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RESEARCH ESSAY HIST 214: Lahore Architecture 2013-10-0148 BILAL SHAHID INSTRUCTOR: NADHRA SHAHBAZ DATE: 04.05.12

Shahid 2 Mughal architecture has been adorned with a number of decorative motifs, elements and other members of surface and structural ornamentation. Each aspect of the patronage by Mughal emperors is worth an appreciation and the form they gave to the local indigenous art and architecture appeared in the buildings they built and those later constructed by their successors who ruled the Indian Subcontinent. The use of local Indian elements and symbols was widespread in Mughal era, including the use of Gujrati, Bengali and other local techniques of embellishments and the elements themselves. One of the widespread features in Mughal architecture is the use of perforated screens or jalis. Even within the Mughal regime, there appears to be a strong evidence of the use of the same element with different variations in terms of the way it was designed with geometric and other patterns. However, it was only until Shah Jahan that jalis appeared with an entirely different outlook. There is a trend in the way geometric patterns in jali work were replaced by floral and vegetal motifs in Shah Jahans period. Traditionally, jalis had been used widely in India to allow the daylight and cool breeze flow in through the perforations while preventing onlookers from viewing the indoors of private and some public buildings. Another reason why jalis were constructed was for the royal ladies to watch public events without breaking their purdah or veil (Brown 295). This architectural practice of carving stone screens existed in both Islamic and Indian architecture. In Islamic architecture, it was readily adopted because it lacked representation and iconography and allowed viewers, especially women, to look outward without being observed (Harris 143). However, in India, jalis originated in the region of Jaisalmar, Rajasthan and since the 7th century B.C

Shahid 3 An excellent work of jali exists in the window of a 16th century Sidi Said Mosque at Ahmadabad. In the qibla wall or the wall facing Mecca, there are window screens forming the image of a tree in the stone tracery.

Exterior View of Jali Screen with Tree Motif at Sidi Saiyad Mosque

Jalis have also been used chiefly for saints tombs and for decorating holy shrines. The tomb of Sheikh Ahmad Khattu at Sarkhej, outside Ahmadabad with its brass panels as latticed screens on the faade became a forerunner for the construction of Shaikh Salims tomb at Fatehpur Sikri (Asher 10). The fine perforated white marble screens which complete the marble casing and enclose the interior square chamber of Shaikh Salims tomb also provide a passage to allow for circumambulation of the grave, a common practice at saints shrines (Ziad 192).

Shahid 4 Catherine Asher mentions in her book Architecture of Mughal India that the exquisitely carved brackets and jalis belong to the Indo-Islamic architectural traditions of Gujrat and that Gujrati trained artisans were brought to Fatehpur Sikri to work on the tomb (56).

The fact that it employed similar techniques and bears close resemblance to the earlier tomb of Gujrat makes us believe that the Mughals used the best local craftsmen from the region where stone carving of monolithic jalis could have possibly originated. Only stone screens and formal gardens define any kind of commemorative space (Brand 332). Earlier when the use of jalis was a key feature used only to embellish saints tombs, the Mughals started using it in their palatial buildings The tomb of Jahanara built before 1681 in Delhi has marble screens that protect the simple slab tomb without a superstructure (Ruggles 115).

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Source: This sandstone facade of a Jaisalmer town house or "haveli" is typical of the house-fronts of the wealthy Rajput nobles and merchants. The "havelis" of Jaisalmer are particularly noted for the ornate carving on their "jalis" & facades. Asian Art Department, AGNSW, 1998.

The delicate pearl-white mausoleum is located on the far side of the broad courtyard facing the Buland Darwaza, the enormous gateway built to commemorate the victory at Gujrat. The tomb itself became a focal point of the city with the khanqah (residential compound for spiritual study) built for Salim Chishti (Ziad 191). According to Schimmel, this small white jewel is also mentioned in Badaunis account on Fatehpur Sikri, written in 1571, when the chronicler tells us about Akbar laying the foundation of a new shrine (286).

Shahid 6 The tomb was constructed out of reverence since the Chishtiyya remained for centuries the most influential order and even Babur himself endorsed Chishti saints by visiting their shrines (Ziad 65). The sheikh lived his life as an ascetic and it was in 1568 when Akbar heard of him and asked him to pray for a son, whom he later named Salim after Shaikhs name (Tillotson 121). The shaikh predicted the birth of three sons and Jahangirs birth stimulated Akbars religious interest and out of gratitude he erected a sanctuary at the very heart of his own dream city (Ziad 62). This shows how faithful Akbar was to the Chishtis despite that he had adopted policies to build his power in India and this view is also endorsed in Alams article where he describes that Chishtis had an edge at the time of Akbar (1). After its completion, the shrine was a grand building of its type in Akbars period. With the setting of this example, the shrine building as a royal tradition was also introduced. This feature of the shrine is unique in Indian Muslim art and is much more valid for its own vigor and its perfection than for the symbolism which Akbar wanted to inscribe in stone for posterity. The shrine stands as a luminous pearl in white marble amongst the red sandstone buildings and as Tillotson rightly mentions that the eye is easily distracted by this marble-clad structure (121). It has a single-storey square plan, 15 meters squared and has a large central dome. A verandah surrounds the main tomb sepulchral chamber in which stands the cenotaph, covered by a canopy decorated with mother-of-pearl (Fletcher 621). The dome was originally of red sandstone, and received its marble cladding in 1866 (Tillotson 123). However, according to the account in The Cambridge History of India, the the original tomb was built of sandstone and was later renewed (Dodwell 546). The spectacular winding serpentine struts which appear to support the chajja or the eave on the exterior are an unusual feature; they are duplicated in this case from those on the small Stonecutters Mosque-an older mosque built on the ridge for

