Voltage Sag or Voltage Dip (IEC term) is defined by the IEEE 1159 as the decrease in the RMS voltage

level to 10% - 90% (1% - 90% for EN 50160) of nominal, at the power frequency for durations of cycle to one (1) minute. Also, voltage sag is classified as a short duration voltage variation phenomena, which is one of the general categories of power quality problems. Voltage sag (dip) durations are subdivided into three categories: instantaneous ( cycle to 30 cycles), momentary (30 cycles to 3 seconds), and temporary (3 seconds to 1 minute). These durations are intended to correlate with typical protective device operation times as well as duration divisions recommended by international technical organizations. Sags are widely recognized as among the most common and important aspects of power quality problems affecting commercial and industrial customers - they are virtually unnoticeable by observing lighting blinks but many industrial processes would have shutdown. Possible effects of voltage sags would be system shutdown or reduce efficiency and life span of electrical equipment, specifically motors. Therefore, such disturbances are particularly problematic for industry where the malfunction of a device may result in huge financial losses.

Voltage Sag (Dip)

Voltage Sag (Dip) Terminology Usage The term voltage sag has been used in the power quality community for many years to describe a specific type of power quality disturbance - a short duration voltage decrease. The IEC definition for this phenomenon is voltage dip. The two terms are considered to be interchangeable. Generally, sag is preferred in the US and dip is common in European countries. Terminology used to describe the magnitude of voltage sag is often confusing. According to IEEE 1159-1995, the recommended usage is a sag to 65%, which means that the line voltage is reduced down to 65% of the normal value, not reduced by 65%. Using the preposition of (as in a sag of 65%, or implied in a 65% sag) is deprecated. This preference is consistent with IEC practice, and with most disturbance analyzers that also report remaining voltage. Just as an unspecified voltage designation is accepted to mean line-to-line potential, so an unspecified sag magnitude will refer to the remaining voltage. Where possible, the nominal or base voltage and the remaining voltage should be specified.

Sample Voltage Sag to 65%

Common Causes of Voltage Sags or Dips Voltage sags are generally caused by weather and utility equipment problems, which normally lead to system faults on the transmission or distribution system. For example, a fault on a parallel feeder circuit will result in a voltage drop at the substation bus that affects all of the other feeders until the fault is cleared. The same concept would apply for a fault somewhere on the transmission system. Most of the faults on the utility transmission and distribution system are single-line-to-ground (SLG) faults. Voltage sags can also be caused by the switching of heavy loads or the starting of large motors. To illustrate, an induction motor can draw six to ten times of its full load current during starting. If the current magnitude is relatively larger than the available fault current at that point in the system, the voltage sag can become significant.

Voltage Sag Caused By Motor Starting

In addition, voltage sags can affect large areas, particularly if the fault occurs upstream. Events usually start on the transmission or distribution system - faults and switching.

Voltage Sag Area Coverage

Voltage Sag or Dip Protection

Approaches For Voltage Sag Ride-Through

Voltage sags or dips can be alleviated by cooperation of the utility, end-user and the equipment manufacturer in order to reduce the number and severity of its effects and to reduce the sensitivity of equipment to such problem. 1. Incorporate voltage sag ride-through capability into the equipment. This is generally the less costly and best solution. Tips on ensuring voltage sag ride-through are as follows: Equipment manufacturers should have voltage sag ride-through capability curves available to their customers, who should begin to demand these types of curves to be made available so that they can properly evaluate the equipment.

The company procuring new equipment should establish a procedure that rates the importance of the equipment. If the equipment is critical in nature, the company must make sure that adequate ride-through capability is included when the equipment is purchased.

Equipment should at least be able to ride through voltage sags with a minimum voltage of 70 percent (ITIC curve). A more ideal ride-through capability for short-duration voltage sags would be 50 percent, as specified by the semiconductor industry in SEMI F-47. 2. Apply an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system or some other type of power conditioning to the machine control. This is applicable when the machines themselves can withstand the sag or interruption, but the controls would automatically shut them down. 3. Backup power supply with the capability to support the load for a brief period. 4. Utility power system improvements to significantly reduce the number of sags and interruptions (e.g. replacement of relays). Synopsis: Magnitude: 0.1 to 0.9 pu Source: Utility or large load start by end-users Duration: cycle to 1 minute Symptoms: Malfunction or Shutdown Occurrence: Average of 50 events/year in the US Mitigating Devices: Constant Voltage Transformers (CVT), Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS), Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) References: Bollen, M. (2000). Understanding Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags and Interruptions . Dugan, R., McGranaghan, M., Santoso, S., and Beaty, H.W. (2004). Electrical Power Systems Quality (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. IEEE 1159-1995. Recommended Practice For Monitoring Electric Power Quality . Leng, O.S. (2001). Simulating Power Quality Problems

Steps in solving power quality problems usually include interaction between the utility supply system and the customer facility. This is because power quality problems have different causes that can be traced from both the utility and the end-users. Consequently, different solutions are available in order to improve the power quality and equipment performance. The problem solving process should also consider whether the assessment involves an existing power quality problem or one that could result from a new design or from proposed alterations to the system.

