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Introduction The second part of the report will cover the procedures to
perform physical tests of beam-to-column moment-resisting
Seismic design provisions established in the codes are connections for seismic applications, which are required when
constantly being changed and improved, for structures to have a connections that are not prequalified are going to be used in a
better performance during earthquakes. A lot of research and structure. Also, the design procedure for three types of prequalified
development of new structural systems is continuously being connections, which are the most commonly used in Canada, will be
carried out. However, there are still many aspects of steel seismic presented. These procedures are contained in documents published
design that remain as a challenge. by the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
In the last part of the report, two special seismic steel φR ≥ 1.0 D + γ (0.5 L + 1.0 E ) (S16-01, clause 7.2.6(b)(ii))
framing systems are introduced, the special truss moment frame
and the friction-damped steel frame. Where:
Load combinations including earthquakes New force reduction factors in the 2005
The fundamental safety criteria that must be met in limit NBCC
states design is the following (CISC 2004: 2-13):
With the introduction of the new 2005 Edition of the
Factored resistance ≥ Effect of factored loads National Building Code of Canada (NBCC), the expression to
determine the lateral seismic force at the base of the structure using
For load combinations that include earthquake, the effect of the quasi-static analysis has been modified significantly. This
factored loads is the structural effect due to the factored load expression in the upcoming code will be the following (Mitchell
combinations taken as (CISC 2004: 1-20): 2003: 309):
- IE: Earthquake importance factor of the structure. - Ryield: Ratio of the “actual” yield strength to the minimum
- W: Expected weight of the structure. specified yield strength.
- Rd: Ductility-related force modification factor. - Rsh: Factor accounting for overstrength due to development
- Ro: Overstrength-related force modification factor. of strain hardening, has larger values for more ductile
systems.
Comparing this expression with the one in previous codes, - Rmech: Factor accounting for overstrength arising from for
the 2005 NBCC recognizes two force modification factors, Rd and the additional resistance that can be developed before a
Ro. The factor Rd reflects the capability of the structure to dissipate collapse mechanism forms in the structure. This additional
energy through inelastic behavior, this factor corresponds to the R resistance in the structure can only be displayed if it is
factor used in the previous 1995 edition. The factor Ro accounts for redundant and if yielding takes place in a sequence instead
the dependable portion of reserve strength in a structure designed in all the elements at the same time.
according to the NBCC provisions, it is related to the calibration
factor U used in the previous code (Mitchell 2003: 309). Due to the experience gained in past earthquakes, the Rd
factors in steel structures have been increased for ductile and
The main modification in the determination of the base moderately ductile systems in the new 2005 NBCC to 3.5 and 5.0,
shear in the new code is that the account of overstrength is compared to 3.0 and 4.0 in the previous code. So, the design forces
considered explicitly. In the previous code, the factor U considered for these systems are now lower; however, the detail requirements
implicitly all the sources of overstrength in the structure, like the to ensure adequate ductility according to these factors are more
actual strength of the material. Instead, the factor Ro takes into demanding (Mitchell 2003: 312).
account the various sources of overstrength, through the following
expression (Mitchell 2003: 310 – 311): The clause 27 of the CISC 8th. Edition of the Handbook of
Steel Construction (HSC), developed by the Canadian Institute of
Ro = Rsize Rφ R yield Rsh Rmech Steel Construction (CISC), provides the seismic design
requirements for steel structures in Canada. It provides the force
Where: reduction factor for several structural systems, corresponding with
the provisions in the 2005 NBCC, and gives design and detail
- Rsize: Factor accounting for overstrength arising from requirements to provide ductility consistent with the factors used,
restricted choices of sizes of elements and rounding up of in accordance to the Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
dimensions. standard. These minimum requirements have been introduced in
this last edition in order to avoid brittle failure and to mobilize
- Rφ: Factor accounting for overstrength due to the difference
energy dissipation properties through the structure (CISC 2004: 2-
between the nominal and factored resistances, equal to 1/φ,
105).
where φ is the material resistance factor defined in the CSA
standards.
Steel seismic force resisting systems - U2: Amplification factor that takes into account second-
order effects due to gravity loads, it must not exceed 1.4.
The 2005 NBCC recognizes different types of steel seismic - Cf: Factored axial force.
force resisting systems (SFRS), their corresponding Rd and Ro - ∆f: First-order lateral displacement.
factors, and the design and detail requirements for each of them - Vf: Factored shear force.
according to the CSA standard CSA-S16-01 (Mitchell 2003: 313 – - h: Storey height.
314). In each of these SFRS, there are certain structural elements
which are designed to dissipate energy by inelastic deformation; Ductile behavior of steel frames
these must be able to sustain various cycles of inelastic loading
with a minimum reduction of strength and stiffness. The other Steel frames are classified in three types, depending on
elements and connections must respond elastically to loads induced their ductility. The more ductile systems have the highest force
by yielding elements. reduction factors (CISC 2004: 2-105):
In order to ensure that yielding in some elements will occur - Ductile or Type D: These frames are designed so that they
before others, relative strengths between the dissipating and non- can have severe inelastic deformations. They have a force
dissipating elements must be known, so we must know the reduction factor between 4.0 and 5.0.
probable yield stress. For non-dissipating elements, the minimum - Moderately ductile or Type MD: Inelastic deformations are
yield stress given in the material standard and specifications must more limited than in type D frames, members are designed
be used. In energy dissipating elements, the probable yield stress to resist greater loads. They have a force reduction factor
should be used, being taken as RyFy, where Ry = 1.1. The product between 3.0 and 3.5.
RyFy must be at least 385 MPa, and the yield strength Fy should not - Limited ductile or Type LD: These are new types of frames
be less than 350 MPa. Width-thickness limits are calculated using introduced in the 8th. Edition of HSC. Inelastic
this Fy value (CISC 2004: 2-107). deformations are even more limited and design loads are
greater than in type MD frames. They have a force
The amplification factor that takes into account the P-delta reduction factor of 2.0.
effects for structural elements in SFRS is calculated differently
compared to conventional design: The connections in type D and MD frames must be tested
physically to ensure that they satisfy certain deformation criteria
⎛ ∑ C f Rd ∆ f ⎞ under cyclic loads. In type LD frames, physical test are not
U2 = 1+ ⎜ ⎟ (S16-01, clause 27.1.8) necessary, and can be detailed as traditional connections.
