency gain) 2
NOTES
Therefore, at F1, or giving hib =
= (mid Frequency gain) 3 dB. hie = (1 + hFe) ( X C2 )

hie (1 + hFe )
ie
X C2 =
...(3.17)
Fe)
hie = (impedance seen when looking into transistor emitter) 1 + hFe
FG 1 IJ = h /(1 + h H 2F C K
1 2
Therefore, at F1,
X C2 = (impedance when looking into transistor emitter).

= (impedance in series with X C2 ):
Equation 3.17 gives the smallest value for the bypass capacitor, when selecting a standard capacitor, the next larger value should be chosen, in order to give an F1 slightly lower than the frequency used in the calculation. Coupling Capacitors. Coupling capacitors should have very little effect on amplifier frequency response X C2 and Zi constitute a potential divider [see Fig. 3.41 (c)]. If X C1 is too large Vi will be smaller than Vs and will increase with increasing signal frequency. Similarly X C3 and RL potentially divide the a.c. collector voltage [Fig. 3.41 (d)]. To minimize the effects of X C1 and X C3 , the reactance of each coupling capacitor at the lowest operating frequency for the circuit is selected to be approximately equal to one tenth of the impedance in series with it.
X C1 =
Zi 10
...(3.18)
RL ...(3.19) 10 Once again, these equations give minimum capacitance values. The next larger standard-size capacitors should be selected.
X C3 =
Equation (3.18) and (3.19) gives an impression that approximately 10% of the signal and output voltage is lost across C1 and C3, respectively. This would be true if all the quantities were resistive. However, X C1 and X C3 are capacitive (Zi and RL are usually resistive). From Fig. 3.41 (d) | V0 | = with
VC RC RL 2 + X C23
RL = 100 k and X C3 = 10 k, VC 100 k | V0 | = = 0.995 VC. (100 k) 2 + (10 k) 2
190
Thus, loss of ac output voltage across C3 amounts to only 0.5%. Similarly, it can be shown that approximately 0.5% of the input signal is lost across C1 when Zi is purely resistive and X C1 = Zi/10. Of course, for some circuits, RL and Zi may not always be purely resistive and X C1 = Zi/10. Of course, for some circuits, RL and Zi may not always be purely resistive and in such cases the foregoing analysis would not be correct. Shunting Capacitor. Sometimes an amplifier is required to have a particular upper cutoff frequency, or high 3 dB frequency F2. Normally, the transistor must operate satisfactorily to a frequency much higher than F2, that is the transistor cutoff frequency must exceed the circuit cutoff frequency. The upper cutoff frequency for a circuit can be set quite easily by including a small capacitor to shunt the output terminal to ground. Capacitive impedance X C4 is then part of the transistor ac load, so that the voltage gain equation becomes Av =
NOTES
hFe ( RC | | RL | | XC 4 ) hie
At low-and midband signal frequencies X C4 is very much larger than RC || RL, so that it has no effect on amplifier gain. At higher frequencies X C4 becomes smaller and begins to reduce the amplifier gain. Because X C4 is capacitive and RC || RL is normally resistive, RC || RL || X C4 can be rewritten as RC || RL || X C4 = or | (RC || RL || X C4 ) | = 1 1/( RC | | RL ) + j1/ X C4
FG 1 IJ + FG 1 IJ H (R || R ) K H X K
2 C L C4
When
X C4 = RC || RL,
1 R | | RL = C 1 2 2 2 1 +1 ( RC | | RL )
hFe ( RC | | RL ) 2 hie = (mid frequency gain) 2
...(3.20)
| (RC || RL || X C4 ) | =
This gives Therefore, at F2,
| Av | =
X C4 = RC || RL
Example 3.5. Calculate suitable resistor values for the common emitter amplifier in Fig. 3.41 (a). The circuit is to use a 2 N 3904 transistor, the supply voltage is VCC = 24 V and the external load resistance is RL = 120 k. Solution. Let Next, let Then RC << RL RC = RL/10 = 120 k/10 = 12 k (standard value resistor) VE = 5 V, VCE = 3 V VRC = VCC VCE VE = 24 V 3 V 5 V = 16 V
IC = RE =
VRC 16 V = = 1.3 mA 12 k RC
5V VE = 1.3 mA IC
NOTES
= 3.75 k (use a 3.9 k standard value) I2 = IC/10 = 1.3 mA/10 = 133 A R2 = Now, So,
VE + VBE 5 V + 0.7 V = 133 A I2
(use 39 k and recalculate I2) I2 = 5.7 V/39 k. 146 A R1

VCC VB 24 V 5.7 V = . 146 A I2
~ 43 k
125 k (use a 120 k standard value).
3.15 CAPACITOR COUPLED TWO-STAGE COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Circuit Design. A capacitor coupled, two-stage amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3.42. Each stage is similar to the single stage circuit in Fig. 3.41 (a). The simplest approach to the design of this circuit to make each stage identical. Then, when stage 2 has been designed the components for stage 1 are selected to be R1 = R5, R2 = R6, R3 = R7, R4 = R8, C1 = C3 and C2 = C4. Note that C3 is calculated in terms of the input resistance to stage 2, which should be identical to that for stage 1. If the circuits are otherwise identical C5 is determined by making X C5 << RL. Because of the presence of C3, stage 1 does not need a capacitor that corresponds to C5. One way in which design of a two-stage circuit differs from that of a singlestage circuits is in the calculation of capacitors C2 and C4. Consider eqn. (3.17). X C2 = hie/1 + hFe This equation was derived to make the voltage gain of a single-stage circuit 3 dB down from the mid frequency gain at frequency F1. If the equations is used to calculate the capacitance of C2 and C4, it is found that both the gain of stage-1 and the gain of stage-2 are down by 3 dB at F1. This means that the overall gain of the circuit is down by a total of 6 dB at frequency F1. For a 3 dB total reduction in overall voltage gain at F1, the bypass capacitors must be calculated to give a 1.5 dB reduction in gain at each stage A 1.5 dB reduction in stage gain at F1 is achieved by making the reactance of the emitter bypass capacitor equal to 0.65 times the impedance in series with the capacitor. Thus, the equation for the bypass capacitors now becomes,
X C2 = 0.65
hie 1 + hFe
...(3.21)
192
AC Analysis. AC analysis of a two-stage, capacitor-coupled circuit is similar to analysis of single-stage circuits. The h-parameter equivalent circuit for the amplifier circuit of Fig. 3.42 is drawn in Fig. 3.43. Once again, this equivalent circuit is produced by replacing the supply voltage and all capacitors with short circuit and substituting device h-parameter equivalents for each transistor. The resultant equivalent circuit simply consists of two single stage h-parameter equivalent circuits. As always, voltage polarities and current directions are indicated for an instantaneous positive-going signal voltage. The voltage polarities show a 180 phase shift between Vi and VC1 and a further 180 shift from VC1 to V0. The performance equation for the two-stage circuit are readily derived from the equations for a single-stage circuit. Input and output impedance are exactly the same as for the single-stage circuit. Zi = R1 || R2 || hie Z0 R7
VCC = 24 V R3 = 12 kW R5 120 kW 18 mF Q1 2 N 3904 18 mF Vi R2 = 39 kW VC1 R4 C2 R6 39 kW RL 120 kW R8 3.9 kW C4 250 mF Vo Vo R7 12 kW C5 = 0.15 mF Vi Q2 2 N 3904 VC1
NOTES
...(3.22) ...(3.23)
R1
120 kW
3.9 kW 250 mF
Fig. 3.42. Two-stage, capacitor coupled common emitter amplifier.

Stage-1 IS Ii IC 1 I2 Stage-2 IC 2
rS Vi VS
Zi
R1 || R2
hie1
R3
VC
R5 || R6 hie2
hFeI2
R7
Zo
V0
RL
Fig. 3.43. The h-parameter equivalent circuit for a two stage capacitor coupled amplifier.
The voltage gain equation for the second stage is exactly the same as the single-stage gain equation. The capacitor coupled impedance at the collector terminal of the first stage is the input impedance of the second stage. So the voltage gain equation are,
193
Av1 =
hFe1 ( R3 | | Zi2 ) hie1

hFe2 ( R7 | | RL ) hie2
...(3.24) ...(3.25)
NOTES
and
Av2 =
The overall voltage gain is found by multiplying the two individual stagegains: ...(3.26) Av = Av1 Av2 Equations for current gain and power gain can also be derived from the singlestage equations, but these quantities are not of great importance.
3.16 DIRECT COUPLING BETWEEN STAGES DIRECT COUPLED CIRCUIT

For economical circuit design, the number of components used should be kept to a minimum. The use of direct coupling between stages is one way of eliminating components. Fig. 3.44 shows a circuit in which the base of transistor Q2 is directly coupled to the collector of Q1. Comparing this circuit to the capacitor-coupled circuit in Fig. 3.42, it is seen that the two bias resistors for stage 2 and the interstage coupling capacitors have been eliminated. This is a saving of only three components; however, when several hundred or more similar circuits are to be manufactured, the savings can be considerable. Circuit Design. The first step in the design of the direct coupled circuit in Fig. 3.44 is to determine a suitable level of base bias voltage for Q2. This is done by estimating satisfactory levels of VE1 and VCE1 for transistor Q1. Then,
VB2 = VC1 = VE1 + VCE1
VCC = 14 V 5.6 kW IB
2
R1 = 68 kW C1 = 47 mF I2 R2 = 47 kW R4 4.7 kW
R5 3.9 kW
C4 = 0.56 mF
Q2, 2 N 3903 Q1, 2 N 3903 VCE1 VB2 VE1 C2 330 mF R6 8.2 kW VE

2
RL C3 330 mF
Fig. 3.44. Two-stage, direct coupled common emitter amplifier.
The emitter voltage of Q2 is

VE2 = VB2 VBE
194
and the voltage across Resistor R5 is VR5 = VCC VE2 VCE2 . As for all amplifier circuits, the resistor at the collector of the output transistor (R5 in Fig. 3.44). Should be much smaller than the external load resistor RL. Once R5 is selected, IC2 can be calculated using the voltage VR5 already determined. If IC2 looks too small for satisfactory operation of the transistor, a suitable current level should be selected and a new value of R5 calculated. The collector current of Q1 is determined by making IC very much greater than the base current for Q2. 1 This is done to ensure that I B2 has a negligible effect on the bias conditions of Q1. Normally just making IC equal to IC2 is the simplest way to achieve the desired 1 effect. AC Analysis. A.C. analysis of a two stage direct-coupled circuit is similar to analysis of a two-stage capacitor coupled circuit. The h-parameter equivalent for the circuit of Fig. 3.44 is exactly like Fig. 3.43, except that the bias resistors for the second stage are emitted. The voltage gain and impedance equations are as determined for the capacitor-coupled circuit. Because the component numbers differ slightly for the two circuits, care must be taken in substituting components into the equation. For example, from eqn. 3.25, the voltage gain of the second stage of the circuit in Fig. 3.44 is
NOTES
Av2 =
hFe2 ( R5 | | R6 ) hie2
Use of Complementary Transistors. The direct-coupled, two stage circuit illustrated in Fig. 3.45 is similar to that in Fig. 3.44, except that transistor Q2 is a pnp device Q1 and Q2 are usually selected to have similar characteristics and parameters, although one is npn and the other is pnp. In this case the transistors are complementary. Suppose the circuit in Fig. 3.45 is to be designed to use a 14 V supply, the base voltage for Q2 is then
VB2 = VR3 = 6V
and
VE2 = VB2 VBE = 6 V 0.7 V = 5.3 V
Hence,
VR6 = VCC VE2 VCE2 = 14 V 5.3 V 3 V = 5.7 V.

VCC = 14 V R3 VR 3 5.6 kW R5 5.6 kW VB2 2 N 3905 Q1, 2 N 3903 C4 0.56 mF RL 40 kW VE
2
R1 68 kW C1 47 mF
C3 330 mF
R2 47 kW
R4 4.7 kW
R6 C2 330 mF 5.6 kW
Fig. 3.45. Direct coupled, two-stage circuit using complementary transistor.
195
NOTES
Thus, using complementary transistors, the voltage across the collector resistor in the second stage is 5.7 V instead of 3.7 V. For a given level of collector current, the larger voltage drop gives a larger resistor, which results in greater voltage gain. The design procedure for this circuit is very similar to the procedure for designing the circuit in Fig. 3.45.
3.17 TWO-STAGE CIRCUIT WITH EMITTER FOLLOWER OUTPUT

Fig. 3.46 shows another direct-coupled circuit. This time the second-stage is a common collector circuit, or emitter follower. Stage-2 gives the circuit a very low output impedance, but has unity voltage gain. Stage-1 still has substantial voltage gain.
VCC = 20 V R3 5.6 kW Q2, 2 N 3903 Q1, 2 N 3903 C3 VB2 R4 2.7 kW C2 180 mF R5 3.3 kW V E2 18 mF RL = 100 kW
R1 68 kW C1 22 mF
R2 = 27 kW
Fig. 3.46. Direct-coupled two stage circuit.
The design procedure for this circuit is similar to the procedure already discussed. Base bias voltage VB2 is fixed as the collector voltage of the previous stage. A suitable level of emitter current I E2 is selected and RE is calculated to be ( VB2 VBE )/ I E2 . Coupling capacitor C1 is once again calculated from X C1 = Zi/10. Load resistor RL may be relatively small, which means that coupling capacitor C3 must be large. Therefore both C2 and C3 are used to determine a low 3 dB frequency of the circuit by making
X C2 = 0.65 hie/(1 + hFe) and X C3 = 0.65 RL at F1.

It is important to realize that the emitter follower in Fig. 3.46 is a smallsignal circuit. In fact, this type of circuit functions best when the amplitude of the a.c. output voltage is much smaller than the d.c. base-emitter voltage of the output transistor VBE . With ac output voltages which approach or exceed VB2 . The baseemitter junction of Q2 may be reverse biased when the output goes rapidly in a negative direction. Thus, the circuit does not function correctly, where large output voltages and low output impedance are required, a complementary emitter follower is used.
2
With the circuit operating as a small-signal common collector amplifier, emitter resistor R5 in Fig. 3.46 does not have to be very much smaller than external load RL. However, for satisfactory operation, emitter current I E2 should be greater than the peak ac load current ip. The peak output current is calculated by dividing the desired peak output voltage VP by the load resistance, i.e., x p = VP / RL.
NOTES
3.18 SMALL-SIGNAL HIGH FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER

