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Matt Drury Anthony Montalbano Sam Noerpel Devin OConnor Brittany Sipple
Table of Contents
1. Aircraft Mission Description ...................................................................................................... 2 2. Requirements .............................................................................................................................. 3 3. General Aircraft Data .................................................................................................................. 3 3.1 Aircraft Specifications........................................................................................................... 3 3.2 Aircraft Three-View .............................................................................................................. 6 4. Propulsion System ...................................................................................................................... 7 4.1 Engine Trade Study ............................................................................................................... 7 4.2 hFan Specifications ............................................................................................................... 8 5. Introduction to Drag .................................................................................................................... 8 5.1 Profile Drag ........................................................................................................................... 9 5.2 Induced Drag ....................................................................................................................... 11 5.3 Parasite Drag ....................................................................................................................... 12 5.4 Trim Drag ............................................................................................................................ 13 6. Takeoff ...................................................................................................................................... 13 6.1 Takeoff Drag ....................................................................................................................... 14 6.2 Takeoff Performance ........................................................................................................... 17 7. Climb......................................................................................................................................... 20 7.1 Climb Performance ............................................................................................................. 21 8. Cruise ........................................................................................................................................ 26 8.1 Cruise Drag ......................................................................................................................... 26 9. Landing ..................................................................................................................................... 30 9.1 Landing Drag....................................................................................................................... 31 10. Maneuver Envelope ................................................................................................................ 31 11. Future Goals ............................................................................................................................ 33 12. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 34 13. References ............................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 1. Aircraft Mission Profile The mission profile consists of two portions: the nominal mission and the reserves. In this case, the nominal economic mission is 400 NM, but the aircraft has the potential to go 1200 NM. A portion of the mileage above 400 NM composes the contingency portion of the mission. For example, if the aircraft needs to fly a holding pattern for a given amount of time due to a busy airport, the aircraft will have enough fuel to safely accomplish this portion of the mission.
2. Requirements
Table 1. AIAA Aircraft Requirements Q400 Parent Aircraft 1200 NM Maximum Range 2 Crew 70 Passengers Pitch 32, Width 17.2 Seating 280 ft2 Cargo Volume 2450 lbs (35 lbs/passenger) Cargo Weight 16,450 lbs Full Payload Weight 4000 ft SSL Balanced Field Length Mach 0.45 Minimum Cruise Mach >20,000 ft Initial Cruise Altitude 45,000 ft Maximum Cruise Altitude 400 NM Economic Mission 9 ft3 / battery Battery Volume 360 lbs / battery Battery Weight 122472 Wh /battery Useful Energy $0.05 / kWh Battery Energy Cost 10C Battery Discharge Rate 3 hp/lb Electric Motor Power Density 0.95 Electric System Efficiency 3 hp/lb Generator Power Density 0.96 Generator Efficiency
(1)
and is found to be 63,819 lbs. The empty weight is 37,886 lbs. and was taken from the parent aircraft, the Q400. The payload weight is calculated to be 16,850 lbs. using the AIAA specified requirements. This includes a payload of seventy passengers and two crew members, each
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weighing 200 lbs., along with 35 lbs. of luggage for each passenger. The fuel weight is calculated to be 6,940 lbs. using (2)
,
where is defined as the fuel mass flow with units of lbs./s. The variable is the total distance of the flight in units of ft. and is the cruise speed of the aircraft in ft./s. Mass flow is found using (3)
where TSFC is 0.341 lbm./lbf.-hr. This value comes from the hFan engine data provided by Boeing and NASA. The variable T represents thrust, which changes throughout flight. Since our aircraft incorporates a hybrid propulsion system, additional weight comes from batteries. The battery weight is calculated to be 2,144 lbs. using (4) . is defined as the energy necessary to climb to cruising altitude and has units of ft.-lbs. It consists of both the change in potential energy of the aircraft from sea level to 30,000 ft., in addition to kinetic energy of the aircraft at a specific climb speed. The energy density of the battery, , is a measure of how much energy each battery contains per unit mass with units of ft.-lbs./lb. Additional values used to obtain battery calculations are maximum fuel energy of 9.96e10 ft.-lbs. and battery energy of 2.16e9 ft.-lbs. The following specifications found are the critical performance parameters which include and respectively. . These values are based on the Q400 and are given to be 2.5 and 80 kts,
,
where wing area is 1300 ft2 and wing span is 100 ft. The values of wing area and wing span are chosen based on optimizing aspect ratio. Additional specifications include a calculated to be 0.306 using
(6) . Here, is 608.4 ft/s and density is given at our cruise altitude of 30,000 ft.
