Topic

1: A Quite Short and Fairly Colourful Introduction to Organisational Behaviour

Organisational Behaviour and Organisations Organisations - - Groups of people working inter-dependently toward some purpose To achieve a common goal through structured systems and processes

Organising - as an activity or as a practice

Organisational behaviour - the study of what individuals and groups think, feel, and do in and around organisations

Listings of some organisations that come to mind: - - - - - - - Why Study OB? - - - - Organisation is ubiquitous and necessary Complex set of processes Consider how people and processes are actively managed (or not) Better understand how to manage and organise through observation of practice and use of theory (Behaviour drives outcomes) SIM Esso Housing Development Board SMRT PUB POSB Star Hub

Descriptions of these organisations: - - - - Fast Systematic Bright Dull

Our responsibility as future managers is that when we take over these organisations with these descriptions, we are to improve on them. Levels of organisational Culture: - - Observable: Symbols

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Ceremonies Stories Slogans Behaviours Dress Physical settings

What is Critical Thinking? - - - - - The discipline of being sceptical or questioning about statements, propositions information or norms (Mingers, 2000: 225) Involves critical analysis of peoples arguments and propositions Awareness of the context/purpose of our dispositions, behaviours and actions Being sceptical of conventional wisdom or of a dominant view Critique of how we know what we know

Example of critical thinking: What type of organisation behaviours do you think the new model for organisations requires? Flexible, People oriented, People focused In terms of thinking about how to improve the roles and functions in the hierarchical structure for the requirements of the new model is to seek Quality and Innovation The response of thinking and answers has no correlation with profit making. Processes of Critical Thinking Three core processes - - - Differs from simply fault finding or censuring Implies coming to a reasoned judgment based on analysis: - - - - - Claims Arguments Authority Evidence Assumptions identifying and challenging assumptions seeking alternative ways of seeing and interpreting developing an awareness of historical context

Consider the following organisational behaviours that are likely to be experienced in a hospital in Singapore

Response: Knowing your emotions well and know how to work with others emotions Difference between a Claim and an Argument? Argument: - - Three main ways to support arguments: - - - Authority (People with respect/Status) Other writers support your position Evidence (Data or Facts) selected examples drawn from the empirical data or previous study. Some rhetorical functions use by writer can be quite powerful Persuasive writing style (Convincing tone or language) A connected series of statements intended to establish (or subvert) a position A process of reasoning; a statement of the pros and cons of a proposition (Shorter OED)

Definition of statement: - Is a message that is stated or declared A communication setting forth facts, arguments or demands (various claims and arguments can combine to make a statement) Example: stay healthy by eating healthy food. Definition of a claim: Is an assertion or demand that something is true or factual. (Something that can be quantified) Example: Stay healthy by drinking a 8 glasses of plain water everyday Possible exam subject: How do you evaluate the strengths of a statement and a claim? Dealing with Different Viewpoints from Literature Authority: - - What gives the author(s) the right to assert their position? Why should we accept it?

Possible criteria: - - - Citations of a particular piece of work Recognised expertise of the author in the field Quality of medium and appropriateness of method

Critiquing assumptions

Eg: facts, ideas, beliefs

Scientism - - - - - - Human Relations - - - - - - - Assumptions of Mainstream Organisational Behaviour - - - - Some Neglected Agendas - - - - Goals are no longer accepted as indicator of organisational effectiveness could set easy goals some goals too abstract to evaluate company might achieve wrong goals Goal oriented Managers use their detailed knowledge to steer individual and group behaviour in a firm and maximise profit Commonsense ideas are based on our understanding of how organisations should operate The science of management The formal organisation versus informal organisation Emphasis on the function of groups e.g. belonging and togetherness Managers need to know how to establish a convergence of interests Management training in human relations techniques e.g. Leadership, teamwork, motivation, etc. Psychological bias 1780-1840 Western industrial revolution Inherent inefficiencies in traditional models Economic progress = science and technology i.e. industrial society Mass urbanisation Emerging rationality of the labour process of capitalist production

Complacent image of functional relationships within organisations is unsatisfactory - - unquestioned relationship between means and ends whose interests are being served, preserved and furthered?

Topic 2: Modern Times

The Sociology of Organisations - - Auguste Comte the discipline of sociology into a positive science; a positive mode of reasoning Saint Simon legitimised positivist ideology as the new social order

From Theology to Science - - - - - From compulsory cooperation to industry Rise in the importance of science and technology Growth of a bourgeoisie with an industrial base Growth of Protestantism Decline in relative importance of Catholicism Theology to Metaphysics to Science (From non-rational to rational)

Three Decisive Factors for Comte - - - - 1. The scientific character of industry, particularly the way in which labour is organised custom and practice give way to rational organisation; (Government) (Industry) 2. Previously unparalleled development of wealth and resources arising from scientific applications; (Business)(Economy) ( which government, how we do and what we do) 3. New social phenomenon: the large scale organisation of working masses both at work (factories) and in the non-work situation (urbanisation) (Social) ( everyone has access but there are ones that dominate) Watch the corporation on YouTube On the overall, try to see the link on how the government/ industry influence the economy/businesses which evidently influences society

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Modern Industrial Capitalism - - - - - - 1780-1840 = 1st period of Western industrial revolution; Arose from the inherent inefficiencies in traditional models; Economic progress = Industrial society; (In England) the mass migration of the working class from rural to urban centres and a shift from agricultural to industrial working; Emerging rationality of the labour process of capitalist production Rationalise on how these factors have contributed to the hierarchical structure of organisations and how these contribute to their roles, responsibilities, economic rights and way of life. ( Refer to the image below)

Herbert Spencer - - - - - From militant to industrial society Identified a rigid hierarchy of power From status Through property To productive labour

Table of difference between military and industrial Society

Durkheims Political Economy - - - - Durkheimian Organisational Analysis - - - - Useful individuals = economically productive activities Capitalists and workers pursuing common goal of determining course of society Increasingly extensive division of labour Development of occupational guilds and Assocs. Collective consciousness and social organisation not psychologistic concept of evolution (Social) Society is greater than the sum of the parts (Synergy) Meritocracy based on a system of industrial organisation (System) No fundamental conflict of interest in the industrial situation ( Society)

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Systems of industrial relations Social injustices = structural inequalities Class conflict = pathological abnormality Was he right (WWI and II)?