Common-base Amplifier. The common base circuit, analysis shows to have very low input impedance, as well as output impedance similar to that of a common emitter circuit. The voltage gain of a common base circuit is also shown to be similar to that of a common-emitter circuit, with the important exception that there is no phase inversion between output and input. Because of this absence of phase inversion, there is no miller effect (or amplification of the input capacitance) with a common base circuit. Consequently a common base circuit is able to operate at much higher frequencies than a common-emitter circuit. A practical common-base circuit is illustrated in Fig. 3.47. The procedure for designing this circuit is exactly as covered in section 2 for designing a common emitter circuit. When the a.c. equivalent circuit for Fig. 3.47 is drawn it is seen that the impedance in series with capacitor C2 is the impedance seen when looking into the emitter of the transistor i.e., hib = hie/(1 + hFe) This low input impedance makes C2 the largest capacitor in the circuit, consequently C2 is used to set the circuit low 3 dB frequency F1 and is calculated in the same way as the emitter bypass capacitor in a common emitter circuit.
Fig. 3.47. Practical circuit for common-base amplifier.
The impedance in series with capacitor C1 is the impedance hie seen when looking into the base of the transistor. At the circuit low 3 dB frequency F1, X C1 should be very much smaller than hie. This is similar to the calculation of C1 in the common emitter circuit.
X C1 =
hie 10
...(3.27)
197
NOTES
Cascode Amplifier. The cascode amplifier in Fig. 3.48 is one approach to solve the low input impedance problems of a common base circuit Q1 and its associated components operate as a common emitter input stage, while the circuit of Q2 functions as a common base output stage. This arrangement gives the cascode circuit the high input impedance of a common emitter amplifier, as well as the good voltage gain and high frequency performance of a common base circuit.
VCC R1 R3 IC
2
C4 Q2 VCC R5 C3
I2 R2 VB 2 C1
IE2 = IC1
Q1 IE
1
RL
C2
R4
VB 1
R6
Fig. 3.48. Cascode amplifier.
For the dc bias conditions of the circuit, it is seen that emitter current for Q1 is set by VE1 and R4. Collector current IC1 approximately equals I E1 and I E2 is the same current as IC1 . Therefore, IC2 approximately equals I E1 . This current remains constant regardless of the level of VB2 as long as VCE1 remains large enough for current operation of Q1. The input impedance to the emitter of Q2 constitutes the a.c. load in the collector circuit of Q1.
Av1 =
hFe ( Zi to Qz ) hFe [ hie /(1 + hFe )] = 1. hie hie
With a stage gain of only 1, no miller effect occurs at transistor Q1. From the above equation, the voltage gain of stage-2 is
Av2 = h Fb ( R3 | | RL ) hib
Converting to common emitter parameters, the overall voltage gain for the cascode circuit is the same as that for a common emitter amplifier. Av =
h Fe ( R3 | | RL ) hib
The design procedure for the cascode circuit is easily determined from the common emitter design already covered. The voltage across R4 should typically be
VE1 = 5V, as already explained. Also, as previously discussed, the collector-emitter
voltage for each transistor should typically be a minimum of VCE = 3V. The emitter voltage for Q2 is VE2 = VCE1 + VE1 . The transistor base voltages are VB1 = VE1 + VBE and VB2 = VE2 + VBE . Capacitor C1 is calculated using eqn. (3.27), and C 2 is determined by making X C2 = hie/(1 + hFe) at F1. Coupling capacitors C3 and C4 are determined in the usual way.
NOTES
SUMMARY
Semiconductors are solid materials, either non-metallic elements or compounds, which allow electrons to pass through them so that they conduct electricity in much the same way as a metal. A P-N junction diode (known as a semiconductor or crystal diode) consists of a P-N junction, formed either in germanium or silicon crystal. The diode has two terminals namely anode and cathode. A properly doped P-N junction crystal diode which has a sharp breakdown voltage is known as Zener diode. A rectifier is a circuit, which uses one or more diodes to convert A.C. voltage into pulsating D.C. voltage. A full-wave rectifier is a circuit, which allows a unidirectional current to flow through the load during the entire input cycle. This can be achieved with two diodes working alternately. The change in D.C. output voltage from no load to full load with respect to full load voltage of a power supply is known as its voltage regulation. The transistor is a solid state device, whose operation depends upon the flow of electric charge carriers within the solid. There are three types of configurations for operation of a transistor. These configurations are: (i) Common-base (CB) configuration. (ii) Common-emitter (CE) configuration. (iii) Common-collector (CC) configuration. A single-stage circuit may be employed as a small signal amplifier, but two cascaded stages gives much greater amplification. For very high input impedance, a field effect transistor may be used as an input stage, with a bipolar junction transistor as the second stage. The common base circuit, analysis shows to have very low input impedance, as well as output impedance similar to that of a common emitter circuit. The voltage gain of a common base circuit is also shown to be similar to that of a common-emitter circuit, with the important exception that there is no phase inversion between output and input.
199
GLOSSARY
Junction: In semiconductor diode, there is a place which divide the two zones is known as junction. Ripple factor: In output voltage of a rectifier, the A.C. component present in the output is called a ripple. As a matter of factor, the ripple is undesirable and accounts for pulsations in the rectifier output. Current amplification factor (): The ratio of change in collector current (Ic) to the change in emitter current (IE) at constant collector voltage (VCB). =
I c at constant VCB. I E
NOTES
Base current amplification factor (): The ratio of change in collector current (Ic) to change in base current (IB). =
I c . I B
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define a semiconductor. 2. List the important characteristics of semiconductors. 3. Give examples of semiconducting materials. 4. What is the difference between a semiconductor and an insulator? 5. What is a P-N junction diode ? How its terminals are identified? 6. Draw the V-I characteristics of a junction diode when it is (a) forward biased and (b) reverse biased. 7. Draw the graphical symbol of a crystal diode and explain its significance. How the polarities of function diode are identified? 8. What are the important applications of a diode? 9. Write a short note on the power and current ratings of a diode. 10. What is a Zener diode? Draw its equivalent circuit 11. Explain briefly the applications of a Zener diode. 12. What do you understand by Zener voltage? 13. Explain why Zener diode is always operated in reverse biasing. 14. Explain how a Zener diode can stabilize the voltage across the load. 15. Explain the process of Zener breakdown. 16. Draw and explain a Zener diode voltage regulator. 17. Define the term Transistor. 18. What are the various types of transistors?
19. Differentiate between P-N-P and N-P-N transistors. Why are collector and emitter currents nearly equal in these transistors? 20. Define and of a transistor and derive the relationship between them. 21. Define three basic configurations of N-P-N transistor. 22. Draw input and output characteristics of CB transistor configuration. 23. Draw the circuits of the various transistor configurations. List their important features. Why CE configuration is mainly used? 24. Derive an expression for the efficiency of a full-wave rectifier. 25. What is a ripple factor? What is its value for a half-wave and a full-wave rectifier? 26. The current flowing in a certain P-N junction diode at room temperature is 2 107 A, when large reverse voltage is applied. Calculate the current flowing, when 0.1 V forward bias is applied at room temperature. 27. Determine the germanium P-N junction diode current for the forward bias voltage of 0.22 V at room temperature 25C with reserve saturation current equal to 1 mA. Take = 1. 28. For the circuit shown in Fig. A, find the maximum and minimum values of Zener diode current.
5 k I IZ 80 120 V 10 k IL
NOTES
Fig. A
29. The zener diode shown in Fig. A has VZ = 18 V. The voltage across the load stays as 18 V as long as IZ is maintained between 200 mA and 2A. Find the value of series resistance RS so that Vout remains 18 V while input voltage is free to vary between 22 V to 28 V. [Ans. 3.33 ] 30. In a common-base configuration, the emitter current is 1 mA. If the emitter circuit is open, the collector current is 50 A. Find the total collector current. Given that = 0.92. [Ans. 0.97 mA] 31. In a common-base configuration, = 0.95. The voltage drop across 2 k resistance which is connected in the collector is 2 V. Find the base current. [Ans. 0.05 mA] 32. Calculate IE in a transistor for which = 50, IB = 20 A. [Ans. 1.02 mA] 33. For a transistor, = 45 and voltage drop across 1 k which is connected in the collector circuit is 1 volt. Find the base current for common-emitter connection. [Ans. 0.022 mA] 34. A transistor is connected in CE configuration in which collector supply is 8 V and the voltage drop across resistance RC connected in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. The value of RC = 800 . If = 0.96, determine the collector emitter voltage and base current. [Ans. 7.5 V, 0.026 mA]
35. A JFET has the following parameters : IDSS = 32 mA ; VGS

(off)
= 8 V ; VGS = 4.5 V.
NOTES
Find the value of drain current. [Ans. 6.12 mA] 36. A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode may be assumed constant at 20 . The transformer r.m.s. secondary voltage from centre tap of each end of secondary is 50 V and load resistance is 980 . Calculate : (i) The mean load current. (ii) The r.m.s. value of load current. [Ans. (i) 45 mA, (ii) 50 mA] 37. Write an equation for calculating the coupling capacitors in a capacitorcoupled common-emitter amplifier. Show that, when this equation is used, the coupling capacitors have very little effect on the performance of the circuit. 38. Show how a capacitor may be used to obtain a desired upper cutoff frequency in a transistor common-emitter amplifier. Derive the equation for determining the capacitor value. 39. Discuss the factors involved in the section of ID, RD, and RS for a single-stage common-source FET amplifier circuit using voltage divider bias. Also, explain the process for determining suitable bias resistors. 40. Sketch the circuit of a two-stage direct-coupled common-emitter amplifier using npn BJTs. Discuss the advantages of direct coupling between stages. 41. Sketch the h-parameter equivalent circuit for the amplifier. Write equations for Zi, Zo, and Av for the circuit.
FURTHER READINGS
Nagasarkar T.K. and Sukhija M.S., Basic Electrical Engineering, Oxford Press (2005). Mehta V.K., Principles of Electronics, S. Chand & Company Ltd. (1994). R.K. Rajput, Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering , Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
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Digital Electronics
UNIT
4
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
STRUCTURE
4.1 Number System 4.2 Conversions in Number System 4.3 Addition and Subtractions of Number System 4.4 Complements 4.5 Logic Gates 4.6 Universal Gates 4.7 Half Adder 4.8 Full Adder 4.9 Boolean Algebra 4.10 Flip-Flop Circuits 4.11 Counters 4.12 Registers 4.13 A/D and D/A Converters: An Introduction 4.14 Digital to Analog Conversions 4.15 Resistor Divider D/A Converter 4.16 Analog to Digital Conversions 4.17 Voltage to Time Analog to Digital Converter 4.18 A/D Converter Specifications Summary Glossary Review Questions Further Readings
NOTES
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to: define number system, its conversions and mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction.
203
illustrate the topics like logic gates, half and full adder, Boolean Algebra, counters and registers. describe A/D and D/A conversion (single concepts only).
NOTES
4.1 NUMBER SYSTEM

Number systems provide the basis for all operations in information processing systems. In a number system, the information is divided into a group of symbols; for example, 26 English letters, 10 decimal digits etc. In conventional arithmetic, a number system based upon ten units (0 to 9) is used. However, arithmetic and logic circuits used in computers and other digital systems operate with only 0's and 1's because it is very difficult to design circuits that require ten distinct states. The number system with the basic symbols 0 and 1 is called binary i.e., A binary system uses just two discrete values. The binary digit (either 0 or 1) is called a bit. A group of bits which is used to represent the discrete elements of information is a symbol. The mapping of symbols to a binary value is known a binary code. This mapping must be unique. For example, the decimal digits 0 through 9 are represented in a digital system with a code of four bits. Thus a digital system is a system that manipulates discrete elements of information that is represented internally in binary form.
Decimal Numbers
The decimal number system has been the most important useable number system. The decimal number system uses positional number representation, which means that the value of each digit is determined by its position in a number. Here the following factors must be kept in mind because these factors are applied to all other number system. 1. The base, also called the radix of a number system is the number of symbols that the system contains. For example, the base or radix of decimal number system is 10. 2. The decimal system has ten symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 3. In other words, it has a base of 10. Each position in the decimal system is 10 times more significant than the previous position. 4. The numeric value of a decimal number is determined by multiplying each digit of the number by the value of the position in which the digit appears and then adding the products. Thus the number 2734 is interpreted as 2 1000 + 7 100 + 3 10 + 4 1 = 2000 + 700 + 30 + 4 Here 4 is the least significant digit (LSD) and 2 is the most significant digit (MSD).
204
Binary Numbers
The binary number has a radix of 2. As r = 2, only two digits are needed, and these are 0 and 1. Like the decimal system, binary is a positional system, except that each bit position corresponds to a power of 2 instead of a power of 10. In binary n bits can represent N = 2n symbols. e.g., 3 bits can represent up to 8 symbols, 4 bits for 16 symbols etc. For N symbols to be represented, the minimum number of bits required is the lowest integer n that satisfies the relation given below: 2n N For example, if N = 26, minimum n is 5 since 24 = 16 and 25 = 32.
Digital Electronics
NOTES
Octal Numbers
Digital systems operate only on binary numbers. Since binary numbers are often very long, two shorthand notationsoctal and hexadecimal, are used for representing large binary numbers. Octal systems use a base or radix of 8. Thus it has digits from 0 to 7 (r 1). As in the decimal and binary systems, the positional valued of each digit in a sequence of numbers is fixed. Each position in an octal number is a power of 8, and each position is 8 times more significant than the previous position.
Hexadecimal Numbers
The hexadecimal numbering system has a base of 16. There are 16 symbols. The decimal digits 0 to 9 are used as the first ten digits as in the decimal system, followed by the letters A, B, C, D, E and F, which represent the values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively. Table 4.1 shows the relationship between decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems. Table 4.1
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F Self-Instructional Material 205
4.2 CONVERSIONS IN NUMBER SYSTEM

Conversion of the Base to Decimal
NOTES
In order to conversion between binary and decimal numbers, we need to understand the relationship between the digits of a given number, the position of those digits and the base of the number system. Let's take another look at our example number 462.15 in the decimal system.
Hundreds 102 4 Tens 101 6 Ones 100 2 . Tenths 101 1 Hundredths 102 5
The first digit of our number is 4, but because this digit is located in the hundreds column, we know it really represents the value 4 102 or 400. Similarly, the 6 in the tens column represents the value 6 101 or 60. Continuing this pattern, we can express the number 462.1510 as follows: 4 102 = 4 100 = 400 6 101 = 6 10 2 1 5 100 101 102 = 21 = = 60 2 0.1 462.15 In general, the relationship between a digit, its position, and the base of the number system is expressed by the following formula: DECIMAL NUMBER = DIGIT BASEPOSITION In digital systems, the binary number system and other number systems closely related to it are used almost exclusively.
= 1 0.1 =
= 5 0.01 = + 0.05
Binary to Decimal Conversion

Now let's look at the number 110.112 using the same relationship between digit, base, and position number. Recall the formula for computing the value of a digit: DECIMAL NUMBER = DIGIT BASEPOSITION Since the binary system is a base-2 number system, we can make this formula more specific: DECIMAL NUMBER = DIGIT 2POSITION As we did with the previous decimal example, we can analyze the digits of our binary number 110.112 in a table.
Fours 22 1
Twos 21 1
Ones 20 0 .
Halves 21 1
Fourths 22 1
Notice that the position values in our table are now powers of two instead of ten. Using formula, we see that the first digit of binary number represents the value 1 22 or 4 and the second digit represents the value 1 21 or 2. Continuing this pattern, we can express the number 110.112 as follows: 1 22 1 21 0 20 = 14 = 12 = 01 = = = 4 2 0 0.5 6.75 To find the decimal value of a binary number, we simply calculate the value of each binary digit and then sum these values.
Digital Electronics
NOTES
1 21 = 1 0.5 =
1 22 = 1 0.25 = + 0.25
Octal to Decimal Conversion

Since the binary system is a base-8 number system, we can make formula more specific: DECIMAL NUMBER = DIGIT 8POSITION Now consider the octal number 1473.28. As you can see in the table below, each column of this number represents a power of eight.
512s 83 1 64s 82 4 Eights 81 7 Ones 80 3 . Eighths 8-1 2
Using the information from this table, we can find the decimal value for 1473.28. We will use the same approach as we used for converting binary numbers to decimal. 1 83 = 1 512 4 82 = 4 64 7 81 = 7 8 3 80 = 3 1 = 512 = 256 = = 56 3 827.25 From our analysis, we see that 1473.28 is equivalent to 827.2510 in decimal.
2 81 = 2 0.125 = + 0.25
Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

Since the binary system is a base-16 number system, we can make formula more specific: DECIMAL NUMBER = DIGIT 16POSITION
207
Now let's look at a hexadecimal number: 33B.416. Since we are using a base16 number system, the columns of our table are now powers of 16.
256s Sixteens 161 3 Ones 160 B Sixteenths 161 4
NOTES
162 3
As we did before, we can find the decimal value of 33B.416 by computer the value of each digit and summing them. Notice that we substitute 1110 for the hexadecimal digit B in this conversion. 3 162 = 3 256 3 161 = 3 16 B 160 = 11 1 = 768 = 48 = 11
4 161 = 4 0.0625 = + 0.25 827.25 Comparing all of our answers, we see that 827.2510 is 1473.28 in octal and 33B.416 in hexadecimal.
Decimal to Base Conversion

Decimal to Binary Conversion If any number has been given in decimal; then to convert in binary, follow the following steps. (a) Successive division for Integer Part Steps are as follows: 1. Divide the integer part of given decimal number by the base 2, noting the remainder. 2. Divide the integer part until no further division is possible. At each step note the remainder. 3. List the remainder values in reverse order to find the equivalent. Example 4.1. Convert (105)10 to equivalent binary number. Solution. As discussed, divide the (105)10 by base 2.
2 2 2 2 2 2 105 1 52 0 26 13 1 6 0 3 1 1 0 remainder
208
Now arrange the remainders in reverse order. (105)10 = (1101001)2 (b) Successive Multiplication for Fractional Part Follow the steps given below: 1. Multiply the given fractical decimal number by base 2. 2. Record the carry generated by multiplication at most significant position. 3. Multiply only fractional number of the product in step 2 by the base and again record the carry. 4. Repeat step 3. Until we get a pattern of carry generated repeated. If not repeating pattern is achieved, follow up to five digits of carry. 5. Now list the carry in order. Example 4.2. Convert the decimal number (0.42)10 into binary. Solution. Follow the steps discussed above.
0.42 2 = 0.84 2 1.68 2 1.36 2 0.72 2 1.44 = (0.01101)2
Digital Electronics
NOTES
So,
(0.42)10 = (0.01101)2 If any number has integer and fractional both parts, perform the conversion of both part separately to get equivalent binary.
(c) Conversion of Mixed Number to Binary
Decimal to Octal Conversion To convert a decimal number to octal number, the process is same as discussed for decimal to octal conversion. But now the 1. Successive division of integer part is performed by base 8. 2. Successive multiplication of fractional part is performed by base 8. Decimal to Hexadecimal Number Conversion To convert a decimal number to hexadecimal number, the process is same but now with base value 16. Example 4.3. Convert the following: (257.13)10 = (?)16 (a) Taking integer part (257)10 = (?)16.
209
16 16
257 16 1
1 0
NOTES
(257)10 = (101)16. (b) Taking fractional part (0.13)10 = (?)16.