A span efficiency factor is also calculated and found to be 0.9953. This value is found using Athena Vortex Lattice (AVL) software by averaging different Reynolds numbers with varying speeds. Further specifications include values for the tail of the aircraft. The horizontal volume coefficient is calculated to be 0.88 using (7)
,
where , the distance from the CG to the aerodynamic center of the tail, is 61 ft. The tail area used is 259 ft2 and the mean aerodynamic chord is 13.6. This tail area was chosen to decrease the effects of trim drag on the aircraft. The vertical stabilizer area is found to be 168.75 ft2. This area, based on the parent aircraft vertical tail configuration, provides enough surface area for a rudder that has proper control and lateral static stability properties. The fuselage length chosen for our aircraft, 130 ft., is based on the Q400, however extra footage was added to account for our hybrid engine requirement. As seen in the three-view drawing in Figure 2, there is additional room in front of and behind the passenger seats. This extra space will be necessary for the batteries and cooling system needed to power the aircraft, along with a baggage area. The batteries will be placed both in the front and in the rear of the aircraft, but with the majority placed in the rear. The baggage area will be placed in the rear of the aircraft. The placements of these areas are chosen to account for the center of gravity of the airplane. Because our airplane is for regional missions, it is understood that not all passengers will be carrying large enough baggage that will need to be placed in the baggage area. More than likely, the majority of the passengers will be keeping their baggage in the luggage area above their seat or on the floor below their seat. For this reason, more of the batteries will be placed towards the rear. Because of the extra weight towards the back due to batteries, the airplane will not have to rely on the weight due to checked baggage in the rear baggage area to balance the center of gravity.
Figure 2. Regional Hybrid-Electric Propulsion Transport. Included are 70 passenger seats, 2 crew seats, and a 61 passenger standing in the aisle.
4. Propulsion System
NASA-funded research has recently stated that hybrid electric propulsion is the technology of the future for commercial aircraft. A hybrid system is a combination of gas turbine and electric propulsion. The best hybrid propulsion system is the one that uses the optimal features of each subsystem. The gas turbine is ideal for high thrust and weight, while the electric propulsion is ideal for high efficiencies over varying speeds, no local emissions, and lower noise. The prime outcome for using a hybrid electric propulsion system is to offer advantages in fuel burn, cost, noise, and emissions.
5. Introduction to Drag
Drag is defined as the aerodynamic force resolved in the direction of the free-stream due to viscous shearing stresses, the integrated effect of the static pressures acting normal to the surfaces, and the influence of the wing trailing vortices on the aerodynamic center of the configuration(2) . An in-depth analysis of drag is necessary in order to develop a better
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understanding of the design and performance characteristics of the aircraft. A drag build-up is conducted for takeoff, cruise, and landing configurations in order to predict the performance characteristics for the given flight condition. These characteristics determine the aircraft design decision process. For example, engine sizing and flap choice. Drag during takeoff and landing are also used to predict runway distances. Drag is composed of several unique parts including: profile, parasite, induced, and trim. It is calculated by means of (8) Other types of drag exist, such as interference drag, cooling drag, and ram drag, but we assume them to be negligible. A MATLAB code is written in order to produce an accurate drag build-up. The structure of the code allows for analysis of each type of drag over a specified range of Reynolds Numbers by (9)
,
coefficients of lift for cruise calculated using
(10)
,
and for takeoff and landing by . (11)
The specified range for Reynolds Numbers is defined as the lowest velocity at the tip chord and the highest velocity at the root chord for the wing, vertical stabilizer, and horizontal stabilizer. For the fuselage and nacelles, parasite drag equations are used in the code based on section wetted areas and whether it experiences laminar or turbulent flow. Total drag is calculated by summing up all of the different values by Equation 8.
