1

TheOriginoftheComfortWoman

TyJohnson

http://www.awf.or.jp/e1/facts-12.html
2
Thewordbodyisdefinedasaphysicalstructureandmaterialsubstanceof
ananimalorahumanbeing.Alongsidewar,peaceandotherbasicconstructsof
humanity,thebodyhasbeenconceptualizedandspanningoverhistoryandtime,
consistentlyaffectinghumaninteraction,statecraftandpolicy.Kokutai,a
combinationoftheChinesewordsfornationandbody,thathasbeentranslated
bytheJapanesetomeanthenationalbody,thenationalentityornationalpolity,
referringexclusivelytonotonlyempirebuttothemakeupofthisbody,inother
words,itssubjects.Althoughthemalebodyreadilycomestomindinthe
considerationofstateandpolicy,thefemalebodyinallofitsformsisacritical,yet
oftendownplayed,factorintheriseofnations,statesandempires.InJapanese
history,theviewofawomansbodyasanationalentityhascreatedaconsistently
shiftingnarrativeofthefemale,creatinganddestroyingconceptionsinitspath.
Fromcommodity,towife,toconcubineandtoprostitute,eachformtaken,ormore
aptly,createdforJapanswomen,bothnativeandimperial,culminatedinthemid
20
th
centuryintoauniqueyetterrifyingnewform:thecomfortwoman.Inthe
establishmentofthecomfortwomanconstruct,however,bothgenderedbodies,
maleandfemale,playsignificantroles.Theanalysisoftheriseofthisphenomenon
considerstheJapanesemenandwomen,occupied,or,forourpurposes,Chinese
menandwomenandfinallycolonized,specificallyKorean,menandwomen.These
sixcharactersfindaplaceintheanalysisofthethreemaintenantsthatcontributed
tothecomfortwoman:history,racismandnecessity.Thehistoricalaspectexplores
theroleJapanesemenandwomenhadintheconstructionofnationalism,the
masculineidealandtheriseofmilitarism.Contributingtothehistorical,although
standingaloneinimportance,isthedevelopmentofaracismthatspawneda
superioritycomplexafflictedbytheJapaneseuponbothChineseandKorean
players.Finally,theanalysisisconcludedbyanexaminationoftheroleofnecessity
inalliancewithhistoryandracismtospawnthesocialandpoliticalacceptanceof
thecomfortwoman,thussolidifyingherplaceinJapanesehistory.Theassessment
willproceedbyusingahistoricalstructure,spanningfromtheTokugawaperiodto
WorldWarIIthatframestheanalysisandincorporatesthefactorsofracismand
necessitytofleshouttheargumentasthecomfortwomanaroseintheJapanese
3
historicalnarrative.ThusthroughastudyoftheoverarchingconstructsofJapanese
history,racismandnecessity,inconcertwithavailabledata,theestablishmentof
thecomfortwomanasaforciblycreated,statecommissionedconstructuniqueto
Japanwillbepresentedandexplained.
Asitemergedfromanalmosttwocenturylongwarringperiod,Japanfound
itselfundertherelativelyunifiedandlargelypeacefulruleoftheTokugawa
shogunate(1600-1868).Thisinitiallyfeudalregime,aswithallnovelgovernmental
structures,strovetoreplacepreviouslawsandsystemswithpoliciesthatmarkeda
neweraofgovernancewhichincludedareexaminationoftherolesofmaleand
femalebodieswithinthestate.Inthisexaminationofpoliticalandsocialconstructs
oftheTokugawashogunate,itisusefultoconsiderthisregimeinthreemainparts:
Theearlyperiod,from1600totheearly1700s,theEdoperiod,fromabout1700to
theearly1800s,andfinallythelateperiodwhichspannedfromthemid1800stothe
endoftheshogunateera.Eachpartcharacterizesashiftinthepoliticalandsocial
considerationofthefemalebodycrucialtodevelopinganunderstandingoftheearly
notionofthenationalbodythatwouldlaterspreadtotheoccupiedandcolonized
politiesaswell.
TheearlyperiodoftheTokugawashogunatesreignischaracterizedby
policiesthatreflectalackofconsiderationanddistinctionofthefemalebodyaswell
asthestruggleofanascentregimetosolidifyitsrulethroughoutJapan.Marking
theendofcenturiesofcontinuouswarandconflict,theTokugawashogunatewas
facedwiththeinitialtaskofsolidifyingitsrulethroughoutthemanyprovinces
composingtheJapanesestate.Asaresult,numerousprovincialandgrouplawsthat
existedpriortothisnewregimeremainedinplaceastheTokugawastroveto
constructaformofunificationappropriateforJapan.Itsettleduponfeudalism,
whichallowed,atleastintheinitialperiods,eachfeudalentitytomaintaintheir
generalsystemsofgovernance.Forwomen,thepersistenceoflargelymedievallaw
madesuretheirpositionsremainedstatic.Thesepractices,however,provide
importantinsightintothebasisuponwhichfuturepolicieswouldbebuilt.Law
codesfromtheKamakuraperiod(1185-1333)consideredwomensbodiestobe
4
partoftheirhusbandsorfathersestates
1
andheldtheoverarchingbeliefthat
therewasnocleardistinctionbetweenwomenwhomadealivingsellingsexand
thosewhodidnottherewasnomeaningfuldifferencebetweenagiftfromalover
andapaymentfromaclient
2
Theseideasremainedlargelyintactintheearly
periodofTokugawareignasevidencedinthestatementsandaccountsgivenby
Masakage,aminemagistrateintheprovinceofInnai
3
.Asanappointedtaxcollector
ofhisprovince,Masakagesaccountsarenumerous,yetdisplayaconsistencyinthe
mannerinwhichwomenwereperceivedandtreated.Oneaccountdescribesthe
generalprocedureoftaxcollection:whentownsmendefaultedontheirtaxes,he
[Masakage]frequentlycommendedthemtoselltheirbelongingsincludingfamily
memberswhendebtorsrefusedtoliquidatetheirwivesandchildren,[he]seized
them
4
.Togivethisdescriptionsomelife,Masakagedescribeshisdealingswiththe
masterofanestablishmentcalledKyo-no-shio-yawhoowedseveralkanin
outstandingtaxesMasakagepredictedthathewouldneverbeabletocompelthe
prosecutortoreturn,sohedrewupalistofhisassetsanddecidedtoholdhis
residence,hiswifeandchildascollateralonunpaidtaxes
5
.Voidofanyambiguity,
Masakagesaccountsarebare,leavingnothingtodoubtandprovingwithall
certaintythelegalcommoditizationofwomen.Asamanappointedbylocal
governance,thereisnodenyingthelinkbetweenMasakagesactionsandprovincial
decree.Furthermore,Masakageslanguageprovesthelackofdistinctiongivento
womeninthisera.Thevocabularyusedinhisaccounts
distinguishedbetweenpurchasedwomen,prostitutes,wives,
daughters...[however]hisjudgmentplacedtheminauniformmassofwomen,
allofwhomwereavailableforpurchaseandeligibleforsalehemadethe
pointthatallwomeneventhosewhoweremarriedwereassetsthatcould
beliquidatedandexchangedatwill.
6

1
Stanley,Amy,SellingWomen:Prostitution,Markets,andtheHouseholdinEarlyModernJapan.
(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,2012),p.30
2
Ibid.,p.30
3
Ibid.,p.29
4
Ibid.,p.33
5
Ibid.,p.33
6
Ibid.,p.42
5
ThedealingsofMasakageinInnaiareonlyamicrocosmforsimilardealingswithin
provincesthroughoutJapanatthetime.Withthewarringperiodonlyrecently
concluded,menmaintainedacontrolandaviewofwomeninformedbypolicies
frommuchearlierperiods.Womeninthiscontextwerewithoutnuance,unshielded
fromthethreatofthewillofmaninthenameofbusinessandeconomics.Asthe
Tokugawamovedtosolidifytheirpolicies,thisperiodofindistinctfemalebodiesis
discontinuedasexemplifiedintheEdoperiod,buttheconceptofcommodity
continuestoblankettheclassificationofthefemale.
AstheTokugawashogunateenteredtheEdoperiod,prostitutionasatrade
hadproveditseconomicsignificanceandinturnbroughtsocialandpolitical
considerationsofwomentotheforefrontoflawsandpolicy.Theshiftsinpolicyare
illustratedbyanexchangebetweenabrothelkeepernamedJinemonandthe
shogunate.Inhispetitionforanewplotoflandforhisenterprise,Jinemon
appealedtotheshogunatesinterestinpreservingsocialandpoliticalorder[and]
proposedasolution:iftheshogunatewouldgranthimaplotoflandandamonopoly
onthesextrade,hewouldguaranteethatthesedangerswouldbecontained
7
.This
promiseofcontainmentnotonlyunderscoredtheincreasinglylucrativesextrade,
butalsothecreationofanewcategoryofwomen,yujoorprostitutes,whowouldbe
separatedfromtherestofthecitysfemalepopulation
8
.Housedintherestricted
andcontrolledYoshiwaradistrict,thedivisionbetweenwomenofsocietyandthe
prostitutewasbeginningtotakeformbothliterallyandfiguratively,demonstrating
aprominentshiftinshogunatepolicies.Nolongerwerewomenalarge,
undistinguishablegrouptobetradedasmensawfit;therenowexistedaclear
separationbetweenthosewhodidusetheirbodiesandthosewhodidnot,inother
wordswomenofthegeneralsociety,mainlywives,andtheprostitutesof
Yoshiwara.
Inadditiontoemphasizingadistinctionbetweenwomen,thisshift
establishestheincreasinglyimportantroleeconomicswasbeginningtoplayinthe
revitalizationofsocialandpoliticalpoliciestowardswomenintermsofConfucian

