Portland Cement Concrete

CE 2512 Materials for Civil Engineering
Properties of Concrete
Concrete Basics - Materials
Sand
Crushed Stone or Gravel
Water
Portland Cement
Supplementary Cementing Materials Fly ash Slag Silica Fume Natural Pozzolans
Chemical Admixtures Air entrainment Water reducers Set modifying Corrosion inhibitors Shrinkage reducers Wide range of others
Fibers Steel Polypropylene Nylon Glass Carbon
Not covered in CE 2512
Hydration
Abrams Law
For given materials the strength of the concrete (so long as we have a plastic mix) depends solely on the relative quantity of water compared with the cement, regardless of mix or size and grading of aggregate. Duff A. Abrams, 1918
strength strength = = ff (W/CM) (W/C)

where: W = mass water, C = mass cementing materials where: W = of mass of water, C = of mass of cement
W/CM = 0.33 by mass Volume of Water Volume of Cement
W/CM = 0.61 by mass Volume of Water Volume of Cement
=1
=2
Original water-filled spaces: Capillary Porosity Low W/CM: Low capillary porosity Small pores poorly connected Low permeability High strength High W/CM: High capillary porosity Large pores - well connected High permeability Low strength
Reducing the water content and W/CM of concrete leads to: Increased strength and stiffness Reduced creep Reduced shrinkage Lower permeability Increased resistance to weathering Better bond between concrete and reinforcement
Less Water
Better Concrete
Provided the concrete can be consolidated properly!
Concrete Basics Essentials of Quality Concrete
The performance of concrete depends on: Suitable materials Mixture proportions Mixing and transporting Placing and consolidation Finishing & jointing Curing Workmanship Environment
Properties of Fresh Concrete Freshly Mixed Concrete
Requirements of fresh concrete: Easily mixed and transported Uniform throughout a given batch (and between batches) Flow properties such that it is capable of completely filling the forms Ability to be compacted fully without an excessive amount of energy being applied Must not segregate during transportation, placing and consolidation Capable of being finished properly (either against the forms of means of trowelling or other surface treatment)
Mindess et al, 2003
Properties of Fresh Concrete - Workability
ACI 116R-00 Cement and Concrete Terminology Workability that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar that determines the ease with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished to a homogenous condition.
Consistency
the relative mobility or ability of freshly mixed concrete or mortar to flow; the usual measurement is slump for concrete
Properties of Fresh Concrete - Workability Factors affecting slump:

Water content Cement type SCMs (especially fly ash or silica fume) Chemical admixtures (water reducers, plasticizers and air entrainers) Temperature Haul time Mixing time
Properties of Fresh Concrete Setting & Hardening

Rigidity Transition (Setting)
Beginning of mechanical strength Final Set Initial Set Limits of handling
Rigid
Time
Dormant Period Addition of water
Setting Initial set Final set
Hardening
Young et al, 1998
C-S-H bridging the gap between cement grains Rigid structure develops
Photomicrograph courtesy of Lafarge
The setting time of concrete is influenced by: Type and quantity of cement Supplementary cementing materials Chemical admixtures (retarders & accelerators) W/CM Temperature
Properties of Fresh Concrete Testing

Tests on fresh concrete
Slump Temperature Air content Unit weight & yield Making samples for strength tests Uniformity
Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development Compressive Strength of Hardened Concrete

the maximum resistance of a (cylindrical) specimen to axial loading
The compressive strength is the most commonly-used measure of concrete quality and is used in: design calculations Strength = Max load Area specification quality control
Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development
Strength Development of Concrete Concrete will continue to gain strength as long as:
Strength (MPa) 40
6000
some unhydrated cement remains concrete remains moist (relative humidity > 80%) Temperature is above freezing The 28-day strength is usually used to characterize a particular concrete mix
30
Strength (psi)
4000
20
35MPa (5000 psi)

