Laboratory Experiments

Some practical laboratory experiments

Ten straightforward practical laboratory experiments are included to help supplement and enhance academic studies. These exercises may be edited by tutors to suit availability of equipment and components. The list of experiments is not exhaustive, but covers some of the more important aspects of early electrical engineering studies. Experiments covered are: 1. 2. 3. Ohms law (see Chapter 2) Series-parallel d.c. circuit (see Chapter 5) Superposition theorem (see Chapter 13)

4. Thvenins theorem (see Chapter 13) 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Use of CRO to measure voltage, frequency and phase (see Chapter 14) Use of CRO with a bridge rectier circuit (see Chapter 14) Measurement of the inductance of a coil (see Chapter 15) Series a.c. circuit and resonance (see Chapter 15) Parallel a.c. circuit and resonance (see Chapter 16)

10. Charging and discharging a capacitor (see Chapter 18)

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-85617-770-2.00046-X

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

2 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

1 Ohms Law
6. Repeat procedures 1 to 5 for a resistance value of R = 2.2 k and complete the table below. Resistance R = 2.2 k [colour code is: ] Voltage V (V) Current I (mA) 7. Repeat procedures 1 to 5 for a resistance value of R = 10 k and complete the table below. Resistance R = 10 k [colour code is: ] .
I

Objectives: 1. To determine the voltage-current relationship in a d.c. circuit and relate it to Ohms law.

Equipment required: 1. 2. 3. 4. D.C. Power Supply Unit (PSU). Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). An ammeter and voltmeter or two Flukes (for example, 89). LCR Data bridge. Construct the circuit shown below with R = 470
A

Procedure: 1.

Voltage V (V) Current I (mA) 8.

D.C. PSU

Plot graphs of V (vertically) against I (horizontally) for R = 470 , R = 2.2 k and R = 10 k respectively.

Conclusions: 1. 2. Check the colour coding of the resistor and then measure its value accurately using an LCR data bridge or a Fluke. Initially set the d.c. power supply unit to 1V. Measure the value of the current in the circuit and record the reading in the table below. Increase the value of voltage in 1V increments, measuring the current for each value. Complete the table of values below. Resistance R = 470 [colour code is: ] Voltage V (V) Current I (mA) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2. What is the nature of the graphs plotted? If the graphs plotted are straight lines, determine their gradients. Can you draw any conclusions from the gradient values? State Ohms law. Has this experiment proved Ohms law to be true?

3. 4. 5.

3.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Some practical laboratory experiments 2 Seriesparallel d.c. circuit

4. Calculate, using the exact values of resistors, the voltage drops and currents and record them in the table below. Quantity VR1 VR2 VR3 VR4 VR5 IT I1 I2 5.
R 5 5 390 V
I2

Objectives: 1. To compare calculated with measured values of voltages and currents in a seriesparallel d.c. circuit. Calculated value Measured value

Equipment required: 1. 2. 3. 4. D.C. Power Supply Unit (PSU). Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). An ammeter and voltmeter or a Fluke (for example, 89) LCR Data bridge.

Procedure: 1. Construct the circuit as shown below.

R 2 5 1 kV R 1 5 330 V I1

With an ammeter, a voltmeter or a Fluke, measure the voltage drops and currents and record them in the above table.

Conclusions:
R 4 5 470 V

IT

R 3 5 680 V 1 20 V

1.

Compare the calculated and measured values of voltages and currents and comment on any discrepancies. Calculate the total circuit power and the power dissipated in each resistor. If the circuit was connected for 2 weeks, calculate the energy used.

2.

State the colour code for each of the ve resistors in the above circuit and record them in the table below. Using a Fluke or LCR bridge, measure accurately the value of each resistor and note their values in the table below. Resistor Colour code Exact value R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

2. 3.

3.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

4 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

3 Superposition theorem
I1 680 V 820 V I3

Objectives: 1. 2. To measure and calculate the current in each branch of a seriesparallel circuit. To verify the superposition theorem.
10 V

I2

1 kV

Equipment required: 1. 2. 3. 4. Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). D.C. Power Supply Units. Digital Multimeter, such as a Fluke (for example, 89). LCR Data bridge. Measure the values of I1 , I2 and I3 and record the values in the table below. Measured I1 (mA) Measured I2 (mA) Measured I3 (mA)

4.

Procedure: 1. Construct the circuit as shown below, measuring and noting in the table below the exact values of the resistors using a Fluke or LCR bridge.
IA 680 V R1 IC 10 V R3 12 V 820 V R2 IB

Calculated I1 (mA)

Calculated I2 (mA)

Calculated I3 (mA)

5. 6.