7
Ibid.,p.45
8
Ibid.,p.46
6
filialideals.ThelongheldConfuciantraditionsofJapanesesocietywereasourceof
legitimacybetweenstateandsubject.Itshouldcometonosurprisethatthe
Tokugawaregimereturnedtosuchidealswhenestablishingtheirlegalandsocietal
framework.Inanattempttoapplytheroleofbenevolentgovernmenttothemost
vulnerablemembersofthepopulationthegovernmentstressedthe
decommodificationofwomen,transformingtheminsteadintosubjectswithroles
withinthehouseholdandsocietalgroups
9
.Thusthefemalebodyofwomenin
societywasregulatedbythefilialrelationshipofhusbandandwife.Prostitutes,
althoughpositionedinaseparatepartofsociety,werenotexcludedfromsuch
responsibilityandwerethusbroughtundertheroleoffilialdaughter,servingtheir
fathersandhouseholdsalthoughoutsideofthehome.Byservicetheshogunate
referredtothemonetaryexchangeofthisfemalebody,whichmaintainedits
attributeasacommoditybutcouldnowclaimaneconomicedgeabsentfrom
womenofgeneralsociety,adistinctseparatingfactor.
Itisimportanttonote,however,thatdespitethiseconomicdifferencethe
factthatthebodiesofbothgroupsofwomenwereblanketedbyConfucianideals
speakstotheirequalizedstandinginsocietydespitethephysicalandphilosophical
distinctions.Theequalizationstemsfromtheircontinued,yetnowstatepromoted,
dependencyuponamaleentity,ahusbandorafather,thatcreatedapatriarchal
systemthatconfirmedthelegalpowersofahusband/fatheroverhiswifewitha
paternalisticedge,inthatitconferredadegreeofprotectiononthosewho
accepteditsstructures
10
.HenceitisduringthisEdoperiodthatmasculine
undertonesbegintoconvergeupontheTokugawashogunateinamannersimilar
yetlargelydistinguishablefromthepastera.Insteadofconsiderationsolelyas
commoditytobeboughtorsold,women,bothmarriedandprostitutesalike,were
placedinaprotectedpositionbybothhusbandandfatherandinturnthestate
whichactedasthebenevolentgovernment.Theplacementofthestateas
protectoranddictatorofthefemalebodyispivotalinthisperiodforwardasitgives
thestateapowerovertheJapanesewomanthatwillextendastheJapanesegrow

9
Ibid.,p.47
10
Ibid.,p.47
7
theirempiretoencompassoccupiedandcolonialterritoriesandbodies.However,
intheEdoperiod,althoughmasculinitymaintaineditssenseofentitlementtothe
femaleJapanesebody,theConfucian,nurturingandcompassionateaspectslaced
thismasculinitywithagentlertone.Aswillbeshownintheproceedingperiod,
however,thissensitivityhasitslimitsastheconnectionbetweenprostituteandthe
economyisdisputedheavilybysociety.
ThelateperiodoftheTokugawashogunateexemplifiestheshiftinthe
positionofthefemalebodyinJapanesepoliticsasprostitutesgarneredalarger
placeintheeconomicsphereconflictingtheConfucianandmasculineidealsofthe
stateaswellasbringingtotheforetheconflictbetweenthemarketeconomyand
thehousehold.BythemidtolatenineteenthcenturytheelitesectorofTokugawa
societybegantofocustheirattentionuponthelinkbetweentheConfucianideals
dictatingthefamilyandthemarketsurroundingthesextrade.Whattheysawwasa
weaknessinthefilialbondsofsocietyasitcameintodirectcontactwiththe
economyintheformofprostitution.IntheEdoperiodthewidelyheldsentiment
wasthataslongasthedaughtersofprostitutionheldallegiancetotheirfathers,
theywereacceptedbysociety.Inthelateperiod,however,therapidexpansionofa
businessthatseparatedwomenfromtheirfamiliesandmarketedsexraisedthe
alarmingpossibilitythatsocialrelationsmightbesubsumedbymarketrelations
11
.
Thisfearbegantotakeholdandgraduallytransformedthewayprostituteswere
viewedinsocietyasembodiedinthetrialofTora,ayoungprostituteaccusedof
attemptingtoseduceherbrothelkeepersson,Sobei.
ThroughouthertrialToracontinuouslyclaimsfilialresponsibilitytoher
parentsaswellasherbrothelowner.Whenaskedwhyshereturnedtoherbrothel
toworkafteranabsence,Torareplies,thatshe[had]returnedoutofadesiretobe
filialtoherparentsandfulfillherobligationstoSadaemon[thebrothelowner]
12
.
Bymentioningdutytobothherhouseholdandthebrothel,sheequatesthetwo
entities,callingintoquestionhersupposedhigher,filialresponsibilitytoherfather.
Asthetrialproceeds,questionsturntoherrelationshipwithSobei,specifically

11
Ibid.,p.186
12
Ibid.,p.180
8
concerningtheinitiatoroftheseduction,towhichTorareplies,Itsallmyfault,
shesaid,Sobeiisblameless(Nanigotomowatakushinotsumi,Sobeinotsuminiwa
korenaku)
13
.Thisadmissionpointstoasenseofindependenceandautonomyof
actionToraherselfadmitstoandclaimsresponsibilityfor,exemplifyinganother
shiftfromtheConfucianrolesoccupiedbyprostitutes.Inherbook,SellingWomen:
Prostitution,MarketsandtheHouseholdinEarlyModernJapanwherethisaccount
isfound,AmyStanleyanalyzesTorastestimonyinthecontextofthepreviously
understoodrolesofprostitutesduringtheEdoperiod.
Toraneverdeniedherobligationstoherparents,butshebalancedevery
mentionofthisresponsibilitywithanassertionthatshewasalsoindebtedto
thebrothelkeeper.Thisplacedtherelationshipbetweenparentandchild,
whichhadoccupiedaprivilegedplaceinthegenderedorder,onequalfooting
withthecontractualrelationshipbetweenemployerandemployeebyinsisting
thatshehadbeenthesexualaggressorinherrelationshipwithSobei,Tora
describedherselfasatemptress,arolethatwascompletelyatoddswiththe
impressionherstepfatherhadhopedtocreate
14

Inresponsetohertestimony,SadaemonbacksupTorasclaimsbyreinforcingher
obligationtohimandhisbusinessanditsequalfootingwithherresponsibilityto
herfatheraswellasherabilitytomakeherownchoices.Histestimony
compoundeduponTorasown,especiallyhisassertionof[Toras]agencywasan
awkwardfitwiththenarrativethatportrayedprostitutesasfilialdaughterswho
workedtoservetheirparentsinterests
15
.Moreover,Torasadmittedagencyalso
predeterminedherguiltintheseductionofSobei.Notonlydidsheseparateherself
fromherfathershome,sheprovedthatshehadusedhersexualityforherowngain,
thusclaimingculpabilityandplacingtheblamesquarelyonhershoulders.This
episodeisrevealingofthegreaterdevelopmentunderwayinJapanesesocietyinthe
considerationoftheprostitute.Theideaoftheagency,orindependence,wasbeing
attributed,althoughunwelcomed,totheprostitutesduringthiseraasaresultofthe
considerationsandreformsmadebypoliticalelites.Theywerebeingstrippedof
theirfilialstatusandtheirtiestothehomewerebecomingseveredasthemarket
economybegantoengulfsociety.Insocietaleyesadutifuldaughterwasafigureto

13
Ibid.,p.181
14
Ibid.,pp.181-182
15
Ibid.,p.185
9
bepraisedandadmired,butalustfulwomendidnotdeservethesamekindof
consideration.
16
.Thusreplacingtheprostitutesrespectedfilialstatuswasasense
ofshameplaceduponherbyexternalentitiesandshroudingherpositionin
Japanesesocietyfromthenon.
Furthermore,thenurturingaspectthathadonceblanketedallaspectsofthe
femalebodyintheEdoperiodwasnowbecomingselectiveinitscoverings.Agency
andshamebecameattributedtotheprostitute,distancingherfromthewomenof
societyandthusrupturingtheequilibriumbetweenthetwo.Hereconomicstanding
wasapartofabroaderdiscourseaboutfemaleagencythatflourishedaspeople
acrossJapangrappledwithwomensengagementinthemarketeconomy
17
.Asthe
mostobviousindicatorofthisflourishing,prostituteswereharbingersofthis
dystopianfuture
18
andwereconsistentlyexaminedforanysign,largeorsmall,that
theywerebenefittingfromtheirpositions.Thisscrutinyalongwiththeshamewas
aproductofelitemaledissidenceaswellasadesiretoseparateawomanfromthe
economicsfromthestate,yetatthesametimereapthesexualandmonetary
benefitsofherbody.Prostitutionwasneveroutlawedorbanned,butshunnedand
placedoutsidesocietybothliterally,asdisplayedbeforeintheEdoperiod,and
figurativelyastheirpositionbecamereexaminedinthelateperiod.Thusthe
patriarchalattitudesofthepreviousperiodbegantoslowlydistanceitselffromthe
prostitute,notentirely,outoffearoflosingasourceofrevenue,butenoughtobegin
toshowageneraldisdainforherpositionthatresultedintheloweringofherstatus.
Theattributionofagency,theshame,theloweringofherbodytosecondclassstatus
duetoaharshermaleidealcontinuedastheTokugawashogunatecametoaclose
andtheMeijirestorationbegantoreform,butnotcompletelymodify,thevaluesthe
differentconceptionsofthefemalebodynowheldinthestate.
AstheMeijierabegan,apropensitytowardsstatesponsorshipofthesex
tradehadapowerfulimpactonthesocialstandingofprostitutesandwomenalike
andsolidifiedwithinsocietytheideaofthenationalbody.Forthenewleadersof

16
Ibid.,p.185
17
Ibid.,p.186
18
Ibid.,p.186
10
theMeijiera,economicprosperity,andasaresultthesextrade,washeldasa
priorityasitcommandedastrongplaceinthebusinesssectorofJapan.Although
notanexplicitlylistedgoal,theMeiji,liketheTokugawashogunate,hadamonetary
stakeinprostitutionthatforcedthemtovacillatebetweenanoutwardlimitationof
thepracticeandamorehiddendesireforitssuccess.Soonthiscontradictory
positionfoundmiddleground,however,astheJapanesebecameopentoforeigners
andthusturnedtothemforinspirationonnavigatingthesocialandeconomicneeds
atloggerheadswithintheempire.AccountsgivenbyKawajiToshiyoshi,a
statesman,wholaterbecamethechiefofpolice,senttoEuropetoobservesociety,
illustratetheintensityofhisinterestinthestateregulatedprostitutionsystemshe
discovered.InParis,ToshiyoshinotedthatRegulationsforStreetwalkerswere
enforcedwherebyastreetwalkerwhopossessanofficiallyissuedlicensemustgo
thehospitaltwiceamonthinordertoreceiveamedicalexam,isaskedtoshowher
licensetothepoliceandgovernmentofficials,andmustobeytheirorders
19
.In
Berlin,justasFrance,prostitutes,streetwalkers,aswellaswomenemployedin
brothels,areregulatedbypoliceobservation.Regulationsstatethattheymustgoto
thepolicesmoralsofficeforanexaminationonceaweekandreceiveastamp
20
.
ForexactlyoneyearstartinginSeptember1872,Toshiyoshiobservedasystemof
licensedprostitutionthatnotonlybroughttheregulationofprostitutionfirmly
understateandpolicecontrol,butalsomandatedasystemofperiodicalmedical
examinationstopreventcertainvenerealdiseases,asubjectincreasinglyrelevantin
Japanduetotheiropening.UponhisreturntoJapan,Toshiyoshi,alongwiththe
GovernorofTokyoandtheViceMinisterofStateOkuboToshimichi,tightenedthe
institutionalfoundationsofthepolicemechanismcontrolledbytheMinistryof
HomeAffairs.And[he]usedhispowerstointroduceaEuropean-stylelicensed
prostitutionsystem
21
.SuchordinancesincludedthetheMinistryofPopular
AffairsNoticeof1871andtheFinanceMinistryProclamation127of1872which