Shahid 7 Salim Chishti (Tillotson 121). However, The use of white marble should be noted, for at this time white marble was somewhat reserved for saints shrines alone (Ziad 192). For instance, the white marble links it with the renewal of Sheikh Nizamuddins tomb at Delhi, in the same material 20 years ago (Ziad 192). According to Lindsay Brown and Amelia Thomas, Nizamuddins shrines present incarnation dates from 1562 (106). Similar to Shaikh Salims tomb, it comprises a marble building, with inner tomb enclosed by jalis and so the tombs of both the Sufi saints share this common feature although Nizamuddins tomb was of originally Delhi Sultanate period (Brown, Thomas 106). In Mughal vocabulary, white is a reference to the divine and this explains why white marble structures were limited exclusively for tombs of pious saints (Kapstein 167). It is also worth considering that the building in complete lustre of white marble was not one of the first of its kind in India and had its precedents even before Mughal period. The tomb derives its plan and overall appearance from earlier ones in Gujrat, for example, the 15th century shrine of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu at Sarkhej near Ahmadabad which, like the setting for the tomb of Shaikh Salim, was a part of the palace of Gujrat Sultans (Ziad 192). This is further reinforced as Asher and Talbot mention in their book, India before Europe, that the model of juxtaposing palace and white-stone shrine highlighted the status of the Sufi in supporting the dynastic rule, was later adopted in 16th century by Akbar. Just as Shaikh Salim was sort of patron saint of the Mughal family, Shaikh Ahmad Khattu was a spiritual advisor of the Sultans of Gujrat (Talbot and Asher 92). The tomb of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu was built between 1445 and 1451. The tomb chamber had perforated brass jalis in geometric patterns, and the exterior walls are filled with pierced stone tracery (Cousens 67). The square tomb, like the one at Fatehpur Sikri, measures 32 metres

Shahid 8 on each side. However, its sanctuary is topped by many domes (Gaur 55). Hence, it must be noticed that the delicate pierced stone screens of the outer walls of Shaikh Salims tomb, with their lavish luxuriance, are also found on the tomb at Sarkhej; the magnificently carved brackets too are a common feature of the architecture of western India (Gaur 55). Here, they seem to have been intentionally used since Akbar sought to link his rule with the Chishti saint (Asher 56-7). At Shaikh Salims tomb, the struts are S-shaped and are of octagon section and terminate in round leaf-carved knobs. The width of the strut decreases as it approaches the top where it is crowned by a richly molded capital, diagonally placed in some cases. As the serpentine shape is obviously frail one, they are reinforced by slender, octagonal stays inserted beneath the twists and filled with fine stonework. The struts are monolithic-cut out of solid pieces of marble. The convoluted struts are similar to the brackets that support the temples in Gujrat and Dodwell is of the view that Mughal craftsmen elaborated this idea in their work (547). So, it is quite natural that there is a Hindu feeling about it and possibly the architect may have been influenced by South Indian buildings of 11th and 12th centuries as well and it can be seen that Mughals freely borrowed elements from indigenous temple architecture (Dodwell 547). Also, the use of jalis was widespread in 15th century Gujrat, and the idea was adapted and refined in Mughal architecture and it may be that the jalis at Shaikh Salims tomb were added later by Jahangir (Tillotson 123). Considering this aspect, as Tillotson suggests, a slightly earlier example of similar extensive and exquisite jali-work is the tomb in Gwalior of Muhammad Ghaus. In Rajput architecture, perforated screens were introduced primarily to ensure the seclusion of women, but their use in Mughal building is more diverse: in the palatial buildings they are used as an ornamental motif in the mardana or male apartments; however,