1 kV

Calculate the values of I1 , I2 and I3 and record the values in the above table. Replace the 12 V source in the original circuit and then replace the 10 V source with a link, giving the circuit shown below.
I6 680 V 820 V I4

I5

2.

Measure the values of IA , IB and IC and record the values in the table below. R1 ( ) R2 ( ) R3 ( )

1 kV

12 V

IA (mA)

IB (mA)

IC (mA)

7.

Measure the values of I4 , I5 and I6 and record the values in the table below. Measured I4 (mA) Measured I5 (mA) Measured I6 (mA)

3.

Remove the 12 V source from the above circuit and replace with a link, giving the circuit shown next.

(Continued )

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Some practical laboratory experiments

Calculated I4 (mA) Calculated I5 (mA) Calculated I6 (mA) Conclusions: 1. 2. 8. 9. Calculate the values of I4 , I5 and I6 and record the values in the above table. By superimposing the latter two diagrams on top of each other, calculate the algebraic sum of the currents in each branch and record them in the table below. Measured IA = I 1 I 6 Measured IB = I 4 I 3 Measured IC = I 2 + I 5 State in your own words the superposition theorem. Compare the measured and calculated values of IA , IB and IC in procedure 9 and comment on any discrepancies. Compare these values of IA , IB and IC with those measured in procedure 2 and comment on any discrepancies. Can the principle of superposition be applied in a circuit having more than two sources?

3.

4.

Calculated IA = I 1 I 6

Calculated IB = I 4 I 3

Calculated IC = I 2 + I 5

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

6 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

4 Thvenins theorem
Now measure the resistance rOC across the open circuited terminals AB and record the value in the table below. Measured Measured Calculated Calculated VOC (V) rOC ( ) VOC (V) rOC ( )

Objectives: 1. 2. To calculate Thvenins equivalent of a given circuit. To verify Thvenins theorem. 5. 6. 7. Calculate values of VOC and rOC and record the values in the above table. Compare the measured and calculated values of VOC and rOC . Using the calculated values of VOC and rOC calculate and record the current IC from the circuit below.
A IC

Equipment required: 1. 2. 3. 4. Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). D.C. Power Supply Units. Digital Multimeter, such as a Fluke (for example, 89). LCR Data bridge.

Procedure: 1. Construct the circuit as shown below, measuring and noting in the table below the exact values of the resistors using a Fluke or LCR bridge.
IA 680 V R1 IC 10 V R3 12 V A 820 V R2
roc

Voc 1 kV

IB

1 kV

IC (A)
B

2.

Measure the values of IA , IB and IC and record the values in the table below. R1 ( ) R2 ( ) R3 ( )

8. 9.

Compare this value of IC with that initially measured in the original circuit (i.e. procedure 2). Calculate the voltage V shown in the circuit below, using your calculated value of IC , and record the value in the table below.
IA 680 V A 820 V IB

IA (mA)

IB (mA)

IC (mA)

IC 10 V 12 V V

3.

Remove the 1 k resistor from the above circuit and measure the open circuit voltage VOC at the terminals AB. Record the value in the table below. With the 1 k resistor still removed, remove the two voltage sources replacing each with a link.

1 kV

4.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Some practical laboratory experiments

10. The terminal voltage of a source, V = E I r . Using this, calculate and record the values of IA and IB , i.e. transpose the equations: V = 10 IA 680 and V = 12 IB 820. V (V) IA (mA) I B (mA) Conclusions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 11. Compare these values of IA and IB with those initially measured in the original circuit (i.e. procedure 2). State in your own words Thvenins theorem. Compare the measured and calculated values of IA , IB and IC and comment on any discrepancies. Can Thvenins theorem be applied in a circuit having more than two sources? If the 1 k resistor is replaced with (a) 470 (b) 2.2 k , calculate the current owing between the terminals A and B.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

8 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

5 Use of a CRO to measure voltage, frequency and phase
Objectives: 1. To measure a d.c. voltage using an oscilloscope. 2. To measure the peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform and then calculate its r.m.s. value. 3. To measure the periodic time of a waveform and then calculate its frequency. 4. To measure the phase angle between two waveforms. Equipment required: 1. Cathode ray oscilloscope (for example, Phillips digital Fluke PM3082). 2. Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). 3. Function Generator (Escort EFG 3210). 4. D.C. Power Supply Unit. 5. Fluke (for example, 89). Procedure: 1. Switch on the oscilloscope and place the trace at the bottom of the screen. 2. Set the d.c. power supply unit to 20 V, making sure the output switch is in the off position. 3. Connect a test lead from channel 1 of the CRO to the d.c. PSU. 4. Switch on the output of the d.c. PSU. 5. Measure the d.c. voltage output on the CRO. d.c. voltage 6. Connect up the circuit as shown below.
t

