Fundamentals Of Cathodic Protection

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FUNDAMENTALS OF CATHODIC PROTECTION


SUMMARY:

Cathodic protection is an electrical method of preventing corrosion. It is used on metallic structures, which
are in electrolytes such as soil or water. It has had widespread application on under ground pipelines, and
has been found to be effective on numerous other underground and under water structures such as dams,
steel pilings, well casings, ship hulls and interiors, water treatment equipment, trash racks and screens,
etc. This paper is an introduction to cathodic protection in which method of application are described.

INTRODUCTION

Cathodic protection is an electrical method of preventing corrosion. It is used on a wide variety of metallic
structures, which are in electrolytes such as soil or water. It operates by passing direct current
continuously from electrodes, which are installed in the electrolyte, to the structure to be protected.
Corrosion is arrested when the current is of sufficient magnitude and is properly distributed.

Although most of the classic methods of preventing corrosion, such as use of coating, inhibitors or
alloying, are well known, there is some mystery about the use of electricity for this purpose. It is very
likely that this mystery is a result of unfamiliarity with the terminology, particularly among persons who
are responsible for combating corrosion with the more familiar techniques. In actual practice, the use of
cathodic protection is no more mysterious than other corrosion preventing methods, and in a number of
applications, cathodic protection has become a routing standard method of corrosion prevention. This is
particularly true on the under ground pipeline. Almost every new cross-country pipeline of any appreciable
length is provided with cathodic protection either as part of the construction or shortly after completion of
the line. It has been said that in many areas the transportation of commodities in pipelines would not be
economical were it not for cathodic protection,

The use of electricity for corrosion prevention need not be strange to those who have an acquaintance with
the behavior of galvanic cells and batteries. In galvanic cells and batteries, direct current can be said to be
generated by the corrosion of the metals. Therefore, it should not be at all surprising that direct current
when properly directed can be used to prevent corrosion.

In an attempt to make the terminology of cathodic protection more familiar, this paper will discuss some
of the theories of corrosion and cathodic protection, and example will be given to show how those theories
are applied in practice.

APPLICATIONS

It has been stated above that cathodic protection is used to prevent corrosion on metallic structures in
electrolytes. In practical applications, the structure which are usually provided with protection are for the
most part those which are constructed of iron and steel, and the electrolyte are most often soil and water.
This is not to imply that cathodic protection is limited to iron or steel. Many miles of lead sheathed cables
are under cathodic protection, and in some situations even such corrosion resistant materials as stainless
steel and Monel are provided with cathodic protection. Similarly, the electrolytes are not limited to soil and
water. Cathodic protection has been used successfully even in electrolyte such as calcium chloride and
caustic soda. However, the vast majority of the cathodic protection systems are used to prevent corrosion
on steel structures in soil or water.

As previously stated, one of the major applications is the protection of underground pipelines. In as much
as this was one of the earliest applications, many of the explanations of cathodic protection use pipeline
illustrations. For this reason cathodic protection is often associated with the pipeline field. However, it
should be noted that this is by no means the only application. Cathodic protection has been used
successfully and has become, or is fast becoming, standard equipment for many structures such as water
storage tanks, lock gates and dams, steel pilings, well casings, ship hulls and interiors, water treatment
equipment, trash racks and screens, and many other structures.

CORROSION THEORY

Before proceeding with a discussion of the methods and procedure used in applying cathodic protection, it
would be well to explore briefly the electrical the electrical theory of corrosion.

There are two basic mechanism by which metals in electrolytes corrode. For the purpose of our discussion,
these can be identified as: (1) electrolytic corrosion, and (2) Galvanic corrosion.
Fundamentals Of Cathodic Protection
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Electrolytic corrosion is a result of direct current from outside sources entering and when leaving a
particular metal structure by way of the electrolyte. Where current enters the structure , that structure is
usually unaffected or is provided with some degree of protection. Where the current leaves the structure
corrosion occurs. In under groundwork, this type of corrosion is often referred to as stray current corrosion
and is a result of currents entering the ground from sources of DC such as street railways or DC
machinery. Fig. 1 and 2.