⎜ ∑V h ⎟
⎝ f ⎠
In the following part of this report, we will expose the
Where: design and detail requirements for the different types of SFRS
defined in the CAN/CSA S16-01, classified according to their Rd weakening the beam at the point where the plastic hinges are
factors. expected to form. Plastic hinges can also be formed in columns
only at the base of the structure for multi-storey buildings, since if
SFRS with Rd = 5.0 they develop at different locations, a storey may have very large
inelastic deformations compared to the ones expected in the
Ductile SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01 with a force design. For single storey buildings, this is not a problem and
reduction factor of 5.0 are the ductile moment-resisting frames and plastic hinges can be formed at the top of the column. In these
the ductile plate walls. We will expose the design philosophy and cases, columns must be class 1 sections.
general requirements of these systems according to the CAN/CSA
S16-01.
- Lcr: Unbraced length. - Mpc: Nominal plastic moment resistance of the column.
- ry: Radius of gyration about the weak axis. - Cf: Axial force resulting from summing Vh acting at the
- κ: Ratio of the smaller factored moment to larger factored level considered and above.
moment at opposite ends of the unbraced length, positive - Vh: Shear force acting at the plastic hinge location when
for double curvature and negative for single curvature. 1.1RyMpb is reached at beam hinge location.
- Fy: Yield strength. - Mpb: Nominal plastic moment resistance of the beam.
- φ: Resistance factor, equal to 0.9 for this case.
For plastic analysis, the distribution of moments due to - Cy: Axial compression force at yield stress.
seismic loads may be taken as varying linearly with zero at one end
and the plastic moment at the other, in order to determine κ. Columns must be able to resist the accumulated forces due
to yielding of elements and gravity loads. In order to assure that
Formation of plastic hinges in beams induces forces in the plastic hinges will form in the beams before the columns
elements and connections adjacent to them. This force is calculated (except in single-storey buildings), the following equation must be
as 1.1Ry times the nominal resistance of the beam, ZFy, where Z is satisfied at each beam-column intersection:
the plastic modulus of the steel section.
⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞
In the case of columns, the maximum unbraced length ∑M rc ' ≥ ∑ ⎜⎜1.1R y M pb + Vh ⎜ x + c ⎟ ⎟⎟ (S16-01, clause 27.2.3.2)
⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
between plastic hinges is determined the same way as in beams, ⎝
taking κ = 0. In high seismic areas, the maximum axial load shall
be 0.3AFy for all load combinations, because the flexural Where:
resistance of the column deteriorates fast when high axial loads are
applied, limiting the ductility. ⎛ Cf ⎞
∑M rc ' = 1.18φM pc ⎜1 −
⎜ φC
⎟ ≤ φM pc (S16-01, clause 27.2.3.2)
⎟
⎝ y ⎠
Non-dissipating elements adjacent to columns must be able
to resist forces induce by formation of plastic hinges. This force is
Where:
calculated as 1.1Ry times the nominal resistance of the column,
which is given by:
- ΣMrc’: Sum of column factored flexural resistances at the
intersection of beam and column centrelines.
⎛ Cf ⎞
1.18M pc ⎜1 − ⎟ ≤ M pc (S16-01, clause 27.2.3.1) - x: Distance from the plastic hinge location to the column
⎜ φC ⎟ face, it is determined by physical testing of the joints.
⎝ y ⎠
Procedures on how to determine this distance for
Where: prequalified connections will be exposed later.
- dc: Depth of column.
The following free-body diagrams help to understand how elements. If the plastic hinges are expected to form in the beams,
these calculations are performed: the panel zone must resist forces arising from beam moments of:
⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞
∑ ⎜⎜1.1R M
y pb + Vh ⎜ x + c ⎟ ⎟⎟ (S16-01, clause 27.2.4.1)
⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
⎝
For high seismic areas, the sum of the panel zone depth and
width, divided by the thickness, must be less than 90. In this case,
the shear resistance of the panel zone is given by:
⎛ 3bc t c ⎞
2
⎜
Vr = 0.55φd c w' Fyc ⎜1 + ⎟ (S16-01, clause 27.2.4.2(a))
d d w ' ⎟
⎝ c b ⎠
Where:
Figure No.2: Free-body diagram showing forces necessary for beam and
column design - Vr: Shear resistance.
Source: CISC 2004: 2-110.
- w’: Sum of thickness of column web plus the doubler
plates.
Special consideration must be taken in column splices
- Fyc: Yield strength of the column.
having partial-joint-penetration-groove welds if the axial force in
- bc: Width of column flange.
the column is tensile, since they are not ductile under tension
- tc: Thickness of column flange.
loads. In this case, splices are designed more conservatively, they
- db: Depth of beam.
must resist twice this tensile force.
If this does not apply, the width-to-thickness limit of the
In relation to the column joint panel zone, limited inelastic
panel zone should satisfy:
deformations are permitted if they are properly detailed. The entire
perimeter of doubler plates must be welded to the contiguous
The web plate carries the shear forces by tension fields that
develop in the web plates parallel to the direction of the stress
Figure No.4: Model of a joint in moment-resisting frames for deep beam principal axis. This tension field and the shear force and bending
and column sections
moment of the storey produce axial forces and moments to the
Source: Schubak 2005: 6-4.
beams and columns. The overall behavior of the plate wall can be
modeled by equivalent diagonal braces:
Ductile plate walls
Plate walls are transversely stiffened vertical plate girders
constituting web plates designed to resist lateral loads. Ductile
plate walls are framed by columns and beams connected with
moment-resisting connections. In this system, the main energy
dissipating element is the web plate; framing elements also
dissipate energy once the plate has yielded. Plate walls can develop
large inelastic deformations by yielding of the web and formation
Figure No.6: Plate diagonal tension brace model
of plastic hinges in the framing elements. The main advantage of Source: CISC 2004: 2-91.
this SFRS compared to other systems is their large stiffness, which
reduces the displacements and, therefore, the amount of non- When using this model, the area of the equivalent diagonal
structural damage during an earthquake. brace can be estimated by the following expression:
The general requirements for beams, columns, panel zones,
wLSin 2 (2α )
joints and connections are the same as in moment-resisting frames; A= (S16-01, clause 20.2)
except that columns must always be class 1. Columns splices must 2SinθSin 2θ
develop full flexural resistance of the smaller column section.
