Humana - Mente 11 Psychology or Psychologies

ISSUE 11 - OCTOBER 2009
Psychology or Psychologies: which

epistemology?
EDITED BY MARCO FENICI
ISSN: 1972 -1293
HUMANA.MENTE - QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY www.humanamente.eu
EDITORIAL MANAGER: ALBERTO PERUZZI - UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE
DIRECTOR: DUCCIO MANETTI - UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE
VICEDIRECTOR: SILVANO ZIPOLI CAIANI - UNIVERSITY OF MILAN
INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD
JOHN BELL - UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO
GIOVANNI BONIOLO - INSTITUTE OF MOLECULAR ONCOLOGY FOUNDATION
MARIA LUISA DALLA CHIARA - UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE
DIMITRI D'ANDREA - UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE
BERNARDINO FANTINI - UNIVERSIT DE GENVE
LUCIANO FLORIDI - UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
MASSIMO INGUSCIO - EUROPEAN LABORATORY FOR NON-LINEAR SPECTROSCOPY
GEORGE LAKOFF - UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY
PAOLO PARRINI - UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE
JEAN PETITOT - CREA, CENTRE DE RECHERCHE EN PISTMOLOGIE APPLIQUE
PAOLO ROSSI MONTI - ACCADEMIA NAZIONALE DEI LINCEI
CORRADO SINIGAGLIA - UNIVERSITY OF MILAN
CONSULTING EDITORS
CARLO GABBANI - UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE
ROBERTA LANFREDINI - UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE
MARCO SALUCCI - UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE
Elena Acuti, Scilla Bellucci, Laura Beritelli, Alberto Binazzi, Matteo Borri,
Giovanni Casini, Roberto Ciuni, Chiara Erbosi, Marco Fenici, Riccardo
Furi, Matteo Leoni, Stefano Liccioli, Umberto Maionchi, Daniele Romano
Editorial Board
Editorial Staff

numana.Mente, Issue 11 - Cctober 2009

INDLk

p. l
IN1kCDUC1ICN sycho|ogy and sycho|og|es: wh|ch Lp|stemo|ogy?
MA8CC lLnlCl
p. v
CCLUMN h||osoph|ca||y Incorrect: Otmol slomo tottl pslcoloql p. xvll
kLCk1S Summer Schoo|: "1he Soc|a| Se|f" - Alghero, 20-27 SepLember, 2009
revlewed by Chlara 8rozzo
p. xxl
Summer Schoo|: "M|nd and Language. Menta| S|mu|at|on and
know|edge of the ast" - Slena, 8-11 !une, 2009
revlewed by MarLa ul uedda and MarLlna anLanl
p. xxv
kutgers-S|ena Io|nt Workshop: "M|nd and Cu|ture"
- Slena, 1-2 !une, 2009
revlewed by nlcola SlmoneLLl

p. xxvll
ALkS
pistemic Pre/iminories: Normotive Priorities ond Neuropsycho/oqico/
kinds
!LnnllL8 MunuALL
p. 1

5cientific Psycho/oqy: 5hou/d we 8ury it or Proise it?
PCWA8u CA8unL8
p. 11

Mento/ l//ness os Mento/: in uefence of Psycho/oqico/ keo/ism
MA11PLW 8. 88CCML Anu LlSA 8C81CLC11l
p. 23

pistemo/oqy: o 8ehovior 4no/ytic Perspective
88uCL A. 1P?L8
p. 43

6enero/itinq 1hrouqh conditiono/ 4no/ysis: 5ystemic couso/ity in the
wor/d of terno/ 8ecominq
ZACP 8LCkS1LAu, kLnnL1P 8. CA8LLL Anu !AAn vALSlnL8
p. 63

1he lssue of the unity ond 5pecificity of Psycho/oqy from the
viewpoint of o constructivist pistemo/oqy
CA88lLLL CPlA8l
p. 81

knowinq ond the unknown: on xistentio/ pistemo/oqy in o
Postmodern context
LCulS PCllMAn
p. 97

pistemo/oqio de//o studio de/ coso c/inico: note su/ metodo de//o
psicoono/isi
nlCCLC 1L8MlnlC
p. 111