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Set the function generator to output a voltage of 5 V at 500 Hz. Measure the peak-to-peak voltages at V1 and V2 using the CRO and record in the table below. Calculate the r.m.s. values corresponding to V1 and V2 and record in the table below. Measure the voltages V1 and V2 using a Fluke. Measure the periodic time of the waveforms obtained at V1 and V2 and record in the table below. Calculate the frequency of the two waveforms and record in the table below. Voltage V1 V2 Voltage V1 V2 Periodic time Frequency Peak-to-peak voltage r.m.s. value

13.

Measure the phase angle between the two waveforms using: displacement between waveforms 360 periodic time t = 360 T (For example, if t = 0.6 ms and T = 4 ms, then 0.6 = 360 = 54 ) 4 =
Volts Input voltage (V1) Voltage across resistor (V2) Time

2.2 mF

Phase angle
Vs V1

Conclusions: 1. Is a measurement of voltage or current with a Fluke an r.m.s. value or a peak value? Write expressions for the instantaneous values of voltages V1 and V2 (i.e. in the form V = A sin(t ) where is in radians).

100 V

V2

2.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Some practical laboratory experiments 6 Use of a CRO with a bridge rectier circuit
Objectives: 1. To measure and observe the input and output waveforms of a bridge rectier circuit using a CRO. 2. To investigate smoothing of the output waveform. Equipment required: 1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (for example, Phillips digital Fluke PM3082). 2. Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). 3. Transformer (for example, IET 464). 4. Bridge rectier. 5. Fluke (for example, 89). Procedure: 1. Construct the circuit shown below with a mains transformer stepping down to a voltage V1 between 15 V and 20 V. 2. Measure the output voltage V1 of the transformer using a Fluke and a CRO. Sketch the waveform. 2. 3. Conclusions: 1. What is the effect of placing a capacitor across the full-wave rectier output? What is the total capacitance of two 100 F capacitors connected in parallel? What is meant by ripple? Comment on the ripple when (a) one capacitor is connected, (b) both capacitors are connected.
A 230 V Transformer V1 Rectifier 1 k B V2

3.

Measure the output voltage V2 of the bridge rectier using a Fluke and observe the waveform using a CRO. Sketch the waveform. Place a 100 F capacitor across the terminals AB and observe the waveform across these terminals using a CRO. Measure the voltage across terminals AB, V3, sketch the waveform. Place a second 100 F capacitor in parallel with the rst across the terminals AB. What is the effect on the waveform? Measure the voltage across terminals AB, V4, sketch the waveform. V1 r.m.s. V2 d.c. V3 d.c. V4 d.c.

4.

5.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

10 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

7 Measurement of the inductance of a coil
Objectives: 1. To measure the inductance of a coil. Equipment required: 1. Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). 2. D.C. Power Supply Unit. 3. Function Generator (for example, Escort EFG 3210). 4. Unknown inductor. 5. Digital Multimeter, such as a Fluke (for example, 89). 6. LCR Data bridge. Procedure: 1. Construct the circuit, with the inductance of unknown value, as shown below.
A

4.

5. 6. 7.

Calculate the resistance R of the coil, using V R = recording the value in the table below. I Connect an a.c. function generator set at 1V, 50 Hz to the terminals AB. Measure the voltage V and current I in the above circuit. Calculate the impedance Z of the coil, using V Z = , recording the value in the table below. I
2, From the impedance triangle, Z 2 = R 2 + X L 2 2 from which, X L = Z R . Calculate X L and record the value in the table below.

8.

R ( ) Z ( ) XL =

(Z 2 R 2 )( ) L =

XL 2f

(H)

9. 10. 11.

L Since X L = 2 f L then L = 2X f ; calculate inductance L and record the value in the table above.

Hence, for the coil, L = . . . H and resistance, R = . . . . Measure the inductance of the coil using an LCR data bridge. Using an ammeter, a voltmeter or a Fluke, measure the resistance of the coil.

A Supply B

Coil

12.

2. 3.

Connect a d.c. power supply unit set at 1 V to the terminals AB. Measure the voltage V and current I in the above circuit.