Where:
wL
1+
2 Ac
Tan 4α = (S16-01, clause 20.3.1)
⎛ 1 h3 ⎞
1 + wh⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎝ Ab 360 I c L ⎠
Where:
Vre
B= ≤ Rd (S16-01, clause 27.8.2.4)
Vf
Where:
Where:
The length of the link should not be less than its depth. In Figure No.11: Forces acting on the beam link
case Pf/(AFy) > 0.15, the length of the link is determined by: Source: Schubak 2005: 6-16.
⎛ Pf Aw ⎞⎛ 1.6 M p ⎞ Aw Vf Short links have a better performance than long links, due
e ≤ ⎜1.15 − 0.5 ⎟⎜ ⎟; if ≥ 0.3 to the following reasons:
⎜ V A ⎟⎜ V ⎟ A Pf
⎝ f ⎠⎝ p ⎠ (S16-01, clause 27.7.3)
1.6 M p A Vf - The shear force is constant along the length of the link, so
e≤ ; if w < 0.3 shear strains are uniformly distributed, meaning there are
Vp A Pf
no local strains.
- All the link contributes to dissipate energy, not only the
Where: ends.
Aw = w(d − 2t ) (S16-01, clause 27.7.3) The maximum allowed rotation of the link depends on the
behavior of the link. This rotation is calculated given the drift of
Where: the frame. The drift of the frame is obtained multiplying the drift
from the analysis by Rd, to get the maximum inelastic deformation
- Vf: Factored shear force. expected in a severe earthquake. The link rotation limits are the
- Aw: Area of web. following:
The behavior of the link is related to its length (Schubak - 0.09 rad for shear yielding.
2005: 6-16): - 0.03 rad for flexure yielding.
- Use linear interpolation to obtain the limits when 1.6Mp/Vp
- Short links (e < 1.6Mp/Vp): Yield in shear. < e < 2.6Mp/Vp.
- Long links (e > 2.6Mp/Vp): Yield in flexure.
- Intermediate links: Yield in both shear and flexure. The relations between the drift and the link rotation are
given in the following figure:
is equal to the link factored resistance multiplied by Ry/φ. Lateral column, where hs is the storey height. At the base of the top
bracing also needs to be provided at both flanges. If a plastic hinge columns, this factor is 0.5/hs.
is expected to form at the link end, then the maximum unbraced
length is given by: Most of the requirements described previously are
summarized in the following figure:
Lcr 25000 + 15000κ
= (S16-01, clause 13.7(a))
ry Fy
Where:
SFRS with Rd = 3.5 For plastic analysis, the distribution for seismic loads may
be taken as varying linearly with zero at one end and the plastic
Moderately ductile SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01 moment at the other, in order to determine κ.
with a force reduction factor of 3.5 are the moderately ductile
moment-resisting frames. We will expose the design philosophy Also for the columns, in high seismic areas, the maximum
and general requirements of this system according to the axial load shall be 0.5AFy for all load combinations, because the
CAN/CSA S16-01. flexural resistance of the column deteriorates fast when high axial
loads are applied, limiting the ductility.
Moderately ductile moment-resisting frames
The beam-to-column joints and connections must be
In moderately ductile moment-resisting frames, as in capable to develop an inter-storey drift angle of 0.03 rad under
ductile moment-resisting frames, the energy dissipating elements cyclic loading, this has to be demonstrated by physical testing.
are the beams, so they must be able to undergo inelastic response Except the fact that joints must be capable to develop this inter-
without stability failures. This type of SFRS can develop a storey drift angle, all other requirements described regarding panel
moderately amount of inelastic deformation by formation of plastic zones, joints and connections (which are the same as for ductile
hinges in the beams at a short distance from the columns. moment-resisting frames) do not need to be satisfied if the
procedures from appendix J of the CAN/CSA S16-01 are used.
Since the elements for this type of frames are designed to
resist higher forces, they will have larger sections, and most of the Some of these requirements are summarized in figure No.3,
general requirements are the same as for the ductile moment- shown previously.
resisting frames. However, a few of these requirements are
different, and are explained in the preceding paragraphs. Modeling issues are the same that those for ductile
moment-resisting frames.
The beams must be class 1 or 2 sections. The maximum
unbraced length between plastic hinges for beams and columns is SFRS with Rd = 3.0
given in this case by the same expression used to determine the
maximum unbraced length of the portion of the beam outside the Moderately ductile SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01
link for eccentrically braced frames, repeated here for with a force reduction factor of 3.0 are the moderately ductile
convenience: concentrically braced frames. We will expose the design
philosophy and general requirements of this system according to
Lcr 25000 + 15000κ the CAN/CSA S16-01.
= (S16-01, clause 13.7(a))
ry Fy
optimum section for the compression braces is not possible The force induced due to yielding of the tension brace to
sometimes, since it is difficult to obtain low areas and low the beam is equal to AgRyFy, where Ag is the gross area of the
slenderness ratios. This is still a matter of research (Schubak 2005: brace, and from the compression brace equal to 0.2AgRyFy. When
6-9). the brace is connected to the beam from above, the compression
force is 1.2 times the compressive resistance of the brace, which is
equal to Cr/φ, where Cr is the factored compressive resistance
which depends on RyFy. In the case of buildings with four storeys
or lower, limited inelastic deformations are allowed in the beams,
since this does not affect negatively the response of the structure,
as long the beams are class 1 and their connections can resist loads
due to formation of plastic hinges in the beam. In this case, the
tension force induced to the beam is taken as 0.6AgRyFy.
Figure No.16: Failure mechanism of tension-compression bracing systems
Source: Mitchell 2003: 311.