2000
10
0 1 3 7 14
Age (days)
28
10
Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development Strength Development of Concrete Effect of Temperature
Increased Temperature
Strength (MPa) 40 30 20 10 0
1 3 7 14 28
23C 40C 15C 5C
6000
Strength (psi)
4000
Increased Rate of Hydration
2000
Increased Strength at Early Age
Age (days)
But decreased Long-term strength
Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development Strength Development of Concrete Effect of Curing
Moist curing period 1 3 7 28 28-day strength (% of concrete cured for 28 days)
40 30 20 10 0
1 3 7 14 Moist Curing Period
Continuous 7 days 3 days 1 day
6000
Strength (MPa)
Strength (psi)
49 71 89 100
4000
2000
100 x 200 mm (4 x 8 in.) concrete cylinders
0 28
Age (days)
11
Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development Strength Development of Concrete Outdoor Exposure
150-mm (6-in.) Cubes Type I Cement Outdoor exposure in Skokie, Illinois
Strength (MPa) 100 80 60 40 20 0 3d 7d 28d 3m 1y 3y 10y 5y 20y Age at Test Kosmatka et al. 2002 4000 W/CM = 0.40 W/CM = 0.53 W/CM = 0.71
12000 Strength (psi)
8000
Exposed concrete will continue to gain strength when the exposure conditions (temperature, moisture availability) are suitable for cement hydration
Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development Strength Development of Concrete Indoor Exposure
100 Relative Humidity of Concrete (%)
28 days natural drying
80 60 40 20 0 150-mm (6-in.) Thick Concrete Wall

Ambient Air = 35% RH
12
Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development Compressive strength of concrete with a given composition is dependent on: Age of the concrete at the time of test Extent of moist-curing Curing temperature
Standard-cured, 28-day compressive strength of concrete indicates that the strength test was carried out on a specimen which was: 28 days old at the time of test Cured in a fog room (100% RH) or in limewater Cured at a temperature of 23oC (70oF)
28-day strength
Compressive Strength (MPa)
80 10000 60 8000 40 6000 4000 20 2000 0 0.25 0 0.85 Compressive Strength (psi)
Moist-cured cylinders Non-air-entrained concrete Portland cement only Over 100 mixtures (1985 to 1999)
0.35
0.45
0.55 W/CM
0.65
0.75
13
Factors affecting 28-day standard-cured compressive strength:
W/CM Type of portland cement Type and amount of SCM Air content (~ 5.5% reduction for each 1% air) Aggregate strength (in high-strength concrete)
General use concrete: Special applications:
20 to 40 MPa (3000 to 6000 psi) 70 to 140 MPa (10,000 to 20,000 psi) can be achieved
Strength usually specified at 28 days and w/cm selected to provide the required strength However, strength may be specified at any other age such as at 7 days for loading or 1 day for form removal In such cases, relationships between strength and w/cm have to be developed for these ages
14
When different cementing materials are used the relationships between w/cm, age and strength change For example, if 25% fly ash is introduced into a mix the w/cm will have to be reduced by a small amount to main the same 28-day strength and by a larger amount to maintain the same 3-day strength w/cm can be reduced by reducing water content (use of fly ash, water-reducing admixture) or increasing cementitious material content, or both (see example below) Mix A Mix B 240 80 160 0.50 30
90 days 100% Portland cement
28 days
25% Fly ash
Portland cement (kg/m3)