0.13 16 0.08 16 1.28 16 1.48 16 7.68 16 1.08
(0.13)10 = (0.21171)16. So (257.13)10 = (101.21171)16. Decimal Number to Any Base As discussed different decimal to base conversion example, it is clear that to convert any decimal number to any base: (a) Divide given decimal integer number by base until no further division is possible. (b) Multiply given decimal fractional number by base for five places. Example 4.4. Convert the following: (a) (2CCD)16 = (?)5 (b) (2 AC 9)16 = (?)7 Solution. As there is no direct conversion method for given problem. So, first of all base-16 is to be converted to base-10. The base-10 is converted to base-5, or base-7. (a) (2CCD)16 (?)10 (?)5 So (2CCD)16 = (?)10 = 2 163 + C 162 + C 161 + D 160 = 2 163 + 12 162 + 12 161 + 13 160 = 131072 + 3072 + 192 + 13 = (134349)10. Now (134349)10 = (?)5.
210
5 5 5 5 5 5 5
134349 26869
Digital Electronics
4 4
5373 3 1074 4 214 42 2 8 3 4
NOTES
(134349)10 = (13244344)5 So, finally (2CCD)16 = (13244344)5 (b ) So (2AC9)16 = (?)10 = (?)7 (2AC9)16 = (?)10 (2AC9)16 = 2 163 + A 162 + C 161 + 9 160 = 2 163 + 10 162 + 12 161 + 9 160 = (10953)10 Now (10953)10 = (?)7
(10953)10 = (43635)7 So finally (2AC9)16 = (43635)7 Octal to Binary Conversion We can see a special relationship between three of these number systems. Binary, octal, and hexadecimal all have bases that are powers of 2. This relationship allows us to convert between these systems quite easily. To convert 1473.28 to binary, we simply replace each digit of octal with an equivalent 3-bit binary number.
211
Octal 1 4 100
1473.2 7 111 3 011 . . 2 010
NOTES
Binary
001
001100111011.010
We can see the 3 to 1 relationship between octal and binary when we compare their bases. Octal has a base of 8 or 23 and binary has a base of 2 or 21. Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion As you might guess, binary and hexadecimal have a 4 to 1 relationship since the base of hexadecimal is 16 or 24. We can also convert easily between binary and hexadecimal using this 4 to 1 relationship. Hexadecimal 3 Binary 0011 3 0011 33B.4 B 1011 . . 4 0100
001100111011.0100
4.3 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF NUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal Addition
Decimal addition process may help to understand the addition of numbers of different base. In decimal addition, we follow the steps given below: Step 1. Add the least significant digit. If this addition is greater than or equal to base number-10, a carry is generated. Step 2. If addition is greater than base number-10, then substract 10 from it. Write down reminder at place of addition and forward one carry to next place. Step 3. Now perform the same operation for next digit (till most significant digit). Example 4.5. Add the following: (256)10 + (629)10 Solution.
MSB (256)10 (629)10 LSB
Addition of LSB digits is 6 + 9 = 15 that is greater than base = 10 So,

Remainder = 15 10 = 5
Thus addition of 6 and 9 produces 5 with carry 1

1 (256)10 (629)10 (885)10 Result Carry
Digital Electronics
NOTES
Decimal Substraction
Decimal substraction can be performed in following steps. Step 1. If minuend (number from which second number is to be substracted) is less than subtrahend (number to be substracted) then we take a borrow. The value of borrow is equal to base (10). When we take borrow, a carry is returned to next place. Example 4.6. Substract. (64)0 (26)10 So, (6 4)10 (2 6)10 At LSD, the minuend 4 is less than subtrahend 6 so take a borrow from next place and return one carry to that place.
(10) 6 4 2 6 1 (2 8)10 Borrow
Carry
Binary Addition
To add two binary number, follow the same process as in decimal addition. Maximum possible four cases of binary additions are:
(A 0 0 1 1 + B) 0 1 0 1 Sum 0 1 1 1 Carry 0 0 0 1
Note: Addition of 1 and 1 is 2 that is equal to base 2. So. 2 2 = 0. addition and 1 carry is generated.
Example 4.7. Add the following: A = (10111)2 and B = (11001)2
213
Solution.
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 + 1 1 0 0 1 (1 0 0 0 0)2 Carry
NOTES
Note that at 5th step 1 + 1 + 1 = 3. that is greater than base 2. So, 3 2 = 1 is add result with 1 carry generated.
Binary Substraction
For binary substraction, follow the same process as in case of decimal substraction. Example 4.8. Substract the following: A = (110 11)2 and B = (10 11 0)2 Solution :
2 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Result Borrow
Carry
Note that at third place. 0 1 is not possible without borrow. So we have taken one borrow from next place. Value of borrow is always equal to base. But a carry = 1 is returned to that place.
Octal Addition
To add two octal number, follow the same process as in decimal addition. Step 1. Start addition from LSD. (least significant digit). Step 2. If addition is equal to or greater than base 8, substract 8 from addition. Remainder is result and one carry is forwarded to next position. Example 4.9. Perform the following: (354)8 + (266)8. Solution.
1 3 + 2 6 1 5 6 12 8 Carry 4 6 10 8 2
If greater 'or' equal to 8
6 4
(354)8 + (266)8 = (642)8 Note that when addition of digit is equal to or greater than 8, 8 is substract from addition. The remainder is result and one carry is forwarded to next place.
Octal Substraction
To substract two octal number, follow the same process as in decimal substraction. Step 1. Start substraction from LSD. Step 2. If minuend is less than substrahend, then take a borrow. The value of borrow is equal to base-8. But carry is returned to that place and value of carry is always 1. Example 4.10. Perform the following: (354)8 (266)8 Solution.
8 8 (3 5 4)8 (2 6 6)8 1 1 6 6 Borrow (always equal to base value 8)
Digital Electronics
NOTES
Carry (always 1)
(354)8 (266)8 = (66)8
Hexadecimal Addition
Process of adding two hexadecimal number is same as decimal. Step 1. Start addition from LSD. Step 2. If addition is equal to or greater than base 16, substract' 16 from addition. The remainder is result and one carry is forwarded to next place. Example 4.11. Perform the following: (C2)H + (3E)H Solution.
1 C.2 + 3 E 1 (12) (2) (3) (14) (16) (16) (16) (16) 1 0 0 Carry
Equal to base value
(C2)16 + (3E)16 = (100)16
Hexadecimal Substraction
To substract two hexadecimal number, follow the same process as in decimal substraction. Step 1. Start substraction from LSD. Step 2. If minuend is less than subtrahend, then take a borrow. The borrow is equal to base value 16. But carry is returned to that place and value of carry is always 1.
215
Example 4.12. Perform the following (C2)16 (3E)16 Solution.

16 12 2 3 14 1 8 4 Borrow (equal to base)
NOTES
C 2 3 E Carry (always 1)
(C2)16 (3E)16 = (84)16
Any Base Addition

On the basis of above example; the final process is: Step 1. Start addition from LSD. Step 2. If addition is equal to or greater than base, substract base value from addition. Reminder is result and one carry is forwarded to next place. Example 4.13. Perform the following (52)7 + (66)7 Solution.
1 1 (5 2)7 + (6 6)7 12 8 Carry
( 8) ( 7) 1 4 1
greater than base value
So,
(52)7 + (66)7 = (141)7
Any Base Substraction

One the basis of above example, the final process is: Step 1. Start substraction from LSD. Step 2. If minuend is less than subtrahend, then take a borrow. The borrow is equal to base value. But carry is returned to that place and value of carry 1. Example 4.14. Perform the following: (52)7 (36)7 Solution.
7 5 2 3 6 1 1 3 Borrow (equal to base value)
Carry (always 1)
(52)7 (36)7 = (13)7
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4.4 COMPLEMENTS
Complements are used for simplifying the substraction. There are two types of complements for each base-r system. 1. The rs complement 2. The (r1)s complement.
Digital Electronics
NOTES
r s and ( r 1)s Complement

rs Complement The basic formula for rs complement of any number N is given by. rs complement = rn N where r = Base of Number N = Number whose complement is to be taken. n = Number of digits/Bits in integer part of N. So for different Number Systems we may have following rs complements. Binary, r = 2 ; 2s Complement. Octal, r = 8 ; 8s Complement. Hexadecimal, r = 16; 16s Complement. Decimal; r = 10; 10s Complement. For all number systems, the formula remains same. Example 4.15. Find 10s complement of (52520)10 Solution. By Formula 10s Complement = rn N But r = 10, n= 5 N = 52520 So 10s complement = 105 (52520)10 = 100000 52520 47480 (r 1)s Complement The basic formula for (r 1)s complement of any number N is given by (r 1)s complement = rn rm N. where n = Number of digits/Bit is integer part of N. m = Number of digits in fractional part of N. N = Number r = Base of number N.
217
So for different Number Systems, we may have following (r 1)s complements. Binary, Octal, r = 2; 1s complement r = 8, 7s complement r = 16, 15s, complement r = 10, 9s complement
NOTES
Hexadecimal Decimal
For all the number systems, the formula remains same. Example 4.16. Find the 9s complement of (52520)10 Solution. Applying formula = rn rm N. For 9s complement r = 10, n=5 m=0 N = 52520 So 9s complement = 105 100 (52520) = (100000)101 (52520)10 = 99999 52520 47479
Substraction using r s Complement

The substraction of two number (M N), both of base r, may be done by using rs complement as follows: 1. Take rs complement of substrahend N. 2. Add the minuend M to the rs complement of subtrahend N. 3. Now (a) If an end carry (carry at MSD) occurs, discard it. (b) If an end carry does not occur. Answer = (rs complement of result). All the steps are identical for (a) 10s complement for r = 10. (b) 8s complement for r = 8. (c) 16s complement for r = 16. and all other number system. Example 4.17. Using 10s complement, substract: 72532 3250. Solution. Follow the steps: (a) Given that M = (72532)10 N = (3250)10.
(b) Take the 10s complement of (3250)10. = rn N = 104 3250 = (10000)10 (3250)10 = (96750)10 (c) Add M and 10s complement of N. = (72532)10 + (96750)10 End carry So, 1) 69282 (d) As end carry has been generated. So discord it. (72532)10 (3250)10 = (69282)10
Digital Electronics
NOTES
Substraction using (r 1)s Complement

The substraction of two number (M N), both of base r may be done by (r 1)s complement as follows: 1. Take (r 1)s complement of N. 2. Add the minuend, M to the (r 1)s complement of subtrahend N. 3. Now (a) If end carry (carry at MSD) occurs, add this carry to result of step 2) Answer = (Result + Carry). (b) If end carry does not occur; Answer = [(r 1)s complement of Result]. Example 4.18. Using 9s complement, substract (72532)10 (3250)10 Solution. Follow the steps: (a) Given that And M = (72532)10 N = (3250)10 = rn rm N = 104 120 (3250)10 = (9999)10 (3250)10 = (96749)10 (c) Add M with 9s complement of N. = (75532)10 + (96749)10 End carry 1) 69281
(b) Take the 9s complement of (3250)10
219
(d) End carry has been generated. So Answer = (Result + Carry) = 69281 + 1 Carry added (69282)10 So (72532)10 (3250)10 = (69282)10
NOTES
4.5 LOGIC GATES

General Aspects
A digital circuit with one or more input signals but only one output signal is called a logic gate. Or A logic gate is an electronic circuit which makes logic decision.
l
Logic gates are the basic building blocks from which most of the digital systems are built up. They implement the hardware logic function based on the logical algebra developed by George Boolean which is called Boolean algebra in his honour. A unique characteristic of Boolean algebra is that variables used in it can assume only one of the two values i.e., either 0 or 1. Hence, every variable is either a 0 or a 1 (Fig. 4.1limits on TTLICs). Each gate has distinct graphic symbol and its operation can be described by means of Boolean algebraic function.
5V Logic 1 2V 0.8 V Logic 0 0 Not allowed
Fig. 4.1. Voltage assignment in a digital system.
The table which indicates output of gate for all possible combinations of input is known as a truth table. l These gates are available today in the form of various IC families. The most popular families are : (i) Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) (ii) Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) (iii) Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) (iv) Complementary metal oxide-semiconductor (CMOS).
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220
Applications of Logic Gates

The following are the fields of application of logic gates : 1. Calculators and computers 2. Digital measuring techniques 3. Digital processing of communications 4. Musical instruments 5. Games and domestic appliances, etc. 6. The logic gates are also employed for decision making in automatic control of machines and various industrial processes and for building more complex devices such as binary counters etc.
Digital Electronics
NOTES
Positive and Negative Logic

The number symbols 0 and 1 represent in computing systems two possible states of a circuit or device. It does not make any difference if these two states are referred to as ON and OFF, Closed and Open, High and Low, Plus and Minus or True and False, depending upon the situations. The main point is they must be symbolized by two opposite conditions. In positive logic a 1 represents : an ON circuit ; a Closed switch ; a High voltage , a Plus sign, a True statement. Consequently, a O represent : an OFF circuit ; an Open switch, a Low voltage ; a Minus sign, a False statement. In negative logic, the just opposite conditions prevail. Example. A digital system has two voltage levels of 0 V and 5 V. If we say that symbol 1 stands for 5 V and symbol 0 for 0 V, then we have positive logic system. If on the other hand, we decide that a 1 should represent 0 V and 0 should represent 5 V, then we will get negative logic system. Main point is that in positive logic the more positive of the two voltage levels represents the 1 while in negative logic the more negative voltage represents the 1.
Types of Logic Gates

In the complex circuits, the following six different digital electronics gates are used as basic elements : 1. NOT Gate 2. NAND Gate 3. AND Gate 4. OR Gate 5. NOR Gate 6. XOR Gate. n A truth table has 2 rows. It gives in each of its row m outputs for a given combination of n inputs. 1. NOT gate :
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Not operation means that the output is the complement of input. If input is logic 1 , the output is logic 0 and if input is logic 0, the output is logic 1, Fig. 4.2 shows the symbol of NOT Gate. It is generally represented by a triangle followed by a bubble (or a bubble followed by a triangle).
l l l
NOTES
l
NOT gate is used when an output is desired to be complement of the input. If all inputs of NAND gates are joined it shall act as NOT gate. NOT gate is also called inverting logic circuit. It is also called a complementing circuit. A NAND gate can said to be basic building block of the all digital TTL logic gates and other digital circuits.
2. NAND gate :
It is represented by the symbol shown in Fig. 4.3. l Its unique property is that output is high 1 if any of the input is at low 0 logic level. Let us consider two inputs with the states A and B at the NAND gate. The
l
answer (output) X = A . B . Bar denotes a NOT log operation on A.B. The meaning of A.B, called AND operation, is given in 3 below. 3. AND gate :
l l
A NAND gate followed by a NOT gate gives us AND gate. It is represented by a symbol in Fig. 4.4. Its symbol differs from NAND only by omission of a bubble (circle). Its unique property is that its output is 0 unless all the inputs to it are at the logic 1s. A two inputs, AND gate has X = A.B. Dot between the two states indicates AND logic operation using these. An OR operation means that the output is 0 only if all the input are 0. It is represented by a symbol shown in Fig. 4.5. If any of the inputs is 1 the output is 1 . A two inputs OR gate has X = A + B. Sign + between the two states indicates an OR logic operation. An OR circuit followed by a NOT circuit gives a NOR gate (Fig. 4.6). Its unique property is that its output is 0 if any of input is 1. A NOR gate is a basic building block for other types of the logic gates than TTLs. In the TTL circuits, a NOR is fabricated in an IC by the several NANDs.
4. OR gate :
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5. NOR gate :
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A two inputs NOR has X = A + B . 6. XOR gate :

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A XOR gate (Fig. 4.7) is called Exclusive OR gate. Its unique property is that the output is 1 only if odd number of the inputs at it are 1s. The Exclusive OR can be written as : X = A . B + A . B or A B. Exclusive OR gate is important in the circuits for addition of two binary numbers.
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222
Table 4.2. Symbols, Boolean Expressions and Truth Tables of Various Logic Gates
NAND
A B X B X AND A OR
Logic
NOT
AND
OR
NOR
EX . OR
COINCIDENCE
7. Coincidence gate :
Symbol Fig. 4.3 X = A.B

A.B + A.B =AB
NOT
Fig. 4.2 X = A.B X=A+B X= A+B X=
Fig. 4.4
Fig. 4.5
Fig. 4.6
Fig. 4.7
Fig. 4.8 X = A . B + A.B
Boolean
X= A
Expression
Truth table
A X 0 1 1 0
A 0 0 1 1 Output available to all states except when all the inputs are available Output available when all inputs available Output available when only one or more inputs available Output available when no input is available
B 0 1 0 1
X 1 1 1 0
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
X 0 0 0 1
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
X 0 1 1 1
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
X 1 0 0 0
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
X 0 1 1 0 Output available when the inputs are not identical
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
X 1 0 0 1 Output available to those states when the inputs are identical
This gate (Fig. 4.8) can be written as : X = A . B + A . B.
Output available to those states when the inputs are identical.
Definition
Output available when there is no input
NOTES
Digital Electronics
223
Basic building blocks. AND, OR and NOT gates are called basic building blocks or basic gates because they are essential to realize any boolean expression. Universal gates. NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates because any logic gate can be constructed either by using NAND gates only or by using NOR gates only.
NOTES
4.6 UNIVERSAL GATES

NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates. The AND, OR, NOT gates can be realized using only NAND or NOR gates. Demorgans theorem afford a convenient method to use these two gates in logic design. The entire logic system can be implemented by using any of these two gates. These two gates are easier to realize and consume less power than other gates. (i) Realization of logic gates using NAND gates : Fig. 4.9 (a), (b), (c) shows realization of NOT, AND, OR gates using NAND gates respectively, which is self explanatory.
A X=A
(a) Realization of NOT gate using NAND gate

A B A.B X = A.B
(b) Realization of AND gate using NAND gates
X = A.B = A + B B
B
(c) Realization of OR gate using NAND gates
Fig. 4.9. Realization of NOT, AND and OR gates using NAND gates.
(ii) Realization of logic gates using NOR gates : The realization of NOT, OR and AND gates using NOR gates is shown in Fig. 4.10 (a), (b), (c) respectively.
A X=A
(a) Realization of NOT gate using NOR gates
224
A B A+B
Digital Electronics
X=A+B
(b) Realization of OR gate using NOR gates
NOTES
A A
X = A + B = A.B B
B
(c) Realization of AND gate using NOR gates
Fig. 4.10. Realization of NOT, OR and AND gates using NOR gates.
4.7 HALF ADDER

It is a 1-bit adder and carries out binary addition with the help of XOR and AND gates. It has two inputs and two outputs. It can add 2 binary digits at a time and produce a 2-bit data i.e., SUM and CARRY according to binary addition rules. The circuit of a half adder is shown in Fig. 4.11. (a). It consists of an Ex-OR gate and AND gate. The outputs of the Ex-OR gate is called the SUM (S), while the output of the AND gate is known as CARRY (C). As the AND gate produces a high output only when both inputs are high and Ex-OR gate produces a high output if either input (not both) is high, the truth table of a half adder is developed by writing the truth table output of AND gate in the CARRY column and the output truth table of Ex-OR gate in SUM column. Truth table for half adder is given in table.
A CARRY = A.B B Inputs B SUM = A + B A HA S C Outputs
(a) Logic circuit
(b) Logic symbol
Fig. 4.11. Half adder.
Table 4.3. Truth Table for Half Adder

Inputs A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Outputs C 0 0 0 1 S 0 1 1 0
The logical expressions for CARRY and SUM can be written from the truth table for a half adder as follows : CARRY, C = A.B SUM, S = A B
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NOTES
This circuit is called half-adder, because it cannot accept a CARRY-IN from previous additions. Owing to this reason the half-adder circuit can be used for binary addition of lower most bit only.
For higher-order columns, 3-input adder called full adder are used.
4.8 FULL ADDER

A full adder has three inputs and two outputs. It can add 3 digits (or bits) at a time. The bits A and B which are to be added come from the two registers and the third input C curves from the carry generated by the previous addition. It produces two outputs, SUM and CARRY-OUT (going to next higher column).
A B C
CARRY = AB + BC + CA
SUM = A + B + C
(a) Logic circuit

A B C FA SUM CARRY
(b) Logic symbol
Full adder A HA B C A+ B = D HA D + CI SUM A.B D.CI CARRY C0
(c) Full adder circuit
Fig. 4.12. Full adder.