The beam-to-column connections must be able to resist
For chevron bracing systems, the building also can have no gravity forces along with forces induced by the probable nominal
more than eight storeys. The beams can also respond inelastically flexural resistance of the beam at the brace connection, in case the
in this kind of system, they must be continuous between columns tension brace force is less than AgRyFy. Brace connections must be
and across braces, and both flanges must be braced at the brace laterally braced.
connection. The problem with this kind of bracing system is that
when the compression braces buckles, severe bending in the beam For tension-only bracing systems, the building can have no
from the tension brace occurs. So, the beams must be strong more than four storeys. The energy dissipation capacity in this kind
enough to resist yielding and buckling forces from the braces of frames is limited. The braces are connected the beam-to-
together with gravity loads, without considering the support from columns connections and must be able to carry all the seismic
the braces. loads, in tension. The columns must be continuous and of constant
cross-section, and its splices must have the moment resistance of
the cross-section and a shear resistance of 2ZFy/hs.
- k: Effective length factor that depends on the boundary In brace connections, eccentricities between the brace and
conditions of the element. supporting elements must be minimized. These connections must
- L: Length between the points where formation of plastic be able to resist axial loads due to buckling of the compression
hinges is expected. brace and tensile yielding of the tension brace. So, the factored
- r: Radius of gyration. resistance must be at least AgRyFy in tension and 1.2 the probable
compressive resistance in compression.
When kL/r ≤ 100, the width-to-thickness ratio of the braces
must not exceed the following limits: Buckling of the compression brace will redistribute forces
along the elements, and they need to be considered to determine
the connection resistance. The post-buckling resistance of the
- For rectangular and square HSS: 300 / Fy .
braces can be taken as the lower value between 0.2AgRyFy and the
- For circular HSS: 1000/Fy. probable nominal compressive resistance. Since the magnitude of
- For legs of angles and flanges of channels: 145 / Fy . ground motions is uncertain, a value of Rd = 1 is used for this
- For other elements: Class 1 cross-sections. calculation. However, the tensile force in the brace does not need
to be greater than combined effect of gravity loads and seismic
When kL/r = 200, the width-to-thickness ratio of the braces loads corresponding to Rd = 1; this tensile force should be resisted
must not exceed the following limits: by the net section, and the resistance of it may be multiplied by a
factor of Ry/φ.
- For HSS members: Class 1 cross-sections.
The brace connections must also be detailed to have a
- For legs of angles: 170 / Fy . ductile rotational performance if high inelastic response is
- For other elements: Class 2 cross-sections. expected, in or out of the plane of the frame, depending on the
governing effective slenderness ratio. When plastic hinges are
Linear interpolation is used when 100 < kL/r < 200. In low expected to form in the braces, the factored flexural resistance of
seismic areas, sections may be class 1 or 2; except for HSS the brace connection must be at least 1.1ZRyFy, this resistance may
sections, that must be class 1. also be multiplied by a factor of Ry/φ.
limited ductility, the limited ductility concentrically braced frames beam flanges are to be directly welded to the columns flanges.
and the limited ductility plate walls. We will expose the design Partial-joint-penetration-groove welds and fillet welds must not be
philosophy and general requirements of these systems according to used to resist tensile forces in the connections.
the CAN/CSA S16-01.
Alternatively, the beam-to-column joints and connections
Moment-resisting frames with limited ductility must be capable to develop an inter-storey drift angle of 0.02 rad
under cyclic loading, this has to be demonstrated by physical
In moment-resisting frames with limited ductility, as in testing.
ductile and moderately ductile moment-resisting frames, the
energy dissipating elements are the beams, so they must be able to Some of these requirements are summarized in figure No.3,
undergo inelastic response without stability failures. This type of shown previously.
SFRS can develop a limited amount of inelastic deformation by
formation of plastic hinges in the beams at a short distance from Modeling issues are the same that those for moderately
the columns. ductile moment-resisting frames.
Since the elements for this type of frames are designed to Limited ductility concentrically braced frames
resist higher forces, they will have even larger sections than the
moderately ductile moment-resisting frames, and most of the In limited ductility concentrically braced frames, as in
general requirements are the same as for this system. However, a moderately ductile concentrically braced frames, the energy
few of these requirements are different, and are explained in the dissipating elements are the diagonal braces, which carry the
preceding paragraphs. lateral loads by axial forces and dissipate energy through inelastic
straining.
This type of systems cannot be used in high seismic areas
and may be used in buildings not exceeding 12 storeys. The beams Since the elements for this type of frames are designed to
must be class 1 or 2 sections. Columns must be class 1 and be I- resist higher forces, they will have larger sections than the
shaped. moderately ductile concentrically braced frames, and most of the
general requirements are the same as for this system. However, a
The beam-to-column joints and connections must have a few of these requirements are different, and are explained in the
moment resistance equal to the lower value between 1.1RyMpb, or preceding paragraphs.
the effect of combined gravity and seismic loads multiplied by
two. The shear resistance of the connection must be enough to For both tension-compression and chevron bracing
resist shears due to gravity loads and due to moments applied at systems, the maximum height is 12 storeys. This is because, since
each end equal to the moment resistance of the connection. The the sections are bigger, the frames have a greater lateral resistance,
and it is more unlikely that they will have a soft-storey response. Modeling issues are the same that those for moderately
For chevron systems, in case they have four storeys or less, the ductile moment-resisting frames.
beams do not need to be designed for forces due to buckling and
yielding of the braces as long as they are class 1, and as long as the Limited ductility plate walls
braces and beam-to-column connections can resist the forces due
to buckling of the braces. Also, the beam must be able to support In limited ductility plate walls, the energy dissipating
gravity loads without considering the support provided by the element is the web plate; not the framing elements as in ductile
braces. plate walls. The web plate dissipates a limited amount of energy by
yielding.
Tension-only bracing systems cannot have more than eight
storeys, and the columns must be continuous and of constant cross- Since the elements for this type of systems are designed to
section over a minimum of two storeys. The diagonal braces for resist higher forces, they will have even larger sections than the
this system, in case of single-storey or two-storey buildings, can ductile plate walls. Plate webs must still satisfy minimum
have a maximum slenderness ratio of 300. requirements, and must have a factored shear and flexural
resistance greater or equal to the corresponding factored loads.
