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Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction
Astronomy is a natural science which deals with the objects outlying beyond the atmosphere of the Earth. In ancient times, observers who lived in the Egyptian and Babylonian eras were able to intuit that there were some objects in nature situated beyond the sky, and worshiped these as Gods. In medieval times people who lived in Europe discovered that these objects are merely constituents of the universe and in 16th century Sir Isaac Newton revealed the basic relationship underlying their motion. In the dawn of the modern age due to the development of science people have realized the complicated truth about the universe. But still there are many questions to be answered, and the most crucial one among them was the question of formation of the universe. According to the some beliefs of religions, the universe was created by their God. Despite the fact, in accordance with the theories of physics universe is an accidental result of an event which is known as Big Bang. Due to Big Bang an enormous amount of energy was released into the newborn universe which created a super-hot dense soup of energy. As the universe grew older the hot dense soup of energy started to cool down and then it triggered the creation of matter according to the Einsteins equation [1] (1.1) These new born matter particles initially possessed great velocities and they are not subjected to any kind of interactions. But as the universe got cooler these particles have bonded between each other in order to produce molecules and dust particles throughout the universe. And after billion years later these particles started creating stars, planets, Nebulas and Galaxies, and still the process is continuing. The stars which glow within the galaxies are born inside the nebulas. The nebulas are large gas clouds and in some
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occasions the dimensions of such a cloud may encompass several parsecs [1]. And these Nebulas and dust particles are commonly known as the interstellar medium, uniformly distributed throughout the Galaxies. Therefore when a star dies it is often replaced with another one which is in a different position. But for a distant observer outside the relevant Galaxy will not identify any difference in total light received from it. But after finite time in the future this process will terminate. Then all the Galaxies will fade away and if the density of the universe is large enough to contract the universe in to a small region, again another Big Bang will create another universe which will be similar to the existing one, and if the density of universe is less than the critical density, the gravity will not counteract to overcome the ever-growing expansion of the universe, therefore the universe will remain as a dark cold place for infinite period of time. Nevertheless this whole process reveals that the universe controls almost everything in the nature. It implies that gaining profound knowledge of the universe is the key to revealing the destiny of everything.

1.1.1 The Interstellar Medium


The word Interstellar Medium (ISM) means the medium among the stellar objects. It is collectively used to define the clouds of interstellar gas and dust which fill the galactic disk. The ISM has smog like behavior. As a result of this nature it obscures the view of the galactic Centre and its features. In accordance with the above fact, it is conclusive that visible light does not peer through these dusty clouds, because of the scattering of light due to the large dust particles which are almost comparable in size to the wave lengths of visible light. As a result of this nature, interstellar medium becomes totally opaque to the visible light emerging from the distant stars.

Figure 1.1: The main features of Milky way galaxy [2]

In contrast though the ISM can be identified as the dust between the Stars, quantitatively the mass confined to the stars is much greater than the mass which distributed through the ISM. Evidently the ISM holds only a fraction of Galaxies total luminous mass, this fraction is' 125% for a spiral, and 1550% for an irregular galaxy [3].

1.1.2. Organization of Interstellar Medium


The distribution of the interstellar medium throughout the Galaxy is not uniform, due to the numerous interactions between matter and radiation the mater distribution changes from one region to another drastically. For an example in the plane of Milky-way Galaxy, where the Galactic gas is at its densest, the particle number density is ranging from ' 103 to 109 atomic nuclei per cubic meter. Despite the fact that the interstellar
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medium represents all the dust and matter placed between stars it is convenient to categorize them into several phases. All these phases are mainly defined by their inherent temperature and density [4]. Coronal gas: Gas that has been shock-heated to temperatures by

blastwaves racing outward from supernova explosions. The gas is collisionally ionized, with ions such as O VI ( present. Most of the coronal gas has

low density, being an appreciable fraction approximately half of the volume of the galactic disk. The coronal gas regions may have characteristic dimensions of around 20 parsecs, and may be connected to other coronal gas volumes. The coronal gas cools over Million year time scales. Much of the volume above and below the disk is thought to be pervaded by coronal gas. It is often referred to as the hot ionized medium, or HIM. H II gas: Gas where the hydrogen has been photo-ionized by ultraviolet photons from hot stars. Most of this photo-ionized gas is maintained by radiation from recently formed hot massive O-type stars the photo-ionized gas may be dense material from a nearby cloud (in which case the ionized gas is called an H II region) or lower density inter cloud medium (referred to as diffuse H II). The Roman numeral II represents that one electron has repelled from neutral Hydrogen atom. When expelled electrons recombined with ions they emit radiation with a wavelength of 656.3 nm which gives the H II nebulas its characteristic red colour. Warm HI: Predominantly atomic gas heated to temperatures around in the local interstellar medium, it fills a significant fraction of the volume of the disk perhaps 40%. Often referred to as the warm neutral medium, or WNM