Galvanic corrosion is self-generated activity resulting from differences in potentials, which develop when
metal is placed in an electrolyte. These differences in potential can result from the coupling of dissimilar
metals or they can result from variation in conditions, which exist upon the surface of single metal. These
variations would include variations resulting form the non-homogeneity of the metal as well as from
differences, which exist within the electrolyte. When two dissimilar metals are connected electrically
and are immersed in an electrolyte, as shown in fig. 3, current will be generated and one of the
metals will corrode. Current from the corroding metal will flow into the electrolyte, over to a
non-corroding metal, and back through the connection between the two metals. The corroding
metals is the one where current leaves to enter the electrolyte and shown as the anode; the
metal which receives current is known as the cathode.

As previously indicated, the same metal can develop differences in potential and as a result portions of the
surface of that metal are anodic with respect to the remainder of the surface as shown in Fig. 4. At those
anodic locations, corrosion will occur.

Electrolyte and galvanic corrosion are similar in that corrosion always occurs at the anodes. The essential
difference between the two is that in electrolytic corrosion, it is the external current which generates the
corrosion, whereas in galvanic corrosion, it is the corrosion activity, which generates the current. There is
also a difference in polarity. In an electrolytic cell, the anode is the positive terminal, and in a galvanic cell
the anode is the negative terminal. Fig. 5.

Although the above is a rather abbreviated and no doubt an over-simplified explanation of corrosion, from
this explanation it can be appreciated that electric current can generate corrosion and in turn that
corrosion can generate electric current. As a result of these phenomena, it follows that it should be
possible to prevent corrosion by using electric current. This is a basis for cathodic protection. When direct
current is applied with a polarity, which oppose the natural corrosion mechanism, and with sufficient
magnitude to polarize all the cathodic areas up to the open circuit potential of the anodic areas, corrosion
is arrested. Thus, the theoretical considerations indicate that the basis for cathodic protections is relatively
simple and is not difficult to appreciate. However, practical designs for the various applications can differ
considerably because they depend upon the type of structure, which is to be protected, and the conditions,
which are encountered.

At this point, it would be worthwhile to consider some of the basic measurements, which are used in the
corrosion and cathodic protection field. The two most universally used measurements are those of : (1)
the potential of the structure with respect to the environment and (2) the resistivity of the environment. In
underground work, these measurements are referred to as pipe-to-soil potential and soil resistivity.

Potential measurements are used in evaluating a corrosion problem before protection is applied and in
determining the degree of protection after protection is applied. The reference electrode, which is almost
universally used, is the copper-copper sulphate half-cell. Using this reference, the normal potential of an
unprotected underground steel pipeline would be in the range of -500 to -600 mill volts. The interpretation
of the potential measurements taken along a pipeline for evaluating a particular corrosion problem
requires considerably experience and a complete guide for use in the interpretation is beyond the
immediate scope of this paper. It is sufficient to say that by using these measurements properly, we can
determine the relative magnitude of corrosion problem, and whether that problem is electrolytic or
galvanic in nature. When electrolytic corrosion is indicate, the portions of the pipelines subject to corrosion
are those where the potential are the least negative or most positive. Where galvanic corrosion is
indicated, the portions of the pipeline most subject to corrosion are those where the potentials are most
negative. When cathodic protection is applied, the potential is made more negative and in most instances
full protection indicated when a potential of -850 mill volts is obtained.

Resistivity measurements are used in determining the relative corrosiveness of the environment and are
necessary in the design of cathodic protection systems. Although resistivity is not the only factor which
governs corrosion, in many cases the loser the resistivity the more corrosive environment. This statement
would apply more particular to the usual environments. (Soil and water), in which cathodic protection is
employed. Thus, seawater, a very corrosive environment, has a resistivity of 15 to 35 ohm-centimeters.
Clean dry sand which is usually non-corrosive, very often ha a resistivity of more than 1,00,000 ohm-
centimeters.
Fundamentals Of Cathodic Protection
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METHODS

There are basically two methods of applying cathodic protection although there are applying cathodic
protection although there are numerous variations of these methods. One of these methods uses anodes,
which are energized, by an external DC power source. In this type of cathodic protection system, anodes
are installed in the electrolyte and are connected to the positive terminal of the DC source ; the structure
which is to be protected to the negative terminal of that source. Because the power source is almost
always a rectifier unit, this type of system is often referred to as a rectifier type system Fig. 6.

The second method of protection makes use of galvanic anodes, which have a natural difference of
potential with respect to the structure to be protected. Fig. 7. These anodes are made of a material, such
as magnesium or zinc. Which is anodic with respect to the protected structure and these anodes are
connected directly to that structure. In most cases, the rectifier type system is designed to deliver
relatively large currents from a limited number of anodes, and the galvanic anode type system is designed
to deliver relatively small current from a large number of anodes.