Weber and Rationality - - - - Comte and Durkheim = conservative and idealistic vision of lost social solidarity Weber = realistic, pessimistic, ambivalent about the power of rationality to renew this mythical solidarity Weber proposed a method for the analysis of the culturally unique constellation of the modern economy, state and organisation by constructing an ideal type of capitalism For Weber the individual ideal type of rational enterprise was built around the notion of bureaucracy works well if governed with policy

Marx and the Labour Process

Contemporary Capital Accumulation - - - Products are sold for profit and a large part of the surplus is invested again to yield new profits Regional family businesses to international empires The structure of enterprise = problem for management

Summary: Rational Organisation - - - Early capitalist production has a simple relation between entrepreneur and worker, capital and labour. Emerging industrial capitalism arose from the inherent inefficiencies in traditional models Modern capitalist labour process of production prescribes how to rationalise the voluntary and independent status of workers

Recap - - - Modern industrial capitalism arose from the inherent inefficiencies in traditional and customary models; The emerging rationality of the labour process of capitalist production that combines new technical knowledge with increased scale of efficiency and exploitation Growth of industrial capitalist production built around the notion of bureaucracy

Topic 3: Organization Society

For this chapter it is important to know the different principles from the different theories and their management implications The Appliance of Science - - - Decline in Protestant Ethics Rise in interest in reform of society through discoverable scientific methods More than ever, the worlds greatest need is a science of human relationships and an art of human engineering based upon the laws of science (Whyte, 1956: 24, added emphasis)

Scientific Management - Definition: The American system of scientific management enjoys the greatest triumphs in the rational conditioning and training of work performances. The final consequences are drawn from the mechanization and discipline of the plant, and the psycho-physical apparatus of man is completely adjusted to the demands of the outer world, the tools, the machines, in short to an individual function. The individual is shorn of his natural rhythm as determined by the structure of his organism: his psycho-physical apparatus is attuned to a new rhythm through a methodical specialisation of separately functioning muscles, and an optimal economy of forces is established corresponding to the conditions of work

(Clegg and Dunkerley, 1980: 82, added emphasis) Frederick Winslow Taylor (Taylorism) - - - - - - - - Principle Aims - - - - Aims: 1.To point out the loss through inefficiency ( get rid of inefficiency ) 2.Scientific management 3.Emphasis on measurement, control and predictability ( prove that management is a science e.g. : with a set of firm inputs there will be desired and predictable outputs) Aka Freddy Speedy Taylor How do you control and coordinate work in large scale (industrial) bureaucracies? Produced accurate and scientific study of unit production times The Principles of Scientific Management (1911) ( 1911 was a time of mainstream theories) Led to division of labour Obsessed with efficiency. Principle of controlling worker behaviour to be more productive. Technical functions Analytical rationality Coming out with systems

 Among Taylors Recommendations - - - - 1.Division of labour (specialisation) ( task has got to be divided) 2.Work measurement 3.Individual task prescriptions Motivation through incentive schemes (work as an individual activity) 4. Role of management (separation of conception and execution of work) (implications: until today there are some managers that do not perform tasks with their employees. In reality it is advocated for managers to perform tasks with employees and manage them at the same time) 5.Development of management thinking ( experimental and observational mode of reasoning) Management are to develop and monitor KPIs. Scientific Management Associates Henri Fayol First comprehensive application of rationalisation principles at the level of management Gulick and Urwick Early U.S. based (Urwick was English) management consultants who adapted Fayols principles to rationalise work processes in large conglomerates; More sophisticated approaches to enhancing worker performance Henry Ford All-encompassing Fordism widened the scope of Taylorism Some Notable Dissociates ( Criticisms against Taylorism and scientific management) Antonio Gramsci Italian formal theorist of (and for) labour and resolutely against Taylorism: Scientific management only focuses on output and neglect other factors Braverman another Marxist who argues scientific management deskills though separation of mental and physical. (Makes people into a robots)(exploitation of human capital) Durkheimian further erodes social solidarity at the level of the firm Weberian Iron cage

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(Q2) Define the meaning of Marxs claim that the capitalist labour process is an unequal relationship

Response: - - - Managers have privileges Workers have no say There should be equal recognition

Definition : the meaning of marxs claim that the capitalists labour process is unequal relationship Early capitalist production has a simple relation between entrepreneur and worker, capital and labour. Karl marx claimed that the capitalist labour process make workers just a labour force The control of worker becomes mainly a management prerogative When too much power is given to management, workers are treaed badly Marx regarded labour power as the most important of productive forces Hence in order to have equal relationships management and employees should treat each other with respect and should not take advantage of each other. Final Analysis: Efficiency and Effectiveness? Rarely implemented fully Develops to serve and benefit bureaucrats Privileges past decisions and status quo Unimaginative and non-entrepreneurial Wasted talent / knowledge of workers ( Taylorism wastes the talent of people, results workers to have no initiative and no voice in organisations) No promotion (if good at role) Intrinsic value? More than just economic animals? Turnover, absenteeism Quantity not quality

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New VISA Paywave Aimed at mass adoption by consumers Transaction times are crucial to the consumer experience and the retailer business Marketed as a new and exciting consumer experience Continuing emphasis on measurement, control and predictability

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McDonaldization Rationalization and Mass Production - McDonaldization is The process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as of the rest of the World. (George Ritzer The McDonaldization of Society p1)

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The processes are those of Rationality Bureaucracy - of organization ( very structured) Taylorism of work design (Input processes output result) Fordism of mass production (Deskilling of people) The principles are ( Guiding principles of organisations) Efficiency the shortest distance ( from need to gratification) Calculability measure everything ( the cult of bigness) Predictability time-space compression Control non-human for human substitution

Discuss the benefits of these principles for customers / workers : - - - - efficiency Calculability Predictability Control

Makes the consumer experience the same at every location of a McDonaldised company - Uniform quality and replication of experience: - - - - - - you don't have to worry about eating a bad burger burgers from one McDonald's to the next will taste the same stability (on a global scale) easy comparison of goods It also makes the work routine for the employees of that company - workers don't have to worry about thinking for themselves They will have time to concentrate on other things, while they go through the motions of performing their jobs.