19
Yuki,F."TheLicensedProstitutionSystemandtheProstitutionAbolitionMovementinModern
Japan."Positions:EastAsiaCulturesCritique5.1(1997):135-71
20
Ibid.,p.138
21
Ibid.,p.138
11
prohibitedbondageandrestrictedprostitutiontoavoluntarycontractsystem
22
.
TheimpactofthisrevolutionarysysteminJapanesesocietywaslargelytwo-fold:
First,theJapaneseundertheMeijierawantedtocentralizepowerandemulatethe
senseofnationalismfoundinEuropebyunifyingallfeudalprovincesunderone
umbrellaoftheJapanesestate.Anyoutlierstothisunificationhadtobebrought
understate-controlbysomemeansandwiththeblueprintprovidedbythe
Europeanstates,MeijiJapancouldnowbringprostitutionundertheunifiedstate.
Secondly,theJapanesestatenowpossessedawaytouseprostitutiontoits
economicgainwithoutmakingthemonetaryaspectexplicitlyclearbyjustifying
statecontrolwiththethreatofvenerealdisease.Thisnewfoundcentralizationand
senseofnationalismaswellastheawarenessofvenerealdiseaseareaspectsof
Japanesesocietythatgrowinimportance,commandingmoreattentionfromsociety
andstate,especiallyasJapanbeginstomilitarizeinthe20
th
century.
Beforeturningtotheimpactofdiseaseuponthiseraandthenext,however,
itisimperativetoconsidernotonlytheimpactthisstate-sanctionedsystemhad
uponprostitutes,butalsouponwives,asthetwogohandinhand.Accordingtothe
civilcodeof1898,Wivesweredefinedaslegallyincompetent,andthepracticeof
husbandskeepingconcubineswaslegalized.
23
.Suchalawdemonstratesthata
manorhusbandssexualself-indulgencewasnowfullysanctionedandcondonedby
thestate
24
.Aconcubine,althoughnotonthesamelevelofsocietyasaprostitute,
remainedafemaleentitythatmencouldcontrolbothinandoutsideofthehomenot
formarriagebutforthefulfillmentofsexualpolygamousdesiresandprocreation.
Inordertoproperlybalancethisnewfoundrightformen,womenhadtobe
constrainedastomaintainorderwithinsocietyasprovenbytheirnowlegally
recognizedincompetency.ThisaspectofMeijilegalcodeisevenfurtherexemplified
inthe1908criminalcodeonadulterythatheldIncaseswhereawifecommitted
adultery,thewomanandherpartnerwouldbepunishedbutincaseswherea

22
Stetz,MargaretDiane,andBonnieB.C.Oh.LegaciesoftheComfortWomenofWorldWarII,
(Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001)p.5
23
Yoshimi,Yoshiaki,andSuzanneO'Brien.ComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryintheJapaneseMilitary
duringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.200
24
Ibid.,p.201
12
husbandcommittedadultery,hewasnotpunishedunlesshispartnerwassomeone
elseswife
25
.Thislawisextraordinaryinthatitnotonlyprovestheadditional
constrainplaceduponwivesintheirfilialroleandthelooseningthereofforthe
men,butitalsoillustratestheupheldsanctityofmarriageandthedangersof
taintinganothersspouse.Itiswiththislawthatthesexualdoublestandardthat
constrainsJapanesebodies,bothmaleandfemale,becomesexceptionallyclear.In
suchasystem,awomansrolebecameexcruciatinglydefinedandbinding:awoman
wasawife,aconcubineoraprostitute,eachroleequallyconstrainedbythestate.
AsSarahSohaptlysummarizesinherbook,TheComfortWomen:SexualViolence
andPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,
state-ledproductionofanewsocialandpoliticaldiscourseonhuman
sexualityengagedtheJapanesepublicinrethinkingthenatureofthebody,the
publicimplicationsofdisease,andnotionsoffemalesocialrolesandsexuality
intheconstructionofanemergentconcept,thenationalbody(kokutai)
26
.
Thenationalbody,referringnotonlytofemalebutmaleentitiesaswell,became
establishedasaconsciouspoliticalconsiderationthatinformedtherulescreatedby
thestate.Fromthispointforward,thecollectivebodyoftheJapanesepeoplewould
becontrolled.Whetheritwastosendmentowarorwomentothebrothel,theidea
ofthedepersonalizationofthebodywasnowaseriousconsiderationofthe
Japanesegovernment.Couplethisconceptionofanationalbody,nodoubta
productoftheintensifyingnationalismoftheperiod,withtherisingconcernsof
diseaseaswellasthestaterecognitionofwhatmaybedefinedastheruleofmale
sexright
27
orthestate-sanctionedallowanceofmalesexualfreedomattheexpense
ofwomen,andthescenehasbeensetfortheriseofthecomfortstationasfurther
dictatedbyearly20
th
centuryfascismandmilitarism.
Inadditiontotheaforementionedshiftsinpolicyconcerningthe
solidificationofthenationalbodyconcept,theriseofJapanesenationalismthat
coincidedwiththecentralizationofgovernmentcanalsobeattributedtothe

25
Ibid.,p.201
26
Soh,SarahC.TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,
(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.111

27
Ibid.,p.116
13
subsequentriseinJapanesesuperiorityandwithit,racism.Inadditiontothestate
regulatedprostitutionsystem,theJapanesealsoadoptedtheracialphilosophiesand
theoriescirculatinginEuropethroughoutthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.
TheideasofHerbertSpencerandCharlesDarwinwereeagerlydisseminated
throughoutJapanpartlybecausetheyfellinlinewithracialideasalreadyheld
withinthestate.InearlyJapanesehistory,thecategorizationofpeopleswasseenas
usefulandextendedfromChinesenotionsoftheworldasmadeupofconcentric
circlesofincreasingstrangeness
28
,largelybaseduponhabitsandcustomsheldby
theirAsiaticneighbors.ThisledtoethnographicdescriptionsbyJapanese
explorersthateasilylentthemselvestothedivisionoftheworldintofivemajor
racesjinshu.
29
.Whatsmore,risinginterestsingeneticsandeugenicsbeganto
takerootinJapanesesocietyleadingtoperceptionsoftheJapaneseassomethingof
asuperiorracenotunliketheirGermanNazicounterparts.Baseduponearly
conceptionsoftheirorigins,theJapanesebegantorevitalizeprevioustheoriesof
theirdecentfromthegods,exceptthistimewithinthecontextofthescientificracial
movement.TheJapanesebegantoviewthemselvesasaChosenpeopleorgods
thatneedednomorallawlikethebadChinesebutcoulddependontheirheartsto
showthemtheway
30
.Withtheadventofracialsciencealongwithbroader
knowledgeofgeography,Japanesecouldnowsensiblyplacethemselvesandthe
Asiancontinentatthecenteroftheworldand,further,claimraciallinktoall
peoplesoftheglobe.Dr.TsunekichiKomakioftheKyotoImperialUniversity
broadcastedhisthoughtsonthesubjectbystakingJapaneseclaimtoabsolutely
everything.America,heclaimed,originallybelongedtoAsiathecoldandwarm
oceancurrentsmeetneartheJapanSea,whichisoneindicationofAsiasclaimas
theworldcenter.
31
IntermsofAsia,naturallytheAsiaticracecamefroma
Japanesestrainandthusallcultureandreligious[activity]areunitedunder

28
Morris-Suzuki,Tessa."DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan."Osiris13.1(1998):354-75.
29
Ibid.,p.358
30
Padover,SaulK."JapaneseRacePropaganda."PublicOpinionQuarterly7(1943):191-204.
31
Ibid.,p.195
14
Japansemperor.
32
ToSouthAmericaheclaimedPeru,amongothercountries,
baseduponculturalconnectionwithsunworshipwhichisacharacteristicof
Japan.
33
AfricawasapartoftheAsianpeninsula,aclaimbaseduponideaspopular
withtheancientGreeks.EveninEurope,therewasAsiaticbloodrunningthickin
theveinsoftheinhabitants[innorthernEurope].InsouthernEurope,inFrance,we
findmanyancienttoolsformallyusedbythepeopleofAsia.
34
Apartfrom
continents,Dr.KomakialsoheldthattherewerenoSevenseas,butonlyonesea,
anditisconnectedtoJapan,wherethesunisrising.Alloceansaretoberecognized
asagreatJapanesesea.
35
TheideasofthisJapaneseacademicpointtoone
conclusion:JapanwasthecenterofAsiaandAsiawasthecenteroftheworld
36
.
SuchwasJapansconceptionofitself,butitsideasofothernationswithinthe
Asiansphere,specificallyKoreaandChina,heldtheotherasstrikinglyinferior.
Since1868,JapanhaddevelopedadisdainforotherAsiannationsforfailingto
respondsuccessfully,asithaddonetotheWesternencroachment.Asacountryin
Asia,Japancouldnotbutfeelasenseofshame,especiallybecauseithadbenefitted
culturallyfromotherolderAsiancountries,suchasChinaandevenKorea.
37
As
theJapanesesettheirsightsonotherAsiannations,justificationsforinvasionas
wellastheaforementionedcontemptwerenuancedbyracialperceptions.Onone
hand,theJapanesesawtheirfellowAsiansassimilartothemselves,a
characterizationthatjustifiedtheirrighttoguideorleadthepoliticaland
economicdestinyofneighboringcountries.
38
Ontheotherhand,however,racial
andethnicdistinctionswereusedofficiallyandunofficiallytojustifydiscrimination
oftheother.Asiansingeneralwereseenasinferior,butKoreanswereheldas
especiallyinferiortotheJapanese.Describedasdependent,dirty,sly,emotionally
volatileandlackinginanysenseofhygiene,ignorant,impatient,extravagant,

32
Ibid.,p.195
33
Ibid.,p.195
34
Ibid.,p.195
35
Ibid.,p.196
36
Ibid.,p.196
37
Stetz,MargaretDiane,andBonnieB.C.Oh.LegaciesoftheComfortWomenofWorldWarII,
(Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001)p.7
38
Morris-Suzuki,Tessa."DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan."Osiris13.1(1998):354-75.
15
dissolute,pronetogambling,[and]filledwithvanity,Koreanswereidentifiedas
second-rateandwerethusseenasagroupneedingtobemadesimilartothe
Japanese
39
.NishimuraShinji,aprominentculturalanthropologist,assigned
numericalrankingstoJapananditscoloniestomeasurenationalspirit.