3 days
300 0 180 0.60 30
Fly Ash (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) W/CM 28-day strength (MPa)
Tensile Strength of Concrete Tensile strength of concrete is very difficult to measure directly. It is usually determined indirectly using either: Flexural test Cylinder splitting (Indirect tensile test)
15
Flexural Strength
(Modulus of Rupture)
P 2
P 2
R=
L 3 L 3 L 3
PL bd 2
R = flexural strength (MPa) P = maximum load applied (N) L = span length (mm) b = width of specimen (mm) d = depth of specimen (mm)
A number of empirical formulae for predicting the tensile strength (ft) from the compressive strength (fc) have been developed; many of these are of the type:
f t = k f cn
The direction of crack propagation in uniaxial tension is perpendicular to the stress direction. The initiation & growth of each new crack reduces the load carrying area. Typically
ft
f c = 0.07 to 0.11
16
T=
2P Ld
T = tensile strength (MPa) P = load at failure (N) L = length of specimen (mm) d = diameter of specimen (mm)
For design purposes, the secant modulus at 40% of the strength of the concrete is usually used
= 0.40 fc
E - secant modulus 1
17
CE2512 Concrete Lab 2 - Testing
Top ring pivoted (rotation permitted)
150 mm
LVDT
P Bottom ring firmly fixed (no rotation permitted) The deflection measured by the LVDT is twice the deformation of the sample
The load (in Newtons) and the displacement of the LVDT (in mm) will be collected by datalogger and emailed to you in a spreadsheet. You will have to convert load to stress (MPa) and displacement to strain (mm/mm) in order to calculate the modulus
Other mechanical properties Flexural strength (Modulus of Rupture) = 0.7 to 0.8 x (compressive strength, MPa) = 7.5 to 10 x (compressive strength, psi) = 0.4 to 0.7 x (compressive strength, MPa) Direct tensile strength = 5 to 7.5 x (compressive strength, psi) = 8% to 14% of compressive strength = 5000 x (compressive strength, MPa) Modulus of elasticity = 57000 x (compressive strength, psi)
Splitting tensile strength
LVDT
18
Poissons ratio, , may vary from 0.15 to 0.25 depending on strength, aggregate, moisture content, and concrete age
Properties of Hardened Concrete Volume Stability & Crack Control
Hardened concrete changes volume due to changes in: Temperature Moisture Stress
Length/volume changes ~ 0.01% to 0.1 % (or 100 to 1000 microstrain)
19
Properties of Hardened Concrete Volume Stability & Crack Control Creep
1000
800
Elastic recovery
Microstrain
600
Load removed
Creep Strain Creep recovery
400
Irreversible creep Elastic strain
20
0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Time after loading (days)
Load applied
After Mindess et al, 2003
Properties of Hardened Concrete Volume Stability & Crack Control Cracking Due to Volume Change
Initial state
Unrestrained drying and thermal shrinkage
Reduction in temperature and moisture If unrestrained concrete shrinks due to loss of moisture or cooling
Tensile stresses
If restrained tensile stresses develop in the concrete
If tensile stresses exceed tensile strength concrete cracks
20
External restraint
Internal restraint Surface cools (or dries) more rapidly than bulk
21
Measures to reduce thermal cracking Minimize temperature rise above ambient Lower cement content Use low-heat Type IV cement Use pozzolans or slag Lower concrete placing temperature Use embedded cooling pipes Minimize thermal gradient in concrete
Water Content (lb/yd3)
Measures to reduce drying shrinkage

Drying Shrinkage (millionths)
250
300
350
400
450
Reduce the water content of the mixture Minimize paste content Increase the aggregate content Use as large as practical maximum aggregate size Optimize grading Increase moist curing period Shrinkage-reducing admixtures Shrinkage-compensating cement Steel fibres
1200
800
400
0 250 150 200 Water Content (kg/m3)
22
Crack Control Reinforcing steel to reduce crack widths
Isolation joints Contraction joints Construction joints to control the location of cracks
Isolation joint
Isolate adjoining parts of a structure Permit differential movements
23
Contraction joints (Control joints)
Provide for movement within a slab or wall Cracks induced at predetermined locations
24
Slab
Wall
Seal outside with joint sealer if leakage is anticipated
25
Construction joint Stopping place during the construction process (e.g. end of the days work) A true construction joint should bond new concrete to existing concrete and permit no movement. Deformed tie bars are often used to restrict movement However construction joints are often designed and built to operate as contraction or isolation joints
Spacing of Contraction Joints in Meters Slab thickness, mm 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 Maximum-size aggregate < 19 mm 2.4 3.0 3.75 4.25 5.0 5.5 6.0 Maximum-size aggregate 19 mm 3.0 3.75 4.5 5.25 6.0 6.75 7.5
Metric
26
Spacing of Contraction Joints in Feet Slab thickness, in. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Maximum-size aggregate < inch 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
2 feet spacing for each inch of slab thickness
Maximum-size aggregate inch 10 13 15 18 20 23 25