Combines best of bureaucratic organisation, assembly line and service sector - - - - - - - - - system is controlled optimal layout of facilities high role specification and prescription precise training of staff (and customers) Greater availability and wider range of goods and services instant availability, convenience, 24/7 economical as more people eat out busier population diffusion of innovation/culture.

Discuss the drawbacks of these principles for customers / workers: What Might Be Wrong

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When you travel to a different area, do you want the experience to be the same? If you are touring France, visiting the city of Paris, do you really want to eat at McDonald's? Doesnt that detract from the whole experience of a different culture? It is true, many employees don't want to have to think while they are working, But isn't a job that is challenging better? Dont all jobs need a bit of initiative?

Possible exam question (Q1) Using the case of McDonalds as an example, outline the process through which modern organisations continue to be rationally organized. Response: - - - Methodical Systematic Procedures

Mcdonalds is famous for its quick and efficient service in the fast food industry . The [processes that make mcdonalds efficient are the clear set of procedures which are rationally organised The processes start out from the moment a customer give the order till the correct finished product is given to the customer The key processes includes order taking, repeat order to ensure items are received correctly. Elton Mayo and the Human Relations Movement - - - - - Human Relations School = a form of neo-Durkheimian intervention to repair social solidarity at the level of the firm Aimed at reducing likelihood of workplace unrest through the study of the informal social relationships Contrasted the doctrine of possessive individualism with that of the function of groups The famous Hawthorne Studies (1924-32) Systems are good but people are the highlight. We do not look at the systems in an organisation but its people.

Development of Human Relations Theories - - Distinction between formal/informal organisation ( has language of its own e.g. : fast talk) Formal and informal prescriptions need not (and often do not) cohere: consensus as a myth?

The worker does not always behave as the formal organisational logic would prescribe Management training in human relations techniques to address the question of the control and coordination of work Psychological bias

Human Relations as Crusade? - The Human Relations School] may neglect the fact that many problems of organization are in fact only problems of and for management, and that these problems cannot be spirited away through a change of supervisory style or the learning of social skills. They are in fact structural contradictions inherent in the hierarchical organization of work in terms of distinct levels of mental and manual labour, for the private appropriation of the fruits of the collective product, and the inegalitarian treatment and reward of organization members in the process (Clegg and Dunkerley, 1980: 134, added emphasis

Topic 4: Organizations and Leadership

Aims of the lecture What is leadership? Define leadership

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Approaches to leadership Mainstream and emerging theories

Leadership styles and behaviours Competencies of leadership

What is Leadership? Leadership - - A social process in which one individual influences the behaviour of others without the use or threat of violence (Buchanan & Huczynsci, 1985 in Thompson & McHugh, 2009) The acid test of leadership must be its ability to improve organisational leadership (Fiedler, 1967, in Thompson and McHugh, 2009)

Shared leadership - - - Leadership is broadly distributed, rather than assigned to one person, such that people in the tram and organisation lead each other. (McShane et al. 2013: 382) New model of leadership you can lead from the front side ( frontier) or from behind There have been a shift in thinking on how much value individuals contribute to organisations and on how they can lead : ( Taking the lowest point of economic standing in an organisation) Example of a cleaner, who is being seen as an individual who has value in contributing to a companys profit yielding and work as he/she helps the environment to be hygienic and thus prevent people from being sick . He/she can be seen as to set hygiene standards.

4 Approaches to Leadership - - - Individualism ( one person, strong man leadership) Essence of leadership Dualistic views of power and influence

Untheorised / exaggerated agency

Fairhurst (2007) Individualism - Leadership psychology tries to get behind experiences to find connections between cognition, emotions and behaviours. It reduces leadership to statements of intentions of behaviour by individuals who are identified as leaders or to judgements of the past so that real ongoing experience is not studied.

Essence of leadership - Leadership psychology is focused on studying traits, styles or behaviours of leaders and seeks to identify attributes or qualities that are meant to capture the true nature of leadership, irrespective of context and circumstances.

Dualistic views of power and influence - In keeping with unitary and pluralist views of power (see Chapter 6), leadership psychology has treated power as a negative and repressive property and distinguishes it from influence, which is made synonymous with leadership. This duality means that leadership, be it treated as transformational or heroic (see below), is portrayed as positive influence.

Untheorized/exaggerated agency - While leadership is treated as a force of change, leadership psychology pays scant attention to agency or action. The first consequence is that leadership research deals with leadership in an abstract way without looking carefully at how the organizational entity in which a leader is supposed to lead got there in the first place and how it has been maintained on an ongoing basis. Leadership psychology also reinforces the notion of exaggerated agency, which is derived from leader-centrism and the explicit emphasis given to individualism and leadership heroics. This contributes to a view that followers need leaders, are dependent on them and cannot function without them, thus amounting to what can be termed a belief in the power of one.

Competency (Trait) Perspective of Leadership - Skills, knowledge, aptitudes and other personal characteristics that lead to superior performance

Competency - - Drive Emotional intelligence

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Cognitive ability Knowledge of the business Self-concept Integrity Personality

These traits determine behaviours and attitudes while working with people (response from people).Are these traits reliable? Have we seen a leader that is missing with one or two of these traits? But still a good leader? Competencies include the knowledge, natural and learned abilities, values, personality traits, and other characteristics of people that lead to superior performance. Recent leadership literature identifies seven competencies that are characteristic of effective leaders. Competency (Trait) Perspective Limitations and Practical Implications - 1. Leadership is far too complex to have a universal list of traits that apply to every condition. 2. The competency perspective recognizes that some people possess personal characteristics that offer them a higher potential to be great leaders. Organizations are relying increasingly on competency-based methods to hire people for future leadership positions. 3. The competency perspective of leadership does not necessarily imply that great leaders are born, not developed. Competencies only indicate leadership potential, not leadership performance.