InTable1,Nishimurasfindingsarepresented,clearlydisplayingthatKorea,ranked
numbersixoutofthesixcountriesexamined,heldthelowestlevelsofspirit,and
thuspresentedanenigmathatneededtobesolved,accordingtoNishimura
40
.
Althoughnottheonlyexplanation,Nishimurasfindingscoincidewiththeoverhaul
ofJapaneselegalcodes,traditionsandculturalaspectsthatwereblanketedover
Koreabothbeforeandespeciallyaftertheirannexationin1910.ForKoreanand
Chinesewomen,theyremaineddistinctfromtheirJapanesecounterpartswho
weredefinedunderthenationalgenderideologyofgoodwifeandwisemother
whereascolonizedwomenweredisposablesexualcommoditiestobemobilized
muchlikeJapaneseprostitutesofthatage.Thus,whenJapanbegantocarrytheir
licensedprostitutionsystemovertothatofKoreabetween1881and1916,itshould
cometonosurprisethattheKoreanprostituteandtheJapaneseprostitutewerenot

39
Park,Kyeyoung."TheUnspeakableExperiencesofKoreanWomenUnderJapaneseRule."Whittier
LawReview(2000):567-619
40
Morris-Suzuki,Tessa."DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan."Osiris13.1(1998):354-75.

BEBATINO BACIAL SCIENCE IN WABTIME JAFAN 373

TaIIe 1. SlvenglI oJ NalionaI Spivil, BanIed I Begion
Adapl- Becep- Coopev- Feace-
aIiIil MoIiIil livil alion JuIness MovaIil Avevage BanI
Japan pvopev 2 3 2 1 2 4 2.33 1
HoIIaido* 4 2 4 3 3 6 3.67 4
Taivan 3 5 3 4 1 2 3.00 3
Kovea 6 4 6 5 5 3 4.83 6
MancIuvia 5 1 1 2 4 5 3.00 2
CIina 1 6 5 6 6 1 4.17 5
SOUBCE.-NisIinuva SIinji, NiIon ninzoIu no vis6 |TIe ideaI oJ lIe Japanese elInic gvoup)
|ToIo ToIodo, 1939), p. 282.
*
IncIudes KavaJulo.
nineleenlI cenluv, il vas onI in lIe 1930s lIal lIe slalislicaI slud oJ nass sociel
Iegan lo give lIese specuIalions a scienliJic veneev. In nan vas, lIis slalislicaI
anaIsis oJ elInic cuIluve, vilI ils avIilvav avevaging oJ pveseIecled gvoups avound
pvedeJined cvilevia oJ diJJevence, vesenIIed lIe Iionelvic lecIniques oJ scienliJic
vacisn, vIicI veve nov Ieginning lo Ie cvilicized I vvilevs IolI in Weslevn Eu-
vope and in Japan. WIiIe eugenic lIeovies and Iionelv veve aIandoned I nan
lIeovisls aJlev lIe FaciJic Wav, Iovevev, eJJovls lo noIiIize pscIoIog, socioIog,
and slalislicaI suvve lecIniques Jov lIe scienliJic anaIsis oJ lIe pecuIiavilies oJ
Japanese cuIluve conlinued lo JIouvisI-and indeed gained nev nonenlun vilI lIe
vise oJ so-caIIed NiIonjinvon |lIeovies oJ lIe Japanese) in lIe 1960s and 1970s.
FOSTWAB LEOACIES
A gIance al sone oJ lIe vavline deIales suvvounding vaciaI science suggesls lIal
lIe Iislov oJ vaciaI lIougIl in Japan Ias Ieen nove conpIex and, in sone vas,
nove lvouIIing lIan is oJlen assuned. Suppovl Jov Japan's inpeviaI expansion in Asia
vas sonelines associaled vilI a IilevaI IeIieJ in lIe vaciaI puvil oJ lIe Japanese
Iul couId aIso Ie suslained I quile diJJevenl pevspeclives on vace. BaciaI lIeovisls
IiIe Koana Eizo accepled lIe divevse ovigins oJ lIe Japanese peopIe vIiIe sliII
IeIieving in lIe genelic supeviovil oJ lIe nodevn Japanese and in lIeiv gIoIaI nis-
sion lo coIonize and vuIe Easl Asia. CuIluvaI anaIsls IiIe NisIinuva SIinji veve
nove caulious aIoul lIe signiJicance oJ Iionelvic sludies Iul nonelIeIess nanaged
lo deveIop lIeiv ovn slalislicaI pseudo-science lo suppovl nolions oJ Japan's elInic
supeviovil. MeanvIiIe, SIinnei MasanicIi and Kada Telsuji, vIiIe vejecling sci-
enliJic vacisn, luvned univevsaIisl nolions oJ lIe navcI oJ Iunan pvogvess inlo an
eIaIovale apoIogia Jov Japanese inpeviaI expansion in Asia.
In eacI case, lIe lIeovisls oJ lIe Iale 1930s and eavI 1940s dvev on a vange oJ
Euvopean and Anevican souvces and el vevovIed lIese souvces inlo lIeovies lIal
veve dislincliveI adapled lo lIe civcunslances oJ vavline Japan. Indeed, valIev
lIan sinpI adopling pvevaiIing Euvopean lIeovies oJ vace, lIe oJlen seen lo Iave
deIiIevaleI sougIl oul veIaliveI oIscuve Weslevn IpolIeses lIal veve veadiI naI-
IeaIIe lo lIeiv ovn pevspeclives on Japan's poIilicaI deslin.
Table1
Morris-Suzuki,Tessa."DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan."Osiris13.1(1998):354-75

16
equalsaseveryindiscretioncarriedoutagainstJapaneseprostituteswasworsened
forKoreans,
Itwasillegaltoemploywomenundertheageof18asprostitutesinJapan,
whileinKoreatheminimumagewas17thefreedomtoquitwastheoretically
establishedbylaw,butsincequittingwasdifficulteveninJapan,itwas
extremelydifficultinKoreawherewomenwereevenmorerestricted
41

Thisconceptionofracism,mixedinwiththerisingideasofnationalismand
masculinityandpatriarchy,exceptnowtheyincludednewactorsintothenarrative:
theoccupiedmenandwomenandthecolonizedmenandwomen.Such
incorporationsimplyexpandedtheviewofthenationalbodybeyondtheJapanese
shoresandtotheirimmediateneighbors.Withtheriseofmilitarismthatstarted
withtheMeijibutgreatlyexpandedinthe20
th
centurywiththeintroductionof
fascistideas,thepartnershipofthesebeliefsandracismwouldsetthesceneforthe
creationofthecomfortstation,theprecursortothecomfortwoman.
AstheMeijieratransitionedintothe20
th
century,theunifiednationalism,
racialsuperiority,paternalismandtosomeextentmilitarismextendedintothenew
centuryandwereexpandeduponasImperialJapanincorporatedFascismintoits
psyche.ThelargelyunderstooddefinitionoffascisminJapaninthe1930swas
statedas,thetotalitarianorganizationofgovernmentandsocietybyasingleparty
dictatorship,intenselynationalist,racialist,militaristandimperialist.
42
Bythe
1930s,Japanchampionedmostifnotallofthesedescriptorsinitspoliticaland
socialandnowimperialisticstate.StretchingfromtheMeijiperiodtotheearly
Showaerabeginninginthemid1920s,Japanhaddevelopedacentralizedand
nationalisticstate,unifiedunderthebenevolentgovernanceoftheemperorwho
hadbeengivenunlimitedpoweroverthestateanditsmilitary.Afamilyempire
haddeveloped,coupledwiththenationalbodyconcept,designedtohelpthe
averageJapanesecitizen[bothmaleandfemale]toseehisplaceintermsof
thenation,and[his]relationshiptotheEmperorinanunbrokenlinethrough

41
Yoshimi,Yoshiaki,andSuzanneO'Brien.ComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryintheJapaneseMilitary
duringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.204
42
Willensky,Marcus."JapaneseFascismRevisited."StanfordJournalofEastAsianAffairs5(2005):
58-
77
17
history.
43
SuchidealswereinlinewithMussolinisviewthatForthefascist,
everythingistheStatetheFascistState,thesynthesisandunityofallvalues,
interprets,develops,andgivesstrengthtothewholelifeofthepeople.
44
Addingto
nationalismwasthisracialsuperioritycomplexthathadstrengtheneditsplacein
Japanesesocietyasitlookedabroadandincorporateditsneighborsintotheempire.
SuchideasbeganintheMeijiera,butwerecompoundedinthe20
th
centuryasthe
JapanesebecameactivelyinvolvedinWorldWarIanddevelopedadistrustofthe
westandasubsequentneedtostrengthentheirimperialholdingsand,asaresult,
theirsuperioritycomplex.Basedupontheeventsofthe1904-1905Russo-Japanese
war,theJapanesedefeatofRussia,whichwasperceivedatthattimetobeawestern
power,illustratedtotheJapanesetheWestsdesiretohaltJapaneseexpansion.
Fast-forwardtothe1930swheretheJapanesemilitaristswhotookpowerbelieved
thattheWestbetrayedanddiscriminatedagainstJapan.
45
Thisfearofbeing
betrayedbyandisolatedfromtheWestledtoxenophobia,whichinturn,evolved
intoanardentemperorcult,andtheresolvetoguidetherestofAsiadevelopedinto
thegreaterEastAsianCoprosperitySphere,thedeclaredaimofthePacificWar.
46

Inadditiontothexenophobiaandracialelements,thenationalisticsideofJapan
alsoexhibitedfascistideals.ImperialJapanin1932,inthewordsofHiranuma
Kiichiro,aJapanesepolitician,wasanationconstitutedofoneruler,inanunbroken
lineofImperialdescent,andhissubjectsitisthedutyofthepeople,underthe
Emperor,toexerttheirbesteffortstowardstheaccomplishmentsoftasksallottedto
them.
47
Thiscallforactionextendedoutwardstothecoloniesandoccupied
territoriesand,aswillbeshownlater,designatedspecificrolesforwomenbased
upontheirplaceintheJapaneseImperialworldorder.Intermsofmilitarism,the
Japanesewerecreatingamilitaryculturethatincludedsoldierandcitizen.Konoye

