Democracy, Liberal Democracy and other Regime Types

Regime Types
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Electoral Democracy Liberal Democracy The Quality of Democracy Varieties of Authoritarianism

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Competitive Authoritarian Regimes Other (hegemonic) Electoral Authoritarian Military and one-party rule Totalitarian regimes

What is Electoral Democracy?

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A system of government at the level of the nation-state A means for the people (with equal political rights as citizens) to choose their political leaders and, if they wish, to replace their leaders in regular, meaningful, free and fair elections Sufficient freedom for elections to be meaningful, free and fair

Liberal (High-Quality) Democracy

1.

2.

3.

Democracy: Majority rule n Popular sovereignty and control over government n Competition, participation, vertical accountability, responsiveness Liberal government: Minority rights n Freedom, equality, civic culture Republican government: Good Governance n Rule of law, horizontal accountability, state effectiveness

What are the elements of Liberal (High-Quality) Democracy?

Elements of Liberal (High-Quality) Democracy

1. Liberty. Extensive freedoms of:
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Speech Press (print & broadcast) Association Assembly, peaceful protest Movement Thought and belief Religion & religious practice Language, identity, cultural expression

Elements of Liberal (High-Quality) Democracy

1. Liberty. Freedom from:
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Torture Warrantless search and seizure Corrupt demands and impositions Violence and coercion by state and non-state actors

2. Rule of Law. Protects rights of citizens, maintains order,

and limits power of government.
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All citizens are equal under the law No arbitrary arrest, exile, or imprisonment No one is above the law Government power is limited; no official may violate these legal and constitutional limits The courts are independent in structure and in fact

2. Rule of Law. Protects rights of citizens, maintains order,

and limits power of government.
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Right to know the charges against you, presumption of innocence Right to a fair, speedy, and public trial by an impartial court No one may be taxed or prosecuted except by a law established in advance No one may be subjected to torture or cruel and inhumane treatment

3. Horizontal Accountability. Power is separated and

dispersed among multiple, independent branches and institutions of government (checks and balances).

Executive power is limited, constrained and scrutinized by an independent legislature, judiciary, and other institutions

3. Horizontal Accountability. Power is separated and

dispersed among multiple, independent branches and institutions of government (checks and balances).

Independent institutions to monitor and control corruption & abuse of power

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Counter-corruption commission Ombudsman (public complaints commission) Parliamentary investigative committees Supreme audit agency (GAO)

4. Civilian control of the military & police

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Armed forces are directed by and subordinate to civilian elected officials and their appointees Elected, civilian commander in chief Top military command appointments are made or approved by civilians

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4. Civilian control of the military & police

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Budgets of armed forces, intelligence and other state security agencies are reviewed, understood, and approved by civilian executive and legislative authorities Professional civilian capacity in defense ministry, presidential (or PM) office, and parliamentary committees to supervise military and security agencies

4. Civilian control of the military & police

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Armed forces and intelligence agencies may not operate domestically except under extraordinary & explicit constitutional circumstances, with close civilian supervision Armed forces are non-partisan, non-political Police are professional, depoliticized, and supervised and monitored by democratic, civilian authorities

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5. Competitiveness
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At least two political parties with significant representation in parliament and a meaningful chance to win control of national government Low barriers to entry of new political parties No gerrymandering of electoral districts (independent commission) Open, fair access to the mass media for all

5. Competitiveness
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Limited or no use of government resources to reelect ruling party Virtually no vote buying or other electoral fraud Balanced access to party and campaign finance
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Public funding of parties and campaigns? Public guarantees of TV & radio air time? Limits on campaign expenditures?

Over time, electoral alternation (ruling parties lose)

6. Civic Pluralism
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Numerous NGOs and interest groups represent a broad range of interests and values in society NGOs and think tanks monitor the political process, expose abuses, and lobby for political reform Alternative sources of information: public has access to many sources of information, independent of government control. Government ownership and regulation of the mass media is very limited

7. Vertical Accountability. The people hold their agents (public officials) accountable to them
Type 1: Electoral Accountability n Party system is sufficiently competitive, n Competition is sufficiently fair, n Voters are sufficiently informed and aware of their interests So that elected officeholders can be held accountable, and removed for bad performance

7. Vertical Accountability. The people hold their agents (public officials) accountable to them
Type 2: Societal Accountability n Civil society is sufficiently pluralistic, resourceful, and independent of government n Mass media are sufficiently independent and professional n Public is sufficiently vigilant and mobilized So that unpopular policies & abuses of power can be challenged and reversed.