Traits and Characteristics Limitations: eg Stodgill (1974), Handy (1980) - - - - Leadership Styles and Behaviours - - - McGregor (1960) Theory X Theory Y Assumes that all effective leaders have the same personal characteristics that are equally important in all situations. Alternative combinations of competencies may be equally successful Views leadership as something within a person Indicates leadership potential, not leadership performance

 McGREGORS THEORY X McGregor argued that one could infer from certain managers treatment of their employees that they believed that: The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible. Because of this most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to put adequate effort into the achievement of organizational objectives. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above all (McGregor 1960: 334). McGREGORS THEORY Y Work is as natural as rest or play. External control and threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort towards organizational objectives. People will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committed. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The average human being learns under proper conditions not only to accept but to seek responsibility. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. In most work organizations, the abilities of most employees are only partially utilized. Theory Y implies that problems of a lazy uncooperative workforce are not the problems of the workforce, which is what Theory X assumed, but the problems of management, and the management practices which made the workers that way Types and Roles Lewin, Lippitt and White (1939) Autocratic Democratic Laissez faire

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AUTOCRATIC (Directive):

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Centralizes authority Dictates work methods Limits employee participation Makes and imposes unilateral decisions Top down, dictate, authoritarian ( but sometimes it is appropriate E.g. people who are change resistant) ( quickest and easiest, one person decides)

DEMOCRATIC (Consultative or Participative): - - - - - - - Involves employees in decision making Delegates authority Encourages participation in deciding work methods and goals Uses feedback as opportunity to coach employees Participation sometimes results in higher satisfaction Greater decision acceptance sometimes (relational, get everyone involved, longer decision made. Can put people off from task focused)

LAISSEZ-FAIRE: - - - Gives employees complete freedom to take decisions and complete their work in their own way Provides materials and resources and answers employees questions Doesnt lead sits back and monitor from there.

Benne and Sheats (1948) Task maintenance act Group maintenance act

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Types and Styles Blake and Moutons (1978) Leadership - - - No research formed Blake and mouton put the pieces together through experience and made this model Focuses on the relationships between the different types of leadership to the amount of task performed or production.

 Authentic leadership

Authetic leadership: demonstrate their passion, practice their value consitenly & leads with their heart as well as their heads. They establish long-term meaningful relationship & have self discipline to get result.

Emotional intelligence developed on the basis of integrity and ethics in leadership due to corruption and unethical leadership Contingency (Situational) Perspective of Leadership - - The most appropriate leadership style depends on the situation. As one type of leadership wil not be able ti lead in all situation. Therefore, Leaders must be insightful and flexible, and adapt behaviours and styles to the immediate situation Contingency leader must be able to adapt their behaviour & style to address the issue. However, it is not easy to do so as it take considerable effort for the leader to choose & enact different style to meet the situation Take note that, leadership must have high emotional intellengence so that they can diagnose the circumstance & match their behaviour accordingly.

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Adopt leadership according to the situation choose the most appropriate From the great man theory to great man theories Revolves around the leadership styles of: Path goal theory Servant leadership Fiedlers contingency model Situational leadership Leadership substitutes

Example Fiedlers contingency model Leadership effectiveness depends on whether the person natural leadership style is appropriatelt matched to situation. Fielders model suggest that the best leadership style depend on the level of situational control. That is the degree of power & influence that the leader process in the particular situation.

With a good leaders member, high task structure, strong position power create the most favorable situation because he or she has the most power and influence under these situation.

Contingent Leadership Fiedlers (1974) Contingency Model - The performance of relationship- and task-motivated leaders in different situational- favourable conditions

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3 variables relationship or task oriented How the relationship works How structured is the task How much power do you have? The best results yielded are from being both task oriented and relationship oriented.

Charismatic Leadership - - - - - - Magnetic ability to attract people and people will follow them irrespective of what happens. Applied to a certain quality of an individual considered extraordinary treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, specifically exceptional powers or qualities. qualities are not accessible to the ordinary person regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary , and the individual concerned is treated as a leader (Weber,1968: 241)

FOLLOWERS IDOLISE CHARISMATIC LEADERS BECAUSE: - - - - Omnipotent archetype (the leader will nurture and guide them) Leader as mystic (knows the way and has the answers) Heroic stereotype (can move mountains) The value-driven virtuous leader (looks after the collective good and is empowering) (Sankowsky 1995: 64).

This can have negative implications as, if charismatic leaders have individual motives, they can manipulate people with structured languages and persuasive tactics to perform acts. E.g. Adolf Hitler. Transformational Leadership It is a leadership that explain how leader changes teams or organization behaviour by creating, coomunicating and modelling to inspire employees to strive for something greater beyond life. Transformational, enages on employees by appealing to their value and inspiration. It is the change agent who energize and direct employee to a new vision and corresponding bahaviours. It is particularly important in organization that require significant alighment with external behaviour. Visioning the new corporate future Communicating the vision Implementing the vision building an effective top team reorganizing building a new culture communicating and dramatizing the vision focusing on people seizing the moment
Build commitment towards the vision

creating the new vision breaking the old frame demonstrating personal commitment to the vision

Create a strategic vision

Elements

Communicate the vision

Model the
vision

Popular in 1980s and 1990s (Dunphy and Stace, 1990)

Developed in the late 90s and early 2000. This is for people who can lead change well. Move to a new direction. But however this method is not always needed. Transformational leaders are good at pivotal points. There is a need to strike a balance of transformational and transactional. 4 elements of transformational leadership 1. Creat a strategic vision: This type of leadership established a vision of companys future that engage employees woth objectives. These leader shape a stratetic vision of a realistic and attractive future that bone employees together and focuses their energy purpose or superordinat goal that energises and unifies employee. 2. Communicate vision: Transformational leader communicate meaning and evaluate the important of the vision goal to employee. Frame message around the grand purpose with emotional appeal that captivates employees and other corporate stakeholder. Which help to establish common mental model that the group or organization will act collectively toward the desire goal.

They bring vision to life through symbol, metaphor and story. 3. Model the vision: Not only they talk about a vision, but enact it, it is importace because doing so legitimisesand demostrate what that vision look like in practice. It build employees trust in the leader. The greater the consistency between leaders word and action the more employees will believe in and willing to follow.