drag coefficients to get the wing profile drag coefficients. Before calculating profile drag, a proper airfoil is selected based on the operational Reynolds Numbers and lift coefficients. The NASA NLF(2)-0415 airfoil, shown in Figure 4, meets the criteria, and is used in the XFOIL application to calculate profile drag coefficients.
XFOIL is an interactive program for the design and analysis of subsonic airfoils. The first step in calculating profile drag is the entering of the coordinates that specify the geometry of the airfoil into XFOIL. Reynolds numbers are then specified due to the presence of viscosity and Mach numbers are specified due to the given flight condition. A drag polar is opened in order to record airfoil data for every run. A run is specified by cycling through a sequence of angles of attack and calculating the lift coefficients and profile drag coefficients for the corresponding angles. Once the profile drag coefficients for the range of Reynolds Numbers have been produced, they are entered into the MATLAB code in matrix form. The MATLAB code is set up with a two-dimensional interpolation to calculate profile drag coefficients based on the Reynolds Number range and the lift coefficient range and the current Reynolds Number and lift coefficient after incrementing velocity and chord. These values of Reynolds Numbers and lift coefficients correspond to specific columns and rows in the profile drag coefficient matrix, which produce the interpolated profile drag coefficient value. The previously described sequence is shown in Figure 5.
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The interpolated profile drag coefficients are then used to calculate profile drag using
(12)
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(13)
Overall, a larger aspect ratio is desired to reduce induced drag. Aspect ratio is optimized to produce the best ratio of span and wing area in order to minimize induced drag while still offering benefits in structural integrity. Along with optimizing aspect ratio, the wing area, alone, is a critical parameter in that while decreasing the wing area will increase aspect ratio, it also increases lift coefficients, which ultimately increase induced drag. Induced drag is determined using the expression
(14)
and (16) for laminar and turbulent flow, respectively. A flat plate area is then calculated for each section from the skin friction coefficient and the corresponding section wetted area using the expression
(17)
The flat plate areas are then summed up in order to compute parasite drag on the fuselage and nacelles using (18)
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,
are needed to calculate trim drag. Moment coefficients are obtained from XFOIL by incrementing angles of attack in the same method used to produce profile drag coefficients. The moment coefficients were interpolated in the same manner as the profile drag coefficients stated earlier. The trim drag coefficient is then calculated by
(21)
6. Takeoff
Takeoff analysis is a crucial part in the successful development of the proposed aircraft, and any aircraft for that matter. Requirements specify that the takeoff distance for this aircraft be no more than 4000 feet. This limitation drives the takeoff performance that is expected from the aircraft. During the takeoff sequence, no batteries will be utilized by the propulsion system in order to preserve them for later portions of the flight. Takeoff involves the interaction of several forces during ground roll. The forces acting on the aircraft include drag, thrust, and a friction force that depends on the weight of the aircraft and the lift generated as provided in Figure 6.
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During the beginning of the takeoff sequence there is a slight increase in lift due to the increase in velocity up to 110 knots as shown in Figure 7. After 110 knots, the aircraft begins to rotate at a constant rate from an angle of attack of 0 up to an angle of attack of 12 degrees. Once an angle of attack of 12 degrees is reached, that angle is held constant for the remainder of the takeoff sequence. It is clear from Figure 7 that the increase in angle of attack and velocity has a greater influence on the aircraft lift than velocity, alone. As indicated in Figure 8, drag is minimal during the beginning stages of ground roll until the rotation speed is reached and the angle of attack increases. At rotation, the aircraft experiences 268 pounds of total drag. After rotation, drag begins to have a more significant effect on the aircraft. At takeoff, drag increases by 207.5 pounds to a total value of 475.5 pounds. This significant increase is due to the increase in angle of attack and velocity, which increase lift coefficients. An increase in lift coefficients increases induced and profile drag.