Conclusions: 1. Compare the measured values of procedures 11 and 12 with those stated in procedure 10 and comment on any discrepancies.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Some practical laboratory experiments 8 Series a.c. circuit and resonance

5. 6.

11

Calculate the values of X L and X C and record them in the table below. Using the values of circuit resistance (which is R + resistance of coil), X L and X C , calculate impedance Z . V Calculate current I using I = Z Repeat the procedures 2 to 7 using frequencies of 200 Hz up to 800 Hz and record the results in the table below. Ensure that the voltage is kept constant at 2 V for each frequency.
Measured Measured Measured Measured I (mA) VR (V) VC (V) VL (V)

Objectives: 1. 2. 3. 4. To measure and record current and voltages in an a.c. series circuit at varying frequencies. To investigate the relationship between voltage and current at resonance. To investigate the value of current and impedance at resonance. To compare measured values with theoretical calculations.

7. 8.

Equipment required: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (for example, Philips digital Fluke PM3082). Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). Function Generator (for example, Escort EFG 3210). Digital Multimeter, such as a Fluke (for example, 89). LCR Data bridge.

Supply voltage V 2 V, 100 Hz 2 V, 200 Hz 2 V, 300 Hz 2 V, 400 Hz 2 V, 500 Hz 2 V, 600 Hz 2 V, 700 Hz 2 V, 800 Hz

Procedure: 1. Construct the series RCL circuit as shown below, measuring and noting the exact values of R , C and L .
1 F 100 mH, 7 L

Supply voltage V 2 V, 100 Hz 2 V, 200 Hz 2 V, 300 Hz 2 V, 400 Hz 2 V, 500 Hz

220 R

Calculate Calculate Calculate Calculate V XL ( ) XC ( ) Z( ) I = (mA) Z

A.C. Supply Function Generator

2 V, 600 Hz 2 V, 700 Hz

2. 3.

Set the a.c. supply (function generator) to 2 V at 100 Hz. Measure the magnitude of the current in the circuit using an ammeter or Fluke and record it in the table next. Measure the magnitudes of VR , VC and VL and record them in the table on the next column.

2 V, 800 Hz

9. 10.

Plot a graph of measured current I (vertically) against frequency (horizontally). Plot on the same axes a graph of impedance Z (vertically) against frequency (horizontally).

4.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

12 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

11. 12. Determine from the graphs the resonant frequency, fr . State the formula for the resonant frequency of a series LCR circuit. Use this formula to calculate the resonant frequency fr . Set the supply voltage to 2 V at the resonant frequency and measure the current I and voltages VR, VC and VL . Connect a cathode ray oscilloscope such that channel 1 is across the whole circuit and channel 2 is across the inductor. Adjust the oscilloscope to obtain both waveforms. Adjust the function generator from 2 V, 100 Hz up to 2 V, 800 Hz. Check at what frequency the voltage across L (i.e. channel 2) is a maximum. Note any change of phase either side of this frequency. 6. 7. Conclusions: 1. Compare measured values of current with the theoretical calculated values and comment on any discrepancies. Comment on the values of current I and impedance Z at resonance. Comment on the values of VR, VC and VL at resonance. What is the phase angle between the supply current and voltage at resonance? Sketch the phasor diagrams for frequencies of (a) 300 Hz (b) fr (c) 700 Hz. Dene resonance. Calculate the values of Q-factor and bandwidth for the above circuit.

2. 3. 4. 5.

13.

14.

15. 16.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Some practical laboratory experiments 9 Parallel a.c. circuit and resonance

4.

13

Objectives: 1. 2. 3. 4. To measure and record currents in an a.c. parallel circuit at varying frequencies. To investigate the relationship between voltage and current at resonance. To calculate the circuit impedance over a range of frequencies. To investigate the value of current and impedance at resonance and plot their graphs over a range of frequencies. To compare measured values with theoretical calculations.

Adjust the function generator to the other frequencies listed in the table ensuring that the voltage remains at 3 V. Record the values of the three currents for each value of frequency in the table below.
Measured I S (mA) Measured I C (mA) Measured Calculate V I LR (mA) I C = J X

Supply Voltage V 3 V, 100 Hz 3 V, 150 Hz 3 V, 200 Hz 3 V, 220 Hz 3 V, 240 Hz 3 V, 260 Hz 3 V, 280 Hz 3 V, 300 Hz 3 V, 320 Hz 3 V, 340 Hz 3 V, 360 Hz 3 V, 380 Hz 3 V, 400 Hz 3 V, 450 Hz

5.

Equipment required: 1. 2. 3. 4. Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). Function Generator (for example, Escort EFG 3210). Digital Multimeter, such as a Fluke (for example, 89). LCR Data bridge.