Table 4.4. Truth table for Full Adder

A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 CARRY 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 SUM 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Digital Electronics
NOTES
A simple circuit of a full adder is shown in Fig. 4.12 (a), though other designs are also possible. It uses 3 AND gates, one Ex-OR gate and one OR gate. The final CARRY is given by the OR gate while the final SUM is given out by the Ex-OR gate. Fig. 4.12 (b) shows the logic symbol for a full adder. Truth table for full adder for all passible inputs/outputs is given in Table 4.4. Truth table can be checked easily for its validity. A full adder can be made by using two half adders and an OR gate. The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.12 (c).
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The full adder can do more than a million additions per second. Besides that, it never get tired or bored or asks for a rest.
Note : Binary additions : Following are the four rules/cases for addition of binary numbers : (1) 0 + 0 = 0 (2) 0 + 1 = 1 (3) 1 + 0 = 1 (4) 1 + 1 = 10 (This sum is not ten but one-zero).
4.9 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

George Boolean in 1854 developed a mathematics now referred as Boolean algebra. It is the algebra of logic presently applied to the operation of computer devices. The rules of this algebra are based on human reasoning. Digital circuits perform the binary arithmetic operations with binary digits 1 and 0. These operations are called logic functions or logic operations. The algebra used to symbolically describe logic functions is called Boolean algebra. Boolean algebra is a set of rules and theorems by which logical operations can be expressed symbolically in equation form and be manipulated mathematically. Boolean algebra differs from ordinary algebra in that Boolean constant and variables can have only two values ; 0 and 1 :
227
In Boolean algebra the following four connecting symbols are used : 1. Equal sign (=). In Boolean algebra the equal sign refers to the standard mathematical equality. In other words, the logical value on one side of the sign is identical to the logical value on the other side of the sign. Example. We are given two logical variables such that A = B. Then if A = 1, then B = 1 and if A = 0 then B = 0. 2. Plus sign (+). In Boolean algebra the plus sign refers to logical OR operation. The statement A + B = 1 means A ORed with B equals 1. Consequently, either A = 1 or B = 1 or both equal to 1. 3. Multiply sign ( . ). In Boolean algebra the multiply sign refers to AND operation. The statement A.B = 1 means A ANDed with B equals 1. Consequently, A = 1 and B = 1. The function A . B often written as AB, omitting the dot for convenience. 4. Bar sign (). In Boolean algebra the bar sign refers to NOT operations. The NOT has the effect of inverting (complementing) the logic value. Thus if A = 1, then A = 0.
NOTES
Boolean Laws (For Outputs from Logic Inputs)

The following Laws can said to be associated with Boolean algebra : 1. OR Laws The OR Laws are described by the following equations : A+1=1 A+0=A A+A=A A+ A =1
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...[4.1(a)] ...[4.1(b)] ...[4.1(c)] ...[4.1(d)]
An OR operation is denoted by plus sign.
OR Law means : (i) Any number (0 or 1) is a first input to an OR gate and another member at the second input is 1 then answer is 1,
(ii) If another is 0 then answer is as first input, and (iii) If two inputs to an OR gate complements then output is 1. 2. AND Laws AND operation is denoted by the dot sign.
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True and true make true True and false make false False and false make false. A.1=A A.0=0 ...[4.2(a)] ...[4.2(b)]
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A.A=A A .A = 0 3. NOT Laws (Laws of Complementation) A NOT operation is denoted by putting a bar over a number.
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...[4.2(c) ] ...[4.2(d) ]
Digital Electronics
NOTES
The NOT true means false. The NOT false means true. 1 =0 ...[4.3(a)]
...[4.3(b)] A =A Eqn. [4.3(c)] means that if A is inverted (complemented) and then again inverted, we get the original number. 4. Commutative Laws These Laws mean that order of a logical operation is immaterial. A+B=B+A A.B=B.A 5. Associative Laws These laws allow a grouping of the Boolean variables. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C 6. Distributive Laws These laws simplify the problems in the logic designs. A . (B + C) = (A . B) + (B . C) A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C) A + ( A . B) = A + B ...[4.6(a)] ...[4.6(b)] ...[4.6(c)] ...[4.5(a)] ...[4.5(b)] ...[4.4(a)] ...[4.4(b)]
The last two equations are typical to the Boolean algebra, and are not followed in the usual algebra.
De morgans Theorems
First theorem shows an equivalence of a NOR gate with an AND gate having bubbled inputs (Fig. 4.13), and is given by the equation :
A+ B= A.B
NOT A B AND A+B NOR NOT A B NOT A.B
A 0 1 0 1 B 0 0 1 1 X 1 0 0 0
...(4.7)
Fig. 4.13. De Morgans First theorem showing an equivalence of a NOR gate (same holds for multiple inputs).
Second theorem shows an equivalence of a NAND gate with an OR having bubbled inputs as shown in Fig. 4.14 and is given by the equation :
A.B= A + B
...(4.8)
NOTES
NOT A.B NOT NAND A B OR
A B 0 0 1 1 X 1 1 1 0
A+B
0 1 0 1
Fig. 4.14. De Morgans Second theorem showing the equivalence of a NAND gate (same holds for the multiple inputs).
In fact with the eqns. (4.7) and (4.8) also hold for the cases of the multiple (more than two) inputs.
A + B + C + ....... = A . B . C
...[4.9(a)]
A . B . C ....... = A + B + C ...[4.9(b)] The purpose of these theorems is to enable digital circuit designers to implement all the other logic gates with the help of either NOR gates only or NAND gates only. For example, a NOT gate is implementable by a NAND or a NOR as shown in the left part or lower right part of Fig. 4.13 respectively. This theorem finds wide use in the digital logic circuits as these are implementable on one single basic logic gate considered as a basic building unit.
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The first statement (De Morgans) says that the complement of a sum equals the product of the complements. The second statement says that the complement of a product equals the sum of the complements. In fact, it allows transformation from a sum-of-products form to a product-of-sum form. The procedure required for taking out an expression from under a NOT sign is as follows :
1. Complement the given expression i.e., remove the overall NOT sign. 2. Change all and ANDs to ORs and all the ORs to ANDs. 3. Complement or negate all individual variables. Examples : (i)
A + BC = A + BC
...Step 1 ...Step 2 ...Step 3
= A(B + C) = A (B + C ) (ii) ( A + B + C ) ( A + B + C ) = ( A + B + C ) (A + B + C )
= A BC + ABC = A B C + AB C = ABC + AB C This process is called demorganization.
230
It may be noted that the opposite procedure would be followed to bring an expression under the NOT sign : Example : A +B+C =A +B +C =A+B+C = ABC = ABC ...Step 2 ...Step 1 ...Step 3
Digital Electronics
NOTES
Operator Precedence
For evaluating Boolean expression, the operator precedence is : (i) parenthesis, (ii) NOT, (iii) AND and (iv) OR. In other words : The expression inside the parenthesis must be evaluated before all other operations, The next operation that holds precedence is the complement, Then follows the AND, and Finally the OR. Example. In the Boolean expression A + B (C + D), and expression inside the parenthesis will be evaluated first, then B will be evaluated, then the results of the two [i.e., B and (C + D)] will be ANDed and finally, the result of the product ORed with A. Example 4.19. Prove the following identity : AC + ABC = AC Solution. Taking the left hand expression as X, we get X = AC + ABC = AC(1 + B) Now, 1+B=1 X = AC.1 = AC AC + ABC = AC ...Proved. [Eqn. 1 (a)]
Example 4.20. Draw the logic circuit represented by the expression : X = AB + A . B + A . B . C. Solution. A circuit using gates can simply be designed by looking at the expression and finding out the basic gates which can be used to realize the various terms and then correct these gates appropriately. In the given expression there are three input logical variables and X is the output.
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The first term A . B is obtained by ANDing A with B as shown in Fig. 4.15(i).
The second term A . B is obtained by using two INVERTERs and one AND gate and connecting them as shown in Fig. 4.15 (ii). l The last term is used by using one INVERTER one AND gate and connecting them as shown in Fig. 4.15 (iii). Now, the complete logic expression is realised by ORing the three outputs of the arrangements explained above i.e., by ORing A.B, A . B and A . B . C. The logic gate implementation for the given expression is shown in Fig. 4.16.
A B (i)
A.B
A B
A.B
NOTES
A A B (ii) A.B B A B C
X=A.B+A.B A B A.B +A.B.C
A B C
A A.B.C
A B C
A.B.C
(iii)
Fig. 4.15
Fig. 4.16. Logic gate implementation of expression A . B + A . B + A . B . C .
Example 4.21. Simplify the expression A A + C ( A + C ) + AC. Solution. A A + C ( A + C) + AC = 0 + C ( A + C ) + AC = C (A . C ) + AC = C A C + AC = 0 + AC = AC. (Ans.) ...[from eqn.4.2 (d)] ...[from eqn. 4.2 (d)] ...[from eqn. (2.7)]
4.10 FLIP-FLOP CIRCUITS

The memory elements used in clocked sequential circuits are called flip-flops. These circuits are binary cells capable of storing one bit of information. It has two outputs, one for the normal value and one for the complement value of the bit stored in it. Binary information can enter a flip-flop in a variety of ways. Hence there are different types of flip-flops. A number of flip-flops are available in IC form. Some of these are SR (SetReset), J-K and D flip-flops. They are widely used as switches, latches, counters, registers and memory cells in computers. A salient feature of the flip-flop is that output can exist in one of the two stable states, logic 1 and logic 0, simultaneously. This is ensured by the appropriate crossed feedback connections associated with the most elementary form of the flip-flop known as a latch. The following flip-flops will be discussed in the following articles :
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1. R-S flip-flop. 2. Clocked R-S flip-flop. 3. D flip-flop.

4. J-K flip-flop. 5. T flip-flop.
Digital Electronics
R-S Flip-flop
Fig. 4.17 shows a R-S flip-flop using NOR gates. There are two inputs to the flip-flops called S (set) and R (reset). The cross-coupled connection from the output of one gate and input of the other constitutes a feedback path. For that reason, the circuit is classified as synchronous circuit. A low R and a high S results in the set state. l A high R and a low S give the reset state. l If both R and S are high, the output becomes indeterminate and this is known as race condition. This condition is avoided by proper design. The truth table is shown in Table 4.5.
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NOTES
Table 4.5. Truth Table for NOR Latch

R 0 0 1 1 S 0 1 0 1 Q NC 1 0 Comment No change Set Reset Race
S (a) Circuit diagram
(b) Truth table
Fig. 4.17. R-S flip-flop using NOR gates.
Fig. 4.18 shows a R-S flip-flop using NAND gates. Table 4.6 shows the truth table. It is seen that the inactive and race conditions are reversed.
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When R is low, output Q is high. When R is high, output Q is low. When both R and S are low, we get race condition which must be avoided. When both R and S are high, no change condition.
Q
Table 4.6. Truth Table for NAND Latch

R 0 0 1 1 S 0 1 0 1 Q 1 0 NC Comment Race Set Reset No change
S (a) Circuit diagram
Q (b) Truth table
Fig. 4.18. R-S flip-flop using NAND gates.
Clocked R-S Flip-Flop

A large number of flip-flops are used in a computer. In order to coordinate their working a square wave signal known as clock is applied to the flip-flop. This
clock signal (indicated as CLK) prevents the flip-flop changing state till the right instant occurs.
S N3 R N1 Q S CLK CLK R Q Q
NOTES
N4
N2 S
N1, N2, N3, N4 = NAND gates (b) Symbol
(a) Circuit diagram
Fig. 4.19. Clocked R-S flip-flop.
Fig. 4.19(a) shows a clocked R-S flip-flop using NAND gates (N1 and N2). This circuit uses two NAND gates N3 and N4 to apply CLK signal.
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When CLK is low, the flip-flop output Q indicates no change. If S is high and R is low, the flip-flop must wait till CLK becomes high before Q can be set on 1. If S is low and R is low, the flip-flop must wait for CLK to be high before Q is reset to low (0).
Clocked R-S flip-flop is a synchronous sequential logic circuit because output state of the circuit changes at discrete clocked instant of time. Fig. 4.19 (b) shows a symbol for clocked R-S flip-flop. Level Clocking and Edge Triggering In a clocked flip-flop, the output can change state when CLK is high. When CLK is low, the output remains in the same state. Thus, the output can change state during the entire half cycle when CLK is high. This may be a disadvantage in several situations. It is necessary that the output should change state only at one instant in the positive half cycle of the clock. This is known as edge triggering and the resulting flip-flop is known as edge triggered flip-flop. Edge triggering can be made feasible by the use of an RC circuit. The time constant RC is made much smaller than the width of the clock pulse. Therefore, the capacitor can charge fully when CLK is high. The exponential charging produces a narrow positive voltage strike across the resistor. The input gates are activated at the instant of this positive strike.
D Flip-Flop
A D flip-flop is an improvement over the R-S filp-flop to avoid race condition. It can be level clocked or edge triggered. The edge triggered one causes the change in output state at a unique instant. In a clocked R-S flip-flop two input signals are required to drive the flip-flop which is a disadvantage with many digital circuits. In some events, both input
signals become high which is again an undesirable condition. So these shortcomings/ drawbacks of clocked R-S flip-flop are overcome in D flip-flop.
S CLK CLK R (a) Circuit diagram Q (b) Symbol CLK Q Q D Q
Digital Electronics
Input Dn 0 1
Output Qn+1 0 1
NOTES
(c) Truth-table
Fig. 4.20. D flip-flop.
Fig. 4.20(a), (b), (c) show the circuit diagram, symbol and truth table of D flipflop respectively. It may be observed that only single data bit, D is required to drive the flip-flop. When the clock signal is at low level, data bit D is prevented to reach at output Q until clock signal becomes high at next pulse. It may be noted from the truth table that when data bit Dn is high, output Qn + 1 gets at high level and when data bit Dn is low, Qn + 1 gets at low level. Thus D flip-flop transfers the data bit D to Q as it is, and Q remains in the same state until the next pulse of the clock arrives.
l
The flip-flop is named (D) flip-flop since the transfer of data from the input to output is delayed. The D-type flip-flop is either used as a delay device or as a latch to store 1-bit of binary information.
Edge Triggered D Flip-Flop Fig. 4.21(a) shows the circuit diagram and symbols of an edge triggered D flip-flop. The clock provides the square wave signal. RC circuit converts this signal into strikes so that triggering occurs at the instant of positive strike. The data bit D drives one of the inputs. Because of inverter, the complement D drives the other output. At the instant of positive strike, input D and its complement D cause the output Q to set or reset. Fig. 4.21(b) shows the truth table.
D Square pulse CLK C R N4 N2 S Q R N1 Q CLK 0 1 D 0 1 Q No change No change No change 0 1
N3
N1, N2, N3, N4 = NAND gates (b) Truth table
(a) Circuit diagram
235

1 0
D CLK
Q 1 0 Q
D CLK
NOTES
Q Symbols Negative or trailing
Positive or leading
Fig. 4.21. Edge triggered D flip-flop.

l
When CLK is 0 or 1, the D input is not there and there is no change in state of Q. On the negative edge of the clock (marked ) the output remains in the same state. One the positive edge of the clock (marked to 1 if D is 1. ) Q changes to 0 if D is 0 and
Edge Triggered J-K Flip-Flop

J-K (fip-flop is very versatile and is perhaps the most widely used type of flip-flop. The J and K designations for the inputs have no known significance except that they are adjacent letters in the alphabet. J-K flip-flop functions identically to R-S flip-flop. The difference is that the J-K flip-flop has no invalid state as does the R-S flip-flop. It is widely used in digital devices such as counters, registers, arithmetic logic units, and other digital systems. Fig. 4.22 (a) shows the circuit diagram of a edge triggered J-K flip-flop used in digital counters. The CLK input is through an RC circuit with a short time constant. The RC circuit converts the rectangular clock pulse to narrow spikes as shown. Due to double inversion through NAND gates, the circuit is positive edge triggered.
N3
R N1 Q
CLK C R K N4 N2 S Q
(a) Circuit diagram
236
Digital Electronics
PR J CLK K Q Q J CLK K CLR (b) Symbol for positive edge triggered J.K flip-flop (c) Symbol for positive edge triggered J.K flip-flop with present and clear Q Q J CLK K CLR (d) Symbol for negative edge triggered J.K flip-flop Q PR Q
NOTES
Fig. 4.22. Edge triggered J-K flip-flop.

l
When both inputs J and K are low, the circuit is inactive at all times irrespective of the presence of CLK pulse. When J is low (i.e., 0) and K is high (i.e., 1), the circuit will be reset when positive CLK edge strikes the circuit and Q = 0. The flip-flop will remain in reset state if it is already in reset state. When J = 1 and K = 0, the circuit sets at the arrival of next positive clock edge. When J = 1 and K = 1, the flip-flop will toggle (means to switch to opposite state) on the next positive CLK edge. The action is illustrated in the Table 4.7 : Table 4.7. Positive Edge Triggered J-K flip-flop
CLK 0 1 X J 0 0 1 1 K 0 1 0 1 Q No change No change No change No change 0 (reset) 1 (set) toggle
Use of RC circuit for edge triggering is not very convenient for fabrication. Actual circuits use additional NAND gates for edge triggering, such circuits are known as direct coupled circuit. Fig. 4.22(b) shows the symbol for positive edge triggered J-K flip-flop. Fig. 4.22(c) shows a positive edge J-K flip-flop with present (PR) and clear (CLR) Fig. 4.22(d) shows the symbol for negative edge triggered J-K flip-flop with PR and CLR. The small bubble at CLR indicates negative triggering.
237
T Flip-flop
T flip-flop is basically a J-K flip-flop, in this circuit input terminals J and K are connected with each other and this input is named as T. Fig. 4.23(a) and (b) show the circuit diagram and symbol respectively of a trailing edge triggered T flip-flop.
J CLK K Q (b) Symbol Q T CLK Q (c) Truth table Q Input Tn Output Qn+1 0 1 Qn Qn
NOTES
(a) Circuit diagram
Fig. 4.23. Trailing edge triggered T flip-flop.