Shahid 9 in the zenana or female buildings, and in tombs they generate an appropriate quiet atmosphere in the verandah, providing shade at the same time as admitting air (Tillotson 121-3). It is also worth mentioning here that Tansen, the famous musician at Akabrs court, was a devotee of Muhammad Ghaus, and it may well be that his mausoleum in Gwalior, with its intricate marble lattice work, was sponsored by Tansen (Ziad 65). So, this may also link up to explain the closeness of Shaikh Salims shrine to the tomb of Ghaus and the reason why it bears so much similarity to it and the resemblance in jails can be explained possibly by knowing this valuable historical information. A closer look on the similarities the tomb and its design bears with its precedents explains why the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti was evaluated by Jahangir in terms of the money Akbar had spent upon it (Mukhia 101). Another striking similarity between the tomb at Sarkej and Shaikh Salims tomb is that the floor of the chamber is laid in marble mosaic in a geometrical pattern. The multi-coloured stone flooring, similar to that at Sarkhej, was donated by a noble who lived in Gujrat (Asher 56). The materials employed are white marble, khattu and abri, from Jaisalmar, near Jaipur, and one of peculiar tint, which varies considerably between a dark neutral tint, and black, known as sang-i-musa which comes from Alwar. Even this use of semi-precious stones of artistic colors, to decorate the floors, is mentioned in The Cambrige History of India by Dodwell (546). So, even in terms of its interior and exterior ornamentation, Salim Chishtis tomb resembles Sahaikh Khattus tomb. Yet another common feature is that the columns of the porch of Shaikh Salims tomb which are profusely decorated, with chevron design or the zigzag pattern on the shafts, stalactite or muqarnas-like embellished capitals and a finely carved base (Dodwell 547). However, the pillars of Khattus tomb are different in that they are 120 in number and are not

Shahid 10 so richly embellished. In contrast to Khattus tomb with many domes, the single dome on Shaikh Salims tomb is topped with a padmakosha or inverted lotus and a metal finial, a common feature of many Mughal buildings. The interior from the skirting and dados to the soffit of the dome is profusely ornamented with paintings in floral designs. Painted patterns that cover the walls are executed on a thick layer of plaster on the stone surface. The verandah has blind niches with inlaid chocolatecoloured borders the make the foiled niches more prominent and there are panels in Naskh calligraphy displaying quotations from the Quran and Hadith, occasionally painted in a gold or blue background, giving the tomb its description of a heavenly abode and a paradisiacal setting. The tomb is still an object of veneration, chiefly to barren women, both Muslim and Hindu (Tillotson 123). However, it is ironic to note that Akbar, who used to visit Muinuddin Chishtis shrine at Ajmer annually from 1564-1579 and endowed the shrine with many precious objects, now had begun to break with saint veneration and stated that saint worship was a shallow preoccupation, not a profound one (Ziad 65; Asher 57). Finally, evaluating Shaikh Salims tomb in terms of its architectural design and its ornamentation techniques, as patronized by Akbar, it can be safely held that the tomb derived its square plan in white marble and salient features like serpentine struts and jalis from Gujrati period monuments, chiefly Shaikh Ahmad Khattus tomb at Ahmadabad and Ghaus tomb at Gwalior. Undoubtedly, it was linked to other saints shrines, such as Nizamuddins shrine at Delhi, by the fact that it was also built in white stone, which symbolized purity and sanctity and served the purpose to embellish a chaste place and also like Shaikh Salims tomb, the vestibule is separated from the burial vault by dense lattice. Added to this fact, by setting up this shrine,

Shahid 11 Akbar set up an example of a religious architecture to be followed by his successors and so the present example was followed by the tomb of Itimad-ud-daulah in Agra, built in 1622-7 and henceforth the white marble that was chiefly used for saint shrines now became to be used for royal figures in the age of Jahangiri architecture. (1992 words)

Shahid 12 Works Cited Alam, Muzaffar. The Mughals, the Sufi Shaikhs and the Formation of the Akbari Dispensation. Modern Asian Studies Vol.43 (Jan. 2009): 135-174. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/20488075 > Asher, B. Catherine. Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Print. Ruggles, F. Islamic Gardens and Landscape. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. Print. Harris, F. Dianne, Ruggles, F. Sites Unseen: Landscape and Vision. Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press, 2008. Print. Collins, Sheldon. Image: Exterior View of Jali Screen with Tree Motif at Sidi Saiyad Mosque. 1984. Ahmadabad, India. < http://www.corbisimages.com>

Asher, B. Catherine, and Talbot, Cynthia. India before Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2006. Print. Brown, Lindsay, and Thomas, Amelia. Rajasthan, Delhi and Agra. China: Lonely Planet

Publications, 2008. Print.

Cousens, Henry. The Architectural Antiquities of Western India. Britain: Cousens Press, 2007.

Shahid 13 Print. Dodwell, H. The Cambridge History of India: British India, 1497-1858. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1968. Print. Fletcher, Banister, and Cruickshank, Dan. A History of Architecture. Delhi:Architectural Press, 1996. Print. Gaur, Abhilash. City of the Dead. Outlook Traveller April 2008: 54-55. Kapstein, Matthew. The Presence of Light: Divine Radiance and Religious Experience.

Chicago, USA: University of Chicago Press, 2004. Print. Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. Print. Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2004. Print. Tillotson, G. Architectural Guides for Travellers Mughal India. London: Penguin Group, 1990. Print. Ziad, Zeenut. The Magnificent Mughals. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2002. Print.

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