Procedure: 1. Construct the parallel LR C circuit as shown below, measuring and noting the exact values of R , C and L .
IS IC ILR R 5 100 V A.C. Supply Function Generator

Supply Voltage V 3 V, 100 Hz 3 V, 150 Hz 3 V, 200 Hz 3 V, 220 Hz

Calculate V I LR = R+JX

LR

Calculate I S = I C + I LR

Calculate V Z= I
S

C 5 2.2 mF L 5 100 mH, 7V

3 V, 240 Hz 3 V, 280 Hz 3 V, 300 Hz 3 V, 320 Hz

2.

Set the function generator to 3 V, 100 Hz using a Fluke. Measure the magnitude of the supply current, IS , capacitor current, IC , and inductor branch current ILR , and record the results in the table next.

3 V, 340 Hz 3 V, 360 Hz 3 V, 380 Hz 3 V, 400 Hz 3 V, 450 Hz

3.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

14 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

5. Calculate the magnitude and phase of IC , ILR and IS (= IC + ILR ) for each frequency and record the values in the table on the previous page. Calculate the magnitude and phase of the circuit impedance for each frequency and record the values in the table on the previous page. Plot a graph of the magnitudes of IS , IC , ILR and Z (vertically) against frequency (horizontally), all on the same axes. Determine from the graphs the resonant frequency. State the formula and calculate the resonant frequency for the LRC parallel circuit. 6. 7. 8. 9. 2. 3. Comment on the values of current I and impedance Z at resonance. Compare the value of resonance obtained from the graphs to that calculated and comment on any discrepancy. Compare the graphs of supply current and impedance against frequency with those for series resonance. Calculate the value of dynamic resistance, RD and compare with the value obtained from the graph. What is the phase angle between the supply current and voltage at resonance? Sketch the phasor diagrams for frequencies of (a) 200 Hz (b) fr (c) 400 Hz. Dene resonance. Calculate the values of Q-factor and bandwidth for the above circuit.

6.

4.

7.

5.

8. 9.

Conclusions: 1. Compare measured values of the supply current IS with the theoretical calculated values and comment on any discrepancies.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Some practical laboratory experiments 10 Charging and discharging a capacitor

Objectives: 1. To charge a capacitor and measure at intervals the current through and voltage across it. 2. To discharge a capacitor and measure at intervals the current through and voltage across it. 3. To plot graphs of voltage against time for both charging and discharging cycles. 4. To plot graphs of current against time for both charging and discharging cycles. Equipment required: 1. Constructor board (for example, Feedback EEC470). 2. D.c. power supply unit. 3. Digital multimeter, such as a Fluke (for example, 89). 4. LCR Data bridge. 5. Stop watch. Procedure: 1. Construct the series CR circuit as shown below, measuring the exact values of C and R . Time (s) Charge VC (V) Discharge VC (V) Time (s) Charge VC (V) Discharge VC (V) 5. 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

15

Again, charge the capacitor, this time measuring the current (in A) at 5 second intervals over a period of 60 seconds. Record results in the table below. Discharge the capacitor, measuring the current at 5 second intervals over a period of 60 seconds. Record results in the table below. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

6.

Time (s) Current IC (A) Discharge IC (A) Time (s) Current IC (A) Discharge IC (A) 7. 8.

35

40

45

50

55

60

Plot graphs of VC against time for both charge and discharge cycles. Plot graphs of IC against time for both charge and discharge cycles. Calculate the time constant of the circuit (using the measured values of C and R ). Take a sample of the times and calculate values of VC and IC using the appropriate exponential formulae VC = V (1 et /CR ), VC = Vet /CR and IC = Iet /CR .

1 DC Power Supply Unit 2

100 k V

9.
100 F 1 2 V

10.

Conclusions: 2. 3. Set the d.c. power supply unit to 10 V, making sure the output switch is in the off position. Charge the capacitor, measuring the capacitor voltage (in volts) at 5 second intervals over a period of 60 seconds. Record results in the table next. Discharge the capacitor, measuring the capacitor voltage at 5 second intervals over a period of 60 seconds. Record results in the table on the next column. 1. Compare theoretical and measured values of voltages and currents for the capacitor charging and discharging. Discuss the charging and discharging characteristics of the capacitor. Comment on reasons for any errors encountered. What is the circuit time constant? What does this mean? Approximately, how long does the voltage and current take to reach their nal values?

2. 3. 4.

4.

Copyright 2010 John Bird. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.