l
When low level signal is applied to the input terminal T, then initial state of output of flip-flop remains the same. When high level signal is applied to the input terminal T, then output of the flip-flop toggles after arrival of every new clock pulse. So the frequency of output signal is half of the clock signal frequency. This flip-flop can be treated as frequency divider or a device which takes the input frequency at the clock terminal and divide it by two.
4.11 COUNTERS
A counter is a sequential circuit that goes through a prescribed sequence of states upon the application of input pulses. l The input pulses, called count pulses, may be clock pulse or may originate from an external source and may occur at prescribed intervals of true or random. l The sequence of states in a counter may follow a binary count or any other sequence of states. l They are used for counting the number of occurrences of an event and are useful for generating time sequences to control operations in a digital system. Straight Binary Sequence Counter. It is the simple and most straight forward. An n-bit binary counter has n flip-flops and can count in binary from 0 to 2n 1.
l
Binary ripple counter. It consists of a series connections of T flip-flops without any logic gates. Each flip-flop is triggered by the output of its preceding flip-flop goes from 1 to 0. The signal propagates through the counter in a Ripple manner, i.e., the flip-flop essentially changes once at a time in rapid succession. It is the most simplest and most straight forward. It, however, has speed limitations ; an increase in speed can be obtained by the use of a parallel or a synchronous counter. Synchronous 3-bit Binary Counter. In this all flip-flops are triggered simultaneously by count pulse. The flip-flop is complemented only if its T input is equal to 1.
Counter-decoder Circuits :
l
Digital Electronics
Counters together with decoders are used to generate timing and sequencing signals that control the operation of digital systems. The counter-decoder can be designated to give any desired number of repeated timing sequence.
NOTES
Applications of Counters : The fundamental applications of counters are given below : 1. Measurement of time interval. 2. Direct counting. 3. Measurement of speed. 4. Measurement of frequency. 5. Measurement of distance. 6. Gating a counter.
4.12 REGISTERS
A register is a group of memory elements which work together as one unit. The simple resisters only store a binary word. The other registers modify the stored word by shifting its bits to left or right. The number of registers differs from processor to processor. A counter is a special kind of register to count the number of clock pulses aiming at the input. The registers can be classified as : (i) Accumulator (ii) General purpose registers (iii) Special purpose registers. In a digital computer, the programs are executed in central processing unit (CPU). The various instructions of the program are executed in proper sequence. The computer has a number of registers to store data temporarily during the execution of the program.
l
The ALV requires two numbers on which it operates (e.g., adds, subtracts etc.) and produces the results. These two numbers are known as operands. One of the operands is obtained from memory and the other from accumulator (an accumulator is a one word memory). The result is placed back into the accumulator. Thus accumulator is the most frequently used register. The general purpose registers store data and intermediate results during program execution. The special purpose registers include program counter (to store the address to the memory location which contains the next instruction to be obtained from the memory), status register (to hold indications like vary sign, parity etc.), index register (for addressing) etc.
A buffer register is the simplest kind of register, it is used only to store a digital word. A shift register is an array of flip-flops designed to store and shift the data.
NOTES
4.13 A/D AND D/A CONVERTERS : AN INTRODUCTION

There are numerous advantages of processing signals using digital systems and because of these advantages digital systems are widely used for control, communication, computers, instrumentation etc. In many such applications of digital systems, the signals are not available in the digital form. Therefore, to process these analog signals using digital hardware, they have to be converted into digital form. The process of conversion of analog signal to digital signal is referred as analog to digital conversion. The system that realizes the conversion is referred as analog to digital converter or A/D Converter or ADC. The output of the system may be desired to be of analog form. Therefore, the output of the digital system is required to be converted back to the analog form. The process of converting the digital signal to analog form is called digital to analog conversion and the system used for this purpose is referred to as digital to analog converter or D/A converter or DAC.
Analog Signal Analog to Digital Converter Digital Signal Digital Processor Digital Signal Digital to Analog Converter Analog Signal
Fig. 4.24
In the present trend of technology, the most of the signal processing is based on the digital systems. But the real world signals are analog, in nature. A/D converter and D/A converter are the bridge between the analog world and digital world. They find their applications in almost every system of signal processing. An elementary analog signal processing system with the use of digital processor is illustrated with the block diagram in Fig. 4.24. In this unit, the D/A converter will be discussed first as it also serves as sub-system of A/D converter.
4.14 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSIONS

The digital to analog conversions needed in digital data processing requires insulation of digital information to an equivalent analog information. Digital to analog converters are first discussed here as they also find application as feedback element in most of analog to digital converters. Digital to analog converters are fed with a digital information applied to its input and give an analog output in the form of current voltage signal, which is proportional to the numerical value of the digital input. The advantages of keeping the information in digital form and then using digital to analog converters in the analog applications are its independence
of drift with time and temperature and its better immunity to noise than analog information. Digital to analog (D/A) converters, may be used to translate the output of a digital system into an analog form for the purpose of driving a pen recorder or for a cathode ray oscilloscope. The D/A converter is commonly referred to as a decoding device, since it is used to decode the digital signals into proportional voltage or current signals for an entry into an analog system.
Digital Electronics
NOTES
4.15 RESISTOR DIVIDER D/A CONVERTER

The resistor divider D/A converter converts a digital signal represented in binary or BCD code into an analog voltage or current signal, which is proportional to the digital value. Figure 4.25 shows the symbol of a 3-bit resistor divider D/A converter, having three digital inputs A, B, C, which are derived from the output register of a digital system. It has one analog output Va as shown.
A 20 B 21 C 22 Resistor Divider D/A converter Analog output Va
Fig. 4.25. Three bit D/A converter with voltage output.
Let the digital input levels be: Low level or 0 = 0V and high level or 1 = 7V. There are 23 = 8 different binary numbers represented by these three bits. In general for n digital inputs i.e., for n bit D/A converter, there will be 2n different binary numbers represented by these n bits. For each digital input number, the output of D/A converter is unique and here for the digital input voltage levels as supposed above, the analog output voltage Va is equal in volts to the binary input number. Thus for an input of 001, the analog output will be +1V for input of 010, the analog output will be +2V and for input of 011, the analog output voltage will be +3V, and so on, as given in Table 4.8. Table 4.8
Digital Input 22 C 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 21 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 20 A 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
Analog output Voltage in Volts
NOTES
Thus in a resistor divider network, every 20 bit is changed to +1V, 21 bit is changed to +2V, the 22 bit is changed to +4V and so on, whenever the input voltage levels represented by these bits are high or at 1. Then the voltage representing the different digital bits are added together to give the equivalent analog output voltage. The circuit diagram of the resistor divider network, which performs the above conversion is illustrated in Fig. 4.26. Here RL is much greater than R. The resistors R, R/2 and R/4 are connected to form the resisters divider network. The resistance RL represents the load resister through which the divider network is earthed. It is very large compared to resister R, thus avoiding the possibility of loading the resistor divider network.
22 V2 21 V1 20 V0
R/4
R/2
R Va (Analog output)
RL
Fig. 4.26. Resistive divider network.
Now considering the digital input signal 001 applied to this resistor divider network, the equivalent circuit is drawn as illustrated in Fig. 4.27.
0 V2 0 V1 1 V0 = + 7 V
R/4
R/2
Va (Analog output)
Fig. 4.27. Three input resister divider for digital input 001.
The analog output voltage Va can easily be determined by using Millmans theorem, which states that voltage at any node point in a resistive circuit is equal to the ratio of the sum of the currents entering that node to the sum of the conductances connected to that node Mathematically, we have Va =
V1 / R1 + V2 / R2 + V3 / R3 + .... 1 / R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/ R3 + ....
For the equivalent circuit in Fig. 4.27, using Millmans theorem, we get the expression for voltage Va at node M, as Va =
V1 / R1 + V2 / R2 + V3 / R3 + .... 1 / R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/ R3 + ....
Since here
7/ R + 0/ R/2 + 0/ R/4 1/ R + 2 / R + 4 / R V0 = 1 (high level) = +7V
Digital Electronics
V1 = 0 (Low) =0V, V2 = 0 (Low) = 0V for digital input CBA 0 0 1

+7 / R = + 1V 7/ R Considering the digital input signal 011 applied to the resister divider network, the equivalent circuit is drawn as in Fig. 4.28.
NOTES
Va =
0 V2
1 V2 = +7 V
1 V0 = +7 V
R/4
R/2
R M Va
Fig. 4.28. Three input resister divider for digital input 011.
For the equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.27, using Milmans theorem, we get the expression for voltage Va at mode M, as Va = = =
V0 / R + V1 / R / 2 + V2 / R / 4 1 / R + 1/ R / 2 + 1/ R / 4
+7 / R + 7 / R / 2 + 0 / R / 4 1/ R + 2 / R + 4 / R 21/ R 7 / R + 14 / R = = +3V 7/ R 7/ R
which is the same as shown in the Table 4.8 of output analog voltages for the digital input of 011. It can be thus shown that all other input combinations will give the analog output voltage given in Table 4.8. Thus the basic problem, we come across in converting a digital input signal into an equivalent analog signal, is to change the n input digital voltage levels into one equivalent analog voltage. This is accomplished by designing an appropriate variable resistor divider network, which changes each of the n digital levels into an equivalent binary weighted voltage or current. Seven discrete levels can be defined between digital 000 to digital 111 in a three-bit system. The least significant bit (LSB) here is 2, which represents the smallest incremental change in the digital signal. As has been shown, this bit should cause a change in the analog output voltage, which must be equal to 1/7th of the full scale analog output voltage. The network thus has been designed in such a manner that a 1 in the 20 position will give 7 1/7 = 1V at the output. Since 21 bit number is twice the number represented
NOTES
by 2 bit , therefore a 1 in the 21 position will causes a change of 7 2/7 = 2V in the analog output voltage and so on. Each successive bit has a value which is equal to twice that of the preceding bit. The sum of weights of all the bits of the system must be 1. Thus for a three bit digital system, the sum of weights of 20 bit, 21 bit and 22 bit is equal to 1/7 + 2/7 + 4/7 = 7/7 = 1 and for a four-bit system the sum of weights of 20 bit, 21 bit, 22 bit, 23 bit is equal to 1/15 + 2/15 + 4/15 + 8/15 = 15/15 = 1. As a general rule, the binary equivalent weight assigned to the Least Significant Bit (LSB) of a n bit digital system is
1 2 1
n
The remaining subsequent bits are determined by successive multiplication by 2. The variable resistor divider type of D/A converter is an economical and simple method of D/A conversion as only one resistor is required per bit. But the method suffers from some serious drawbacks, as given below: (i) Each resistor required in the network is of different value, as such the resistors used are to be chosen from wide range of values. Practically and economically it becomes difficult to have precision resistors of widely different values and at the same time obtain high accuracy and stability. (ii) The resister used for most significant bit MSB is of very small value as compared to the resistor used for LSB. For example in an eight bit digital system, the resistor used for MSB will be R/128 if the resister used for LSB is R. This means that the resistor used for MSB has to handle a very high current as compared to the LSB resistor. For a eight-bit digital system, the current through the MSB resistor will be 128 times as large as the current through the LSB resistor. (iii) It becomes difficult and cumbersome to select all the resistors of widely different values to be used in such a way, so that they are all constructed from the same material, to have exactly the same resistor temperature coeffcients. Thus different resistors used will vary differently, when D/A converter is operated over a wide range of temperature, giving an error in the analog output voltage. (iv) When the number of input bits is large, the resistor used for LSB has to be of very high value, which may be near to the input resistance of the amplifier, thus giving error in the results. (v) If each higher bit resistor is not exactly half of the previous bit resistor, the step size will change. Taking into account all these drawbacks of the variable resistor divider network type of D/A converter, a better type of D/A converter using binary ladder network has been developed. It overcomes all the drawbacks discussed above and is described ahead.
244
4.16 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSIONS

An analog to digital (A/D) converter, converts an analog input voltage into an equivalent digital output, after a certain time delay. The A/D conversion process is more complicated and more time consuming than the D/A conversion process. Here the analog input signal is digitized into n segments or bits. The analog data is generally required to be converted into digital form because the outputs of most of the transducers are analog signals. Therefore A/D converters are all the more essential, if information about the physical phenomena is to be processed, stored and displayed as digital data. The data in the digital form can be easily processed, stored recorded and displayed. Therefore A/D converters find applications in digital processing equipments, Instrumentation and process control, computers, communications, etc. Different important types of A/D converters have been developed and they use D/A converter as a part of their circuitry. The timing for their operation is provided by an input clock signal. Logic circuitry contained in the control unit generates a sequence to start the conversion process. A/D converters employ one or more comparators. An operational amplifier (opamp) is generally used as a comparator. An opamp has two analog inputs and one digital output, which switches the states, depending upon which analog input is greater. A/D converters are classified into various kinds depending upon different requirements and on optimum combination of the desired parameters like accuracy, precision, stability of conversion, conversion speed, noise immunity and economic considerations. Each type of A/D converter has certain main features and attributes, which are mentioned as each method is discussed.
Digital Electronics
NOTES
4.17 VOLTAGE TO TIME ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

The voltage to time, A/D converter offers direct conversion of an input voltage into the corresponding equivalent pulse width. The pulse width is converted to digital word by using a counter which counts the number of cycles of a reference frequency, which occurs during the time duration of the pulse width. Figure 4.29(a) illustrates the block diagram of such an A/D converter and Fig. 4.29(b) illustrates the ramp voltage wave-form.
245
Input singnal
Attenuator ea er Ramp generator gate control input + Comparator e0 gate control input
NOTES
Sample rate oscillator Digital counter Digital output
Gate
Crystal oscillator
Fig. 4.29. (a) Block diagram of voltage to time A/D converter.
This A/D converter operates on the principle of counting the number of cycles of a fixed constant frequency source for a variable period of time. The voltage to time A/D converter employs the single slope ramp comparison technique. The input voltage ea here, is compared with a reference ramp voltage er which is generated by the ramp generator. When the ramp voltage starts its switch a gate opens after receiving a signal from the ramp generator. When the ramp voltage er reaches a value equal to ea, the output of the comparator reverses the polarity and sends gate control signal to gate to close the gate. This results in a time interval t, which is proportional to the input analog voltage. This time interval t is then easily converted into a digital word by sending clock pulses into the digital counter for the duration of this time interval t.
Ramp voltage er Clock time
Fig. 4.29. (b) Showing wave-form.
The major advantage of this method is that it is very simple and can be realized by using relatively little electronic equipment to produce a time interval pulse by this ramp technique. Another advantage is that pulse width of the wave-form can be easily transferred or transmitted over long lines. The main disadvantages of the ramp technique are relatively poor accuracy, typically of the range 0.1 to 1%, conversion process is slow and possibility of large errors due to noise in the input signal ea. The problem of error due to noise can however be minimized by using input filters.
4.18 A/D CONVERTER SPECIFICATIONS