Diagonal braces also do not have limits in their width-to- Because the beams and columns are not expected to yield, they do
thickness ratios if their slenderness ratio is greater than 200, since not have any special requirements. Also, there is no need for
very little inelastic straining is expected in these cases. In low moment-resisting connections, and these can be designed
seismic areas, the braces can be class 2 or less compact, and the conventionally. Buildings with this type of system cannot exceed
width-to-thickness ratio of the legs of the angles should not exceed 12 storeys.
170 / Fy .
Some of these requirements are summarized in figure No.9,
In low seismic areas, ductile rotational behavior of the shown previously.
bracing connections is not required if the slenderness ratio of the
braces is greater than 100, and columns splices in columns that do Modeling issues are the same that those for ductile plate
not form part of the SFRS do not need to have shear resistance for walls.
loads due to yielding of the braces and redistribution of forces due
to buckling. SFRS with Rd < 2.0
Some of these requirements are summarized in figure SFRS defined in CAN/CSA S16-01 with a force reduction
No.18, shown previously. factor lower than 2.0 are the cantilever column structures and
conventional construction. It is the first time that the CAN/CSA
S16-01 considers requirements for these types of systems.
Cantilever column structures modification factor, Ro. As we mentioned previously, the new
NBCC takes into account in a more explicit way the overstrength
This type of structures consists of beam-column systems in structures, by identifying the sources of it and assigning factors
with little redundancy, which is fixed at the base and free at the that consider each of these sources. The product of all these factors
upper end. They are assigned an Rd = 1; except when the elements is the Ro factor. We will explain how these factors have been
have class 1 cross-sections, an Rd = 1.5 is assigned in this case. derived for the SFRS described (Mitchell 2003: 314 – 316).
As general requirements, the base connections must resist a The Rsize factor accounts for overstrength arising from
moment of 1.1Ry times the nominal flexural resistance of the restricted choices of sizes of elements and rounding up of
column. The amplification factor that takes into account P-delta dimensions. It is taken as 1.05 for steel structural shapes. For web
effects should not be greater than 1.25. plates, it is taken as 1.10 considering that its thickness is rounded
up to the next plate thickness available.
Conventional construction
The Rφ factor accounts for overstrength due to the
This type of structures can dissipate some energy through difference between the nominal and factored resistances, equal to
yielding and friction, available if conventional construction 1/φ. Since φ is equal to 0.9 for ductile failure in steel structures,
requirements are satisfied. They are assigned an Rd = 1.5. this factor is equal to 1.11.
As general requirements, the SFRS of these structures must The Ryield factor is the ratio of the “actual” yield strength to
have ductile failure modes or be designed for greater loads in high the minimum specified yield strength. It is taken as 1.10, which is
seismic areas; these design loads are equal to the combined effects the mean ratio of the actual and minimum specified yield strength
of gravity and seismic loads multiplied by two in very high seismic for W shapes.
areas, and by 1.5 in other cases. The elements and connections
must have factored resistances corresponding to the factored load The Rsh factor accounts for overstrength due to
effects, but design loads for connections can be limited to Ry times development of strain hardening. It depends on the yielding and
the nominal strength of the joined elements. Connections for the level of inelastic deformations. For eccentrically braced frames,
moment resisting-frames or braced frames should be used. it is approximately 1.30 when the link yields in shear and 1.15
when it fails in flexure; it has been considered as 1.15 to be more
conservative. For plastic hinges in beams, this factor is
Deduction of the Ro factors for SFRS approximately 1.15, so this is the value assigned for ductile and
moderately ductile moment-resisting frames. For moment-resisting
We have covered so far the main aspects related to the
frames with limited ductility, this factor is 1.05, since lower
ductility-related force modification factor, Rd. We will now expose
inelastic deformations are expected. In tension elements, this factor
briefly the most relevant aspects of the overstrength-related force
is approximately 1.05; this is the value assigned to concentrically Structures with combined SFRS
braced frames, because only braces in tension develop strain
hardening. For plate walls, the web plates develop strain hardening We have exposed the Rd and Ro factors that are used for
due to the tension fields; it has been assigned a value of 1.05. different types of SFRS. However, when we have structures with
combined SFRS, some special considerations need to be taken into
The Rmech factor accounts for overstrength arising from for account (NBCC 2005 Part 4: 22):
the additional resistance that can be developed before a collapse
mechanism forms in the structure. For moment-resisting frames, - If a particular value of Rd is used, then the corresponding
this factor is greater than 1.00 when plastic hinges form in the Ro must be used.
columns after the beams, it is taken conservatively as 1.00. - For combinations of different types of SFRS in the same
Overstrength in concentrically braced frames arises when the direction in the same storey, the product RdRo shall be
compression brace buckles and an additional force is required so taken as the lowest value of RdRo of all of these.
that the tension brace yields; but Rmech is taken also conservatively - For vertical variations of RdRo, not including penthouses
as 1.00, due to deterioration of compressive resistance under cyclic whose weight is less than 10% of the level below, the value
loading. For eccentrically braced frames, the collapse mechanism of RdRo in a particular direction must be less or equal than
forms once the link has yielded, so this factor is 1.00. For ductile the lowest value of RdRo used for the storeys above.
plate walls, overstrength arises due to the fact that the collapse - If it can be demonstrated by physical testing or analysis that
mechanism occurs once the web plate has first yielded and then the the seismic response of a structure is equivalent to one
framing system, and because the compression that develops in particular SFRS, then this SFRS qualifies as a good
these elements provides an additional resistance. So, Rmech is taken representation of the structural system, and the
as 1.10. For limited ductility plate walls, it is taken as 1.05. corresponding Rd and Ro can be used.
The values of the Ro factors in the 2005 NBCC for SFRS
are summarized in this table: Physical tests to evaluate the behavior of
connections in moment-resisting frames
As we mentioned previously, connections in type D and
MD frames must be tested physically to ensure that they satisfy
certain deformation criteria under cyclic loads. When performing
these tests, the test assemblies must represent the prototype
characteristics, and the test loading the deformation magnitude and
cyclic nature. These design procedures are specified in the
Table No.2: Summary of Ro factors for SFRS in the 2005 NBCC appendix J of the CAN/CSA S16-01, which provides a list of
Source: Mitchell 2003: 316.