43
Ibid.,p.65
44
Ibid.,p.65
45
Stetz,MargaretDiane,andBonnieB.C.Oh.LegaciesoftheComfortWomenofWorldWarII,
(Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001)p.7
46
Ibid.,p.7
47
Willensky,Marcus."JapaneseFascismRevisited."StanfordJournalofEastAsianAffairs5(2005):
58-
77
18
Fumimaro,primeministerofJapanatthetime,passedtheNationalGeneral
MobilizationLaw,KokkaSodoinHo,whichaimednotonlytocreateanall-
encompassingwareconomybutalsotocoalescetheJapanesecitizenryinto
obedientandawe-aspiringsubjectsofthestate,thusdefiningthedutyofthecitizen
totheStateandthestatemilitary.
48
Moreover,thisconceptofdutycoincidedwith
fascistideologywhichheldthatFascismisareligiousconceptioninwhichmanis
seeninhisimmanentrelationshipwithasuperiorlawandwithanobjectiveWill
thattranscendstheparticularindividualandraiseshimtoconsciousmembershipin
aspiritualsociety,inotherwordsdutytothestatetrumpsalldutytotheself.
49
As
suchdutyrunsparalleltomilitarism,theJapaneseconsidereditsmilitaryand
militarismasoneofthemostimportantnationalpracticesnecessaryforthe
realizationofthatmorality,whichisthehighestobjectofthisnation.
50
Thus
nationalism,unification,racialsuperiorityandmilitarismallplayedaroleinthe
fascistconceptionsoftheJapanesestatefromtheMeijiperiodonward.AsMarcus
WillenskymostaptlystatesinhisworkJapaneseFascismRevisited,Imperial
JapanwasfascistnotbecauseitsuccessfullycopiedwhatwashappeninginItalyand
GermanybutbecausethatiswhattheMeijioligarchsintendedittobe,thoughatthe
timetheylackedtheparticularwordtodescribeitassuch.
51
Theimplicationsof
suchastateonwomenandfemalebodiesissimple:byimposingthecollectiveover
theindividual,allbodiesweretobeavailableandwillingtoworkfortheState.With
theFifteenYearwarringperiodbeginningintheearly1930s,thisdutytothestate
incorporatedthewareffort.Forthemalebody,thismeantbearingarmsforthe
state,forthefemalebody,theirdutywasdefineddifferentlybasedupontheir
standinginsocietybutwasequalizedintheperceptionofwomeningeneralas
vassalsoftheJapanesestatetobeused,andoftenabused,aslongasitbenefitedthe
empire.

48
Ibid.,p.66
49
Ibid.,p.68
50
Ibid.,p.69
51
Ibid.,p.67
19
AsJapanenteredthe1930s,withallitsnationalisticandnowmilitaristic
fervor,itsubsequentlybegantheFifteenYearsWar(1931-1945),acontinuous
militaryconflictthatwoulddictateJapanesesocietyandmakethesexualuseofthe
femalebodyanecessity.The1930sbeganwiththeMukdenIncident,aJapanese
engineeredconflictthatallowedtheirentranceintonorthernChina,thenknownas
Manchuria,andgaverisetointermittentfightingbetweenthetwostates.Sixyears
laterin1937theJapanesewouldbethrustintoalloutwarwiththeChinese,known
asthesecondSino-Japanesewar,abitterfightforcontroloverChina.Thiswar
wouldsoonescalatefouryearslaterintothePacificWar,throwingtheJapaneseinto
thegreaterconflictknownasWorldWarII.Thisstateofconstantwargenerated
changewithinaJapanesestatethatwaspoisedpoliticallyandsociallyfor
militaristicintervention.Menfulfilledtheirdutytothestateassoldiers,fightingon
thefrontlinesofconflict.Women,however,heldamorenuancedrole.Japanese
womenofsociety,thewivesofthemensenttothefrontlines,weretomaintain
theirpurestatusandpopulatethebourgeoninggeneration.Beyondthesewives,
thesituationtookonamoresinisterlook.TheprostitutesofJapaneseandnowthe
imperialsocietyincludingKoreaandChinaweretomaintaintheirpositionassexual
commodityofthestate.AsMargaretStetzandBonnieOh,authorsofLegaciesofthe
ComfortWomenofWorldWarII,describethesituation,womenhadtwin
patriarchalcommandsofprovidingcomforttofightingmenandproducingmale
childrentoreplacesoldierskilledinbattle.
52
Thisdichotomyofrolesforwomen
dictatedwhatwasperceivedastheirdutyinthefirstera(1931-1940)oftheFifteen
YearWar:raisingchildrenandpopulatingthefastemergingcomfortstations.
Accordingtoofficialdocumentation,theJapanesenavyandarmyunits
aroundthetimeoftheShanghaiincidentin1932erectedthefirstcomfortstations.
Inlate1938,agovernmentdocumententitledInregardtothecurrentstateof
regulationsonprivateprostitutionintheconcessionandtheregulationofspecial
prostitutesreservedforJapanesecitizensinShanghaiduring1938makesreference
tothestationsbystating,withthegreatincreaseinmilitarypersonnelstationedin

52
Stetz,MargaretDiane,andBonnieB.C.Oh.LegaciesoftheComfortWomenofWorldWarII,
(Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001)p.6
20
theareaduetothesuddenoutbreakoftheShanghaiincident,thenavyestablished
navalcomfortstationsasameanstoaidinsupportingthecomfortofthosetroops,
andthosestationshavecontinuedtooperateuptothepresent,thusprovingthat
comfortstationswereintroducedintothemilitarysystemthroughnavypersonnel
aswellasthecomplicityoftheJapanesemilitaryandgovernment.
53
Itshouldcome
asnosurprisethatastatethatalreadyconsideredawomensbody,bothwivesand
prostitutesalike,tobewithinitssphereofcontrolcouldnow,inwartime,usethese
womentoadvancethewareffortinanywaytheysawfit.Theestablishmentof
comfortstations,therefore,wasinasense,natural.Andforthatreason,the
violationsofhumanrightsbecameinvisible.
54
Withinthecontextofthetimes,the
womenwerenotseenasbeingharmed,butasfulfillingtheirdutytocountryand
thussoldier.Asshownbefore,thenotionofthemalesexrightremainedprevalent
withinJapanesesociety,lendingitselfwelltothecreationofthecomfortstationto
servethesoldiers.Theinvolvementofthehigher-levelMilitarycommandproves
thisideabecauseitpositsnootherreasonforerectingcomfortstationsthenforthe
pleasureofsoldiers,nomentionoffemaledesireorneedispresent.Asthesoldier
riskinghislifeforcountryandfulfillinghisrightfuldutyasdictatedbyfascist
ideology,thestatemustdoallthatitcouldtoensurehiswell-being.Thisideais
furtherexemplifiedbythenumberofstationsbeingerectedandthesheerprofit
garneredbythosewhoestablishedthem.Recordsrevealfromthemidtolate
1930s,someKoreanresidentsinShanghaibecamebusinessownersinthe
customarytradeandthatfivecomfortstationswererunbyKoreans.
55
Oneof
theseKoreansinparticular,PakIl-sok,anassociateinthecustomarytradeaswell
asanofficerintheShanghaiKoreanAssociation,recordedanextraordinaryincrease
inbusinessandsalesonceheturnedhiscafintoabrothel.AccordingtoPaks
personalbusinessstatements,PakbeganhisCafAseaworthcapitalof2,000yen
in1937,butwhenheturnedhisbusinessintoacomfortstationinOctober1939,his

53
Yoshimi,Yoshiaki,andSuzanneO'Brien.ComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryintheJapaneseMilitary
duringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.44
54
Ibid.,p.205
55
Soh,SarahC.TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,
(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.135
21
officiallyrecordedcapitalwas30,000yen,whichquicklydoubledto60,000yenin
1940.
56
NotonlydidPakssuccesscomefromhisexploitationofgrowthina
bourgeoningmarket,inthiscasecomfortstations,butthisideaalsoshowsthat
menspleasure,specificallythatofsoldier,wastheforcebehindthedemandthat
drovePaksprofitmargintomorethanquadrupleinsize.Thisepisodealsodepicts
thereachofthisnewfeatureofJapanesemilitarismintotheempire.TheKoreans,
aswellastheJapanese,promotedthecomfortstation,anideaadvancedbythe
Japaneseandclearlyadoptedbytheirimperialsubjects.Themotiveforthe
Koreans,however,wasprofitdrivenandasshownabove,businesswasthriving.
Itisimportanttonotethatthisera,referringtothebeginningoftheFifteen
YearWarperiod,roughlyfrom1930to1938,didnotproducethecomfortwoman.
Rathertheprostitute,ofeverynationality,Japanese,Koreanandthelike,populated
thesestations.AsnotedinthedecreebytheHomeMinistrysChiefofthePolice
BureauonFebruary23,1938,MattersConcerningtheHandingofWomenSailingto
China,Japanesewomenmeantforcomfortstationsweretobechosenfrom
prostitutes,andnoothergroup.
57
Itwasdeemedalegitimatetransitionforawoman
whoalreadyusedherbodyforeconomicgaintobetransportedtofulfilltheeven
greaterdutytosoldierandstate.Thispolicy,however,wentbeyondthebordersof
Japanandseepedintotheotherstatesofempire,specificallythatofKorea.The
worksofAsoTetsuo,amilitarygynecologist,showthatKoreansmadeup80to90
percentofallwomeninbrothels,andsoldiers,aswellasvictims,havetestifiedthat
themajorityofwomeninsouthernAsianandtheSouthSeaIslandsbrothelswere
Korean.
58
Additionally,accordingtoareportissuedbyAkamatsuKotora,governor
ofFukuokaPrefecture,datedNovember30,1937,Koreanwomenreceivedidentity
papersandpermitsfromtheYawatapoliceheadquarterstobecomeserving

56
Ibid.,p.135
57
Yoshimi,Yoshiaki,andSuzanneO'Brien.ComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryintheJapaneseMilitary
duringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.100
58
Kratoska,PaulH.AsianLaborintheWartimeJapaneseEmpire:UnknownHistories.Armonk,NY:
Sharpe,2005.p.311