A/D converters are required to convert analog signals into corresponding, equivalent digital codes. A wide variety of A/D converters with different specifications and widely different prices are available Suitable and proper selection has to be made depending upon the particular requirement for the specific application. In order to make the user familiar with the manufacturers specifications to choose the particular device from the wide variety of A/D converters available, the following terms have been defined. A/D Resolution. A/D resolution is defined as the change in the input voltage required for a one-bit change in the output. The resolution of A/D converter is equal to the resolution of D/A converter, which it contains. It actually depends on the number of bits in the output digital code. It can also be expressed as a percentage. A/D Gain. Gain of an A/D converter is defined as the equivalent voltage of the digital output divided by the analog input voltage at the linearity reference line. It is usually not a serious problem because it can be zeroed out. A/D Drift. Drift of an A/D converter is the quality of a circuit to change the parameters with time. Drift errors of LSB can cause a maximum error of one LSB from first transition to the last transition. It becomes difficult to achieve a very low drift as it increases the cost of the A/D converter. A/D Speed. This is defined as the time required to perform one conversion or as the time taken betweeen successive conversions at the highest possible rate. It depends upon the settling time of the various components and the internal speed of the logic. Quantization Error. The problem associated with conversion of analog signals to discrete digital approximations is called fidelity. Quantizing is the process of reducing series of complex wave-forms to reasonably accurate straight line approximations. Resolution can also be thought of as a built-in error, which is generally referred to as quantization error. This built-in error is commonly specified as 1LSB; which means that the result could be off on either side by the weight of one LSB. This quantization error can be modified or reduced by increasing the number of bits in the digital counter and D/A converter or by centering the comparator, as is possible in the continuous null balance A / D converter, in which the quantization error is modified to 1/2 LSB. Accuracy. The main source of analog error in the A / D converter is the comparator. The secondary sources of error are variations of resistance of resistors in the ladder, reference-voltage supply ripple and noise. Therefore the accuracy of the A / D converter depends on the accuracy of the circuit components such as comparator, precision resistors used in D/A converters, supply voltage ripple and noise and current switches. In an A / D converter, an analog voltage is converted to the equivalent digital code and then this digital code is again converted back to the analog voltage, using a D/A converter. It is found that due to certain errors, as mentioned above, these two analog voltages are not exactly the same. The maximum difference between these two analog voltages is expressed as a fraction of the full scale output voltage is defined as the accuracy of the A / D converter.
Digital Electronics
NOTES
247
NOTES
Aperture Rate. The aperture rate is the rate at which the discrete points along the wave are analysed and expressed in conversions/second. The higher the aperture rate, the better the fidelity. Fidelity is the problem associated with the conversion of analog signals to reasonably accurate digital approximations. Normally the aperture rate should be at least twice the frequency of the highest harmonic in the wave-form. An easy way to determine the aperture rate is to analyse the given data with a harmonic wave analyser and to find how many harmonics are necessarily required for the work. To find error due to aperture rate, let us assume the analog input voltage V = A sin t.
dv = A Cos t dt
Thus when t = 0, dv/dt = A cos 0 = A. At this point (wt = 0), the curve changes very rapidly, because the slope of the curve dv/dt is maximum at wt = 0. If amplitude A is equal to 1 volt peak to peak and w = 2 f, then dv/dt = 2 f 1 = 2 f. Replacing dv with V and dt with t, which is the aperture time, the above relation can be written as V/t = 2f or V = 20f. t. The percentage error in voltage due to aperture time is = 2f.t 100%. For a reasonably accurate digital approximation of an analog signal, both the aperture rate and quantizing voltage should be carefully determined. Example 4.22. Calculate the conversion time of a ten-bit digital ramp A/D converter and a ten-bit successive approximation A/D converter, when the clock frequency used by them is 1000 kHz. Solution. Time for one clock cycle =
1 = 106 sec = 1 sec 1000 1000
The conversion time for a digital ramp A/D converter is given by t = (2n 1) (one clock cycle time) = (210 1) l sec = 1023 sec. The conversion time for a ten-bit successive approximation A / D converter is time for 10 clock cycles = 10 1sec = 10 sec Thus it is seen that conversion speed is very fast in case of a sucessive approximation A/D converter. Example 4.23. Find the resolution and the percentage resolution of an eightbit A / D converter, having an input voltage of 5V to +5V. Solution. Resolution of an A/D converter is the change in input voltage necessary for one-bit change in the output. Change in input voltage = E = +5 (5) = 10V
Resolution =
E 2 1
n
10 2 1
8
10 256 1
10 = = 0.03922 V = 39.22 mV 255
Digital Electronics
Percentage resolution = = =
1 2 1
n
100 =
1 2 1
8
100
NOTES
100 256 1 100 = 0.3922%. 255
Example 4.24. Find out how bit A/D converter is required to achieve a resolution of 1 mV if the maximum full scale input voltage is 10 volts. Solution. The n bit A/D converter resolution is given by Resolution = or 1 mV = 1 103 = 2n 1 =
E 2 1 10 2 1 10 2 1 10 103
= 10 103
n n n
2n = 10001
Thus 2n must be equal to or greater than 10001 for n = 13, value of 2n = 8192 and for n = 14, value of 2n = 16384. Therefore value of n must be 14. Thus a 14-bit A/D converter is required. Example 4.25. What is the maximum conversion time of a ten-bit counter type A/D converter if it is driven by an input clock of 500 kHz frequency. Solution. A ten-bit A/D converter has a maximum of 210 = 1024 counts. For the clock of 500 kHz frequency, the counter will advance at the rate of 1 count for each 2 106 seconds, because it will count 500000 counts in one second. Therefore to advance 1024 counts, it will require a conversion time of 1024 2 106 seconds. = 2048 seconds = 2.048 milliseconds Example 4.26. An A/D converter has an aperture time of 5 sec and the highest harmonic present in the wave-form is of 500 Hz. Find the error in voltage and the percentage error. Solution. Error in voltage = 2 f.t Where f is the aperture rate, which is equal to twice the frequency of the highest harmonic present in the wave-form and is = 2 500 = 1000 Hz
t = aperture time = 5 sec = 5 106 sec Error in voltage = v = 2f. t = 2 3.14 1000 5 106 V = 3.14 1000 10 106 = 0.0314 Percentage error = 2 f. t 100% = 2 3.14 1000 5 106 100 = 3.14%. Example 4.27. Find the aperture time required to digitize a 1000 Hz signal with a 0.5% accuracy in voltage. Solution. Percentage accuracy = 2f. t 100 0.5 = 2 3.14 1000 t 100 t = = =
0.5 0.5 = 10 5 2 3.14 1000 100 6.28
NOTES
0.5 10 106 seconds 6.28 5 106 seconds = 0.796 seconds. 6.28
Example 4.28. Calculate the quantization error of a 10-bit A/D converter. Solution. The quantization error of an n bit A/D converter = 1/2n Therefore quantization error of a ten-bit A/D converter = 1/210 = 1/1024 The quantization error expressed as percentage = 1/1024 100 = 0.1% Example 4.29. An eight-bit successive approximation A/D converter has a resolution of 20 mV. If the analog input voltage is 1.085 V, find out its digital output in binary form. Solution. A resolution of 20 mV means that the input voltage of the A/D converter increases by 20 mV required for analog input voltage of 1.085 V is =
1.085 1.085 1.085 = = = 54.25 3 20 mV 20 10 20
Thus the 54th step will produce a voltage of 1.08 V and the 55th step will produce a voltage of 1.10 V. The successive approximation A/D converter produces a digital output voltage, which is step below analog input voltage. Therefore for input voltage of 1.085 V the digital output will be decimal 54 = (00110110)2.
SUMMARY
1. Number systems provide the basis for all operations in information processing systems. In a number system, the information is divided into a group of symbols; for example, 26 English letters, 10 decimal digits etc.
2. The binary number has a radix of 2. As r = 2, only two digits are needed, and these are 0 and 1. Like the decimal system, binary is a positional system, except that each bit position corresponds to a power of 2 instead of a power of 10. 3. Complements are used for simplifying the substraction. There are two types of complements for each base-r system. 1. The rs complement 2. The (r1)s complement. 4. A digital circuit with one or more input signals but only one output signal is called a logic gate. In the complex circuits, the following six different digital electronics gates are used as basic elements : 1. NOT Gate 2. NAND Gate 3. AND Gate 4. OR Gate 5. NOR Gate 6. XOR Gate. 5. The algebra used to symbolically describe logic functions is called Boolean algebra. 6. The memory elements used in clocked sequential circuits are called flip-flops. These circuits are binary cells capable of storing one bit of information. 7. A counter is a sequential circuit that goes through a prescribed sequence of states upon the application of input pulses. 8. A register is a group of memory elements which work together as one unit. The simple resisters only store a binary word. The other registers modify the stored word by shifting its bits to left or right. 9. The process of conversion of analog signal to digital signal is referred as analog to digital conversion. The system that realizes the conversion is referred as analog to digital converter or A/D Converter or ADC. 10. The process of converting the digital signal to analog form is called digital to analog conversion and the system used for this purpose is referred to as digital to analog converter or D/A converter or DAC.
Digital Electronics
NOTES
GLOSSARY
Bits: Binary number system represent either by 0 or 1 binary digit. These digits are called as bits. Symbol: A group of bits used to represent the discrete elements of information is known as symbol. Truth table: The table which indicates output of gate for all possible combination of input. Binary ripple counter: It consist of a series connection of flip-flop without logic gate. Each flip-flop is triggered by the output of its preceding flipflop, goes from 1 to 0.
251
NOTES
Buffer register: It is the simplest kind of register used only to store a digital word. Shift register: It is an array of flip-flop designed to store and shift the data.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why binary system is preferred in digital system ? 2. Discuss the importance of 1s and 2s complement numbers. 3. Define the terms logic function and logic gate. 4. What is Boolean algebra ? How is it different from ordinary algebra ? 5. Draw a NOT gate. Write its truth table. 6. Differentiate between OR and NOR gates. NOR is a combination of which gates ? 7. Which gates combine to form a NAND gate ? 8. What is exclusive OR gate ? Write its Boolean expression. 9. Show symbols of OR, AND, NOT, NAND, NOR, exclusive OR gates. 10. Simplify the Boolean expression : (a) B . 1 + A, (b) A + B + 1, (c) (A + B) . 1 [Ans. (a) A + B, (b) 1, (c) A + B] 11. Draw a network to generate the function Y = A . B + C . 12. Simplify the Boolean expression Y = A . B . C + A .B . C + A .B . C + A . B . C . [Ans. A] 13. Simplify the following Boolean function and draw a network to generate the original function and simplified function Y = A . B + A . C. [Ans. A . B . C]
14. Draw the truth tables for the following functions : (a) X = A . B + A . B, (b) Y = A . B . C + A . B . Draw circuits to generate above function. 15. Prove that : (A + B) . ( A + C) = A . C + A . B A . B . C + A . B . C = A. B. 16. Using only NAND gates draw network to generate Y = A + B . C. 17. If A = 1, B = 0 and C = 1, find the values of (a) A . B + A . B + B + C (b ) A . B . C + A . B + A . B . [Ans. (a) 1, (b) 1] 18. Differentiate between combinational and sequential logic circuits. 19. Distinguish between a half adder and a full adder.
20. State De-Morgans theorems. 21. What is the importance of binary numbers ? What are the advantages of digital signals over the analog signals ? 22. Show that a multiplexer may be used as a sequential data selector. 23. What are demultiplexers ? What is the difference between a demultiplexer and a decoder ? Show connection diagram of a demultiplexer and a decoder. 24. With the aid of a neat sketch explain the operation of a BCD to decimal decoder. 25. Draw the diagram of a clocked S-R flip-flop and give the truth table. 26. Show that a R-S flip-flop results when two NOR gates are cross-coupled. 27. What is a flip-flop ? Explain the principle of operation of S-R flip-flop with truth table. 28. With the aid of a neat sketch, explain the operation of J-K flip-flop. 29. Explain the operation of a R-S flip-flop with the help of waveform and truth table. How does the master-slave action in a J-K flip-flop improves its operation ? 30. Briefly describe R-S, J-K, D- and T-type flip-flops. 31. Find out the binary equivalent weights of each bit in a four-bit resistive divider D/A converter. 32. Explain D/A accuracy, resolution and monotonicity. 33. What do you understand by quantization error, resolution, accuracy and aperture rate of an A / D converter? 34. Write a short note on A / D converter specification.
Digital Electronics
NOTES
FURTHER READINGS
Muthusubramanian R., Salivahanan S and Muraludharan K.A., Basic Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill, Second Edition, 2006. Yaduvir Singh, Mandhir Verma, Fundamental of Electrical Engineering, University Science Press. Vikramditya Dave, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University Science Press.
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UNIT
NOTES
5
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
STRUCTURE
5.1 Communication 5.2 Types of Signals 5.3 Modulation and Demodulation 5.4 Radio Communication Systems 5.5 Television Systems 5.6 Microwaves 5.7 Satellite Communication 5.8 Fiber Optic Communications Summary Glossary Review Questions Further Readings
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to: define signals, its types, modulation and demodulation of signals. illustrate radio communication systems in terms of AM and FM. give introduction of television systems. describe about microwaves, satellite communication, and fiber optic communications.
5.1
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COMMUNICATION
Communication means to share ones thought with others. It is a bidirectional process.
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The term communication refers to the sending, processing and reception of information by electrical means.
Source of information
Fundamentals of Communication Engineering

Encoding modulation (distortion)
Depending upon the types of information to be sent and received, following systems have been developed over the years: (i) Radio (ii) Telephony (iii) Telegraphy (iv) Broadcasting (v) Radar (vi) Radio telemetry (vii) Radio aids to navigation etc. Fig. 5.1 shows the block diagram for any communication system.
Channel (distortion)
Transmitter
NOTES
Noise
Receiver
Decoding demodulation (distortion)
Destination
Fig. 5.1. Block diagram of communication system.
Information source. It provides information to be communicated. Transmitter. It processes the information and makes it fit for transmission. Receiver. Its functions is that of demodulation or detection or decoding. Destination. The receiver separates the original information from the high frequency wave and feeds it to the loudspeaker, punched cards, radar displays or TV picture tube etc., known as destination.
l
Any communication system must fulfill the following two basic requirements: (i) Accurate communication.
(ii) Fast communication.

l
The ratio S/N
FG = useful signal power IJ H noise signal power K
is an important parameter in
evaluating the performance of a system and for accurate transmission, this should be as high as possible.
5.2 TYPES OF SIGNALS

Encoders produce the following two types of electrical signals : 1. Analog Signals A telephone, radio broadcast or TV signals are very common types of signals for use of general public. These are represented by voltage waveforms that have different amplitudes at different instants of time.
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2. Digital Signals These signals comprise of pulses occurring at discrete intervals of time. The pulses may occur singly at a definite period of time or as a coded group. These signals play a very important role in the transmission and reception of coded messages. Simplest types of digital signals are the Telegraph and Teleprinter signals but sometimes analog messages are also converted into digital form before being transmitted for certain reasons.
NOTES
5.3 MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Several signals out of different types of signals that are generally encountered in communication systems have frequency spectra that is not suitable for direct transmission especially when atmosphere is used as the transmission channel. In such a case, the frequency spectra of the signal may be translated by modulating high frequency carrier wave with signal. In order to transmit and receive the intelligence (code, voice, music etc.) successfully, the following two processes are essential : (i) Modulation (ii) Demodulation.
Modulation
Definition Modulation may be defined as follows :
l
Modulation is the process of combining the low-frequency signal with a very high-frequency radio wave called carrier wave (CW). The resultant wave is called modulated carrier wave. This job is done at the transmitting station. Or Modulation is a process in electronic circuits by which the characteristics of one waveform (carrier) is modified by the variations in another wave (audio signal). Or Modulation is the process of combining an audio-frequency (AF) signal with a radio frequency (RF) carrier wave. AF signal is called a modulating wave and the resulting wave produced is called modulated wave. During modulation, some characteristic of the carrier wave is varied in time with the modulating signal and is accomplished by combining the two.
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RF carrier
Modulated wave Modulator
NOTES
AF signal
Fig. 5.2
Need of Modulation In electronic communication, the modulation is necessary for the following reasons : 1. Modulation increases operating range. 2. It reduces the size of transmitting and receiving antennas. 3. It permits transmission without wire. 4. It is extremely difficult to radiate low frequency signals through earths atmosphere in the form of electromagnetic energy. Methods of Modulation For a sinusoidal carrier wave, the mathematical expression is given as e = Ec sin (ct + ) = Ec sin (2fct + ) ...(1) Thus, the waveform can be varied by any of its following three factors or parameters : (i) Ec The amplitude ; (ii) fc The frequency ; (iii) The phase. Accordingly, there are three types of sine-wave modulations known as : 1. Amplitude Modulation (AM) 2. Frequency Modulation (FM) 3. Phase Modulation (PM).
Amplitude Modulation (AM)

The process by which the amplitude of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating signal is called amplitude modulation. The process of amplitude modulation is shown graphically in Fig. 5.3. For the sake of simplicity, the AF/message signal has been assumed sinusoidal [Fig. 5.3 (a)]. The carrier wave by which it is desired to transmit the AF signal is shown in [Fig. 5.3 (b)]. The resultant wave called modulated wave is shown in [Fig. 5.3 (c)]. The function of the modulation is to mix these two waves in such a way that (a) is transmitted along with (b).
257
NOTES
The fluctuations in the amplitude of the carrier wave depend on the signal amplitude and the rate at which these fluctuations take place depends on the frequency of the audio signal.
l
es Message (AF) signal 0 t
All stations broadcasting on the standard broadcast band (550 1550 kHz) use AM modulation. Percent modulation indicates the degree to which the AF signal modulates the carrier wave. Methods of amplitude modulation are :
(a) AF signal ec Carrier wave
(b) Carrier wave e Envelope Resultant AM wave Ec(max) Ec(min) 0
(i) Amplifier modulation. (ii) Oscillator modulation. Limitations of Amplitude Modulation Following are the limitations of amplitude modulation : 1. Smaller operating range. 2. Poor efficiency. 3. Poor audio quality. 4. Noisy reception.
(c) Modulated wave
Fig. 5.3. Amplitude modulation.
Frequency Modulation (FM)

The process by which the frequency of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating signal is called frequency modulation. The process of frequency modulation is shown graphically in Fig. 5.4. The three waves shown in the figure are : (a) Signal ; (b) Carrier ; (c) The resultant frequency modulated wave. When a signal of frequency fs is modulated with carrier wave of frequency fc, a resultant modulated wave is produced. The following points are worth noting : (i) The amplitude of the modulated wave is the same as that of the carrier wave. (ii) The frequency of the modulated wave varies in accordance with the message signal. Advantages 1. Better audio quality. 2. High transmission efficiency. 3. Noiseless reception.
es W P 0 Y Signal t

U
Q X
S Z
NOTES
(a) Signal ec Carrier
(b) Carrier ev
W Q X
(c) AM wave
Fig. 5.4. Frequency modulation.
Limitations 1. Smaller area of reception. 2. Wider channel is needed. 3. Equipment used is more complex and costly.
Pulse Modulation
Pulse modulation is a technique of modulating the analog signal and converting it into corresponding values. In this process the instantaneous voltage of the analog signal is sampled at regular intervals and transmitted during these sampling periods only. In analog modulation, the amplitude or frequency or phase (any one parameter) of carrier is varied according to the instantaneous voltage of signal. In pulse modulation, either amplitude or width or position of the pulse is varied according to the instantaneous voltage of signal (except for PCM).
259
NOTES
Pulse modulation is classified as follows : Pulse modulation (a) Analog (i) PAM (ii) PTM (b) Digital (i) PCM,
PDM, PWM PPM
(ii) Delta-modulation.
Sampling Theorem : This theorem was developed by Nyquist. It states : If sampling rate in any pulse modulating system exceeds twice the maximum signal frequency, the original signal can be constructed at the receiver with minimum distortion. If fm is the maximum signal frequency then sampling rate is greater than 2fm. The minimum samplings rate is called the Nyquist rate. The reciprocal of the sampling rate (or sampling frequency) is called sampling line or Nyquist interval. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) PAM can be generated by using an AND gate. PAM can be demodulated by passing through low pass filter with cutoff frequency as the highest signal frequency. Generally FM is used to modulate the pulses so that it can be transmitted ; such a system is called PAM-FM. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) It is also called Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Length Modulation (PLM). It can be generated using a monostable multivibrator. It can be demodulated by feeding the PWM signal to an integrating circuit. In PWM the width of the pulse is changed in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal with amplitude remaining constant. The most oftenly used integrating circuit is the loudspeaker itself. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) It can be generated in the similar way as PWM but the pulse width is kept constant from the starting point of occurrence of pulse. It can be demodulated by converting into PWM using a flip-flop. In PPM the position of the pulse or the time of occurrence of the pulses is changed in accordance with the instantaneous magnitude of the modulating signal. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) In this type of modulation, digital equivalents of the instantaneous voltage levels of the signals are transmitted in the form of pulses.
260
The total amplitude range by which the signal may occupy is divided into a number of standard levels ; this process is called Quantizing. The level actually sent is the nearest standard level. The quantization levels depend upon number of bits per sample. PCM encoder functions similar to A/D converter ; PCM decoder functions similar to D/A convertor.
NOTES
Digital Modulation Techniques