4. Build commitment toward the vision. Transforsming vision into reality require commitment and they build the commitment in serveral ways. (I) Their words, story build a contagious enthusiasim that energises people to adopt the vision as their own. (ii) leader demonstratation attitude by enacting their vision and stay on course. (iii) their presistence and consistency reflect an image of honesty, trust and intergrity Transactional leadership Help organization to achieve their current objective more efficiency, such as linking job performance to value rewards and ensuring that employees have the resource needed to get the job done. Transactional leader are those people in power who exchange resource with other. Mainly gain compliance by using rewards and punishment as well as negative with other.

Charismatic leadership Only applied to certain quality of an individual at considered to be extraodinary. They are being treated as endowed with supernatural specifically exceptional power or qualities. It is personal trait or relational quality that provides referent power over follower. Charismatic leader might be transformational leadership; through their personal power through charismatic tools to change the behaviour. Effective transformational are not necessary charismatic. Eg Alan Lafley.

Paternal Leadership Tactics

Protect authority Secrecy Selective favours Nonemotional ties

Nonspecific intentions

Differential treatment

Centralisat ion

Paternalism

Reputation building

Focus on how leadership in Asia works. Different from autocratic- family like

PATERNAL LEADERSHIP STYLE Dependence orientation of subordinates - The acceptance of hierarchy and the concept of filial piety lead to the cultural norm of conforming to headship and dependence on the patriarch. Personalism - Personal relationships play a more important role in governing behaviour than formal systems and rules. Moral leadership - The leader is assumed to possess virtues such as humanity and integrity as a requirement in his role. He must act as a model and be worthy of respect. Harmony building - Part of the leadership role is to build and maintain harmony. He should be sensitive to the feelings of subordinates. Conflict diffusion - The leader needs to make sure that conflicts are prevented from happening. Social distance- The leader tends to stay at a social distance from the subordinates to preserve his father-like authority. Didactic leadership - The leader is assumed to be the master who possesses the necessary knowledge and information and is expected to act like a teacher. Dialogue ideal - A subtle and informal communication is expected so that the leader can signal his intentions and be aware of the sentiments and views of the subordinate.

PATERNAL LEADERSHIP TACTICS Centralization - The leader, as part of the autocratic elements of his leadership, will not allow much involvement of subordinates in the decision-making process. Non-specific intentions - The leader will not be explicit in revealing his intentions and expectations. Secrecy - The leader will always keep certain information or knowledge to himself. Avoidance of formality -The leader will avoid turning the way of doing things through relations into formal procedures.

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Protection of dominance - The leader will seek to protect his authority position through playing down the importance of the subordinates, altering the responsibility requirements at will, making subjective evaluation of subordinate performance, and so on. Patronage and nepotism - The leader will use his position power and the resources at his disposal to do selective favours to the subordinates. Family members or those linked to the leader are often appointed to key positions. Non-emotional ties - The leader will avoid emotional bonds with the subordinates to shield his dignity and to evade obligations. Political manipulation - The leader controls the group through differential treatment of the individuals. Reputation building - The leader will be very concerned about building and protecting his reputation, especially in external ties with business associates.

Narcissistic Leader Narcissism - - - They must be more than they are Their value as people is dependent upon the image they project People are objects to be manipulated to get the validation narcissists need

Everything revolves around the leader. They are not receptive at being wrong. BROWNS TRAITS OF NARCISSISM - - - - - - Post Heroic Leadership - - Associated with transformational leadership but with a greater emphasis on developing subordinates (Bradford and Cohen, 1984) Distributed or collective leadership (Heifetz and Laurie ,1997) denial rationalization self-aggrandizement attributional egotism sense of entitlement and basic anxiety

Leader thinks that the followers are good, and focuses on the followers having some form of leadership.

 Followership - - - Implicit Leadership Perspective People evaluate a leaders effectiveness in terms of how well that person fits preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviours of effective leaders (leadership prototypes) People tend to inflate the influence of leaders on organisational events Followers perceptions about the characteristics and influence of people they call leaders Followership is the role of the group member in supporting (or not) the leadership role Leadership prototypicality (Hogg, 2001) Social identity and leadership (Haslam , 2001)

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The Three Levels of Leadership

Public Private

Personal

Leadership is very much a relational product of the societies in which organisations operate. - - Cultural variables will affect how leaders from different Cultural backgrounds manage in foreign cultures and with culturally diverse groups.

Topic 5: Group, teams and performance

Definition: Team , Group (Katzenback and Smith (1993) Team - - - Group - - - Group of people who share similar interests Collaborative style Individual input and accountability Group of interdependent people with complementary skills Collaboration between members to undertake a task Mutual accountability

Group: a composite definition Group - a collection or coalition of people who interact meaningfully in the pursuit of common goals or objectives and who have at least a tacit sense of agreed standards, values and common identity

Context - - Social and interpersonal tools Technologies of action through which we achieve ends that our beyond our perceptions of personal power When we think individually and not as a group, he or she might have a lower perception on what he or she could achieve by using his or her personal power. But through group the perception of what individual can achieve will be higher due to a number of personal powers owned by different individuals who join the group

Group versus Team Katzenbach & Smith (1993) Work Group - - - - - - - - Collection of people placed together to share information Groups performance is when people come together to share information, views and insights Focus is on individual performance and actions individual accountability Shared purpose essentially that of the organization Have formal rules and norms Leaders are often managers based on hierarchical positions Group members produce individual work outputs imposed tasks; individual performance and evaluation is the basis for determining success Groups are useful when they must complete critical tasks.

 Group versus Team Katzenbach & Smith (1993) Work Teams - - All teams are groups teams are a special subset of groups. Establish a working definition: A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. Teams require individual and mutual accountability Shared purpose jointly determined and planned with management Teams have a leadership role shared by team members Empowered, self-directed and cross-functional to have complementary skills Members are committed to working together and achieving their common goal Greater synergy - work collaboratively by respecting other team members On-going learning when faced with problems.

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Respective Environments Group: - - Team: - - - - The manager collaborates with subordinates as peers and jointly establishes and plans the work Skill set required is broader, provides for individual growth and development and working directly with other team members Rewards are based on both individual performance and the individuals contribution to the teams overall performance All members are directly involved in continuous improvement. A manager determines and plans the work of his subordinates and the jobs are narrowly defined Rewards are based on individual performance.