22
womeninanavalcomfortstation.
59
Furthermore,medicalrecordsindicate35
womenoutof38whoreceived[medical]examinationswereKoreans,confirming
thatKoreansmadeupthemajorityofwomenfromthestart.
60
Thuscomfort
stationshadarrivedbythebeginningoftheFifteenYearWarandtheirpresence
wasfeltbyall,fromthesoldier,tothebusinessownertotheJapaneseandKorean
prostitute.Thisconfigurationwouldproveunsustainable,however,asthe
transitionintothePacificWarbeganinthe1940s,increasingthedemandsoldiers
andthuscomfortwhichprovedthesupplyofprostitutestobeinsufficient.Itisat
thisjunctureinhistorywhenthecomfortwomanwouldmakeherappearanceon
theJapanesescene,bringinghorribleyet,intheeyesoftheJapanese,justifiable
truthtotheJapanesehistoricalnarrative.
AcomfortwomanisafemalebodyoftheJapaneseempire,outsideofthe
sexualbusinessofprostitution,forciblytaken,kidnappedorintentionallymisled
intothesextradeandforcedtoservetheJapanesesoldiersduringwartime.To
date,theactualnumberofcomfortwomenislargelyunknownduetotheattempted
eradicationoftheirmemoryfromhistoricalrecordbytheJapaneseandKorean
governments.Estimatesofthetotalnumberofcomfortwomen,therefore,range
widelyandfallanywhereinbetween20,000and400,000.
61
Thecontextwithin
whichthesewomencametobeislargelyexplainedabove:theimperialistand
largelyfascistJapaneseempire,fitwithpatriarchalandhypermasculineundertones
feltthatthebodieswithintheirempire,bothmaleandfemale,hadnohigherduty
thantobeusedforgoodofthestate.Inthemidstofwartime,thisideameantthat
menweretobecomesoldiersandwomenweretofulfilltheirtwincommandsof
wife,motherandprocreatorforsomeandsexualslaveforothers.Atfirst

59
Yoshimi,Yoshiaki,andSuzanneO'Brien.ComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryintheJapaneseMilitary
duringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.44
60
Howard, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean
Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research
Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, (London: Cassell,
1995) p.13
61
Soh,SarahC.TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,
(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.135

23
prostituteswithintheempire,mainlyJapaneseandKorean,weretofulfillthisduty,
butasthewarbecamelongerandmoremenwerecalledtoservice,demandfor
comfortbegantooutrunthesupply.Inotherwords,prostituteswerenot
numerousenoughtofillallofthecomfortstationsarisingoneverybattlefrontthe
Japaneseoccupiedasthewarcreptintothelate30sandearly40s.Higherdemand,
however,isonlyonepartofthereasoningbehindthistransferofduty,referringto
thetransitionfromprostitutetoregularwomentofilltheroleofthecomfort
woman.Inordertocompletethepicture,theroleofvenerealdisease,sexual
atrocityand,onceagain,thisideaofcomfortmustbeexamined.
ThehistoryoftheJapaneseawarenessofvenerealdiseasebeganintheMeiji
erawithexposuretoWesternideasonthetopic,butbecameamorepressing
concernasJapanenteredthe20
th
century.In1918,JapanalongwiththeWestern
powerssenttroopsintoRussiatosupporttheWhiteArmyagainsttheBolshevik
RedArmyuprising.Thismilitarycampaign,knownastheSiberianExpedition,is
notofimperativeimportancetotheemergenceofthecomfortwomanexceptwhere
venerealdiseaseisconcerned.Thisepidemicwasquicklyspreadingamongthe
soldiersandbecominganobstacletotheoverallhealthandthereforeeffectiveness
oftheJapanesearmy.Documentsshowthat1109soldiersweretreatedasVD
patientsbetweenAugust1918andOctober1920.Thisnumberbecomesstartling
whencomparedwiththe1399deathsand1528causalitiesalsosufferedbythe
Japanesearmy.
62
Thesenumbersshowtheseverityofthediseaseepidemicamong
thesoldiers,buttheyalonedonotcompletethepicture.AccordingtotheNorth
ChinaAreaArmysProceduresfortheHygieneEducationofKeyOfficersissuedin
1940,theaveragenumberofdaysrequiredforrecoveryfromgonorrheawas91,
fromsoftchancres(early-stagesyphilis)58,fromsyphilis76,andfrom
hymphogranulomainguinal1,012.
63
Thusnotonlyweresoldierscontracting
diseasesatahighrate,butthelongtreatmenttimeforthesoldiersmeantthatthey

62
Tanaka,Yuki.Japan'sComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryandProstitutionDuringWorldWarIIandthe
USOccupation,(London:Rouledge,2002)p.11
63
Soh,SarahC.TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,
(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)pp.68-69
24
becameuselesstotheJapanesewareffort.ItbecomesclearthatVDposeda
prominentproblemtoJapanesemilitaryofficialsinchargeofthesetroopswhosaw
theirnumbersdroppingalreadyduetodeathandwoundsbutalsofromdisease.
Comfortwomenwereviewedasthesolutiontothisproblem.
Asnumbersofinfectionrose,prostituteswereseentobethecarriersof
disease.InoneaccountgivenbyAnazi,aformerfieldnurse,sherecountsan
exchangebetweenadoctorandasoliderbeingtreatedfordisease.Anaziwrites,As
hethankedthephysician,thephysiciantoldhimtoneverforgethowhecontracted
theterriblediseaseinthefirstplace.Youhaveawifeandchildren,right?The
soldierreplied,Yes,Ihaveawifeandtwochildren.Butyoustilllikewomenand
buythemfrequently,right?Yes,Iamnotamanthatdislikeswomen.
64
According
tothephysiciantheonlyexplanationforthesoldiersdiseasewastheprostitutes
populatingthecomfortstationsatthetimethusperpetuatingthegrowingbeliefthat
thesewomenwerethesolecauseofVDinfection.ThusthegoalsoftheMinistryof
WarchangedaccordinglyasaddressedinthedecreereleasedonSeptember19
th
,
1940entitledMeasuresforenhancingmilitarydisciplinebaseduponexperiencesin
theChinaincidentwhichclaimedthatthePsychologicaleffectsthatthesoldiers
receiveatthecomfortstationsaremostimmediateandprofoundandthereforeitis
believedthatthepreventionofVD[is]dependantonsuccessfulsupervisionof
these[comfortstations].
65
ThusVDpreventionbecameatoppriorityandcalledfor
asolutionthatrequiredfemalebodiesthatwereuntouchedbydiseaseandpure.
Sinceprostitutesfailedinthisregard,theJapanesemilitarycommandturnedto
recruitingwomenuninvolvedinthesextradewhowerelesslikelytocarry
diseasesofanyformtobecomecomfortwomen.Theseactionsareexemplifiedin
thereportsgivenbyAsoTetsuo,thegynecologistandarmydoctor,whosereportin
1939suggestedunmarriedKoreanwomenwithnopriorhistoryassexworkers
wouldbefreeofvenerealdiseasesandthusmoreappropriatethanJapanese

64
Fruhstuck,Sabine.ColonizingSex:SexologyandSocialControlinModernJapan.(Universityof
California,2003)p.144
65
Tanaka,Yuki.Japan'sComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryandProstitutionDuringWorldWarIIandthe
USOccupation,(London:Rouledge,2002)p.23

25
prostitutesasgiftsfortheimperialtroops.
66
Althoughhisreportcannotbeheldas
theprimarybasisoftheMinistrysactions,itdoesillustratethegreatermindsetof
Japaneseofficialswho,atthetime,considerednon-Japanesewomenwhowerenot
prostitutestobenotonlypurebutalsothemostadequatereplacementasgiftsfor
thetroops.ThustheneedtoeradicateVDbecameanadditionalfactorinthe
establishmentofthecomfortwoman,butsexualatrocitieswouldalsobecomea
problemthatcomfortwomenwereseentoresolve.
Paralleltothisconcernoverdiseasecametherisingproblemofsexual
warfarebeingconductedbothunofficiallyandofficiallybytheJapanesearmy.
TurningonceagaintotheSiberianexpedition,surveysdistributedtothesoldiers
demonstratethatinadditiontonottrulyunderstandingwhytheywereinRussia
andwhattheywerefightingfor.Thesoldierswerebytheirownaccounts,
unrulythereweremanyincidentsofrapeandofpillagingcivilian
housesbehaviorbecameaconsiderableproblemevenfortopmilitaryleaders.
67

OkabeNaosaburo,anexpertonRussianaffairspresentinSiberiaandwitnesstothe
behaviorofthetroopsduringtheexpedition,mostlikelyhadthisknowledgein
mindyearslaterwhen,asaSeniorStaffOfficerduringtheShanghaiExpeditionary
Forcein1932,hewrotethefollowingaccount:
RecentlyIhaveheardalotofscandalousstories,includingthatsomeofour
soldierswanderaroundseekingwomen.Suchaphenomenonishardtoprevent
asfightingbecomeslessfrequent.Thereforetheestablishmentofappropriate
facilitiesmustbeacceptedInconsiderationofoursoldiersproblems,wehave
decidedtointroducevariousmeasures.
68

Yearslater,afterthebrutalandhorrifyingatrocitiescommittedbytheJapanesein
Nankingin1937,Japanesemilitarycommandersbegantorecognizenotthe
atrocitiesbeingcommittedbythesoldiersbuttheunrestitwascreatingamongst
civiliansinChina.TheoccupiedmenandwomenofChinawerebeginningtofeelthe
threatoftheJapanesearmybearingdownuponthem.Forthewomenitcameinthe

66
Soh,SarahC.TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,
(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.135
67
Yoshimi,Yoshiaki,andSuzanneO'Brien.ComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryintheJapaneseMilitary
duringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.46
68
Tanaka,Yuki.Japan'sComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryandProstitutionDuringWorldWarIIandthe
USOccupation,(London:Rouledge,2002)p.45
26
formofunspeakableviolenceandforthemenintheformofaviolationoftheir
womenwhowereviewedasanextensionoftheirpropertyandhighlyacclaimedfor
theirpuritynowtarnishedbytheJapanese.Itwasforthisreasonthatcomfort
stationsand,withtheincreaseofsoldiersbeingdeployed,comfortwomenwere
establishedatvariousJapanesebasecamps.Tothisend,althoughaprincipleplayer
intheestablishmentofcomfortstations,OkamuraYasuji,commanderofthe11
th

Armyin1938andoftheoccupationofWuhanmadethefollowingstatement.
Atpresent,almostallunitsareaccompaniedbycomfortwomencorps.Ithas
reachedapointwhere{acomfortwomencorps}isjustonemorelineof
communicationcorps.Buteventhoughsuchunitsasthe6
th
Divisionmarch
withacomfortwomencorps,thereisnoendtotherapes.
69

Yasujisstatementarerevealingintwodistinctways.Firsttheyprovidesufficient
evidenceforthefactthatcomfortwomenwereenlistedtostoptherapes
committedbyJapaneseforces.InclaimingthereisnoendtotherapesYasuji
suggeststhereasoningbehindthecomfortwomenandsimultaneouslyadmits
defeatinthisobjective.Tofurtherprovethisfailureamilitarydocumentwrittenin
1942reportsthatoutofthe610crimescommittedbytroopsaftertheyhad
invadedcountriesSoutheastAsiaandthePacificIslandsin1942,anarmydocument
notedtheprevalenceofrapes,asituationcausedbothbyinsufficientcomfort
facilitiesandinsufficientsupervision.
70
Clearlytheprovisionofpurewomenfor
theJapanesetotakeouttheiraggressiononinsteadofthewomenoftheoccupied
provinceswasnotasolutiontotheproblem.InfactSarahSohsumsitupquite
nicelyinthefollowingstatementontheintentionsoftheJapanesemilitary
command.
Itisimpossibletopreventrapeontheonehandwhileofficiallysanctioning
sexualviolenceontheother.Thereisnoreasontoimaginethattherewouldbe
anyrelationbetweencomfortstationsystemandasubstantivesolutiontothe
problemofpreventingrapes.
71

Thus,theplanwaspronetofailurefromthebeginning.