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As expected, the wing induced drag is the primary contributor to the total drag at the takeoff point of 123 knots, which is clearly shown in Figure 9. This is due to the high lift coefficients that coincide with low velocities. Profile drag due to the empennage is almost negligible at the takeoff point. The reason behind the low drag is that the velocity is still very low, and the empennage structure is small compared to the wing structure.
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(22)
where a value of 0.03 is used for the tire rolling friction coefficient, . This is an empirically determined value for rubber on asphalt(3). Drag in takeoff configuration is given by
D DP K L C L qS . A Re o
(23)
Results from a drag build up in takeoff configuration with 10 degree flaps show that parasite drag varies linearly with velocity. This can be seen in Figure 8.
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KL is a correction factor for induced drag due to ground effect and is a function of height above the ground. Lift coefficient was held at a constant value of 0.35 until rotation at which point angle of attack begins to increase as
LW x1 LT x 2 Wx 3 I yy ,
(24)
where pitch angle and angle of attack are assumed to be equal during rotation. In Equation 24, x1, x2, and x3 are the longitudinal locations of the aerodynamic center of the wing, the aerodynamic center of the horizontal stabilizer and the center of gravity all measured from the main landing gear respectively. By multiplying the angular acceleration by a time step, pitch angle is obtained. To ensure the required angle of attack for rotation was well below the critical angle of attack, rotation speed was chosen to be 110 knots. Speed for best angle of climb (VX) is used during climb out and occurs at maximum excess thrust. This is illustrated in Figure 10 at 130 knots. Rotation can be seen on this plot starting at 110 knots and ending at the speed for best rate of climb.
V el o ci ty (k ts )
Time (s)
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A thrust of 18,000 lbs. is required to meet takeoff distance and obstacle clearance requirements. At sea level on a standard day with a climb out speed of 130 knots the aircraft clears a 50 ft. obstacle in a total takeoff distance of just over 3000 ft. This is shown in Figure 11 along with a summary of V-Speeds in Table 2.
Distance (ft)
Table 2: Summary of V-Speeds Parameter Value (kts) 80 VS 90 V1 110 VR 120 VTO 130 VX
In order to ensure that the aircraft lifts off within 3 seconds from rotation, a velocity versus time plot was used and is shown in Figure 12. It was explained earlier that the velocities for rotation and lift off occur at 110 and 123 knots, respectively. Figure 12 shows the times that correspond
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to each velocity. The differences between the times are 2.69 seconds which is within the standard 3 second limit.
Time: 25.68 s Velocity: 123 kts Ve lo cit y (k ts) Time: 22.99 s Velocity: 110 kts
Time (s)
7. Climb
Climb is a critical factor in the mission of transport aircraft. Maximum rate of climb and time to climb both directly affect the range and total time of the aircrafts mission. Fuel consumption is high during climb; therefore a shorter time to climb is desirable. Once established at cruise altitude, the aircraft is capable of adjusting velocity to meet mission needs, whether the mission is decrease costs per flight or maximize revenue. Minimizing time to climb for this reason alone is critical.
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Dr ag (lb s)
Velocity (kts)
Figure 13. Drag Curve in Cruise Configuration Speed for best rate of climb occuers at maximum excess power and is represented as in Equation 26. Climbing with a thrust of 18,000 lbs, speed for best rate of climb is calculated to be 530 knots as demonstrated in Figure 14. This speed was held conststant throughout all climb performance calculations.
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Po w er (H p)
Velocity (kts)
Service ceiling is defined as the altitude at which maximum rate of climb is less than or equal to 100 ft./min. Absolute ceiling is the altitude at which the aircraft can no longer climb and maximum thrust equals drag. As altitude increases, lift coefficent required to sustain flight at a constant velocity comes into consideration and can also contribute to the aircrafts absolute ceiling. , in cruise configuration for the aircraft is 1.4. By holding velocity constant and varying altitude the required lift coefficient required to sustain flight at a various altitudes was obtained and is presented in Figure 15.