Each method of applying cathodic protection has characteristics, which make it more applicable to a
particular problem than other. A comparison of those characteristics is as follows :

COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS

GALVANIC RECTIFIER

1. Requires no external power. External power required.

2. Fixed driving voltage. Voltage can be varied.

3. Limited current Current can be varied.

4. Usually used where current Can be designed for almost any
requirements are small. current requirement.

5. Usually used in lower resistivity electrolyte. Can be used in almost any
resistivity environment.

6. In underground applications interference In underground application with neighboring
structures is usually negligible. interference with neighboring structures must
be considered.

Irrespective of the type of system used, in all systems, current flows from the anode to the structure to be
protected. When current flows onto a structure, from the surrounding electrolytes, the potential is made
more negative, and cathodic protection is achieved when the change in potential is sufficient to arrest
corrosion.

From this discussion, it would appear that cathodic protection could be achieved merely by the application
of current of sufficient magnitude. Although this statement is true, it is deceptively simple because there
are very large differences in the design of cathodic protection systems. These differences result from the
infinite variety of structures, which are to be protected, and from the large variety of environments in
which those structures are located. Examples will be given later in this paper to illustrate the variety of
designs, which are possible. Because of the large differences in the designs of systems necessary to
achieve protection, it is mandatory that each system be custom designed for a given location. Rules of
thumb should be avoided unless it can be shown that those rules apply in that particular situation. In
order to design a cathodic protection system properly, field measurements must be taken to determine
the corrosion pattern and the current required for protection. Designs not based on actual field
measurements can result in systems which are worth less or even detrimental.

The latter condition is one, which must be given serious attention. In order to prevent corrosion using
cathodic protection current must flow from the electrolyte onto the structure at all locations. If a portion of
the structure does not receive current, the normal corrosion activity on that structure will continue. If any
of the cathodic protection current picked up by the structure leaves that structure to flow back in to the
electrolyte, corrosion will be accelerated at the location where the current leaves. For example, an
underground pipeline in which mechanical joints are used may be electrically discontinuous. If a galvanic
anode type system is used for protection, it would be necessary to install an anode on each pipe length or
to bond across each joint. If one length of pipe is neglected that length will receive no cathodic protection
and the normal corrosion activity will continue. When a rectifier type system is installed on a pipeline, it is
Fundamentals Of Cathodic Protection
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even more important that line be electrically continuous. If there are non-continuous joints, it is possible
for the cathodic protection current to leave the pipe to flow around that joint. Similarly, if cathodic
protection current is applied to one structure in an area, it is possible for other structures in the
neighborhood to be exposed to damage unless proper steps are taken. Potential measurements are used
to determine whether the possibility of such exposure to damage exists. Just as protection is indicated
when the potential of a structure is made more negative, exposure is indicated when the potential of
structure is made less negative as the result of the application of current.

ANODE MATERIAL

Galvanic Anodes

Referring again to Fig. &, it can be seen that the protective current generated by galvanic anodes depends
upon the structure to be protected. Thus, if the structure is made of iron or steel, any metal, which is
more active in the electromotive series, can theoretically be used as anode material. In practice,
the material which are used for galvanic anodes are zinc and magnesium. Although aluminum is also a
material which is more active than iron, it has not yet proved to be an effective galvanic anode material
because of the polarization films which build up on aluminum as it corrodes stop the generation of
protective current. In recent years, some alloys of aluminum have been used in seawater applications and
work is progressing on alloys, which may prove to be effective in other applications.

It should be note that galvanic anodes consume themselves in the process of generating protective
currents. The rate of consumption is dependent upon the magnitude of current generated as well as the
material of which the anode is made. For example, the consumption of zinc, theoretically, is at the rate of
23.5lbs. per ampere year and magnesium theoretically at the rate of 8.7lbs per ampere year. In actual
practice, not all of the metal is consumed in generating current, which is useful for cathodic protection.
Some of the metal is consumed in self-corrosion. Thus, zinc is approximately 90% efficient and
magnesium is approximately 50% efficient. Therefore, the actual pound consumed per ampere year of
protective current are 26 and 17 lb. for zinc and magnesium respectively.