Psico/oqie, etnopsichiotrio, sistemi di curo
lL8C CCC Anu S1LlAnlA CCnSlCLlL8L
p. 123
8CCk kLVILWS
uolty lo lsycboloqy. losslblllty ot llpeJteom?, edlLed by 8oberL !.
SLernberg
revlewed by MaLLeo 8orrl
p. 137
lottoJozlooe ollo stotlo Jello pslcoloqlo, by Carmela MorablLo
revlewed by AlberLo 8lnazzl

p. 141
MloJ. A nlstotlcol ooJ lbllosopblcol lottoJoctloo to tbe Mojot 1beotles,
by Andre kukla and !oel Walmsley
revlewed by Chlara Lrbosl

p. 143
lslcblottlo, pslcoooollsl e ooovo bloloqlo Jello meote, by Lrlc 8. kandel
revlewed by noeml uella 8aLLa
p. 143
uolfleJ 5oclol coqoltloo, by norman P. Anderson
revlewed by LLlenne MulleL

p. 149
lsycblotty os o coqoltlve Neotoscleoce, edlLed by MaLLhew 8. 8roome
and Llsa 8orLoloLLl
revlewed by LllsabeLLa Slrglovannl
p. 133
1be combtlJqe nooJbook of 5oclocoltotol lsycboloqy, edlLed by !aan
valslner and AlberLo 8osa
revlewed by Luca 1aLeo

p. 139
lsycboloqy's lotetptetlve 1oto. 1be 5eotcb fot 1totb ooJ Aqeocy lo
1beotetlcol ooJ lbllosopblcol lsycboloqy, by 8arbara S. Peld
revlewed by Wllllam Meehan

p. 163
lbeoomeooloqy ooJ lsycboloqlcol 5cleoce. nlstotlcol ooJ lbllosopblcol
letspectlves, edlLed by eLer u. AshworLh and Man C. Chung
revlewed by Culdo Canlglla

p. 167
lsycboJyoomlc 1betopy. cooceptool ooJ mpltlcol loooJotloos, by
SLeven k. Puprlch
revlewed by v. 8arry uauphln

p. 171
uoloq wltboot coocepts, by Ldouard Machery
revlewed by Marco lenlcl
p. 173
CCMMLN1AkILS
MoJelll eplstemoloqlcl lo pslcoloqlo, edlLed by Marco CasLlgllonl and
AnLonella Corradlnl
commenLed by umberLo Malonchl

p. 183
lotomo Jel cetvello. commeoto o le Csservazlonl sulla fllosofla della
pslcologla Jl loJwlq wlttqeostelo
edlLed by Lulgl erlsslnoLLo

p. 189
lsycblotty lo tbe 5cleotlflc lmoqe, by uomlnlc Murphy
commenLed by LllsabeLLa Slrglovannl

p. 199
1be lbllosopblcol leqocy of 8ebovlotlsm, by 8ruce A. 1hyer
commenLed by AlberLo 8lnazzl

p. 203
Altetootlve to coqoltloo. A New look ot xplololoq nomoo 5oclol
8ebovlot, by ChrlsLlna Lee
commenLed by MarLlna anLanl

p. 209
ctltlcol 1blokloq oboot lsycboloqy, edlLed by 8renL u. Sllfe, !effrey S.
8eber and lrank C. 8lchardson
commenLed by MarLa ul uedda
p. 213

lo costtozlooe Jel soqqetto. le otlqlol stotlcbe Jello tlcetco pslcoloqlco,
by kurL uanzlger
commenLed by 8oberLa asslone

p. 221
v

Intiouuction
Psycbology and Psycbologies: wbicb Epistemology?