2 feet spacing for each inch of slab thickness (round up to nearest whole foot) InchInch-Pound
Properties of Hardened Concrete Permeability & Watertightness

Watertightness the ability of concrete to hold back or retain water without visible leakage
Permeability
amount of water migration through concrete when the water is under pressure or the ability of concrete to resist penetration by water or other substances (liquids, gas, ions, etc
27
Outflow =Q Hydrostatic pressure, h X-section area = A
Coefficient of permeability, k =
Q l A h
Factors Affecting Permeability of Concrete Principal Factors Water/cementitious material Water Content Curing Age Use of SCMs Silica fume
Fly ash Slag Natural pozzolans
Secondary Factors Cement factor Chemical admixtures Aggregate type Air content
28
Fig 7.28 in M&Z, 2006
More appropriate to plot on semi-log scale
1000 m/s
Permeability does not go to zero but very small value
Permeability, x 10
-14
100
10
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

W/CM
W/CM
Compare with Strength

Fig 7.28 in M&Z, 2006 Reduce W/CM 0.70 0.40
Reduce permeability by 100 times
Almost double strength
Reduce W/CM 0.70 0.40
W/CM
29
Effect of SCMs Fly ash Slag Silica fume Natural pozzolans (e.g. metakaolin) Permeability reductions of 10 X or more are possible if concrete is properly proportioned and adequately cured
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability
Causes of deterioration:
Cyclic freezing and thawing Deicer salt scaling Corrosion of reinforcing steel Alkali-silica reaction Sulfate attack Abrasion Others
30
Causes of deterioration:
Involve movement of water (or transport of species in water)
Cyclic freezing and thawing Deicer salt scaling Corrosion of reinforcing steel Alkali-silica reaction Sulfate attack Abrasion Others
Low Permeability
Durability
Freezing and Thawing of Concrete
31
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Freezing and Thawing of Concrete
Concrete blocks on PCA outdoor test plot after 40 years exposure (355 kg/m3 cement)
Non-air-entrained concrete Air-entrained concrete
32

6000 Number of Freeze-Thaw Cycles to 25% Loss in Mass 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 W/CM 0.7 0.8 0.9 Fog cured 14 days Dried 76 days at 50% RH Air-entrained concrete Non-air-entrained concrete
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Freezing and Thawing of Concrete Deicer Salt Scaling
33
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Freezing and Thawing of Concrete D-Cracking
General criteria for resistance to freezing and thawing
The aggregate is frost-resistant Sufficient strength is attained prior to first freezing (> 3.5 MPa or 500 psi) Sufficient strength is attained prior to cyclic freezing & thawing (> 28 MPa or 4000 psi) Adequate Air Void System
34
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel
Protective (passive) layer
Concrete pore solution: pH > 13
Chloride Ions Carbonation

Breakdown of passive layer
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel Action of Chlorides
Cl Protective (passive) layer
Cl
Chloride ions from: Deicing salt Seawater Groundwater
Concrete pore solution: pH > 13
35
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel Action of Chlorides
# 1 cause of concrete deterioration
Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel High-Performance Concrete
Low-permeability concrete
60V A
ASTM C 1202 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test

NaCl
solution
NaOH
solution
Apply 60 V across a 100-mm diameter x 50-mm thick concrete sample Measure total electrical charge passed (in Coulombs) over a 6hour period
36
SCM & Chloride Permeability