In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data or an M-array encoded version of it. This data is used to modulate a carrier wave (usually sinusoidal) with fixed frequency. In fact the input data may represent the digital computer outputs or PCM waves, generated by digitizing voice or video signals. The channel may be a telephone channel, microwave radio link, satellite channel or an optical fiber. In digital communication, the modulation process involves switching or keying the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier in accordance with the input data. Thus, there are three basic modulation techniques for the transmission of digital data ; they are known as : (i) Amplitude-shift keying (ASK). (ii) Frequency-shift keying (FSK). (iii) Phase-shift keying (PSK). The above techniques can be viewed as special cases of amplitude modulation, frequency modulation and phase modulation respectively. Types of Digital Modulation Techniques Various types of digital modulation techniques are of two types : I. Coherent digital modulation techniques : 1. Coherent binary modulation techniques. 2. Coherent binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying. 3. Coherent demodulation of binary ASK. 4. Binary phase shift keying (BPSK). 5. Coherent binary frequency shift keying (BFSK). II. Non-coherent binary modulation techniques : 1. Non-coherent binary ASK. 2. Non-coherent detection of FSK. 3. Differential phase shift keying (DPSK). 4. Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK).
Demodulation or Detection
The process of extracting the low frequency modulating signal from the modulated wave is known as demodulation or detection.
261
NOTES
The demodulation of an AM wave involves two operations : (i) Rectification of the modulated wave ; (ii) Elimination of the RF component of the modulated wave. The demodulation of an FM wave involves three operations : (i) Conversion of frequency changes produced by modulating signal into corresponding amplitude changes ; (ii) Rectification of the modulating signal ; (iii) Elimination of RF component of the modulated wave.
5.4 RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Radio Transmitter
A radio transmitter is a device that transmits information by means of radio waves. The signal intelligence is translated in terms of a high frequency wave commonly termed as Carrier wave and the process of intelligence translation into high frequency is termed as Modulation. All radio transmitters use one form of modulation or the other for transmission of intelligence. All radio transmitting systems must have the following : 1. A section for generation of high frequency carrier wave ; 2. A section for converting information into electrical impulses and amplifying them to the required level ; and 3. A section for modulating the carrier with signal intelligence amplification stages for increasing the level of the modulated wave to the desired power and antenna system for transmitting these signals into free space. A basic radio transmitter system is shown in Fig. 5.5. Transmitters are usually named depending upon: (i) The type of transmitted ; (ii) The type employed ; of signal to be
Signal transducer
Modulating amplifier
Antenna
Modulator
Power amplifier
Carrier wave amplifier
modulation
Carrier wave generator
(iii) The carrier frequency used ; and (iv) The type of radio waves radiated by the system.
Fig. 5.5. A basic radio transmission system.
A transmitter, may, therefore, be named as broadcast transmitter, telephony or telegraphy transmitter depending upon whether the signal is an entertainment programme, speech or code signal or a picture signal.
It may be termed as AM (amplitude-modulated) or FM (frequencymodulated) transmitter, depending upon the modulation process employed. Similarly, it may be termed as Medium wave, Short wave, VHF, UHF or Microwave transmitter depending upon the carrier frequency employed. Lastly, a transmitter may be termed as long distance transmitter or a line of sight transmitter depending upon whether the transmission is by sky waves or space waves.
NOTES
AM Transmitters
l
These transmitters are generally employed for radio broadcasts over long, medium or short waves, point-to-point communication systems using radio telephony/telegraphy signals over short waves or VHF waves and picture transmission over the VHF or UHF ranges. These transmitters employ one or the other method of producing modulated waves such that the depth of modulation is directly proportional to the magnitude of the modulation signal. Antenna systems for AM transmitters are large and must be located at some point remote from the studio operations. All the studio signal operations are performed at relatively low levels and transmitted to the main transmitter location either over telephone wire lines or a radio link such as a microwave system.
FM Transmitters
Direct FM
l
In frequency modulation, the amplitude of r-f carrier remains constant but its frequency is continuously varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of an audio signal. Thus the original sound waves are converted into frequency deviation of the r-f carrier frequency that is proportional to the intensity of the sound waves.
In FM transmitter, we make use of reactance modulator which changes the amplitude variations of an audio signal into frequency variations. FM transmitter is much more efficient than an equivalent AM transmitter.
l
Indirect FM
l
Phase modulation may be used to achieve frequency modulation by indirect method. It is only necessary to integrate the modulating signal prior to applying it to the phase modulator. This transmitter is widely used in VHF and UHF radio telephone equipment.
Radio Receiver
A radio receiver is a device that picks up the desired signal from the numerous signals propagating at that time through the atmosphere, amplifies the desired
263
signal to the requisite level, recovers from it the original modulating signal and eventually displays it in the desired manner. Basic functions of a receiver are shown in Fig. 5.6. Requirements of Radio Receivers Sensitivity. It is the capability of a radio receiver to detect weak signals. It is defined as the amount of r-f input voltage needed to produce a specified amount of audio output power. Selectivity. It is the ability of a receiver to reject unwanted signals and amplify the desired one. In addition to the above requirements, every radio receiver should have : stability in frequency constant bandwidth of operation. Types of Receivers
Selection tuned circuit
Antenna
NOTES
Amplification (R.F.)
Detection Reproduction Amplification (A.F.)
Fig. 5.6. Basic functions of a receiver.
Following two types of receivers have practical or commercial significance : (i) Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) receiver. (ii) Superheterodyne receiver. (i) Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver : It consists of several stages of R-F amplification with tuned LC tank circuit at the input of each stage, an AM detector, one or more audio frequency amplifier stages driving loud-speaker or headphones as shown in Fig. 5.7. The provision of r-f stage at the input of the receiver provides the following advantages : (a) Greater gain. (b) Prevention of re-radiation of the local oscillator (in case of superheterodyne receiver). (c) Improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signals. (d) Better coupling of antenna with the receiver.
l
Antenna
1st R.F. amplifier
2nd R.F. amplifier
Gauged
A.M. detector
Loudspeaker
A.F. amplifier
Power amplifier
Fig. 5.7. Tuned radio frequency receiver.
A tuned radio frequency receiver possesses the following good features : 1. High sensitivity 2. Simplicity.
264
It has the following shortcomings : 1. Bandwidth variations (ii) Superheterodyne Receiver : These days, practically, all receivers are superheterodyne. The superhet has the same essential components as that of a TRF receiver in addition to the mixer, local oscillator and interfrequency amplifier (Fig. 5.8).
Antenna
2. Instability
3. Insufficient adjacent frequency rejection.
NOTES
Tuning Gauged
RF amplifier
Local oscillator
Mixer
IF amplifier
AGC
Detector
Audio amplifier
Fig. 5.8. Superheterodyne receiver.
The RF amplifier is tuned to the required incoming frequency. The output of RFA is combined with the local oscillator voltage and normally converted into a signal of a lower fixed frequency called intermediate frequency. The signal at intermediate frequency (IF) contains the same modulation as the original carrier. IF signal is then amplified and detected to obtain the original information. A fixed frequency difference is maintained between the local oscillator and RF frequency with the help of capacitance tuning, in which all the capacitors are ganged together and operated in unison. IF stage consists of a number of transformers, each consisting of a pair of mutually coupled tuned circuits, providing a large gain. The characteristics of the IF amplifier are kept independent of the frequency to which the receiver is tuned, so that sensitivity and selectivity of supperhet usually remain fairly uniform throughout its tuning range. The radio frequency section provides coupling from the antenna input terminals of the receiver to the first stage of RF amplifier so as to amplify the incoming signal before its frequency is changed. The RF section carries out the following main functions : (i) To provide discrimination or selectivity against image and interacted frequency signals.
265
(ii) To provide an efficient coupling between the antenna and first stage of RF amplifier. (iii) To reduce the noise figure of the receiver.
NOTES
5.5 TELEVISION SYSTEMS

l l
Television means seeing at a distance. To be successful, a television system may be required to reproduce faithfully the following : (i) The shape of each object, or structural content. (ii) The relative brightness of each object, or tonal content. (iii) Motion, or kinematic content. (iv) Sound. (v) Colour, or chromatic content. (vi) Perspective, or stereoscopic content. Television system deals with the transmission and reception of visual live scene by means of radio broadcasting. Along with the signals, the sound signals associated with the scene are also transmitted at the same time to provide a complete sight and reproduction at the receiver of the televised programme. Fig. 5.9 shows a block diagram of a rudimentary television system, indicating basically how the requirements of monochrome TV transmission and reception may be met.
Principle of Colour Television

l
The basic principle of colour television is same as for black and white television with the main difference that colour TV system requires the transmission and reception of specific colour information along with monochrome (black and white) signals.
Crystal oscillator Camera tube Video amplifiers
RF amplifiers
Power amplifier
Combining network
AM modulating amplifier Microphone
Sound transmitter
Scanning and synchronizing circuits
Audio amplifiers
FM modulating amplifier
(a) Transmitter
266
Tuner
Common IF amplifiers
Picture tube Video detector Video amplifiers Sync
NOTES
Sound IF amplifiers Sound demodulator Audio amplifiers Scanning and synchronizing circuits Loudspeaker
(b) Receiver
Fig. 5.9. Basic monochrome television system.

l
Colour television must have two way compatibility with monochrome television. That is, a colour transmission can be reproduced in black-andwhite shades by a monochrome receiver and monochrome transmission is reproduced in black-and-white transmission by a colour receiver. Table 5.1. Selected Standards of Major Television Systems
Standard American System 30 525 60 15750 6 4.2 3.58 FM 25 4.5 European System (India) 25 625 50 15625 7 5.5 4.43 FM 50 5.5
Number of frames per second Number of lines per frame Field frequency, Hz Line frequency, Hz Channel width, MHz Video bandwidth, MHz Colour subcarrier, MHz Sound system Maximum sound deviation, kHz Intercarrier frequency
5.6 MICROWAVES
The waves of high frequencies usually above 300 MHz are termed as microwaves.
l l
The wavelength of such waves is less than 1 metre.
The microwaves frequencies span the following three major bands at the highest end of RF spectrum : (i) Ultra High Frequency (UHF) ... 0.3 to 3 GHz
(ii) Super High Frequency (SHF) ... 3 to 30 GHz (iii) Extra High Frequency (EHF) ... 30 to 300 GHz. At such high frequencies, the components depend on the varying electromagnetic field rather than on the current in a wire conductor or the voltage
267
across two points. Instead of resonant LC circuits and conventional wire conductors, therefore, resonant cavities and waveguides are often used at microwave frequencies.
NOTES
Applications of Microwaves
Microwaves are widely used in the following fields : 1. Telecommunications 2. Radar 3. Televisions for relaying signals 4. Satellite communications 5. Industrial heating 6. Research 7. Cooking.
Waveguides
Waveguides are hollow metal tubes used to propagate microwave energy in the form of electric and magnetic fields. The purpose of waveguide is to guide the wavefrom source end to load end. The fundamental difference is that the propagation in the waveguides is in the form of electric and magnetic fields, whereas propagation in transmission line or free space is in the form of voltage and currents. These are usually made of brass or aluminium. The inner surface is usually silver plated to minimise the losses at higher frequencies. As the frequency increases, the size of waveguide reduces. Advantages The waveguides entail the following advantages : 1. These are simpler to manufacture than co-axial lines. 2. Improved power handling ability. 3. Power losses lower in comparison to transmission lines. 4. These have mechanical simplicity and a much higher maximum operating frequency as compared to co-axial lines. Applications 1. It is observed that waveguides have dimensions that are convenient in the 3 to 100 GHz range and somewhat inconvenient much outside the range. Within this range, waveguides are generally superior to co-axial transmission lines for a whole spectrum of microwave application, for either power or low level signals. 2. Waveguides as well as transmission lines can pass several signals simultaneously, but in waveguides, it is sufficient for them to be propagated in different modes to be separated. They do not have to be of different frequencies. Guided Wavelength The wavelength in the waveguide is different from the wavelength in air or free space. It can be shown that the relationship among guide wavelength, cut off wavelength, and free space wavelength is : 1 1 1 = 2 2 2 g c
g =
FI 1 G J H K
c
NOTES
where, g = Guide wavelength, = Free space wavelength, and c = Cut off wavelength The above equation is true for any mode in waveguide of any cross-section provided the value of c corresponds to the mode and cross-section. Modes The two kinds of modes in the waveguides are : 1. Transverse electric mode (TE) ... Electric field is always transverse to the direction of propagation.
2. Transverse magnetic mode (TM) ... Magnetic filed is always transverse to the direction of propagation.
Cavity Resonators
l
Cavity resonators are used as tuned circuits at microwave frequencies. This results in lower losses and Q of a resonate frequency as high as 20000.
The cavity resonator can be used to select one frequency and reject the frequencies above and below a function similar to that of a band pass filter. Mainly a resonant cavity is used to control the frequency of oscillations when it is used with an active device to form a microwave oscillator.
l
Microstrip
A microstrip is a co-axial transmission line made as a printed circuit for application in an amplifier or oscillator in which microwave diodes and transistors are used. The characteristic impedance for microstrip is determined by : (i) Thickness of the substrate ; (ii) Dielectric constant of the substrate ; (iii) Width of the conductor strip.
Microwave Vacuum Tubes

The mechanism of operation of various microwave tubes differ in details, but all of them involve transfer of power from a source of D.C. voltage to a source of A.C. voltage by means of a current density modulated electron beam. This is achieved by accelerating electrons in a static electric field and retarding them in an A.C. field. The density modulation of the electron beam allows more electrons to be retarded by the A.C. field than accelerated by A.C. field, and therefore, makes possible a net energy to be delivered to the A.C. electric field.
1. Klystron
l
NOTES
A klystron has a thermionic cathode which releases a stream of electrons. The stream passes through two cavities called a buncher and a catcher. It is used as microwave amplifier. It consists of an anode and a heated cathode. The anode is a metal block with machined cavities. The cavity dimensions determine the frequency of oscillations. The path of electrons is cycloidal. The process of accelerating or decelerating the electrons is called velocity modulation. Used in radar and linear particle accelerators, current efficiencies are of order of 50 percent. It is a wide band device compared with the klystron and magnetron. Travelling wave tubes are employed when larger bandwidth (both klystrons and magnetrons have very high Q resulting in narrow bandwidth) is required.
2. Magnetron
l
3. Travelling Wave Tubes (TWT)

l l
These are used as linear amplifiers of microwave signals in satellite communications. The characteristics of TWT are :
l
(i) Power gain : 60 db (ii) Power output : 10 kW average (iii) Efficiency : 20 % to 40% (iv) Bandwidth : about 0.8 GHz (v) Frequency range : greater than 3 GHz. 4. Crossed-field Amplifier (CFA)
l l l l
It is a microwave power amplifier, based on the magnetron. It is a cross between the TWT and the megnetron in its operation. Pulsed CFAs are available for the frequency ranges from 1 to 50 GHz. The maximum powers available are well over 10 MW in UHF range, 1 MW at 10 GHz and 400 kW in the S-band. Power gain ... upto 20 db Efficiency Bandwidth ... upto 70% ... 25% of centre frequency
Applications. Used widely for radar and electronic counter-measures. 5. Tunnel Diode
l l l
A tunnel diode is a thin junction diode. It exhibits negative resistance under low forward bias conditions. It is highly suitable for microwave frequencies, because of thin junction and short transit time.
270
l l
It is a low noise device. The tunnel diode amplifier (TDA) is a broadband, high gain microwave amplifier.
Applications (i) Suitable for space work (because TDAs are immune to the ambient radiation encountered in inter-planetary space). (ii) Used as self-excited mixers. (iii) Used for high speed switching and logic operations. (iv) Due to their simplicity, frequency stability and immunity to radiation these are used as low power oscillators upto 100 GHz. 6. Gunn Diodes
l
NOTES
In bulk semiconductor materials the Gunn effect is instrumental in the generation of microwave oscillators. Gunn diodes are grown epitaxially out of GaAs or Inp doped with silicon. Gunn diodes have an efficiency of the order of 2.5 to 5 per cent. IMPATT diode exhibits negative resistance and delivers high pulsed power at the lower microwave frequencies. A typical IMPATT diode works at about 50 GHz. These diodes are used at higher frequencies and for the highest output powers. These diodes also exhibit negative resistance and deliver high pulsed powers at lower microwave frequencies. These have an efficiency of 30 per cent. Most TRAPATT oscillators and amplifiers are still in laboratory stage. These diodes may find application in airborne and marine radars. It is an oscillator. Optical fibre communication using laser operates at wavelength of about 0.85 m.
l l
7. Impatt Diodes
l
l l
8. Trapatt Diodes
l
l l l
9. Laser
l l
Non-communication application of lasers include the following : (i) Industrial welding ; (ii) Distance and speed measuring equipment ; (iii) Formation of three-dimensional holograms ; (iv) Optical and other surgery etc. 10. Parametric Amplifiers :
l
The name of the amplifier stems from the fact that capacitance is a parameter of a tuned circuit. It is a low-noise microwave amplifier.
271
Parametric amplifiers find application in the following : (i) Radio-telescopes. (ii) Space probe tracking and communications. (iii) Tropospheric scatter receivers.
NOTES
Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMICs)