Cool H I: primarily atomic gas at temperatures about 100

this region lls

nearly1% of the volume of the local interstellar medium. Often referred to as the cold neutral medium, or CNM. Diffuse molecular gas: Similar to the cool H I clouds, but with sufficiently large densities and column densities so that be abundant in the cloud interior. Dense molecular gas: These clouds are often dark. In these dark clouds, the dust grains are often coated with mantles composed of and other self-shielding allows molecules to

molecular ices. It is within these regions that star formation takes place. It should be noted that the gas pressures in these dense clouds would qualify as ultra-high vacuum in a terrestrial laboratory. Stellar outflows: Evolved cool stars can have mass loss rates as high as solar masses per year and low outflow velocities less than ,

leading to relatively high density outflows. Hot stars can have winds that are much faster but far less dense. Interstellar Dust: Interstellar dust consists of particles of silicates or carbon compounds, which are relatively small, but have a comprehensive range in size. The largest are 0.5 m in size (i.e. 5 107 m) with nearly 104 atoms, but some appear to have. 100 atoms and thus are not significantly different from large molecules. Dust has a deep observational effect, it absorbs and scatters light. Dust reduces the light of background sources, a process known as interstellar extinction. Examples of this are dark nebulae, and the zone of avoidance for galaxies at low galactic latitudes. Hot Gas Planetary Nebulae: A planetary nebula is like a compact H II region, except that it surrounds the exposed core of a hot, highly evolved star rather than a hot young star. The gas is ejected from the star through mass loss over time.
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Ultraviolet photons from the star ionise the gas in way similar to HII regions, and the gas emits photons like H II region. Emission processes are similar to H II regions, but the density, temperature and ionisation state of the gas around a planetary nebula can be somewhat different to the H II region. Hot Gas Supernova Remnants: Supernovae eject material at very high velocities into the interstellar medium. This gas shocks, heats and disrupts the ISM. Low density components of the ISM can be significantly affected, but dense molecular clouds are less strongly affected. Hot gas from supernovae can even be ejected out of the galactic disc into the halo of the galaxy.
Table (1.1) ISM phases in Milky Way Galaxy [5]
Component
Molecular clouds 1020 102106 molecular

Temperature (K)

Density (atoms/cm)

State of hydrogen

Primary observational techniques

Radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines

Cold Neutral Medium (CNM)

50100

2050

neutral atomic

H I 21 cm line absorption

Warm Neutral Medium (WNM) 600010000 0.20.5 neutral atomic H I 21 cm line emission

Warm Ionized Medium (WIM)

8000

0.20.5

ionized

H emission and pulsar dispersion

H II regions

8000

10-210-4

ionized

H emission and pulsar dispersion

Coronal gas Hot Ionized Medium (HIM) 10 10


6 7

ionized 10 10
2 4

X-ray emission; absorption lines of highly ionized metals, primarily in the ultraviolet

(metals also highly ionized)

1.2 Origin of ISM


Prior to answer the above question it is necessary to examine the interior and the various stages of life cycle of stars. Since the Sun is the nearest star to the Earth, the analysis of the interior of a star can be done solely based upon the Sun. Hence the spectroscopy data reveals that the Sun mainly compound with Hydrogen and Helium, where 70% of mass consist with Hydrogen and almost 28% of mass is consist with Helium and all other elements contains only 2% of mass of the Sun. As other stars in the universe the Sun produces its energy by using the fusion reaction which converts Hydrogen into Helium and as the result of the mass deflect of the relevant reaction the energy is released according to the equation (1.1). The total power output of the Sun is about as the Sun gets older these exact numbers will change and which

will be discussed in detail at the end of this chapter. The interior of the Sun can be categorized into 6 regions as follows Solar corona Solar corona is the uppermost layer of the solar atmosphere and it lies around few million kilometers above the solar surface. The temperature of this region is about one million Kelvin therefore it can emit hard X-rays hence this region is responsible for the emission of X-rays from the Sun, nevertheless the density of this region is very much low when comparing to the Earths atmosphere. Chromosphere Chromosphere is a region which lie closer to the solar surface, which has temperature about 10000 K, and this region produces the Ultra Violet (UV) radiation.

Photosphere The visible surface of the Sun is called the photosphere, where the average temperature is about 6000 K. Although the photosphere looks like well defined surface from the Earth, it contains gas far less dense than the Earths atmosphere.

Convection zone This region contains hot gas encircling inside the core of the Sun, where spouts of hot gas rising upward and cooler gas cascade downward into the core of the Sun. These rising gas transfer the energy produced in the core to the upper layers of the solar atmosphere. Due to tremendous temperature the gas encircling in this region consists of fully ionized particles forming a plasma region. And the nature of this plasma is governed by the intense magnetic fields inside the solar core.