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CL
Altitude (ft)
Figure 15. Lift Coefficient Required for Steady Climb Variation with Altitude
Maximum rate of climb variation with altitude was calculated with maximum thrust. Results are presented in Figure 16. At sea level with MTOW the aircraft is capable of climb rates of over 6000 ft./min. Time to climb to the prescribed cruise altitude of 30,000 ft. is 5 min., as seen in Figure 17. The aircrafts absolute ceiling is found to be 78,000 ft. and is limited by , as seen in both Error! Reference source not found. and 17. As noted earlier, it is recognized that thrust does indeed decrease with altitude and velocity when working with turbofan engines. This will greatly decrease the climb performance of the aircraft at higher altitudes. Error! Reference source not found.
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Altitude (ft)
8. Cruise
After reaching an altitude of 30,000 feet the aircraft enters the cruise sequence of flight. In cruise condition, the lift is equal to the weight and the thrust is equal to the drag. In order to reach the maximum range required of 1,200 NM, must be optimized. The NASA NLF(2)-0415 airfoil selected also needed to provide a low drag region for the expected cruise lift coefficient of approximately 0.3. A Hybrid-electric propulsion system is utilized throughout the entirety of the cruise sequence.
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Figure 18.
and moving to the right along the curve in Figure 18, calculations are made until is the greatest. An of 18.9 is a reasonable value
the point is found where the product of for a regional transport aircraft.
Figure 19 shows the drag that is acting on the aircraft throughout a range of velocities when the aircraft is in cruise configuration. Cruise configuration means that there are no flaps engaged on the wing and the aircraft is in a steady state. Cruise velocity for this aircraft is 360 knots. As can be seen in Figure 19, this velocity is not on the minimum total drag point; however, it will provide the aircraft with the best range. Drag follows the basic, expected trend of the wing
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induced drag dominating for lower velocities, and the wing profile drag being more critical at higher velocities. The trim drag is minimized by increasing the horizontal stabilizer area in addition to extending the fuselage in order to increase the distance from the center of gravity to the aerodynamic center of the tail. The dramatic slope change in Figure 19 is once again due to the laminar drag portion. The aircraft experiences 2957 pounds of total drag at the maximum cruise velocity. The drag at best is 2671 pounds. The propulsion system chosen for the aircraft can easily handle a drag of this magnitude.
Figure 20 provides a breakdown of the distribution of the different types of drag acting on the aircraft in cruise configuration. There is no single primary drag contributor during cruise. Wing induced and wing profile drags were expected to be the largest because not only does the wing have a 15% thick airfoil, but the span of the wing structure is 100 feet. The geometry of the wing
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lends itself to higher drag at cruise velocity. The parasite drag is also a significant drag contributor because the fuselage is considerably large, 130 feet, which gives it a large wetted area. The even distribution of drags clearly shows that there is not much refinement that needs to be done.
Another important aspect of analysis for drag in cruise configuration is the relationship of the lift coefficient to the drag coefficient. A range of lift coefficients and drag coefficients are calculated based on a range of velocities, forming the entire drag bucket as shown in Figure 21. The lift coefficient at maximum cruise velocity is indicated as 0.2974. The reason that the cruise lift coefficient is outside of the minimum range of the drag bucket is due to the fact that the cruise velocity is defined for improving average flight times. The lift coefficient at best This is at a velocity that will maximize range. is 0.4492.
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CD
9. Landing
Landing is the most crucial portion of the mission because it determines the success of the mission, which is to safely transport passengers to their destination. Landing is divided into two unique portions: descent and ground roll. Like the climb segment, the descent is performed according to a specified airspeed schedule based upon current altitude. There are certain parameters that determine the touchdown and ground roll requirements for the aircraft. Two of the most critical include runway length and landing gear strength. These parameters shape the decision making process for landing gear sizing and the inclusion of thrust reversers and spoilers.