These circuits claim the following advantages over discrete circuits : 1. Small size 3. Improved performance 5. Low cost 2. Light-weight 4. Improved reproducibility 6. High reliability.
Applications. Monolithic microwave integrated circuits are suitable for space and military applications since they meet the requirements for shock, temperature conditions, and severe vibrations.
Microwave Antenna
An antenna is a structure capable of radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves ; their function is to couple the transmitter or receiver to space. In case of microwaves the transmitting and receiving antennas should be highly directive. Some of the essential requirements are given below : (i) Omnidirectional antennas are not required because no broadcasting is done at these frequencies. (ii) The signals at the input terminals of the receiver should be as large as possible. (iii) Directional application is often required. (iv) Need not be physically large in size. (v) Power gain should be high. Horn Antenna An horn antenna is just an open section of a rectangular guide. It is flared out to match the characteristic impedance Z0. The flare angle of the horn is usually between 40 and 66 (changing over to Horn from open ended waveguide increases the directivity and also diffraction is reduced). This antenna has the following features : (i) Fairly good directivity. (ii) Adequate bandwidth. (iii) Simple mechanical construction. Antenna with Parabolloidal Reflectors A parabola is a very suitable reflector for light rays or microwaves. In these antennas all the waves are in phase as a result, radiation is very strong and concentrated.
272
The gain is influenced by the aperture ratio and the uniformity of illumination. Lens Antenna A lens antenna is used as a collimator at frequencies greater than 3 GHz and works just like a glass lens in optics. These antennas are oftenly made of polystyrene. It is used to correct the curved wave front from a horn that has to be made a plane wave front. Advantages (i) Greater design tolerances. (ii) No obstruction of radiation. Disadvantages (i) Greater bulk. (ii) Costly. (iii) Design difficulties. Helical Antenna It consists of a loosely wound helix backed up by a ground plane which is simply a screen made of chicken wire. This is a broad band VHF and UHF antenna which is used to provide circular polarization characteristics. It is used either singly or in an array for transmission and reception of VHF signals through the ionosphere. It is employed for satellite and probe communications, particularly for radio telemetry. Discone Antenna This is low gain antenna, but it is omnidirectional. It is a combination of disc and cone and has enormous bandwidth for both input impedance and variation pattern. It is used for VHF and UHF signals, specially at airports where communication must be maintained with aircraft coming from any direction. Log Periodic Antenna Directive gains are low to moderate. Radiation pattern may be unidirectional or bidirectional. Used in HF range.
NOTES
5.7 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

The need for satellite communication was realised when the other conventional systems became overcrowded. A number of channels can simultaneously be operated
using a satellite. The process of sending information around the world has been revolutionised by the advent of satellites. The real beginning in the field of satellite was made in October 1957 when first man-made satellite Sputnik I was launched. Sputnik I was followed by a rally man-made satellites. Satellites TELESTAR I and II of AT and T launched in July 1962 and May 1963 formed the basis of communication satellites. TELESTAR I was the first satellite to demonstrate a television link between USA and Europe. This was followed by a series of communication satellites by various companies.
NOTES
Communication SatelliteGeneral Aspects

l
A communication satellite is basically a microwave-link repeater. It receives the energy beamed up from an earth station, amplifies and returns it to the earth at a frequency of a couple of GHz away to prevent interference between the uplink and the downlink. Satellite is an artificial body that is projected from earth, which revolves around the earth in a particular orbit. It keeps on revolving in the orbit due to balance of force between inertia of the revolving satellite and gravitational pull of the oriented body. The satellites remain in geostationary orbit, i.e, they have the same angular velocity as the earth and hence they appear to be stationed over one spot on the globe. A satellite 35800 km from the earth will complete a revolution in 24 hours. These stationary satellites present no tracking problems, but require large antennas, high power and high sensitivity. Satellite communication come under the Transionospheric wave propagation. Satellites must be launched into the space with a certain velocity so that it can overcome the gravitational pull of the earth and reach the orbit. That velocity with which the satellite is launched is called Escape velocity. The escape velocity of earth is 25000 miles/hour. The satellites revolve in particular orbits allotted to them ; they may be circular orbits, elliptical orbits, polar orbits, equatorial orbits or any combination of them. If the direction of the satellites revolution is the same as the earth rotation, then the orbit is said to a Posigrade orbit. If the direction of the satellites revolution in an orbit is in opposite direction to that of the earths rotation, then the orbit is said to be a Retrograde orbit. When the satellite is in an elliptical orbit, the highest point from the earth of that orbit is called Apogee. In an elliptical orbit, the lowest point of that orbit from the earth is called Perigee.
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274
The rocket that carries the satellite to the required height and puts it into the orbit is called Satellite Launch Vehicle [SLV]. The place on the earth where the transmitting and receiving equipment used to communicate with satellite is installed, is called Earth station. Transponder. It is a combination of transmitter and receiver. It receives signal, amplifies and retransmits the signal with different frequency. They are used in Active satellites. The orbit in which Geostationary satellite is kept is called Geostationary orbit which is most widely used. The circular orbits are used for navigational purposes for ships and for air traffic control. The inclined orbit is not widely used. It is mainly used to cover the polar regions. The position of the satellite may be changed due to magnetic field of earth, sun and moon. The changed position is corrected by the earth station ; this process of correcting the satellite position is called Station keeping. The satellite in position with transmitter, power supply and control circuit is called On-Board equipment. The power supply to the satellite is generally provided through solar cells (main source). In case of an availability of solar energy they are powered from rechargeable Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) cells.
NOTES
Types of Communication Satellites

The communication satellites can be of two basic types : 1. Passive Satellites A passive satellite acts merely as a reflector of signals. These satellites need very powerful ground systems. These satellites do not have electronic parts (in comparison to active satellites) which may fail and render the satellite useless. Passive communication satellites can be of two types : (i) Discrete structure satellites ; or (ii) Where a large volume of space is filled with a large number of tiny passive satellites (dipoles). The large structure usually takes the form of a sphere. When a radio signal is beamed at a sphere much large than the signals wavelength, it gets reflected in all directions. This kind of sphere is called an Isotropic reflector, because the power in the signal is equally distributed in all directions. The sphere, a balloon, can be made of a thin plastic material ; the reflector surface can be made of a thin coating of metal. The sphere is folded into the nose cone of the booster rocked and later inflated in orbit. 2. Active Satellites An active satellite receives the signal, amplifies it and transmits it back to other points on the earth. Active satellites can be of the following two types : (i) Store and Forward Type : It is a rather primitive concept in satellite technology ; the message is stored in tape-recorder in the satellite, and
then played back when the satellite has moved over the appropriate receiving point on the earth. (ii) Line of Sight Repeater Type : It is the type being used now-a-days. Like the microwave repeaters which must keep each other in view, the satellites, placed at a high altitude, must be visible to both transmitting and receiving stations. Synchronous or Geostationary Satellite If a satellite can be lifted into orbit 35680 km above the earth in circular orbit lying in the plane of the equator, it is termed as synchronous satellite. In this satellite the satellite period of revolution is the same as the earths period for one complete rotation about its axis. This means, satellite remains fixed relative to a point on the earth, thus to a ground observer it appears stationary. Synchronous systems claim the following advantages over lower altitude systems : 1. As few as three properly positioned satellites can entirely cover the earth where as 50 lower altitude satellites are required to serve the same purpose. 2. A single synchronous satellite can provide uninterrupted communication service 24 hours daily. Lower altitude systems require the ground station track and follow the satellites as the spacecraft crosses the sky, and the stations switch from satellite to satellite as one dips below the horizon and another comes within the range. Problems encountered with synchronous communication satellites : (i) Time delay concerning telephone. (ii) Difficulty in establishing synchronous orbit. l The space communication field, according to the requirements, can be subdivided into three parts : 1. Communication with and tracking of fast moving satellite orbit of about 145 km radius. 2. Communication via geostationary satellites. 3. Communication and tracking connected with interplanetary probes. Orbiting period of satellite, T = 2 where, r = Radius of circular orbit, k = Gravitational constant, and M = Mass of earth. The height (h) of orbit above the earth in which the satellite moves is given by : h = (rkM 6372) km The operating frequency for the satellite should be such that these signals are able to pass the ionosphere without getting reflected by its layer and should also not get absorbed or attenuated by the troposphere.
NOTES
r2 kM
276
At lower limit frequencies used are 10 MHz to 100 MHz and the upper limit is 100 GHz.
Satellite Description
A satellite is an extremely complex and sophisticated electronic and mechanical device. A satellite typically consists of many subsystems functions, all carefully integrated into a single system. The subsystems include : 1. Electrical power subsystem. 2. Telemetry tracking and control subsystem. 3. Main and auxiliary propulsion subsystem. 4. Communication channel subsystem. 5. Antennas.
NOTES
General Structure of a Satellite Communication System

Fig. 5.10 shows the general structure of a satellite communication system. A satellite in space links many earth stations. The user is connected to the earth station through terrestrial network. This network may assume various configurations including a telephone switch or a dedicated link to the earth station. Signal generated by the user is processed and transmitted from the earth station to the satellite. The satellite receives the modulated RF carriers at the predetermined uplink (earth-to-satellite) frequencies from all the earth stations in the network, amplifies these carriers and then retransmits them back to earth at downlink (satellite to earth) frequencies. The downlink frequencies are kept different from the uplink frequencies in order to avoid interference.
Satellite
Earth station Terrestrial network Terrestrial network
Earth station
User
User
Fig. 5.10. General structure of a satellite communication system.

The modulated carrier received at receiving earth station is processed to get back the original base band signal. This signal is then sent to the user through a terrestrial network.
NOTES
Satellite Spacecraft Systems

A complete satellite consists of several subsystems, but most important of these are : 1. Power Supply System (i) Solar array (iii) Power supply control circuit. 2. Altitude and Orbit Control (i) Sensor (iii) Altitude control (v) Orbit control. 3. Telemetry and Telecontrol 4. Communications. (ii) Propulsion system (iv) Antenna control (ii) Battery
Launching, Power Supplies and Control of Satellites

Launching. The launcher places the satellite first into a low altitude circular induced orbit and then into an elliptical transfer orbit with apogee at the altitude of geostationary orbit. At an approximate apogee, the apogee boost motor is fired to circularise the orbit and remove most of the remaining orbit inclinations. Power Supplies. Silicon solar cells are the accepted source of primary power except during eclipse when power is maintained by Nickel-Cadmium cell batteries (for about 70 minutes). Control : Body-stabilized designs generally employ an internal momentum wheels with axis perpendicular to the orbit plane. Control about the pitch axis is through the wheels drive motor electrodes while control about the yaw and roll axes may be by gimballing the wheel or by use of hydrazine mono-propellant thrusters correct the axis direction. The orbit of satellite is controlled by ground command of hydrazine thrusters.
International Regulation of Satellite Service

l
The regulations concerning frequency allocation for different purposes, standard of communication etc., are laid down by International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a body of United Nation Organization. World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) held in 1979, has allocated frequency band for satellite communication servicewise under 17 categories namely: (1) fixed, (2) intersatellite, (3) mobile, (4) land mobile, (5) maritime mobile, (6) acronautical mobile, (7) broadcasting, (8) earth exploration,
278
(9) space research, (10) meterological, (11) space operation, (12) amateur, (13) radio transmission, (14) radio navigation, (15) aeronautical radio navigation, (16) maritime radio navigation, (17) standard frequency and time signal. WARC further divided the globe into the following three geographic regions for frequency allocation : Region I : Europe, Africa, USSR and Mongolia. Region II : North America, South America, Greenland. Region III : Asia (except USSR and Mongolia), Australia and South West Pacific.
NOTES
5.8 FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS

Owing to rapidly increasing demands for telephone communications throughout the world, multiconductor copper cables have become not only very expensive but also an inefficient way to meet these information requirements. The frequency limitations inherent in copper conductor system (approximately 1 MHz) make a conducting medium for high-speed communications necessary. The optical fiber, with its low weight and high frequency characteristics (approximately 40 GHz) and its imperviousness to interference from electromagnetic radiation, has become the choice for all heavy-demand long-line telephone communications systems.
Advantages and Limitations of Fiber Optic System

Advantages. The advantages of fiber optic system over conventional co-axial cable or microwave systems are as follows : 1. Light weight. 2. Larger information carrying capacity (A single fiber can handle as many voice channels as 1500-pair cable can). 3. Less space and easy installation. 4. Information tapping from a fiber cable is virtually impossible. 5. Fiber cables are cheaper. 6. No capacitance and inductance formation. 7. The fiber cables can operate over larger temperature and are less affected by corrosive liquids and gases. 8. Immunity to interference (from lightning, cross talk and electromagnetic radiation). Limitations 1. Higher initial cost. 2. Switching and routing of fiber optic signals is difficult. 3. Difficult to splice optical fibers to make them longer or to repair breaks. 4. Connectors for fiber optics are more complex to attach to cable and require precise physical alignment.
Optical Fiber Communication System

Fig. 5.11 shows the simplified block diagram for an optical fiber communication system. This system converts electrical signal into light, transmits the light through fiber cable and converts light back to electrical signal. The information source provides the electrical signal to a transmitter consisting of an electrical stage which drives an optical source to give modulation of the light wave carrier. The amount of light emitted by the optical source is proportional to the drive current.
Information source Electrical transmitter Optical source Optical fiber cable Optical detector
NOTES
Electrical receiver Destination
communication system. The transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable with plastic or glass core, a cladding and protective jacket.
Fig. 5.11. Optical fiber
The receiver consists of an optical detector which drives a further electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of the optical carrier. Optical Fiber Construction Refer to Fig. 5.12.
l
Cladding
An optical fiber consists of a central core and an outer cladding. The material of core has higher index of refraction as compared to cladding. The optical fibers are available either as a single fiber [Fig. 5.12 (a)] or as several fibers bundled together [Fig. 5.12 (b)]. Materials used for optical fibers are glass (fused silica) and plastic.
Single core
(a) Single fiber

Jacket
Glass fibers are more costly as Fig. 5.12. Optical fiber construction. compared to plastic fibers. They propagate light more efficiently than plastic. These are used for high speed application and also used for long transmission paths. Plastic fibers are more flexible and rugged than glass. These fibers are less expensive.
Bundled fibers (b) Bundled fiber
280
SUMMARY
1. The term communication refers to the sending, processing and reception of information by electrical means. 2. Modulation is the process of combining the low-frequency signal with a very high-frequency radio wave called carrier wave (CW). 3. The process of extracting the low-frequency modulating signal from the modulated wave is known as demodulation or detection. 4. Television means seeing at a distance. 5. The waves of high frequencies usually above 300 MHz are termed as microwaves. 6. A communication satellite is basically a microwave-link repeater.
NOTES
GLOSSARY
Transmitter: It processes the information and makes it fit for transmission. Amplitude modulation (AM): The process by which the amplitude of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. Frequency modulation (FM): The process by which the frequency of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. Radio transmitter: It is a device that transmits information by means of radio waves. Waveguides: It is a hollow metal tube used to propagate microwave energy in the form of electric and magnetic fields.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by the term Communication ? 2. Explain briefly the following : (i) Analog signals ; 3. Define the term Modulation ? 4. What is the need of modulation ? 5. What are the various methods of modulation ? 6. Explain briefly the following : (i) Amplitude modulation (AM) (ii) Frequency modulation (FM). 7. What are the limitations of amplitude modulation ? 8. What is frequency modulation ? What are its advantages and limitations ? 9. What is Pulse modulation ? Explain. 10. Name the various types of digital modulation techniques.
(ii) Digital signals.
11. What is a radio transmitter ? 12. Give the block diagram of a basic radio transmission system. 13. Explain briefly the following : (i) AM transmitters (ii) FM transmitters. 14. What is a radio receiver ? What are its basic functions ? 15. Explain briefly the following receivers : (i) Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) receiver. (ii) Superheterodyne receiver. 16. Write a short note on Television system ? 17. What are Microwaves ? 18. What are applications of microwaves ? 19. What are waveguides ? What are its advantages and applications ? 20. What is a communication satellite ? 21. Explain briefly the following communication satellites : (i) Passive satellites ; (ii) Active satellites. 22. What is a Synchronous satellite ? Explain. 23. Give the general structure of a satellite communication system. 24. What are the advantages and limitations of fiber optic system ? 25. Explain briefly optical fiber communication system, with the help of a block diagram. 26. Write a short note on optical fiber construction.
NOTES
FURTHER READINGS
Mehta V.K., Principles of Electronics, S. Chand & Company Ltd. (1994). R.K. Rajput, Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering , Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
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St.

II SEMESTER 209BTT08 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

St. PETERS INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Copyright Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

Registrar St. Peters University

Code No. Theory

100 3 90 10 90 10 90 90 1 90 100 10 100 100

100 100 100

MODEL QUESTION PAPER

Maximum: 100 marks

Electrical Circuits and Measurements

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND OHMS LAW

Electrical Circuits and Measurements

Fig. 1.1. Atomic structure: Electron, proton and neutron.

Fig. 1.2. Current: Flow of electrons within a conductor.

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Fig. 1.3. (a) With no voltage applied: Electrons drift aimlessly.

Electrical Circuits and Measurements

Electromotive Force and Potential

Fig. 1.5. Current and p.d. in a simple circuit.

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

l or A where, l = Length of the conductor,

In S.I. system of units = R ohm A m 2 RA ohm-m = lm l

Electrical Circuits and Measurements

Hence the unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (-m).

V = lA V = volume, l = length, and A = uniform cross -sectional area of a conductor.

Resistivity in -m at 20 C 1.59 108 2.8 11 108 108 108 1.52

(9 to 15) 108 19.9 108 20.2 108 49 108

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

is the reciprocal of resistance and therefore be

The reciprocal of specific resistance = conductivity. The unit of conductivity = G

of a material is called its

20 = 1.7 108 -m A = 0.02 cm2 = 0.02 104 m2 l = 400 m

= 58.8 106 mho/metre.

1.2 OHMS LAW

Electrical Circuits and Measurements

...(1.3) ...[1.3 (a)] ...[1.3 (b)]

where, k and x are constants and x is less than unity.

Conditions for Applying Ohms Law

V Applied voltage = Z Impedance in the circuit

or where P = The power in watt,

W = The work done in joule, and t = Time in second.

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

P P = V R 2 (iii) R = P =V P I2 P = PR (iv) V= I Power is expressed in terms of kW (kilowatt = 1000 W)

MW (megawatt = 1000 kW or 106 W).

Linear and Non-linear Resistors

Electrical Circuits and Measurements

Ohms law does not apply under the following conditions:

Fig. 1.8. Resistances in series.

(Using Ohms law: V = IR) ...(1.6)

where R is the equivalent resistance of series combination. Also ...[1.6(a)]

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Fig. 1.9. Resistances in parallel.

where R is the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination. R=

Solution. Refer to Fig. 1.10.

Electrical Circuits and Measurements

(i) Effective resistance of the circuit: Resistance between L and N,

12 11 Resistance of branch LNP,

Resistance between L and P

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Limitations of Ohms Law

1.3 KIRCHHOFFS LAWS

Kirchhoffs Point Law or Current Law (KCL)