Typologies of organisational groups - - - - - - - Groups Skill Interaction Relationships Norms Type of work Control

Social practice and the role of employees Role in the organization must be clear - - - Pivotal (required) this is the role you must except in order to stay in organization. Eg be on time Relevant (desired) organization considers these desirable and good, but not necessary. Eg appearance, extra work effort Peripheral (tolerated) nethier necessary nor desirable, but allow by organization. Eg Behaviour is tolerated if not interfere with work.

Factors influencing group cohesiveness Factor increase group cohesiveness - - - - - - - - - Homogeneity (the quality if begin similar) Goal agreement Small group size High-level interaction Participation Inter-group competition Group rewards

Factor Decrease group cohesiveness - - - - - - - Negative factors arising from group cohesiveness Both types can produce an illusion of agreement among group members and feelings of commitment to group-based norms 1. Interpersonal cohesiveness: - - May lead to members suppressing personal doubts which is agreeing on something we dont agree with due to minority. Members may bow to group consensus Heterogeneity ( the quality of being diverse) Individual goals Increasing size Lack of communication Coercion Intra-group competition Individual rewards

2. Task-based cohesiveness: - - - May lead to selective perception and convergent thinking which is lets make the agreement now that result in illustionof agreement. May not encourage openness of expression (groupthink) Social loafing ( eveyone think alikw when everybody is social loafing)

Negative factors arising from group cohesiveness Groupthink occur 1. Moral judgment and reality testing are suspended 2. Often occurs with high risk decisions in high-status groups with dominant leadership 3. High stress conditions and threats to self-esteem REFERENCE: Thompson, P & McHugh, D.2009, Work organisations: A critical approach, Palgrave Macmillan, London . Chapter 24: From groups to teams: 375 Groupthink is when pressure for consensus prevents the group from making a proper appraisal of alternative courses of action. Symptoms of groupthink include an illusion of invulnerability and unanimity, a belief in the morality of a group and the use of direct pressure on those who are reluctant to conform to the consensus that develops. More likely in socially insulated, homogenous groups (eg in the Challenger case study, all team members are engineers). A group in this situation is assumed to exercise self-censorship producing an illusion of invulnerability that leads to the stereotyping or moral crusade against the out-group who will not agree with the decision or thinking. Examples: Challenger space-shuttle; USA president Bush war on terror in the Middle East and invasion of Iraq.

Negative factors arising from group cohesiveness Social loafing - - - when emotional is high and logic is low occur where effort is reduced by a group member ( member does not make contribute to group. Often occurs when number of members is high and interest in the task is low make the size of the group smaller to avoid free rider Occurs when there are no systems in place for checking member contributions

- -

Social loafing tend to be more serious when individual performance is less likely to be notices. This depends on employees motivation to perform work. It is lees prevalent when the task is interesting because individual are more motivated by the work.

Approaches to Teamwork 1 . Mainstream view are base on assumption that teamwork has positive effects on performance through increased flexibility, motivation and learning 2. Critical view highlighted problem with mainstream thinking. This approach tsuggest that teamwork is neither intrinsically good or new and leads to unequal social relations Mainstream: Post-bureaucratic theories on teams - - Peters and Waterman (1982): foundation of excellent organisations Senge (1990); Drucker (1993); Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995); davenport and Pusak (1998): key elements of learning organisations Oakland (1996) TQM Pfeffer (1998) Lead to profit Adler (1993) Womack et al. (1990) Lean production through teams Berggren (1992) Self-managing teams

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Key ideas - - - Research dedicated to how teams behave and how teams can be made more effective Teams are central to organisational performance People are fundamental to post-bureaucratic organisations and lead to profit

Source: Knights and Willmott, 2007. Introducing Organizational Behaviour and Management, Cengage, London: Chapter 2 Motivation and self Chapter 4 Groups and Teams at Work Mainstream perspectives on teams: - - - Teams work better when tasks are clear and easy to implement, learn roles faster, easier to become cohesive Ill-defined tasks require members with diverse backgrounds and more time to coordinate Teams preferred with higher task interdependence

Extent that employees need to share materials, information, or expertise to perform their jobs.

Source: Knights and Willmott, 2007. Introducing Organizational Behaviour and Management, Cengage, London: Chapter 4 Groups and Teams at Work: 141 Appears to offer a solution for everything about teams how they work, how they can work more effectively; and how to be a successful team member. However this is not a realistic view of how teams actually work. It presents organisations as simplistic , and teams as the cure of all organisational problems. Very difficult to find a model that can be applied as the variances in the work place are vast Organisational dimensions that teams activate

Mainstream: Teams for flexibility, motivation and learning 1. Flexibility: Lean production work organised around teams

2. Motivation: participation, satisfaction and empowerment cutting off middle managers so that the employees will not have to check with their manager. - - Recognises employees importance and value Organisations as a social system

3. -

Learning: Continuous improvement and innovation Synergistic outcomes compared to individual work Building things together 1+1 = 3

Limitations with mainstream team theories

REFERENCE: Thompson, P & McHugh, D.2009, Work organisations: A critical approach, Palgrave Macmillan, London . Chapter 24: From groups to teams: Mainstream approaches to teams at work have made several contributions, but there are also limitations. A contribution is the offering of effectively designed and managed teams as the solution for almost any organizational problem. This in part explains the appeal of teams to managers, but team life is not always as positive as mainstream perspectives suggest and their prescriptions are not guarantees of success. Related to this is the aim of mainstream literature to develop models that can predict team behaviour and results.

Critics argue that because of the variability of team experiences, this aim is impossible to fulfil. Another contribution claimed by some mainstream authors is the empowerment of working in teams, although other mainstream thinkers fear that this results in a loss of managerial control, a greater risk of poor decision making and the pursuit of goals that might not be in the best interest of the organization

Critique: Tuckmans Stages of Team Development

Forming is the first stage of team development. Period of discovering expectation Period of evlauating membership value Period of test boundaries of behaviour Period of defer to existing authority

People tend to be polite, will defer to authority and try to find out what is expected from them and how they will fi into team. Storming is mark by internal conflict. Compete for team role: Influence goal and mean Establish norms of appropriate behaviour and performance as people become more proactive. theres a lot of clash and fights ( different people have different ways of doing things due to culture)

Norming team develop first real sense of cohesion as: role are establish agree on team objective form team mental model uncertainties are clarified in this phase. it clarifies values and norms to lead into cohesion so that they could perform the task in harmony, they share the same view of behaviour to distinugh between right and wrong

Performing members have learned to efficiently coordinate and resolve conflict. High performing team, member are highly coorperative, high level of trust, committed to group objective.