69
Soh,SarahC.TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,
(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.66
70
Ibid.,p.140
71
Ibid.,p.66
27
Finally,thelastpurposefortherecruitmentofcomfortwomenwasof
coursetheprovisionofcomfortforthedisparateandpressuredJapanesetroops.
Astheyearsofwarbecamelongerandmoreintenseandasthetransitionwasmade
intothePacificWar,Japanesetroopsweregivenlittle,ifanyvacationorchancefor
rotation.Longdaysinthefieldandnostandardizedorstructuredsystemofleisure
allotmentbroughtJapanesemilitarycommandtotheconclusionthatsexualcomfort
wasnecessarytoquelltherestlessness.Toillustratefullythesituationcommanders
faced,MiyazakiShoichi,astaffofficerinthe11
th
Armydescribestheconditionsin
whichthemilitarycomfortsystemexpanded.Youngofficers,draftedofficers,and
thelikehadpoorcommandovertheirmen.Wecantignorethefactthattheywere
unabletoasserttheirauthorityoverolderenlistedmen.
72
Inordertomaintaina
controlledsystem,theJapanesecommandlookedtothestructureandvaluesputin
placebythestatefortheanswers.Themalesexrightfullycameintoplaywiththe
decisiontoenlistcomfortwomenintheefforttoboostmorale.Thesecondarticle
ofthecomfortstationregulationsofthe3
rd
IndependentMountainArtillery
RegimentdatedNovember14,1939directlystatesthatThepurposeofthe
establishmentofspecialcomfortstationsistopacifyandmoderatethetroopsbrutal
temperamentandtoaidinthepromotionofmilitarydisciplinewhichplaces
comfortanddisciplineinthesamecategory,thusexpoundinguponthethought
processoftheJapanesecommand.
73
Additionally,thedescriptionofcomfortwomen
asemperorsgiftstothetroopslentitselfeasilytotheunwaveringdutythefascist
Japanesestatepusheduponitscitizenry.Byplacingtheemperorsstampof
approvalupontheprovisionofthecomfortwomen,theirpresencewasglorified
becauseitrepresentedanacknowledgementbythehighestpowerinJapan,the
benevolentdictator,theverystateitself.Thepressuresandthepsychological
exhaustionofwarareclearlydepictedintheaccountsofaJapanesesoldier
describinghisexperienceandtherolethecomfortwomenplayedinthemitigation
oftheintensity.

72
Ibid.,p.74
73
Ibid.,p.73
28
Thetimeswhenwe(themenwewereduringthewar)wouldbeholdingdown
ourpenisesasweranin{tothecomfortstations}were,afterall,whenwehad
justcomebackfromalongbattlejumpingforjoyandheadedimmediatelyover
thereTheyallwantedtobefreedfromthestressofthesingularexperienceof
havingwalkedthelinebetweenlifeanddeath.Theystoodtherewaiting,with
theirpantsunbuttoned,fumblingwithloinclothslongsinceturnedadingygray
andfidgetingisitmyturnyet?Isitmyturnyet?...Wethoughttherewasno
senseoffulfillmentthatburnedsointenselyasthis.
74

Figure1
http://www.awf.or.jp/e1/facts-12.html

Thissincereyetfrankdescriptionofthesituation,probablyrecreatedintheother
Japanesecampsinsimilarways,displaystheintensityofthepressureunderwhich
theJapanesesoldierwasplacedand,asaresult,theintensityand,arguably,
brutalitywithwhichtheyapproachedthecomfortwomen.
Thustheexplanationofthenecessityofthecomfortwomancompletesthe
analysisofhowandwhythecomfortstationsandcomfortwomenaroseinJapanese
militaryhistory.Tracingtheoriginsofhypermasculinityandthepatriarchalstate,
thestrongandunwaveringnationalismandracismthatbledintotheriseoffascist
ideals,andfinally,theshiftingwaysinwhichwomenandprostituteswereboth
consideredinthehistoricalthreadoftheJapanesestateallleadtothecreationof
thecomfortwoman.Althoughtheanalysisspeaksvolumesaboutthecontextofthe
narrativeinwhichthecomfortwomenwereplaced,thewordsofanoutsidercannot

74
Yoshimi,Yoshiaki,andSuzanneO'Brien.ComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryintheJapaneseMilitary
duringWorldWarII,(NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000)p.74
29
sufficetoshowthetruesituationthatsurroundedthelifeofthecomfortwoman.It
isimportanttoletthewomenspeakforthemselves.Thusapresentationofthe
recruitmentmethodsofthecomfortwomenandexcerptsfromtheirstorieswillbe
providedbelowinordertocompletethetragichistoricalepisodethatsurrounded
thecomfortwoman.
InaNoticefromtheAdjutanttotheChiefsofStaffoftheNorthChinaArea
ArmyandCentralChinaExpeditionaryForce,theMinistryofWarlaidoutits
strategyforrecruitment.
Inrecruitingwomendomesticallytoworkinthemilitarycomfortstationsto
besetupintheareasafflictedbytheChinaIncident,itisfearedthatsome
peoplehaveclaimedtobeactingwiththemilitarysconsentandhavedamaged
thehonorofthearmy,invitingthemisunderstandingofthegeneralpublicIn
thefuture,armiesinthefieldwillcontroltherecruitingofwomenandwilluse
scrupulouscareinselectingpeopletocarryoutthistask.Thetaskwillbe
performedinclosecooperationwiththemilitarypoliceorlocalpoliceforceof
thearea.Youareherebynotifiedoftheorder[oftheMinisterofWar]tocarry
outthistaskwiththeutmostregardforpreservingthehonorofthearmyand
foravoidingsocialproblems.
75

Figure2

ThisdocumentissuedbytheMinistryofWarin1938makesvariousaspectsofthe
recruitmentofcomfortwomenexplicitlyclear.Firstandforemost,theJapanese

75
Ibid.,p.59
30
militarywasnotonlyaparticipatoryforceintherecruitmentofcomfortwomenbut
itissafetosayitwasthedictatingbodybehindthemethodsofrecruitment.The
chainofcommandcamefromthechiefofstaff,anentityfullyanddirectly
responsibletotheemperor,toeachcommanderoftheexpeditionaryarmy,tothe
campoverseerswhomanagedtheeverydaytasksandoperationsandfinallytothe
soldierswhotookadvantageofthesystem,everylevelofthearmysystemwas
explicitintheriseofthecomfortwoman.Later,Japanesedenialofthecomfort
womenincidentisclearlyoutoflinewiththisofficialdocument.Thisstatement
issuedbytheMinisterofWaralsodemonstratestheuseofforcesoutsidethe
militarytorecruitwomen,thusshowingthatblamefallsontheshouldersofnotjust
theJapanese,butasthestoriesofthecomfortwomenwillshow,theKoreansandall
otherentitiesthatwereinvolvedintherecruitment.Lastly,thedocumentclearly
illustratesthewaymilitaryproprietywasviewedbytheJapanese.Thefactthat
somethingsohorrificastherecruitmentofyoung,innocentwomenwasjustified
becauseitwasdonehonorablyspeaksvolumesofthepsycheandmentalityheldby
theJapanesecommandinconsiderationofoccupiedbodies,imperialbodiesand
womenfrombothofthesesegmentsofsociety.Ininterviewsof19formercomfort
women,theydescribedwithintheirstoriesthemethodsthatwereusedthatled
themtofindthemselvesintheprecarioussituationascomfortwomen.
31

Table2
Howard, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the
Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research
Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, (London: Cassell, 1995)

Table2illustratesthemethodofrecruitmentusedandthemainpersonwithwhom
thewomendirectlyinteracted.
76
OutofallthemethodssanctionedbytheJapanese
governmentincluding,violence,falseemployment,abduction,andhumantrafficby
civilians,localauthority,militaryandmilitarypoliceandcivilianemployees,itis
clearthatpromisesoffalseemploymentbyeverydaycitizenswasthemostpopular
andarguablythemostsuccessfulmethod.Moreover,astudyconductedbythe

76
Howard, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean
Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research
Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, (London: Cassell,
1995)
32
KoreanCouncilandtheMinistryifGenderEquality(MOGE)revealsthatmost
KoreansurvivorswererecruitedeitherbyKorean(64)orJapanese(35)civilian
procurers,whereaspolice(45)andsoldiersorcivilianemployeesofthemilitary
alsoplayedsignificantrolesasrecruiters.
77
ItbecomesclearthatciviliansofKorean
descentwerethemostusefulintherecruitmentofcomfortwomen.Thisfactlends
itselfwelltothefactthatanoverwhelmingnumberofcomfortwomenwereinfact
Koreanwomen,oftenteenagers.Thesenumbersalsoshedsomelightuponthe
Japanesecommandsstrategyofrecruitment.Itisclearthatasenseoffamiliarity
wasusedinordertogainthetrustoftheyoungwomen.Itisarguablyeasierto
convincesomeonetoaccompanyyouortrustyouifyouareofthesamenational
background,especiallyinatimeofJapaneseimperialismandoverbearingracism.
Morethantrust,however,theciviliansusedforrecruitmentwereusingamethod
thatappealedtoKoreanslargelyofthelowestclasses.TheMOGEstudyalsoreveals
atthetimeofrecruitmentmorethanone-thirdof172casesworkedasmaids(26),
factoryworkers(20),employeesandrestaurantsorkisaenghouses(9),farmers(5),
students(5),ormerchants(1),alljobstakenbythelowerechelonsofKoreanfemale
society.
78
Japanwasviewedasanationofprosperitythatofferedopportunitytoa
younggirloflowstatus,thusapromiseofoccupationinJapanwasviewedasan
opportunityfewgirlswouldturndown.Thisdataprovestheexplicitexploitationof
thesocialstatusoftheKoreanyoungwomen.Byusingatacticthatwasbasedupon
offeringadesiredopportunitytopoorwomenwhohadlittlechoicebuttoaccept,
theJapanesegovernmentwasintentionallylookingtomisleadtheseyoungwomen
toalifeunimaginabletomanyofthem.ThestoriesofKimHaksun,KimTokchinand
YiYongsukaresullenandterriblydetailed,butonlythroughtheirvoicemaythe
aforementionedtacticsbetrulyunderstoodandonlythroughtheirstoriesmaythe
journeyofthecomfortwomanbegivenlife.
79