Motco leolcl

fenlcl[unlsl.lL

Accordlng Lo lLs eLymology, psychology ls Lhe dlsclpllne LhaL lnvesLlgaLes Lhe psyche. Powever,
Lhe meanlng of Lhe Lerm 'psyche' ls noL consLanL across Llme. SomeLlmes lL has lndlcaLed a
klnd of vlLal breaLh, someLlmes Lhe soul, and someLlmes Lhe serles of menLal funcLlons.
Analogously, psychology has ldenLlfled lLs ob[ecL, lLs meLhod and Lhe goals of lLs analysls
dlfferenLly over Llme. 1he problem of Lhe unlLy of psychology arose a relaLlvely few decades
afLer Lhe blrLh of Lhe sclence (urlesch 1923, 8uhler 1927), and perslsLs Lo Lhe presenL day (see,
for example, 8oyce 1970, SLaaLs 1983, SLernberg 2004, Penrlques 2004, 2003). 1he psyche ls
Lhe ob[ecL of enqulry ln very dlfferenL sclenLlflc dlsclpllnes, from neurosclence and
neuropsychlaLry Lo behavlourlsL and cognlLlve psychology, Lo hlsLorlcal-exlsLenLlal and
psychodynamlc Lheraples. Lach of Lhese dlsclpllnes sLudles Lhe mlnd on a dlfferenL level of
analysls: neurophyslologlcal, funcLlonal or narraLlve. 1he fragmenLaLlon of Lhe ob[ecL of
psychology ls mlrrored ln Lhe varlable popular percepLlon of Lhe psychologlsL: someLlmes Lhe
psychologlsL ls Lhe neurosclenLlsL, someLlmes Lhe psychlaLrlsL, someLlmes Lhe psychoanalysL,
someLlmes Lhe LheoreLlcal psychologlsL or someLlmes Lhe psychoLheraplsL whose Lralnlng may
well come from ouLslde of Lhe dlsclpllne.
1herefore Lhe lssue of plurallsm ln psychology ls unavoldable. varlous research paradlgms
and schools produce knowledge of a dlfferenL and noL lmmedlaLely compaLlble klnd. 1hls ls
problemaLlc: Lhe physlcal sclences, on Lhe conLrary, presenL, aL leasL ln prlnclple, cumulaLlve
knowledge. 1he quesLlon abouL Lhe unlLy of psychology requlres us Lo aLLend Lo Lhe klnd of
plurallsm we see ln Lhe fleld. ls Lhls a plurallsm of levels of descrlpLlon of Lhe ob[ecL of
psychology, or of meLhods of enqulry? Cr ls Lhe plurallsm deeper, lndlcaLlng Lhe exlsLence of
dlfferenL ob[ecLs of sLudy? lf psychology ls a human sclence, and lf human naLure ls an open (aL
Lhe same Llme blologlcal, soclal and culLural) phenomenon, a plurallsL accounL ln psychology
may be approprlaLe ln vlrLue of Lhe absence of any posslble reducLlon of Lhe human belng Lo
mere naLural facL.
1he presenL lssue of nomooo.Meote lnLends Lo lnvesLlgaLe Lhe problem of Lhe unlLy of
psychology wlLh reference Lo Lhese quesLlons. 1hese quesLlons presuppose an auLonomous
domaln of Lhe phllosophy of psychology wlLhln Lhe phllosophy of sclence. Slnce phllosophy of
sclence ls also referred Lo as eplsLemology - lndeed, accordlng Lo a conLlnenLal" raLher Lhan
Anglophone Lermlnology - we may consequenLly label such a domaln wlLh Lhe name of
eplstemoloqy of psycboloqy. 1hus, Lhe eplsLemology of psychology may be deflned as LhaL parL
of applled eplsLemology whlch sLudles Lhe sclenLlflc sLaLus of Lhe psychologlcal dlsclpllnes.
1

1he cholce of Lhe name eplstemoloqy of psycboloqy dlsLlngulshes Lhe eplsLemology of
psychology from Lwo relaLed dlsclpllnes, namely, classlcal phllosophy of mlnd and Lhe more
recenL phllosophy of psychology. ln facL, lL mlghL be argued LhaL Lhe eplsLemology of
psychology ls only a parL of Lhe phllosophy of mlnd. 1he argumenL mlghL proceed as follows: (l)
phllosophy ls LradlLlonally dlvlded lnLo onLology, eplsLemology and moral phllosophy, (ll) Lhe

h.u. sLudenL ln hllosophy and CognlLlve Sclence, unlverslLy of Slena, lLaly

1
8eferrlng Lo psychology as a plurallLy ls mandaLory ln Lhls case slnce Lhe unlLy of psychology mlghL be
only a posslble ouLcome of Lhe lnvesLlgaLlon wlLhln eplsLemology of psychology, Lherefore cannoL be
assumed a prlorl.