Adjourning break up since the goals are achieved Usually when there Is a new CEO a team must redo this team development, if the CEO does not agree with the whole stage of team development or sometimes he or she does not agree with the established norms and values. Hence team must redo the norming stage only. Norming usually get reconstruct when there is a new member, since the additional person does think differently due to their culture. Some groups does not do the whole stage of team development together Possible exam question: Name the differences between the forming and performing in tuckmans group development stage. Put in a table and elaborate. The differences Starting ending forming Getting to know you Understanding each others role before moving to the next stage performing Start working together . celebrating together for a job well done . adjourning and look forward to the next project This stagre occur when team is about to disband. Team member shift their attention away from task oriented to relationship focus. Existing teams can move or shift back to earlier stage of team development

Critical approaches to teamwork 1. Parker and Slaughter (1988) Teamwork is a managerial strategy of work intensification that does not happen overnight 2. Barker (1993,1999); Sewell (1998); Ezzamell and Willmott (1998) Teamwork impacts on self-identity Enhances control and consent

 3. MacKinlay and Taylor 91996); Knights and McCabe (2001,2003) Teamwork is a social practice Can provoke resistance and negative behaviour Implications of Critical theories 1. Not seen as a neutral technology of work design Teams are a practice that creates unequal social relations its still top down and driven by managers Contest the idealised picture of teamwork that cannot be sustained Mainstream believe that team will lead into innovation but to critical theorist its like a fairytale Teamworking not teams at work employer driven process - Worker exploitation

2.

3. Sedimented power relation (Laclau 1990) managers still decide on things. Employees do not have empowerment. - - Critical writers: teamwork as a contested terrain It is simplistic to assume that teamworking creates win win situation for worker and manager as mainstream perspective imply Decisions taken and routinely produced which establish what something is or is not Contests workplace inequality, identity, and freedom

 Team Dimensions Model

Governance promote team behaviour Normative cohesion will lead to less conflict and understanding among team members Support system :Train memebers who are new Technical will you hire an individual who is aggressive or introvert Support system :Boss giving feedback Building culturally diverse teams Approaches - - - - - Challenges - - - - Lack of understanding of cultural traits Status and power differences Reward structure Communication Identify shared values Respect diversity of skills Acknowledge unique contributions Supportive environment

Communicating in culturally diverse teams Sensitivity Importance of business cards communicate rank and status Perceptions of punctuality Different meaning of being late or on time Dominant language literacy Recognise that English is usually a persons second language Nonverbal cues Facial expression ,Language, Voice intonation, Silence/ conversational overlaps Interpreting nonverbal meaning, Importance of verbal versus nonverbal Directness v indirectness

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Varying degrees of directness about sensitive subjects (observe more nonverbal cues)

For the directness vs indirectness: Japanese people will say no in a indirective manner for example: they will say I will think about it. Building Culturally Diverse Teams Guirdham, M.2005, Communicating Across Cultures at Work, Palgrave New York .Chapter 8: 303 Approaches: - - - - - - Identify shared values Promote mutual understanding and respect for diversity Supportive atmosphere Decentralise power Acknowledge unique contributions of individuals Enhance perspectives & broader approaches to task.

Challenges: - - - - - - - Toxic communications - - - - - - - Blame and scapegoat person or a group that is made to bear the blame for others Accusation and back-stabbing Meddling- interfere with someones business without any rights Departmental feuding- bitter quarrel for long periods of time between departments Patronage- gift giving Secrets- Corporate self-deception Sometimes managers donot want to admit their mistakes on failed decisions like the MRT case. Status & power differentials Reward structure can be either individual or collective. Cultural environment of the organisation Task competence of members Interpersonal conflict Poor communication Dominant / passive personality clashes

Topic 6: Motivation and meaning; workplace attitudes

What is Motivation? - - - - - Refers to the forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity and presistance of vountary behaviour It Human energy and processes directed toward goals No one formula- Motivation can come from many things or places Motivation is self driven and not caused by anyone Motivated employee are willing to excert a particular level of effort (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistance), toward particular goal( direction)

Motivation approaches Mainstream - - Critical - - Mainstream: Key content theories of motivation 1. - - Taylor Economic rewards - provide a limited view of motivation. Taylors believes that individuals are lazy, they will do the minimum , dislike the work and they need to be monitored but they could be motivated through rewards. Maslow, McGregor, Aldefer, McClelland and Burnham, Herzberg and Hackman, Porter and ` Lawler Maslow = the 5 stages 1. physiological the need for food, air water, shelter and like. 2. Safety need the for secure & stable envirnoment and the absence of pain, threat or illness 3. belongingness need for love, affection & interaction with other people 4. Self esteem the need through personal achievement as well as through recognition & respect of other 5. Self-actualisation the nedd for self fulfilment realization of ones potential Alienation of work Manipulation of people Content: what are the needs that motivate people? There are certain things that drive us Process how does motivation occur?

2.

Maslow need of hierarchy is a motivational theoty of neeeds arranged in a hierarchy where by people are motivated to fulfil a higer need as a lower one become gratified. For Adelfer said that the combination of existence, relatedness and growth will give us something. For McGregor, he believed that people need achievement, power and affiliation McGregor also includes theory X and Theory Y Herzberg mentioned about the hygiene factor. - Key ideas - - - - Mainstream: Key process theories of motivation 1. - Skinner : operant conditioning Vroom : Expectancy theory- depends on perceptions, beliefs and attitudes of employee toward the work Motivation fulfills human needs Managers assumptions matter Satisfaction and dissatisfaction Job design matters Concern with the human needs of employees

Voom expectancy theory of motivation A motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is direct toward behaviour that people believe will lead ti desire outcome

E to P expectancy Individual perception that their effort will result in a particular level of performance Companies increase this can do attitude so that employees have the necessary capacity clear role and nescessary resources to reach the desire level of performance. Matching employees competencies to the job requirement and clearly communicate task required for the job.