77
Soh,SarahC.TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,
(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008)p.139
78
Ibid.,p.139
79
Howard, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean
33

KimHaksun-BitterMemoriesIAmLoathtoRecall

KimHaksunwasbornin1924inJilin,ChinatoKoreanparents

Whenwefinallyarrived[inJapan],wehadlunchinarestaurant.Wewereaboutto
leavewhenaJapanesesoldierbeckonedourfosterfatherover.Hewasamilitary
officerwithtwostarsonhislapelandheaskedifwewereKoreans...Youmustbea
spy,comewithme.MyfriendandIwerebustledawaybyothersoldiers.Wewere
ledalongabackstreetandcametoaplacewhereanopentruckwasparkedThey
toldustojumpinand,whenweresisted,theyliftedusintothemassofsoldiers.
Afterafewminutestheofficerwhohadtakenourfosterfatheroffreturned,andthe
truckimmediatelyspedofCrouchedinacorneratthebackofthetruckwewept,
shockedatwhatjusthappened.Wewereterrified.Someminuteslaterwenoticed
anothertruck,justlikeours,followingus

Itwasdark.Wewerentawareofwhatwasgoingonandcouldntevenguesswhere
wewere.MyfriendandIweresentintoaroom,wherewesatandlookedateach
other.Wehadnoideawhatwasgoingtohappen.Alittlelater,theofficerwhohad
takenourfosterfatherawaycameinHedraggedmeoffandheldmeclosetohim,
tryingtotakemyclothesoffatthesametime.Istruggled,butintheendmyclothes
werealltornaway.Hetookmyvirginity.Duringthenightherapedmetwice

Whenweheardwomensvoicesoutside.TheywerespeakingKorean.Oneopened
thedoorandcamein.Sheaskedushowwehadgotthere.Myfriendtoldherabout
ourjourney.Shesaid:Nowthatyouareherethereisntmuchyoucando.Thereis
nowayyoucanrunaway.Youllhavetostayandacceptyourfate.Latersoldiers
broughtwoodenbedsintoourcurtainedroom.Wewereallocatedoneportioneach,
andourlivesascomfortwomenbegan

Thesoldiersoftenwentoutonpunitiveexpeditions.Theywouldgooutatnight,
stayawaythreeorfourdaysandreturnintheearlyhoursofthemorningWhen
theycameback,wehadtobeupearlytomeethim.Usuallytheywouldcometous
intheafternoon,eachwouldstayabouthalfanhour.When,moreinfrequently,they
happenedtocomeintheevening,theywereoftendrunkandtheywouldtreatme
evenmoreroughly

Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research
Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, (London: Cassell,
1995)

34
Itseemedtousthatthesoldiersreceivedspecialpermissiontovisit.AtfirstI
didntknowwhethertheypaidusforourservicesornot,butlaterIheardfrom
Sizuethattherankandfilepaid1.5yenavisitandtheofficerspay8yentostaythe
wholenight.Iaskedwhoreceivedthemoney.Allsherepliedwasthatwewerethe
oneswhoshouldbepaid.IneverreceivedanymoneyallthetimeIwasacomfort
woman.IdontknowwhatSizueknewtomakehersaysuchthings

WhyhaventIbeenabletoleadanormallife,freefromshame,likeotherpeople?
WhenIlookatoldwomen,Icomparemyselftothem,thinkingthatIcannotbelike
them.IfeelIcouldtearapart,limbbylimb,thosewhotookawaymyinnocenceand
mademeasIam.YethowcanIappeasemybitterness?OnceIamdeadandgone,I
wonderwhethertheKoreanorChinesegovernmentswillpayanyattentiontothe
miserablelifeofawomanlikeme

KimTokchin-IHaveMuchtoSaytotheKoreanGovernment

KimTokchinwasbornin1921inSouthKyongsangprovince,whereherwholefamilylivedatanuncles
house,farmingthelandbutscarcelymakingaliving

ItwasthemiddleofJanuaryorperhapsalittlelaterIwas17yearsold.Iheard
girlswerebeingrecruitedwithpromisesofworkinJapan.Itwassaidthatafew
hadbeenrecruitednotlongbeforefromPyongchonwherewehadlivedwithmy
uncleIsuddenlyheardaKoreanmanwasintheareaagainrecruitingmoregirlsto
workinJapanesefactories.IwenttoPyongchontomeethimandpromisedhimI
wouldgotoJapantowork.HegavemethetimeandplaceofmydepartureandI
returnedhometoreadymyselftoleave.Ineverdreamedthatthiscouldinvolve
danger

WearrivedatKunbukstationandtransferredtoatrain.Itwasapublicslowtrain,
andtravelledslowlydowntoPusan,whereweboardedaboatAtNagasaki,a
vehicleresemblingabuscameandtookustoaguesthouse.Fromthatmomenton
wewerewatchedbysoldiers.Iaskedoneofthem:Whyareyoukeepingushere?
Whatkindofworkarewegoingtodo?.Hesimplyrepliedthatheonlyfollowed
orders.OnthefirstnightthereIwasdraggedbeforeahigh-rankingsolderand
rapedHepattedmybackandsaidthatIwouldhavetogothroughthisexperience
whetherIlikeditornot,butthatafterafewtimesIwouldnotfeelsomuchpain.
Everynightwewereraped.Onthefifthday,Iaskedoneofthesoldiers:Whyare
youtakingusfromroomtoroomtodifferentmen?Whatisourwork?Isitjustgoing
tobedwithdifferentmen?Hereplied:Youwillgowhereverorderstakeyou.And
youwillknowwhatyourjobiswhenyougetthere.

35
Therewasatruckwaitingforusatthepier,whichwhiskedusawayTherewasa
largehouserightbesideanarmyunit,andweweretobeaccommodatedthere.The
housewasprettymuchderelictandinsideandwasdividedintomanysmallrooms.
ThereweretwoJapanesewomenandabout20Koreansthere,sowiththe30of
ustherewereabout50womenintotal.ThetwoJapanesewomenweresaidto
havecomefrombrothels.Theywere27or28,abouttenyearsolderthanallthe
Koreans.ThesoldierspreferredusKoreangirls,sayingwewerecleaner.

Weroseatseveninthemorning,washedandtookbreakfastinturns.Thenfrom
about9oclockthesoldiersbegantoarriveandformorderlylinesEachofushad
toserveanaverageof30to40meneachday,andweoftenhadnotimetosleep.

Howcouldoneexpectotherwisewhenaninnocentgirlwassubjectedtosuch
torturedayandnight?Noneofushadchildren,butIheardthatsomebecame
pregnantandwereforcedtoabortwithaninjectionordrugs.EventhoughIhadno
disease,Iwastoldatarecentcheck-upthatmywombismalformedfromtheabuse
itreceivedinmyyouth.

Amongus,thereweresomewhofoughtagainstthemen.Somewereaccusedof
stealing,sometriedtoescapeonlytobedraggedback.Somewerebeatenand
kickedbysoldiersSoldierswhoreturnedfromthebattlefieldwerewild.They
wouldtrynottousecondomsThesoldierswhowereabouttoleaveforcombat
weresomewhatmoregentletherewereevensomewhowept,theyweresoscared
togofight.Iwouldcomfortthemandtellthemtocomebacksafelyfrombattle.
Whenanyreturnedalive,Iwouldbegenuinelygladtoseethemagain.

YiYongsuk-IWillNoLongerHarbourResentment

BorntoKoreanparents,YiYongsukwasorphanedatayoungageandlivedwithafamilyinOsakabut
returnedtohercountryoforigin,Korea,in1937attheage15

WhileworkinginYangsan,Imadefriendswithagirltwoyearsolderwholived
alonewithherfather.ItwasDecember1939,andIwas17.Mynewfriendtoldme
thattherewassomeonelocallypromisingworkinJapan;shesaidshewasgoingto
goandaskedifIwantedtogoalongwithher.WhetherIlivedinKoreaorinJapan
madenodifference,sobelievingthatlifeinJapanwouldbeeasierthaninKorea,I
leftthefamilyIwasworkingfor.Wemetacouplewhoweresaidtohavecomefrom
Sinuiju,andwhohadrecruitedforgirlinadditiontous.Theyprovideduswithroom
andboardandbroughtussomesimpleclothes.Theygotusalltohaveourhair
bobbedandencouragedustoputmake-upon

36
Westayedintheportovernight,andthefollowingmorningsailedonGuangdong.
WhenwearrivedthereweremanysoldierswalkingaboutthedocksideWewere
takenbytrucktoathree-storyredbrickhouse.Assoonaswegotoff,wewereled
intoalargeroomonthegroundfloor.Theroomhadadoublesteeldoor,andeach
windowwasbarredwithironrodsWesoondiscoveredthatthereweremany
othercomfortstationsnearthisone,andthenumberofKoreancomfortwomen
appearedtobeseveralhundred.

ThewomeninthenewstationwereallJapanese.IwastheonlyKorean.Itwas
morespacious,sinceeachwomanhadaroomtoherselfItwasmuchmore
comfortable.Mostofthesoldierswhocamewereofficers,althoughafewNCOs
visitedaswell.IwasabletoservethemwhenIwantedto.Mefeewasdividedwith
theproprietoronanequalbasis.IfIearnedenoughmoney,IknewIwouldsoonbe
abletoreturntoKorea.

LetmefinallysaysomethingIconsidertobeimportant.TheJapanesewerebad.
ButtheKoreanswerejustasbadbecausetheyputtheirownwomenthroughsuch
terribleordealsforpersonalprofit.ItwasbadenoughthatIhadtosufferwhatIdid.
ButitisworsethatIwasmadebarrenbecauseofthisordealWearefinished,and
ourbodiesareuselessaftersomuchabuse.Itdoesntmatterwhetherwereceive
compensationornot.Afterall,whatcouldwedowithmoney,withsofewyearsleft
beforewedie?AllIcanwishforisthatmycountryandmypeoplewillprosperso
thathistorycanneverberepeated.