6000
Data from Ozyildirim, 1998
Coulombs Passed > 4000 2000 4000 1000 2000 100 1000 < 100
Chloride Ion Penetrability High Moderate Low Very low Negligible
RCPT (Coulombs)
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 120 240 Age (Days) 360
Control (no SCM) W/CM = 0.38-0.40 7% Silica Fume 20% Fly Ash
SCM Fly Ash, slag & most pozzolans Silica fume, metakaolin (highly reactive pozzolans)
Effect on Chloride Permeability Little effect at early age (e.g. 28 days) Reduction becomes more significant with age Substantial reduction at later age Significant reduction at early age (e.g. 28 days) Smaller decreases with age
What does the Rapid Chloride Permeability Test really measure? The RCPT measures electrical conductivity which is a measures of the ease with which electrical charge can pass through a material. Electrical conductivity is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity concrete with a low electrical conductivity has a high electrical resistivity Electrical charge passes through the pore structure of the concrete (the solid phases have a high electrical resistance) as do chloride ions and water. High w/cm concrete with an open and well-connected pore structure will be permeable to water and chloride ions, and have a high electrical conductivity and low electrical resistance Low w/cm concrete that contains SCMs will have a more refined pore structure (small and poorly connected pores) and will have low permeability to water and a high resistance to chloride ion penetration. It will also have a low electrical conductivity and high electrical resistivity Thus electrical conductivity or resistivity provides an indirect but reasonable indication of the permeability of concrete and its resistance to the ingress of deleterious species such as chlorides Care must be taken to ensure that concrete is saturated when its electrical properties are measured as dry concrete (with empty pores) has a very high electrical resistant no matter how open and well connected its pores are.
37
Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel Carbonation
Original high pH maintained (purple) Steel in pristine condition
pH reduced (colourless) Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O Steel corrodes
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel Carbonation
Problems occur when: High W/CM Poor curing Inadequate cover High levels of SCM Outdoor-sheltered exposure
38
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)

Effects all types of exposed concrete structures Has occurred in most, if not all, states of U.S.A. and provinces of Canada
Occurrences of ASR in Canada
Fredericton?
(CSA A864-00)
39
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)

Microscopic thin section through ASR-affected concrete Cement paste
Crack Crack
Reactive chert Alkali-silica gel
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) Preventive Measures for ASR
z
Use of non-reactive aggregate
40
Use a NonNon-Reactive Aggregate?
Mactaquac Dam, NB Aggregate passed criteria for nonreactivity that existed at the time of construction Millions of $$$s currently being spent trying to deal with ASR problems
z
Use of non-reactive aggregate Limit alkali content of concrete

z z
1.8 3.0 kg/m3 Na2Oe 3.0 5.0 lb/yd3 Na2Oe
Typical values use in specifications

0.5 Expansion at 2 Years (%) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 CSA Limit 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 Alkali Content of Concrete (kg/m3 Na2Oe)
41
Examples of ASR in concrete structures with a low alkali content
Concrete alkali content < 3 kg/m3 Na2Oe
z
Use of non-reactive aggregate Limit alkali content of concrete Use of SCMs
z z
Concrete without fly ash
Concrete with 25% fly ash
42
ASR-Affected Hydraulic Structures, Ontario A number of dams and associated structures affected by ASR with greywacke/argillite aggregate from Huronian Supergroup Ontario
Lady Evelyn Dam Diagnosed as ASR in 1965 Lake Superior Lake Huron Demolished and replaced in 1973
ASR-Affected Hydraulic Structures, Ontario A number of dams and associated structures affected by ASR with greywacke/argillite aggregate from Huronian Supergroup Ontario
Site of Lower Notch Dam Dam completed in 1969 with known reactive aggregate from the same geological formation
Lake Superior Lake Huron
43
Lower Notch Dam, Ontario After testing the aggregate it was decided that the dam would be built using high-alkali cement (1.08% Na2Oe) and a Class F fly ash 20% in structural concrete and 30% in mass concrete
0.06
High-Alkali Cement
Expansion (%)
0.04
0.02
High-Alkali Cement + Fly Ash
Low-Alkali Cement
0.00 0 1 2 3 Age (Years)
z
Use of non-reactive aggregate Limit alkali content of concrete Use of SCMs Use of chemical admixtures
z z
Long-term effectiveness not yet established Indications that lithium is not effective with all reactive aggregate types
Concrete without lithium Concrete with LiOH
44
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Sulfate Attack
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Sulfate Attack The resistance of concrete to sulfate attack can be improved by: Use of low-C3A cement with:

moderate sulfate resistance (Type II) high sulfate resistance (Type V)
Type I - 14.1% C3A
Type V - 1.2% C3A
Courtesy of BRE
45
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Sulfate Attack The resistance of concrete to sulfate attack can be improved by: Use of low-C3A cement with:

Use of low W/CM (to reduce permeability)
Type V Cement: W/C = 0.65
Type V Cement: W/C = 0.38
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Sulfate Attack The resistance of concrete to sulfate attack can be improved by: Use of portland cement with low-C3A content:

Use of low W/CM (to reduce permeability) Use of some supplementary cementing materials
Type I - 14.1% C3A
Type I + Fly Ash
Courtesy of BRE
46
Properties of Hardened Concrete Durability Other Forms of Deterioration
Thaumasite form of sulfate attack (TSA) Delayed ettringite formation (DEF) Salt crystallization Alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR) Chemical attack
The
End
47

Portland Cement Concrete

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CE 2512 Materials for Civil Engineering

Concrete Basics - Materials

Crushed Stone or Gravel

Concrete Basics - Materials

Concrete Basics - Materials

Fibers Steel Polypropylene Nylon Glass Carbon

Not covered in CE 2512

Concrete Basics - Materials

Concrete Basics - Materials

strength strength = = ff (W/CM) (W/C)

Concrete Basics - Materials

W/CM = 0.33 by mass Volume of Water Volume of Cement

W/CM = 0.61 by mass Volume of Water Volume of Cement

Concrete Basics - Materials

Provided the concrete can be consolidated properly!

Concrete Basics Essentials of Quality Concrete

Properties of Fresh Concrete Freshly Mixed Concrete

Properties of Fresh Concrete - Workability

Properties of Fresh Concrete - Workability Factors affecting slump:

Properties of Fresh Concrete Setting & Hardening

Dormant Period Addition of water

Setting Initial set Final set

Properties of Fresh Concrete Setting & Hardening

Photomicrograph courtesy of Lafarge

Properties of Fresh Concrete Setting & Hardening

Properties of Fresh Concrete Testing

Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development Compressive Strength of Hardened Concrete

Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development

35MPa (5000 psi)

Increased Rate of Hydration

Increased Strength at Early Age

But decreased Long-term strength

100 x 200 mm (4 x 8 in.) concrete cylinders

12000 Strength (psi)

80 60 40 20 0 150-mm (6-in.) Thick Concrete Wall

850 days natural drying

Ambient Air = 35% RH

Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development

Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development

Factors affecting 28-day standard-cured compressive strength:

General use concrete: Special applications:

90 days 100% Portland cement

25% Fly ash

Portland cement (kg/m3)

300 0 180 0.60 30

Fly Ash (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) W/CM 28-day strength (MPa)

CE2512 Concrete Lab 2 - Testing

Top ring pivoted (rotation permitted)

Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength Development

Splitting tensile strength

Properties of Hardened Concrete Volume Stability & Crack Control

Length/volume changes ~ 0.01% to 0.1 % (or 100 to 1000 microstrain)

Properties of Hardened Concrete Volume Stability & Crack Control Creep

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Time after loading (days)

After Mindess et al, 2003

If restrained tensile stresses develop in the concrete

If tensile stresses exceed tensile strength concrete cracks

Properties of Hardened Concrete Volume Stability & Crack Control

Properties of Hardened Concrete Volume Stability & Crack Control

Water Content (lb/yd3)

Measures to reduce drying shrinkage

0 250 150 200 Water Content (kg/m3)

Properties of Hardened Concrete Volume Stability & Crack Control

Crack Control Reinforcing steel to reduce crack widths