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Figure 22. Maneuver Envelope with Gust Limits and Specified Velocities
The maximum and minimum load factors are provided by FAR 23 and are given to be 3.8 for and -1.52 for . The remaining curves of the V-n diagram are obtained by plotting (27)
,
where n varies and density and are for cruise conditions. This technique was also used for flaps down configuration but with n varying from 0 to 2 and density and for sea level conditions. The maximum n value for flaps down was provided by FAR 23. The V-n diagram for cruise condition provides various velocities such as stall speed, design maneuvering speed, design cruise speed, and design dive speed. These velocities are easily visible on Figure 22. Stall speed, , is simply obtained by identifying the velocity at which n=1. This velocity is found to be 166 kts. Design maneuvering speed, , is the velocity where the value of 3.8 is plugged into Equation 27. This velocity is calculated to be 324 kts. Our design cruising speed, , is 360 kts. and is the value of our actual cruising speed. Design dive speed, , is the outermost velocity limit on the V-n diagram. This value is typically 50% higher than level flight cruise speed and therefore was calculated to be 540 kts.
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The flight envelope shown in Figure 22 also gives limits for specific gust speeds with varying velocities. These curves are to ensure that when our aircraft experiences a vertical gust, it does not overshoot our maximum load factor. This guarantees that the structure of our aircraft will remain safe during different flight conditions. In order to plot the different gust limitations, an equation provided by FAR was used and is shown as (28) . Here, the constant kg is given by equation (29)
,
where is defined as (30)
,
and is given by (31)
Kg was calculated to be 0.166 and a lift curve slope value of 5.35/rad. was used in Equation 28. The variable U is the velocity of the gust and is given in ft/s, while V is the velocity of the aircraft and is given in knots. The wing loading is given in lb/ft2. The values for gust velocities are defined by FAR and are given as U = +/- 50 for , +/- 25 for , and +/- 66 for rough airspeed, . These gust velocities were plugged into Equation 28 and plotted with varying load factors and airspeeds. This provided curves shown in Figure 22. As seen, these curves do not reach the maximum load factor of 3.8. This indicates that our aircraft structure will be safe when experiencing any gust loads.
order to accomplish this, wing bending moment analysis is necessary. Rudder, aileron, and elevator sizing and design need to be accomplished for complete stability and control aspects of the aircraft. In addition to sizing the control surfaces, the static stability analysis needs to be refined. Using turbofan engines, thrust varies with velocity and altitude. In the performance analyses, it is assumed that thrust is constant. This needs to be updated to include the variations. Throughout the entirety of the flight it is assumed that the aircraft weight is constant. This needs to change in each configuration based on the loss of fuel throughout the mission. Landing drag and performance need to be completed as well.
12. Conclusion
The current status of the aircraft meets the AIAA requirements for the specified economic mission of 400 NM. It is necessary to continue to monitor the requirements after every design iteration to make sure that they continue to be met. Takeoff, climb, cruise, and landing configurations for the aircraft have been analyzed and have reasonable results. In takeoff configuration, it was proven that the aircraft could takeoff within 4,000 ft. and liftoff within 3 seconds of rotation. The airfoil chosen was able to attain the lift coefficient of 1.2 in order to liftoff. In climb configuration, all of the results of performance will be updated once the engines are refined. In cruise configuration it was determined that the aircraft has minimal drag at maximum cruise velocity and best . Maximum cruise velocity was chosen in order to decrease average flight time, which increases revenue. The requirement for maximum range of 1200 NM is attainable with the aircraft. In landing configuration, the process of the analysis is correct, but further assessment is necessary. The maneuver envelope shows that the aircraft is capable of handling the load factors without structural failure. More refinement is needed in order to fully complete the aircraft design.
13. References
(1)
Bradley, Marty, and Christopher Droney (2011). Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research: Phase 1 Final Report. Boeing Research and Technology. Huntington Beach, California.
(2)
Nicolai, Leeland and Grant Carichner. Fundamentals of Aircraft and Airship Design. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2010.
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(3)
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