8d ⎛ L − L' ⎞
θ ' SD = ⎜1 + ⎟θ SD (FEMA 350, equation 3-70)
L ⎝ L ⎠
⎛ L − L' ⎞
θ 'U = ⎜1 + ⎟θ U (FEMA 350, equation 3-71)
Table No.4: Numerical values of θj and nj
⎝ L ⎠
Source: FEMA 350 2000: 3-76.
Where:
Acceptance criteria
- θ’SD: Increased qualifying strength degradation drift angle
For the connection to have an acceptable performance, the capacity.
mean value of the drift angle capacity at strength degradation and - θSD: Basic qualifying strength degradation drift angle
at connection failure must not be less than the values shown in the capacity.
following table, for ordinary moment frames (OMF) and special - θ’U: Increased qualifying ultimate drift angle capacity.
moment frames (SMF): - θU: Basic qualifying ultimate drift angle capacity.
- L: Distance between the longitudinal axis of the columns.
- L’: Distance between plastic hinges in the beam.
- d: Depth of the beam.
flange-bolted web moment connection, in which the beam is publication, which cover most of the practical applications in
connected to the columns by bolting the beam web to the shear tab Canada.
of the column plate, and then welding the beam flange to the
column plate. This arrangement is shown in the following figure. These prequalified connections must satisfy certain criteria
Its lack of rotational capacity has been demonstrated in a research and size limitations so that they can be used in design, since they
project held in Taiwan, in which 37 prototypes of this type of must have similar sizes and details to those that were tested to
connection were tested. Eight of these specimens had a brittle predict their performance. They apply to frames with wide-flange
failure (Chen, Yeh and Chu 1996: 1292). beams and columns subjected to strong axis bending only, and
column cross-sections must be within the depth of W360 sections.
The three types of connections described in this document are:
Where:
Fy + Fu
C pr =
2 Fy
Z e = bt (d − t ) +
w
(d − 2t )2
4
Where:
We will expose the design philosophy and general type LD frames, panel zone yielding may occur alone. There must
requirements of these three connections. not be any significant yielding in the end plate, bolts and welds.
The connection must be proportioned to preclude the following
Bolted unstiffened end plate connection (BUEP) failure modes:
The BUEP connection consists of the beam being welded Mode 1: Bolt tension
to an end plate, extended above and below the flanges. The beam
flange-to-plate joints have complete-penetration-groove welds, and This failure mode is avoided by selecting a bolt type that
the beam web is connected to the plate with fillet or complete- can resist the moment at the column face. The following equation
joint-penetration-groove welds. Then, the end plate is bolted to the must be satisfied:
column using eight bolts. This type of connection can be used for
type D, MD and LD frames. The connection is showed in the M cf
0.75 Ab Fu ≥
following figure: 2(d1 + d 2 )
Where:
right hand side is part of the test results that were performed to Mode 4: End plate shear
derive it. Given that Ab is the area of only one bolt, this formula
seems to be too conservative, considering that this connection has This failure mode is avoided if the end plate has this
eight bolts. minimum thickness:
Where:
Mode 5 b: Beam flange tension effect on column Mode 6: Beam flange compression effect on column
flange with continuity plates without continuity plates
If continuity plates are provided and the column flange If the column web thickness satisfies the following
thickness satisfies the following equation, proceed to check mode equation, continuity plates or a bigger column cross-section should
7. This is the minimum thickness that the column flange can have: be used:
M cf M cf
wc <
2(d b − t b ) (d b − t b )(6k e + 2t p + t b )Fyc
tc ≥
0.8 Fyc Yc
Where:
Where:
- wc: Column web thickness.
- ke: Is the k-distance of the column section for engineering
⎛c ⎞⎛ 1 2 ⎞ ⎛4 2⎞
Yc = ⎜ + s ⎟⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ + (C 2 + C1 )⎜ + ⎟ design, is a property of the section found in the table No.4.1
⎝2 ⎠⎝ C 2 C1 ⎠ ⎝c s⎠ of this CISC publication.
g
C1 = − k1 If continuity plates are provided, they must satisfy the
2
following requirements:
b −g
C2 = c
2 - For one-sided connections, their thickness must be at least
C1C 2 half of the thickness of the beam flanges.
s= (2bc − 4k1 ) - For two-sided connections, their thickness must be at least
C 2 + 2C1
equal to the thickness of the thicker beam flange.
d '+b'
Where: ≤ 90
w'
Se
Cy = Where:
C pr Z e
- d’: Panel zone depth. The minimum span-to-depth ratio, for type D and MD
- b’: Panel zone width. frames, is seven; and for type LD frames is five. Also, the
maximum flange thickness of the beam is 19mm, and the
Usually, it is less expensive to use a bigger column section maximum bolt diameter is 1½”.
than to use doubler plates. The arrangement of continuity and
doubler plates in two-sided connections is shown in the following Bolted stiffened end plate connection (BSEP)
figure:
The BSEP connection consists of the beam being welded to
an end plate. The beam flange-to-plate joints have complete-
penetration-groove welds, and the beam web is connected to the
plate with fillet or complete-joint-penetration-groove welds. The
end plate extensions at the top and bottom of the beam are
stiffened with vertical stiffeners that extend outward from beam
flanges. Then, the end plate is bolted to the column using 16 bolts.
This type of connection can be used for type D, MD and LD
frames. The connection is showed in the following figure:
db
x = tp + Figure No.27: Bolted stiffened end plate connection
3 Source: CISC 2004: 27.
The basic idea in the design procedure is that yielding in - ts: Defined in figure No.27.
the connection can occur as a combination of beam flexure and - bp: Defined in figure No.27.
panel zone yielding simultaneously, or beam flexure alone. For - Tb: Minimum bolt pretension.
type LD frames, panel zone yielding may occur alone. There must
not be any significant yielding in the end plate, bolts and welds. The minimum bolt pretensions are shown in the following
The connection must be proportioned to preclude the following table:
failure modes:
M cf
0.75 Ab Fu ≥
3.4(d 2 + d 3 ) Table No.6: Minimum bolt pretensions
0.591 2.58 Source: AISC-LRFD 1999: 60.