Radiation zone In comparison to the convection region radiation zone comprise with calmer plasma region, and the energy is carried out by the photons throughout the region. But the temperature of the region is much intense than the upper layers of the Sun. It is about 10 million Kelvin ( and the region is covered with

X-rays trillions of times more intense than the visible light at solar surface. Solar core The solar core is the source of the Suns energy, it produces energy by using the Hydrogen fusion reaction, in this region the temperature is about 15 million Kelvin (1.5 water, and the density is more than 100 times higher than the

And the pressure is 200 billion times than on the surface of the Earth. However the energy produced inside the core takes approximately 1 million years to reach the surface.

Figure 1.2: The solar interior [6]

The life time and the some remarkable features of stars are indistinguishably dependent on the rate of its Hydrogen burning, in Astronomy sole meaning of burning is referred to the Hydrogen conversion into Helium under nuclear fusion. Primarily the Hydrogen burning rate is depend on the mass of the star, thus for the sake of simplicity the life cycle of stars can be categorized into two major groups Life cycle of low mass stars Life cycle of high mass stars
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1.2.1 The life cycle of low mass stars


In common usage stars having masses in comparable to the mass of the Sun or less are known as the low mass stars. These stars use proton-proton chain to produce their energy. Hence the fusion of these stars is in steady slow rate. Therefore, they are eligible to light up for several billion years. In proton-proton chain, stars tend to convert their inherent Hydrogen into Helium in its core. When the star eventually burns up the Hydrogen accumulated in its core, tends to expand its outer layer. As a result of this star becomes extremely luminous, these stages of the cycle subdivided as Sub Giant [7] and
Red Giant [8] stages. Lighting up for several hundred million years in this red giant

stage, the stars eventually repels their outer layer into the interstellar medium. While this process occurs the dust particles confined in the exterior of the star continuously emits to the space with solar winds. And simultaneously heavy elements (specially carbon) are compiled in the core. Having repelled the outer layer of the star, the remaining tends to burn its very last drop of fuel. In this stage the core mainly consists of carbon [1]. The carbon burning core continuously ejects its interior matter with stellar winds. Thus due to the lower temperatures ranging from 2000 K - 3000 K of these carbon burning stars the carbon atoms tends to create clusters by combined with one another and growing into dust particles. Having blended with the stellar winds the dust particles are flown through the interstellar space and deposited in the interstellar medium. Before low mass star dies it treats one last spectacle, through winds and other processes with ejecting its outer layers into space, makes huge shell of gas expanding away from the inert, and the degenerate carbon core. The exposed core is still very hot and emits intense ultra violet radiation that ionizes the gas in the expanding shell glowing brightly and specified as a Planetary Nebula [9].
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Figure 1.3: Planetary nebula, Ring Nebula (M57) in Lyra/Hubble telescope image [10]

1.2.3. The life cycle of high mass star


Star with mass larger than 10 solar masses is often called high mass star. Unlike low mass stars, high mass stars burn its fuel more rapidly by proton-proton cycle to overcome the greater gravitational contraction. But this will cause a massive destruction for the star in very short period of time. Since the burning of Hydrogen will pile Helium into its core much rapidly than low mass star and increasing temperature starts Helium fusion eventually. Unlike low mass stars, high mass star tends to fusion heavy elements into much heavier elements such as Gold, Silver and Platinum. And star tends to pile up

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these heavy elements in its core which will cause enormous thermal pressure inside the core. Having completed the burning of Hydrogen star tends to fuse Helium and other heavy elements, nevertheless when in formation of iron due to fusion, will be the catastrophic disaster for the star. Since neither fission nor fusion be subjected to iron, piled up iron in the core will cause rapid increment of mass. Consequently this will initiate the gravitational collapsing into its verge. Then the super hot core starts to shrink up and be exploded, causing massive destruction. This is known as Super Nova [11]. All the heavy elements compiled in the core will burst into space with enormous inherent velocities in magnitude of several thousand kilometres per second. If it was not the interstellar medium these heavy elements would left the galaxy due to their high velocities. These particles emitted by supernova explosion will fly through the space with coherent group of velocities creating hot expanding cloud of debris from supernova explosion is known as Supernova Remnants [12]. When these high velocity particles travel through the ISM will suffer with large number of collisions with the contents of the medium, causing huge decrement of velocities of the intruder particles. Eventually after large number of collisions they tend to rest and merged with the medium. With each collision described above, particles will transfer fraction of its inherent kinetic energy to the medium. This transferring energy is stored as thermal energy. Thus medium tends to increase its internal energy and it will radiate as high frequency X- rays and gamma- rays known as the After Glow [13].