The basic steps in solving power quality problems involve the following:

Steps in Solving Power Quality Problems (Courtesy of Electrical Power Systems Quality)

1. Identify the power quality problem

This is very important since this will be the basis for the solutions to be considered. Knowledge of the different power quality problems will surely come in handy (i.e. voltage sag/swell, interruptions, harmonics, etc.).

2. Power Quality Problem Characterization

This step in solving power quality problems includes data gathering and measurements. Measurement is the primary method of characterizing the problem or the existing system that is being evaluated. In addition, it is essential to record impacts of the power quality variations at the same time when carrying out the measurements - so that problems can be easily correlated with the possible causes. Power Quality Analyzers and Meters play a vital role in this part.

3. Identify and propose solutions to the PQ problem

Power quality solutions are identified at all levels of the system from the utility (transmission and distribution level) down to the end-user equipment being affected. This step shall include looking at equipment ride-through capability and power quality mitigating devices.

4. Evaluate the proposed solutions

Proposed solutions are then evaluated based on both the technical and economic aspects. Limitations are also considered in this step. Power quality problem solutions are first evaluated and screened technically to determine their feasibility. Then, only the remaining viable alternatives are compared on an economic basis.

5. Optimal Solution

Basically, the solution/s that can solve the power quality problem/s present in the facility with the least cost is the optimal solution. In short, it is the most cost-effective alternative. It will depend on the number of end-users being affected, type of power quality problem and the possible solutions.

Reference: Dugan, R., McGranaghan, M., Santoso, S., and Beaty, H.W. (2004). Electrical Power Systems Quality (2 York: McGraw-Hill
nd

ed.). New

Harmonics are described by IEEE as sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency at which the power system is designed to operate. This means that for a 60-Hz system, the harmonic frequencies are 120 Hz (2nd harmonic), 180 Hz (3rd harmonic) and so on. Harmonics combine with the fundamental voltage or current producing a non-sinusoidal shape, thus, a waveform distortion power quality problem. The non-sinusoidal shape corresponds to the sum of different sine waves with

different magnitudes and phase angles, having frequencies that are multiples of the system frequency.

Harmonic Waveform Distortion

Harmonic distortion levels can be characterized by the complete harmonic spectrum with magnitudes and phase angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also common to use the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), as a measure of the effective value of harmonic distortion. It has become an increasing

concern for many end-users and for the overall power system because of the growing application of power electronics equipment. Protection from high levels of harmonics includes isolation or modification of the source, phase multiplication, pulse width modulator (PWM) and application of passive or active harmonic filters. Causes

Harmonics exists due to the nonlinear characteristics loads and devices on the electrical power system. These devices can be modeled as current sources that inject harmonic currents into the electrical system. Consequently, voltage distortion is created as these currents produce nonlinear voltage drops across the system impedance.

Prior to the proliferation of power electronic equipment, harmonics are commonly caused by electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve (magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush motors. Today, all non-linear loads, such as power electronics equipment including Switched Mode Power Supplies (SMPS), Adjustable Speed Drives (ASD), high efficiency lighting and data processing equipment.

Consequences

Harmonics primarily result to significant overheating of equipment, cables and wires. Other consequences of having a high harmonic level in the system include the following:

Neutral overload in 3-phase systems Electromagnetic interference with communication systems Loss of efficiency in electric machines Increased probability in occurrence of resonance Nuisance tripping of thermal protections. Errors in measures when using average reading meters

Total Demand Distortion

Current distortion levels can be characterized by the total harmonic distortion, although sometimes this can be misleading. For example, many ASDs will display high THD values for the input current when they are operating at very light loads. Nonetheless, this is not alarming because the magnitude of harmonic current is low, even though its relative distortion is high.

As a result, the IEEE (Std 519) defines the Total Demand Distortion (TDD), in order to typify harmonic currents in a consistent manner. The TDD is the same as the total harmonic distortion except that the distortion is expressed as a percent of some rated load current rather than as a percentage of the fundamental current magnitude at the instant of measurement.

Synopsis:

Magnitude: 0 to 20% (typical) Spectral Content: 0 to 100th Harmonic Duration: Steady-state Source: Nonlinear Devices (i.e. Power Electronics) Symptoms: Malfunction and Overheating Occurrence: Low to Medium Protection: Harmonic Filters, K-Factor Transformers

References:
Almeida, A., Delgado J., and Moreira, L. (nd). Power Quality Problems and New Solutions

Dugan, R., McGranaghan, M., Santoso, S., and Beaty, H.W. (2004). Electrical Power Systems Quality (2nd Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. IEEE 1159-1995. Recommended Practice For Monitoring Electric Power Quality. Utility Systems Technologies, Inc. (2009). Power Quality Basics

In IUPQC the source impedance is very low, a high amount of current would be needed to boost the Bus voltage in the case of a voltage sag/swell which is not feasible. It also has low dynamic performance because the dc-link voltage is not regulated.