3.25 × 10 −6 p f Pcf
0.75 Ab Fu ≥ 0.895 1.91 0.327 0.965
+ Tb
tp d bt ts bp Mode 2: Bolt shear
1
Mode 3: End plate flexure ⎛ A ⎞ 3 C3
α m = Ca ⎜⎜ f ⎟⎟
⎝ Aw ⎠ (d bt ) 4
1
This failure mode is avoided if the end plate has a
minimum thickness of at least the greater of these two values: g d
C3 = − bt − k1
0.9 0.9
2 4
154 × 10 −6 p f g 0.6 Pcf
tp ≥ 0.9 0.1
d bt t s b p
0.7 Where:
0.25
267 × 10 −6 p f g 0.15 Pcf - αm: Defined in equation.
tp ≥ 0.7
d bt t s
0.15
bp
0.3 - C3: Defined in equation.
- pb: Defined in figure No.27.
- c: Defined in figure No.27.
Where g is defined in figure No.27. The column flanges
- Ca: Factor equal to 0.128 for bolts A325M and 0.131 for
must be at least as thick as the end plate.
bolts A490M.
- Af: Flange area.
Mode 4: End plate shear - Aw: Web area.
This failure mode is avoided by the effect of the stiffeners,
Mode 6: Beam flange compression effect on column
which are proportioned as shown in figure No.27.
without continuity plates
Mode 5: Beam flange tension effect on column If the column web thickness satisfies the following
flange without continuity plates equation, continuity plates or a bigger column cross-section should
be used:
If the column flange thickness satisfies the following
equation, proceed to check mode 6. If it is not satisfied and M cf
continuity plates are used, proceed to check mode 7: wc <
(d b − t b )(6k e + 2t p + t b )Fyc
α m Pcf C 3
tc ≥ The requirements for continuity plates are the same as
0.9 Fyc (3.5 p b + c )
those for BUEP connections.
Where:
x = t p + Ls
connection must be proportioned to preclude the following failure We then calculate the moment at the face of the column,
modes: Mcf, using the scheme shown in figure No.23. The flexural failure
is avoided satisfying the following equation:
Mode 1: Connection flexure
M cf ≤ R y Fy Z b
The location, length and depth of the beam flanges
reduction is selected between these limits: Where:
0.50b ≤ a ≤ 0.75b - RyFy: Probable yield stress, taken as 385 MPa.
0.65d ≤ s ≤ 0.85d - Zb: Plastic modulus of the gross beam section.
0.20b ≤ c ≤ 0.25b
If this equation is not satisfied, the value of c is increased
Where: and all previous steps are repeated, taking into consideration that it
c must not be greater than 0.25b. Once the final dimensions of the
- a: Defined in figure No.28, usually taken as 0.5b. reduced section are determined, we calculate the moment at the
- b: Width of the beam. face of the column and the moment at the column centerline using
- s: Defined in figure No.28, usually taken as 0.65d. these values and the scheme in figure No.23.
- d: Depth of the beam.
- c: Defined in figure No.28, usually taken as 0.2b. Mode 2: Connection shear
The width of the reduced beam flange should have a The shear at the face of the column is determined by the
maximum value of 14.6t, where t is the thickness of the flange. following equation:
Then, the effective plastic modulus of the reduced section of the
beam, Ze, must be determined, using: 2M cf
Vcf = + Vg
L − dc
c = 0.2b
be = 0.6b Where:
With this, we calculate the probable peak plastic hinge - Vcf: Shear at the face of the column.
moment, using Cpr = 1.15: - Vg: Shear due to gravity loads, as shown in figure No.22.
M pr = C pr R y Fy Z e
This shear force is used to design the connection of the The requirements for continuity plates are the same as
beam to the column. If a complete joint penetration groove weld is those for BUEP and BSEP connections.
used, no further calculations are required. If a bolted shear tab is
used, the tab and the bolts must be designed to resist this shear Other restrictive parameters
force, using a resistance factor of unity (φ = 1). The tab must be
connected to the column using complete joint penetration groove The expected location of the plastic hinge measured from
welds or full depth fillets. the face of the column, x, is given by:
Regarding the elements and connections outside the special - Diagonal web elements: 2.5.
segment, all of these must have a design strength in order to resist - Angles: 137 / Fy .
the factored gravity loads, plus the lateral loads necessary to
- Flanges and webs of tee sections in chord elements:
develop the expected overall vertical nominal shear resistance of
the special segment, which is given by: 137 / Fy .
The top and bottom chords of the trusses must be laterally and the Sumitomo friction device. Friction dampers offer the
braced at the ends of the special segment. Intermediate braces are following advantages (UPC: 28 – 29):
also required.
- They have high energy dissipation capacity.
The advantages of the STMF compared to other SFRS are - Their behavior is not seriously affected by repeated cycles
the following (Emerging Construction Technologies): of displacement.
- The friction force between surfaces can be controlled,
- Provides substantial cost and time savings and a better level through the prestressing (normal) force.
of performance. - They can absorb a big amount of energy and then dissipate
- Its weight is about 20% less than common framing systems it.
carrying the same gravity loads. - They are not affected by fatigue.
- Fabrication costs are reduced in about 20% compared to
common framing systems. However, they also have some disadvantages:
- Welded connections can be visually inspected without the
need of additional tests. - Sliding surfaces tend to heat.
- They do not contribute to dissipate energy of the structure
Friction-damped steel frames (FDSF) before they start slipping.
- Changes in the sticking-sliding conditions of the damper
Damping devices are used in structures to increase their may introduce high frequencies to the structural response.
energy dissipation capacity, in order to reduce oscillations, and
therefore, the structural and nonstructural damage. There are We will describe the main features of these damping
different types of dampers, like viscous dampers, visco-elastic devices.
dampers, Coulomb friction dampers, metallic dampers, among
others. We will describe some of the friction dampers used in steel Basic sliding joint (BSJ)
structures.