Bumana.Nente - Issue 11 - 0ctobei 2uu9

vl

same dlsLlncLlon can also be malnLalned wlLh respecL Lo phllosophy of mlnd, whlch should
Lherefore analyse onLologlcal, eplsLemologlcal and moral lssues connecLed Lo Lhe concepL of
mlnd,
2
(lll) Lhe mlnd ls Lhe ob[ecL of lnvesLlgaLlon of psychology, (lv) Lhe eplsLemology of
psychology ls concerned wlLh Lhe eplsLemologlcal quesLlons of psychology, LhaL ls, wlLh Lhe
eplsLemologlcal quesLlons concernlng Lhe ob[ecL of sLudy of psychology, Lherefore, (lv)
eplsLemology of psychology ls concerned wlLh Lhe eplsLemologlcal lssues of Lhe concepL of
mlnd, whlch ls [usL a parL of Lhe phllosophy of mlnd.
1he argumenL ls sound, buL lrrelevanL, for boLh hlsLorlcal and LheoreLlcal reasons. 8roadly
speaklng, phllosophy of mlnd sLudles Lhe naLure of Lhe mlnd and lLs relaLlon Lo Lhe body. ln Lhe
lasL decades of Lhe xx
Lh
cenLury, such a general ob[ecL of enqulry has been reflned and
lnvesLlgaLed Lhrough Lhe observaLlon LhaL Lhere ls a wlde range of Lerms by means of whlch we
characLerlse people's mlnds - e.g., bellef," deslre," lnLenLlon," hope," fear," only Lo
menLlon a few. 1hose Lerms are relaLed Lo each oLher ln complex ways, and Lhey form a
domaln of knowledge LhaL has been called folk, or commoo seose psychology. Cne of Lhe maln
Loplcs of debaLe wlLhln phllosophy of mlnd has concerned how Lo relaLe Lhe well-deflned
concepLs of folk psychology Lo sclenLlflc psychology.
3
ulsregardlng Lhe parLlcular poslLlon one
mlghL favour wlLhln Lhe debaLe, lLs parLlclpanLs have assumed LhaL Lhe cenLral problem
concerns how Lhe well-deflned concepLs of folk psychology are relaLed Lo Lhe concepLs of Lhe
mlnd provlded by naLural sclences. 1haL ls, Lhe parLlclpanLs Lo Lhe debaLe concenLraLed more
on Lhe onLologlcal sLaLus of Lhe menLal wlLh respecL Lo Lhe physlcal world Lhan on
eplsLemologlcal quesLlons abouL how we can ground our knowledge of Lhe menLal. 1herefore,
an lmporLanL parL of Lhe phllosophy of mlnd ls noL concerned wlLh Lhe same lssues LhaL Lhe
eplsLemology of psychology addresses.
lssues abouL how Lo ground psychologlcal knowledge on a flrm basls have noneLheless been
ralsed ln Lhe phllosophy of mlnd slnce lLs orlgln unLll nowadays. !usL as a few examples,
conslder uescarLes' dlscusslon abouL Lhe lnLulLlon of clear and dlsLlncL ldeas, Lhe debaLe
beLween Lheory and slmulaLlon LheorlsLs abouL Lhe aLLrlbuLlon of menLal sLaLes Lo Lhe oLhers,
or Lhe conLemporary lnLeresL ln flrsL-person auLhorlLy. Pence, one mlghL sLlll argue LhaL Lhe
eplsLemology of psychology should fall wlLhln Lhls parL of Lhe phllosophy of mlnd concerned
wlLh eplsLemologlcal lssues abouL Lhe mlnd. Powever, noLe LhaL ln Lhls conLexL Lhe menLal ls
agaln consldered a falrly well-esLabllshed domaln Lo be lnvesLlgaLed by phllosophers. WhaL
makes Lhls posslble ls Lhe appeal Lo a klnd of psychologlcal knowledge LhaL ls ofLen more or
less clearly lnLrospecLlve ln lLs naLure, alLernaLlvely, psychologlcal knowledge ls sLrongly
connecLed Lo lLs llngulsLlc vehlcle - l.e., proposlLlonal aLLlLudes - so LhaL Lhe eplsLemologlcal
analysls abouL Lhe mlnd ls asslmllaLed Lo Lhe lnvesLlgaLlon of our llngulsLlc pracLlces abouL
menLal Lerms. ln any case, lL has been lmpllclLly assumed LhaL we do possess a deflnlLe concepL
of Lhe mlnd, whlch ls shaped by common sense.

2
l am ln debL Lo 8lchard klLchener for Lhls proposal regardlng Lhe analysls of Lhe phllosophy of
psychology.
3
Cn Lhe one hand, some scholars have argued LhaL folk psychology ldenLlfles a baslc and auLonomous
domaln, whlch aL Lhe same Llme cannoL be LranslaLed ln dlfferenL Lerms wlLhouL dlsLorLlng lLs naLure,
and lL ls essenLlal Lo provlde a compleLe descrlpLlon of whaL ls ln Lhe world. Cn Lhe oLher hand, lL has
been clalmed LhaL folk psychology ls noL auLonomous from sclenLlflc psychology. Such a Lhesls has been
held by clalmlng elLher LhaL Lhe language of folk psychology can be reduced Lo Lhe language of naLural
sclence, or even LhaL lL cannoL. ln Lhe laLLer case, naLurallsLlc accounLs of folk psychology spllL beLween
Lhose LhaL sLlll accepL Lhe pragmaLlc uLlllLy of Lhe menLal vocabulary and Lhe more exLremlsLs suggesLlng
LhaL lL wlll ln Lhe end be ellmlnaLed.
Intiouuction