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Figure 1.4: Supernova remnants found in crab nebula [14]

Substantially the afterglow is very important event in Astronomy. Usually observations of supernova or its remnants can reveal lot of information about the history of galaxies and the distance between them. The deposition of intruder substances in the ISM is known as the Chemical Enrichment [15]. Despite this process the new born stars and planetary systems will not have heavy materials and also the carbon which necessary to originate the life forms.

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1.3. The Importance of Interstellar Medium


Since the ISM obscures our view of universe it is not worthy to condemn the existence of it or abandon the studies about this concept. The ISM plays a major role in the process of the formation of galaxies, stars, planets and the life forms in inhabitable planets. It is responsible for the origination of iron which is represent in human blood, and the various machineries used in day to day life and all other rare elements found in the Earth. Nevertheless it implies that ISM acts like storage room for all the matter originally created by the Big bang. Hence the objective is to understand the mechanism of the ISM how it is organized and distributed throughout the Milky Way and other galaxies, what are the conditions (temperature, density, ionization ...) in different parts of it, and how it dynamically evolves.

1.3.1. Formation of stars from Interstellar medium


It is known that stars create their energy by fusion of the light elements which are originally present in the interstellar medium, and the stars will release the core materials to interstellar medium through their death events. It is observed that the dust clouds in the galactic plane are found more often in low temperature levels typically about 10 K30 K, and low concentration of ions and molecules when compared with the atmosphere of the Earth. These interstellar clouds are basically composed of Hydrogen and helium, approximately 99% of total volume of interstellar gas. Star forming clouds are usually called molecular clouds because of their low temperatures, which allow hydrogen atoms to pair with each other to form Hydrogen molecules. And other heavier atoms having low abundance can form molecules such as , , etc [1]

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Figure 1.5: Dust clouds in the galactic plane lying in cocoon nebula [16] Due to cold temperatures which are inherent by dust clouds, gravitation starts to pull the gas molecules to concentric regions, in order to create high dense regions relatively to the rest of the gas clouds. If the thermal pressure in a molecular cloud is feeble to counter interact with the compressing force generated by gravity, the cloud be subjected to the gravitational contraction. Due to these gravitational interactions gas cloud starts to form dense lumps in its Interior, these are known as molecular cloud cores [17]. A cloud thus fragments into numerous pieces, each of which will form one or more new stars

Figure 1.6: Star forming cloud of molecular Hydrogen gasses, Eagle nebula [18] 15

1.3.2. Formation of Protostar


In the early stages of the gravitation contraction the gas quickly radiates away its thermal energy. In these stages the star has its own inherent temperature which is below 100 K and it glows in long wave length infrared light. The gravitational contraction cannot continue rapidly, due to the increasing density of gas core preventing the escape of thermal radiation for some extent. But eventually it will grow completely opaque to infrared radiation. Hence it will trap the thermal energy produced by gravitational contraction. Due to the prevention of radiation burst both thermal pressure and gas temperature at the centre of the contracting region increase dramatically. Consequently this increasing pressure starts to fight back against the gravitational contraction. And the dense cloud fragments become a Protostars [19].

Figure 1.7: Spitzer telescopes infrared view of W5, Infrared photograph of protostar [20]

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1.3.3. The Disk and Jets


The matter surround by the protostar tends to spin around the core. Thus this spinning disk of matter is named as Protostellar Disk [21]. This protostellar disk will eventually become planets and other planetary features such as satellites and asteroids and planetary remnants. Thus above facts denote how and when the stars and solar systems originate. In conclusion it denotes that the interstellar medium is playing dominant role in this scenario, acting as the factories which produce stars and planetary systems throughout the universe.

1.3.4. Eagle Nebula


The Eagle nebula has been a benchmark of ISM studies. Its resemblance with all the facts which has been discussing in previous content makes it ironical example for ISM. The Eagle Nebula (catalogued as Messier 16 or M16, and as NGC 6611) is a young open cluster of stars in the constellation Serpens, its name has derived due to its remarkable shape which resembles an Eagle and it was discovered by Jean-Philippe de Cheseaux in 1745-46. The Eagle nebula is distributed over 9.5 light years in height, it can be identified as a gas cloud which consist of cold dust particles, the cluster associated with this nebula contains about 460 stars with 1 million times luminous than the Sun. Images made using the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995, by Jeff Hester and Paul Scowen, greatly improved scientific understanding of processes inside the nebula. One of these, a famous photograph known as the "Pillars of Creation" which is shown in Figure 1.6, depicts a large region of star formation. Its small, dark areas are believed to
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be protostars. Observations verify that there are some stars inherited in Eagle nebula forming in a environment similar to the solar system thus this leaves rather high probability to ignite the life forms, hence one can assume Eagle Nebula might be a dwelling for a distant Earth in near future.

Figure 1.8: Hubble Telescope image of Eagle nebula [22]

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