8. Participation. Citizens take an active role in politics and the making of public policies and decisions
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High rates of voter turnout Extensive public interest in and awareness of major issues, government conduct and party positions on issues High membership rates and active participation in civil society organizations (CSOs) Individuals and CSOs petition and lobby government

9. Equality
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Citizens have relatively equal political resources, at least in education, organization, and citizenship rights Women have substantial representation in the cabinet, parliament, and other representative bodies Economic inequalities are not so severe that they rob large groups of political voice and power

9. Equality
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Ethnic minorities have representation in parliament, and provincial & local legislatures, in rough proportion to their shares of the population All citizens are treated equally by government agencies & institutions (including the judiciary) regardless of their class, geographic region, religion, ethnicity, gender, party, or beliefs

10. Responsiveness. Government responds to citizen demands and preferences.

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Government changes its policies in response to clear, consistent, and fairly deliberated expressions of majority preference There is substantial correlation over time between government policies and citizen preferences and desires

10. Responsiveness. Government responds to citizen demands and preferences.

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Aggrieved groups of citizens are able to win redress of wrongs and abuses committed by government Significant manifestations of citizen interest and protest are able to have access to the public agenda, and to be heard by legislative and executive bodies

11. Civic Culture

Competing parties & groups are:
n n n n n

Tolerant of opposing views and groups Law-abiding, respectful of the constitution Peaceful, reject violence Willing to compromise Unwilling to coalition with undemocratic, anti-system actors

11. Civic Culture

The vast majority of citizens & groups:
n n n n n n

Believe in the legitimacy of democracy Are loyal to the constitutional system Know their rights and obligations as citizens Respect the outcome of elections Question but respect authority Condemn acts of intolerance and violations of constitutional norms

12. State Effectiveness

n

The state has legitimate authority:

It is widely viewed as having the right to make and enforce laws, exercise a monopoly of force, and extract and distribute resources

The state has administrative capacity:

A professional, meritocratic, honest and politically neutral bureaucracy is able to regulate, tax, maintain order, and produce public goods

Types of Authoritarian Regimes

Types of Authoritarian Regimes

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Electoral Authoritarian
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Competitive Authoritarian Hegemonic Party Systems

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One-party authoritarian regimes Military regimes Personal dictatorships Absolute monarchies Totalitarian regimes

Electoral Authoritarianism
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Contested elections Elected government Some opposition presence in parliament Some degree of political pluralism

But one or more factors contradict democracy: n Elections are not free and/or not fair n Unelected sources of supreme power n Effective domination by ruling party

Variant A: Competitive Authoritarianism

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Multiparty elections, political pluralism Significant opposition in parliament Significant opposition vote for president Opposition may control one or more subnational governments (Malaysia) Elections not free & fair; tilted playing field Still: some degree of uncertainty; opposition may achieve victory (Serbia) through exceptional mobilization

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Cases of Competitive Authoritarianism

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Existing for some time n Malaysia, Lebanon, Tanzania, Uganda Descent from electoral democracy n Venezuela, Nigeria, Kenya, Georgia, Nicaragua, Sri Lanka Ascent from more extreme authoritarian n Pakistan

Variant B: Hegemonic Party Systems

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There is a faade of multiparty elections But the ruling party wins crushing victories in almost all elections There is very little opposition representation in parliament and it has virtually no influence There is very little or no pluralism in the media The ruling party is not just dominant but a hegemon that towers over, coopts, or subverts all opposition

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Cases of Hegemonic Party Systems

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Existing for some time n Singapore, Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, Cambodia Descent from Democracy n Russia Formerly one-party states n Angola, Ethiopia Kazakhstan, Belarus, Azerbaijan

Other Authoritarian Regimes

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One-party regimes. Political opposition is legally suppressed, and competitive elections are not held.
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China, Vietnam, Laos, Cuba Communist one-party states but no longer totalitarian. Gaddafi in Libya, Assad in Syria, Karimov in Uzbekistan, Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan, Bongo in Gabon, Eyadema in Togo Classic historical case: Mobutu in Zaire

Personal dictatorships ( hereditary)

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Other Authoritarian Regimes

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Absolute Monarchies
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Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, UAE, Brunei, Swaziland Morocco, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain Largely gone as a regime form Remains de facto in Sudan North Korea

Monarchies with electoral elements

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Military rule
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Totalitarian Rule
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