Magnesium has received much wider application that has zinc, primarily because of its higher driving
voltage. The solution potential of magnesium is 1.55 volts to copper sulphate reference electrode and
that of zinc is 1.1 volts. Therefore, the use of zinc has been limited to very low resistivity soils and to
seawater applications. Zinc is rarely effective in soils of more than 1,000 ohm-centimeters unless the
structure is very well coated and the current requirements are small. Magnesium on the other hand can be
used quite effectively in soil up to 5,000 ohm-centimeters, and, on well-coated structures, can often be
used up to 10,000 ohm-centimeters or more.

In underground applications, these anodes are usually surrounded with a special backfill
mixture The backfill is usually a mixture of gypsum, bentonite and sulphate. This special
backfill serves a number of purposes. One, it provides a uniform environment for the anode,
thereby making the corrosion of the anode uniform. Second, the backfill decreases the anode-
to-earth resistance. Third, it remains moisture and thereby maintains a lower resistance.
Fourth, it acts as depolarizing agent.

Energized Anodes

When a rectifier type system is used, the current is derived from an outside source and is not generated
by the corrosion of a particular metal as is the case with galvanic anodes. However, materials used as
anode material in rectifier type system, corrode at the rate of 22lbs. per ampere year. Even a relatively
small rectifier system with a capacity of only 10 amperes, would consume 2200 lbs. of steel in 10 years.
Therefore, longer life anode materials were sought The materials which are used almost universally today
are graphite and high silicon cast iron. The consumption of these anode materials depends to a large
degree on the particular environment in which they are used, but in general it is less than 1/10 that of
ordinary iron or steel. In chloride environments, such as sea seawater, graphite is usually superior to high
silicon iron, and fresh water environments where oxygen is liberated at the anodes; high silicon iron is
usually superior. In underground applications, there is usually not much difference in the behavior of
these materials. In underground work, special coke breeze backfills are usually used for the purpose of
providing a uniform environment around the anode and for lowering the anode-to-earth resistance. The
use of coke breeze backfill is not as critical for high silicon iron as it is for graphite. Therefore, in
application where the installation of coke breeze backfill is impractical and it is necessary to install anodes
without such backfill, high silicon iron is more often used.




Fundamentals Of Cathodic Protection
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EXAMPLES

Underground-Coated Pipe

The economics favoring cathodic protection of country pipelines are so overhelming, particularly on high-
pressure gas and oil lines, that practically every new cross-country line of consequence is provided with
cathodic protection almost immediately after completion. These new pipelines are provided with a good,
high resistivity coating which is applied with technique which leave very little of the pipe surface exposed
to the soil. However, it is recognized that a coating, no matter how good or how well applied, is rarely if
ever perfect, and that the corrosion protection afforded by the coating must be supplemented with
cathodic protection in order to achieve complete protection against corrosion. Many observers have noted
that coated pipelines develop leaks within a shorter period of time that do uncoated pipelines. This is true
even though the total metal loss on a coated pipe is a appreciably less than on a bare pile. Fortunately,
coating and cathodic protection work very well together. When a pipe is coated with one of the materials
and techniques, which are available today, a relatively small magnitude of current can provide cathodic
protection for many miles of pipe. Thus, in one example, it was possible to provide protection for 650
miles of 30" line between Superior, Wisconsism and Sarnia, Ontario using only 17 rectifiers. This system
was able to provide full protection not only for the pipeline itself but for the piping at six pumping stations
and a crossing at the Straits of Mackinac as well. The average current output from the rectifier untis was
5.0 amperes, and the most current required from any one rectifier was 9 amperes.

Although protection of cross county pipelines is usually provided with rectifier type systems, the use of
those type of systems in congested areas is often very difficult because of the many interference problem
created on nearby structures. Therefore, in congested areas, magnesium anode system is more often
used. On a particular example of a coated 8" pipeline, which loops a city in northwest Ohio, magnesium
anodes installed on a nominal spacing of 100' were able to provide complete cathodic protection for the
line. In many instances, spacing of anodes can be extended to 500ft. or more depending on the quality of
the coating and the environmental conditions. As a consequence, many gas companies in recent years
have established programs in which magnesium anodes are installed on a pre-selected spacing as the
pipeline is laid.