P to O expectancy Perceived probability that a specific behaviour or performance level will lead to particular outcome P to O are perception, so employees neeeds to know higher performance will result in higher reward and they need to know that connection occur.

Outcome Everyone has unique value and experience that result in different need at different time. Therefore, individualising rather than standardizing rewards and other performance outcome is important ingredient in employee motivation.

2. - - - - Key idea - Cultural relevance of the mainstream theories of Motivation Mainstream theories are culture bound - Assumes that (i) individuals have similar needs (ii) Control decisions about future actions (iii) Managers can deliberately shape the behaviour of employees Progressive movement toward enlightened management conduct Adams : equity theory Levinson : ego-ideal what a person aspires to achieve Locke and Latham: goal setting theory Bandura : self-efficacy past experiences shape our goals Luthans : managerial reinforcement and performance

- People with different cultural backgrounds express their needs differently and attribute to control to external factors

- - - - Theories do not apply universally Source: Knights and Willmott, 2007. Introducing Organizational Behaviour and Management, Cengage, London: Chapter 2 Motivation and self Chapter 2 Motivation and the Self The history of mainstream approaches to motivation is a history of increased recognition of the social needs of employees and their desire for autonomy as individuals. Mainstream

- - - -

approaches assume that by creating work environments in which employees are empowered, they will motivated to expend a lot of energy and produce high quality work. The critical approaches challenge this story, by investigating the nature of the capitalist system in which todays organizations operate. One approach suggests that motivation is always a problem because the nature of the capitalist system is such that employees are alienated and exploited. Another approach challenges the notion of the autonomous, empowered individual, stating that our sense of self is socially constructed and maintained. We judge ourselves based on the views of others and this provides a way in which our conduct can be controlled. This approach argues that motivation stems from processes of self-discipline in which we judge ourselves against an internalised standard of how we should be

They are described as content theories of motivation because they focus on what motivates people. They assume that if we can identify these needs and meet them, then we can motivate them towards a goal. The second group of motivation theories are called process theories, because they ask what is the process by which motivation occurs? In contrast to content theories, process theories acknowledge that the employee is not just a needs-driven entity but rather a self-conscious person making sense of their experiences and adjusting their effort in the light of earlier experience. Critical theories of motivation 1. - - 2. - Marxist analyses Capitalism and its conflict of economic interest between organisation and worker Alienation: product, process, others, self Braverman; Burawoy Theories of self Is talking about policy of paying bonus, it is used to deceive workers because though the workers have work very hard they still do not have job security.

Key ideas - - - - Motivation very difficult in capitalist systems Exploitation of workers People (self) are insecure Managers create insecurity about the value of the persons self to motivate

Factors that affect motivation

DISCUSS: Ordinary People Doing Extraordinary Things 1. - Is the film an example of motivation or inspiration? 2.-Is there a difference between motivation and inspiration? 3. - Make a list of your opinions and conclusions Empowerment a definition - The process by which managers delegate power to employees to motivate greater responsibility in balancing the achievement of personal and organisational goals. Give power to other people, because they need to achieve both personal and organisational goals.

4 Dimensions of empowerment Empowerment is easy to avocate but difficult ti put into practice.

1. Meaning - - A fit between work roles and the employees values and beliefs energizes employees about their job. If employees hearts are not in their work, they cannot feel empowerment.

2. Competence Skill and knowledge and ability to do the job Belief that one has the ability to do the job well without competence, employees will feel inadequate and lack a sense of empowerment

3. Self determination Having control over the way one does the work. Employees who feel they are just following orders from th boss cannot feel empowered.

4. Impact The person wants to give impact (make a difference in an organisation) The belief that one job make a difference within the organization without a sense of contributing to a goal. Employees cannot feel empowered.

Empowerment and motivation Empowerment is used to exercise our employee judgement so , low level employees are not to be emowered because they do not have enough skill knowledge and several things that are essential to do the job. Focus - - Benefit - - - Belief - - Everyone has a need for self-determination and a need to cope with environmental demands directly Providing staff with the power to show initiative can certainly satusfy some higher order needs but sometimes situational factors such as perception of equity Balance the achievement of personal and organisational goals. Raise perception of low self-efficacy Reduces bureaucracy Liberating, not controlling human energy Delegating responsibility to the staff

Outcomes of empowerment as motivation Advantages - - - Staff take ownership of their work Staff identify problems and generate solutions Unleashes staff talent

Disadvantages - - Attitudes, values and beliefs Can disempower managers and lead to resentment Taken as an insult Create anxiety in staff who have low self-efficacy and fear responsibility

Personal maslow hierarchy of needs Professional if an individual feels that his/her job brings an impact to society, he/she will take it with more importance Social (peer pressure) can be influenced by other individuals Behavioural individuals have no choice in some situations whereby they are forced to behave in a particular way.

 Attitude a definition - An attitude is a subjective experience involving an evaluation of something or somebody.

Attitude orientations Conative - - Belief - - Cognitive Pertaining to act or process of knowing or perceiving something Behaviour Pertaining to nature

Affective - Emotion

Attitudes vs. Emotions Attitudes Judgements about an attitude object Based mainly on rational logic Usually stable for days or longer

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Emotions - - - Affect Affect - A generic term that covers the wide range of feelings that people experience. Encompasses both emotions and moods Experiences related to an attitude object Based on innate and learned responses to environment Usually experienced for seconds or less

Emotions - Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something

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More short lived than moods Most emotions occurs without our awareness Help individuals to cope in danger eg if we see something dangerous we will immediately attempt to avoid it

Moods - Feelings that are less intense but longer lasting than moods

Building (Affective) Commitment Justice/ support - - Shared values - Trust - - Organisational comprehension - - Employee involvement - - Employees feel part of company Involvement demonstrates trust Know firms past/present/future Open and rapid communication Employees trust org leaders Job security supports trust Values congruence Apply humanitarian values Support employee wellbeing

Schwartzs Values Model

If there is a need to be innovative, do not attempt to follow the opposite quadrant for guidance Values across national cultures