The BSJ consists in incorporating slots in the bolt holes
Friction dampers are designed in such a way they have between steel plates, so that friction between the surfaces of steel
moving parts that will slide over each other during a strong plates dissipates energy. This type of joint is capable of repeated
earthquake. Friction is created between these sliding elements, cycles of displacement without losing strength, stability or energy
which dissipates energy built up in the structure. There are several dissipation capacity. Their performance is influenced by three
types of friction damping devices, like the basic sliding joint, the factors (Butterworth 1999: 1 – 2):
rotation sliding joint, the dual level joint, the Pall friction device
- Maintenance of contact pressure between sliding surfaces.
- Maintenance of an approximately constant coefficient of In the case shown in figure No.30, since two plates are
friction between sliding surfaces. used, the slip force is 2Nslip. The BSJ is used in concentrically
- Avoiding brittle failure when the joint reaches the limit of braced frames with diagonal and chevron configuration:
its sliding range.
M slip = nN b µD
Where:
slots, the joint rotates elastically again until it reaches the yield are interconnected by horizontal and vertical link members using
point. bolts. These links assure that when the forces acting on the device,
through the braces, are high enough to initiate slip on the tension
This dual action has the following advantages in the design: diagonal, the compression diagonal also slips an equal amount in
the opposite direction; resulting in frictional sliding occurring at
- The lower threshold level provides sufficient strength for the interface (Aiken 1993: 11). This device is shown in the
loads arising from the design earthquake. following figure:
- The upper threshold level provides a strength reserve for
extreme events.
- If the bottom flange fails to slip, energy can still be
dissipated by the top flange when it reaches its slip
moment.
- If the top flange fails to slip, all the slip will eventually Figure No.34: Pall friction device
occur in the bottom flange. Source: Aiken 1993: 12.
The required length of the slots is determined by The friction resistance in the device requires a normal force
(Butterworth 1999: 6): acting at the interface. This force is applied through a bolt placed
at the intersection of the diagonals, and it can be modified by
L = Dθ + d adjusting the tension in the bolt, as in the BSJ (Aiken 1993: 12).
The following figure shows how this friction device works:
Where:
Canada (Butterworth 1999: 3). One of the most famous cases is the
Concordia University’s Webster Library building in downtown
Montreal, which has 150 Pall friction dampers installed. Other
buildings that have this damping device are the Casino on lle Ste.
Helene in Montreal, and the Space Agency in St. Hubert, Quebec.
Ka
αa =
Kf
Figure No.38: Single-degree-of-freedom model of a friction-damped system
u max
Source: Fu and Cherry 1998: 56. µs =
us
The concept this method is based on is that the friction u max
damper installed in the system will add stiffness to it. Considering µy =
uy
an elasto-plastic behavior, when the system is subjected to a
ground motion, the total stiffness of the system is the sum of the
stiffness of the primary system (system without the friction Where:
damper) and the stiffness provided by the damper. When the
threshold level of the damper is reached, it starts slipping and - αa: Added stiffness ratio.
stiffness is only provided by the primary linear system. Then, when - Ka: Added stiffness provided by the friction damper.
the system reaches its yield point, it can no longer sustain - Kf: Stiffness of the primary system.
increasing forces. This type of system is called a trilinear system, - µs: Slip ratio.
its nonlinear behavior is shown in the following figure: - umax: Maximum displacement of the system.
- us: Displacement at which the friction damper starts to slip.
- µy: Yield ductility. In building codes, the common
assumption is that it is equal to the Rd factor.
(1 − e )ξ
o 4
− Bξ o
K eo
The friction damper will increase the period and energy e
- fe: Elastic base shear. their flexibility and have high energy dissipation capacity, but their
- fy: Design base shear. large inter-storey drifts may cause severe P-delta effects and non-
structural damage. On the other hand, ductile plate walls have very
So, when designing this type of structures, the structural large stiffness, but may be more expensive. Also, calculating the
designer has to specify the added stiffness ratio, the slip ratio and tension fields in the plate web and determining the yielding
the yield ductility, depending on the desired performance of the sequence of the plate and the framing system is still a problem, due
structure. Then, the Rd factor can be determined, and the quasi- to the limitations of the strip model. The eccentrically braced
static analysis may be used to determine the internal forces and frames have a good performance because they combine the ductile
displacements. behavior of the moment-resisting frames and the stiffness of the
concentrically braced frames. However, since all the energy
This method was developed while the 1995 NBCC was the dissipation is restricted to the link, the collapse mechanism forms
current code. Therefore, to be able to adapt this method to the 2005 once this element has yielded; while other SFRS are more
NBCC, an Ro factor must be assigned to this type of structures. redundant. The concentrically braced frames have high stiffness,
Overstrength in friction-damped structures arises due to the fact but cannot be used in tall buildings, since they tend to have a soft-
that energy is first dissipated by friction, and then by yielding. storey response due to concentration of inelastic demands in the
lower and upper levels. There may be cases in which the optimum
Conclusions solution will be a combination of different SFRS.
An overall overview of the seismic design of steel Physical testing of connections is important to evaluate
structures in Canada has been carried out. The design procedures their performance during earthquakes. Alternatively, prequalified
for SFRS, moment-resisting connections, and some special connections may be used for design. However, there may be cases
framing systems, which are spread in various documents and in which it might not be possible to use the prequalified
publications, have all been organized in this report, to provide a connections, and physical tests are usually very expensive and
practical tool for structural engineers. Although this is a very cannot be afforded by small engineering companies. More research
extensive topic which is constantly in change, the most important is needed to develop design procedures for various types of
issues about steel seismic design have been presented and connections with different element sections, rather than only wide-
discussed. flange sections.
Each of the SFRS presented have their own advantages and Finally, it is important to mention that, although the codes
disadvantages, as we have seen, and these must be taken into give provisions and recommendations for various kinds of systems,
consideration to decide which of them is more convenient to they do not contain the answers to all of the structural problems
design a particular building. Here we present a summary of them. that engineers may encounter. It is necessary to go beyond of what
Ductile moment-resisting frames absorb less shear forces due to the code says to find more safe and economic solutions. Systems
like the special truss moment frame and the friction-damped steel Sheng-Jin Chen, C. H. Yeh and J. M. Chu (1996) “Ductile Steel
frame are examples of these, and may be implemented in future Beam-to-Column Connections for Seismic Resistance”, Journal of
codes. Structural Engineering, Vol. 122, No.11: 1292 – 1299.