Underground Bare Pipelines

The problems presented in attempting to provide cathodic protection for bare pipelines are infinitely more
difficult than those on coated pipelines. The major difficulty arises because of the fact that a much greater
magnitude of current is required. On a coated pipeline, it is not unusual to be able to provide protection
for more than 25 miles of 10" line with a single rectifier unit. These results can be compared with the
results obtained on approximately 72 miles of 8" bare pipelines in western New York State where 50
rectifier units with an average current output of 15 amperes were required. Because of the much greater
current requirement, interference problems created on crossing pipelines are greater. Thus, in the
example given it was necessary to drain almost 50 amperes to the crossing lines in order to clear the
interference. On system using magnesium anodes, the number of anodes required is similarly much
greater on bare pipes than the coated pipes. We have seen one example where an anode spacing of 100
feet was sufficient to provide protection for a coated 8" line and there are numerous cases where the
anode spacing can be more than 500 feet. However, in an example of a bare pipeline also in Ohio, it was
necessary to install anodes on spacing of 16 feet in order to achieve protection. In many instances spacing
of 10 feet or less is not unusual on bare pipe.

Because of the very large currents required to provide complete protection for length of bare pipe, very
often a type of protection known as "hot spot" protection is used. In this type of system, a very detailed
survey of the pipeline is made during which potential measurement and soil resistivity measurements are
taken at very close intervals, some times as close as 10 feet apart but more often from 50 to 100 feet
apart. From evaluation of these measurements, the more corrosive areas are selected, and magnesium
anodes are installed at those corrosive areas or "hot spots". Even "hot spot" protection often requires a
larger number of anodes. As an example, 18 miles of 12" line in western Pennsylvania required 1265
magnesium anodes.

SEA WATER

Because seawater is a very corrosive environment the use of cathodic protection on structures in seawater
has greatly expanded in recent years. The particular problems, which arise in seawater applications as
compared to underground or fresh water application, are usually a result of the greater current
requirements. Whereas, in fresh water or underground applications the current required for protection is
usually in the range of the greater current requirement is usually from 5 to 10 milliamperes per square
foot of exposed area. In one example, it was necessary to use a system having a capacity of more than
8,500 amperes in order to provide protection to 3000 steel "H" piles supporting a pier in New York Harbor.
Fundamentals Of Cathodic Protection
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Fortunately, because seawater is a very low resistivity environment, the voltage necessary to deliver this
current is low. In the example given 27 rectifier units, each with a capacity of 320 amperes was used.
However, the voltage necessary to deliver the maximum current output never exceeded 6 volts.

In this example, there were a total of more than 1300 - 3 " x 60" long graphite anodes used and these
were suspended in the water. It is possible for these anodes to deliver an average current in excess of 6.5
amperes because they are in freely moving seawater. If the anodes were installed so that they were lying
on the bottom, it would not be possible to have them deliver that magnitude of current without premature
deterioration.

Fresh Water Application.

Probably the largest fresh water application for cathodic protection is in preventing corrosion for the
internal submerged surfaces of water storage tanks, such as Municipal Water Supply tank and Fire
Protection tanks. The type of system used in most water storage tanks is the rectifier type. The use of
rectifier type system makes it possible to cover a wide variety of conditions with a limited number of
designs. In a recent sampling of tanks ranging in size from 25,000 gallon to 150,000 gallon it was found
that the total current required for protection in these tanks ranged from 0.4 amps to 8.2 amps. And that
the current density ranged from 0.067 milli amperes per squares foot to 2.5 milliamperes per square foot.
Despite these variations in conditions, a rectifier unit with 10 amperes of capacity was used in each of
these tanks.

As indicated previously, the anode material, which behaves best in fresh water, is high silicon cast iron.
Therefore, that type of anode has become very popular in recent years. However, many tanks are subject
to icing conditions in the winter, and the use of long-lived anodes under those conditions would not be
feasible. Therefore, where icing condition are encountered, aluminum anodes are almost always used and
these anodes are designed for a service life of one year. (Although aluminum is anodic with respect to
steel in the electromotive series, in this particular application it is used as an energized anode). Each
spring after the danger of icing is past, new anodes are installed. It should be noted that aluminum
theoretically deteriorates at the rate of 6.5 lbs. per ampere year. However, in designing for aluminum
anodes, the actual life has been found to be closer to 14 lbs. per ampere year.

Although cathodic protection has been used for many years in fresh water storage tanks, and has been
found to be economically worthwhile, there has been some reluctance in using it on larger structures in
fresh water streams and lakes. However, within the last few years it has been used extensively on many
of the lock gates and dams on the Mississippi River, and it is being included in the construction
specification for most of the lock gates at the new dams now under construction along the Ohio River.
Perhaps the use of cathodic protection on this structure is recognition of the fact that our fresh water
streams and lakes are becoming more corrosive as result of pollution. It is realized that permanently
submerged structures even under mildly corrosive conditions would require maintenance over an extended
period of time unless the corrosion activity would be completely eliminated. Periodic maintenance would
necessitate periodic de watering of the locks. There fore, the use of cathodic protection on lock gates has
been shown to be economically feasible.

Another application in fresh water recently completed is the sheet steel piling and H-pilings supporting a
coal-unloading tower at a power plant in Memphis. The system was designed to provide protection for
both inside and outside of sand filled sheet steel cells as well as for the H-pilling supporting the coal
unloading tower. This was a rectifier type system using two 40volt, 160ampere units and one 40volt,
80ampere unit energizing. During anode installed in the river to protect the outside of the sheet steel
piling as well as installed in the sand inside the cells to protect the inside of the sheet piling.


CONCLUSIONS

Cathodic protection is highly adaptable and effective means of preventing corrosion on a variety of
underground or underwater structures. We have seen that there are basically two types of systems,
namely, the galvanic anode type and the rectifier, and that each has characteristic, which makes it more
adaptable to a given problem than the other. We have seen that cathodic protection designs can differ
considerably depending upon the coating, the configuration of the structure, the environment, and the
presence of neighboring structures. Therefore, it is not a method to be applied indiscriminately and
without careful field investigations. However, when a system is designed properly, cathodic protection can
be one of the more economical methods of preventing corrosion.

Fundamentals Of Cathodic Protection
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REFERENCE

1. Underground pipelines are subject to costly corrosion, which can be mitigated by proper design and
protection. Fontana, M. G. corrosion: A Compilation Columbus, Ohio, 1957, pp. 223-224

2. Use of pipe-to-soil Potential in Analyzing Underground corrosion Problems, Husock, B; Corrosion,
Houston Texas, Vol. 17 No. 8, 1961, pp. 97-101

3. Statement of Minimum Requirement for Protection of Buried Pipelines. Prepared by N. A. C. E Technical
Group Committee T-2 on Pipeline Corrosion. Corrosion Houston, Texas, Vol. 12 No. Oct. 1957, p. 19

4. Cathodic Protection of Water Storage Tanks. Husock, B., Proceedings of Sixth Annual Appalachian Un,
derground Corrosion short Course. West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va., 1961, pp 279-287

5. Corrosion Prevention for Gravity Tanks. Approved Equipment for Industrial Fire Protection. Associated
Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies, 1957

6. Cathodic Protection Investigation (Interium Report) Civil Works Investigation No. CW 311. Rock Island
District, Corps of Engineers. U.S.Army, rock Island, I11., 1954.

7. Cathodic Protection for Coal Unloading Facilities for Thos. H. Allen Steam Electric Station, Segall, J.,
AIEE Paper No. CP61-424, presented at AIEE Winter General Meeting, Jan. 29 - Feb. 3, 1961.




GRADE


##################################################################
CURRENT DISCHARGE CURRENT PICK UP






CURRENT FLOW ALONG PIPE



FIG. 1. STRAY CURRENT ON UNDERGROUND PIPE





D.C SOURCE
+ + +
LOAD
-
- -
##################################################################
-











Fundamentals Of Cathodic Protection
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FIG.2. STRAY CURRENT ON UNDERGROUND PIPE SHOWING SOURCE AND LOAD
CURRENT
THROUGH CONNECTION


(A)
+ -



##################################################################




Cu Fe
(+) CURRENT

THRU ELECTROLYTE (-)



FIG. 3. GALVANIC CORROSION - DISSIMILAR METALS


GRADE

##################################################################
WELL POORLY WELL
AERATED AERATED AERATED







(+) (-) (-) (+)



CATHODIC ANODIC CATHODIC

FIG. 4. GALVANIC CORROSION - DISSIMILAR ELECTROLYTES



(A) (A)


CATHODE
ANODE CATHODE






ELECTROLYTIC CELL GALVANIC CELL


FIG. 5. ELECTROLYTIC AND GALVANIC CELLS




Fundamentals Of Cathodic Protection
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(-) (+) RECTIFIER UNIT



GRADE


##################################################################
(-) (+)

PROTECTED ENERGIZED
STRUCTURE ANODE







FIG. 6. CATHODIC PROTECTION - RECTIFIER TYPE







GRADE


##################################################################
(+) (-)
PROTECTED GALVANIC
STRUCTURE ANODE









FIG. 7. CATHODIC PROTECTION - GALVANIC ANODE TYPE