vll

Powever, lL ls quesLlonable wheLher common sense provldes well-deflned concepLs of Lhe
menLal. lndeed, as sLudles ln culLural anLhropology and comparaLlve llLeraLure show, Lhe
undersLandlng of Lhe mlnd ln Lhe common sense framework ls hlsLorlcally and culLurally
dependenL. Accordlng Lo Llllard (1998), for lnsLance, Lhe concepLs of folk psychology vary wlLh
respecL Lo several dlmenslons across culLures. As anoLher example, !aynes (1977) analysed Lhe
language ln Lhe llloJ and found LhaL Lhe concepLs of mlnd and consclousness as Pomer's
heroes express Lhem are radlcally dlfferenL from Lhose used nowadays. lurLhermore, Lhe
common sense vocabulary predaLes sclenLlflc dlscoverles, and lLs onLology changes accordlng
Lo Lhe changes ln Lhe shared vlew of reallLy. WlLh respecL Lo Lhe case of psychology, for
example, lreud's psychoanalysls, whlch was developed Lo sclenLlflcally lnvesLlgaLe Lhe orlglns
of hysLerla, laLer became so popular LhaL orlglnally psychoanalyLlc Lerms are nowadays parL of
our common way Lo characLerlze Lhe mlnd. 1herefore, lL seems LhaL menLal concepLs undergo
gradual change ln space and Llme. 1hus, alLhough phllosophy of mlnd explolLs a concepLlon of
Lhe menLal wlLhouL speclfylng Lhe llmlLs of lLs LheoreLlcal framework, we should doubL LhaL
menLal concepLs are unlvocally deflned wlLhln Lhe common sense.
ln Lalklng abouL Lhe menLal, lL ls very lmporLanL always Lo speclfy Lhe LheoreLlcal or
meLhodologlcal framework presupposed by our dlscourse, for Lhese frameworks deflne Lhe
ob[ecL of lnvesLlgaLlon. 1hus, Lhe eplsLemology of psychology addresses Lhe foundaLlon of
psychologlcal knowledge by conLexLuallslng any analysls wlLh respecL Lo Lhe parLlcular
dlsclpllne from whlch lL emerges. 1hls does noL, of course, mean LhaL we musL ln such
dlscourse accepL every psychologlcal dlsclpllne as auLhorlLaLlve: LhaL burden of Lhe proof musL
be born by each dlsclpllne.
lor Lhe reasons expressed above, lL seems reducLlve Lo Lalk abouL Lhe eplsLemology of
psychology as a parLlcular chapLer of Lhe phllosophy of mlnd. ursulL of Lhe eplsLemology of
psychology assumes Lhe plurallLy of psychologlcal dlsclpllnes and LhaL Lhe deflnlLlon of Lhe
proper ob[ecL of psychology - Lhe mlnd - creaLes Lhe problem of Lhe unlLy of psychology. 1he
onLologlcal quesLlons regardlng Lhe naLure of Lhe mlnd and menLal concepLs are sLrlcLly
connecLed Lo Lhe eplsLemologlcal quesLlon abouL Lhe sLaLus of Lhe concepLs of psychology as
Lhey appear ln Lhe psychologlcal dlsclpllnes.
l wanL also Lo conLrasL Lhe eplsLemology of psychology wlLh respecL Lo Lhe emerglng fleld
known as Lhe phllosophy of psychology. AuLhors employlng Lhls Lerm are numerous, Lhey
generally share an lnLeresL ln explalnlng Lhe properLles of Lhe menLal Lhrough a naLurallsLlc
accounL of Lhe human psyche, provlded by Lhe cognlLlve sclences. Pence, Lhe phllosophy of
psychology ls an approach whlch focuses on problems whlch are ralsed for pbllosopby by Lhe
resulLs and meLhods of psychology" (8oLLerlll and CarruLhers, p. lx), and lL ls concerned wlLh
mlnd and cognlLlon" (Wllson 2003), or wlLh Lhe naLure and mechanlsms of cognlLlon, raLher
Lhan wlLh Lhe meLaphyslcs and eplsLemology of Lhe mlnd" (8ermudez 2003, p. 13).
4

uesplLe Lhe slmllarlLy ln Lhe names, Lhe eplsLemology and Lhe phllosophy of psychology
dlffer conslderably ln Lhelr scope. lndeed, Lhe auLhors who lnLroduced Lhe laLLer resLrlcL Lhe
Lerm psycboloqy elLher Lo coqoltlve psychology, or more ln general Lo LhaL seL of dlsclpllnes -
such as Lhe very cognlLlve psychology, as well as neurosclence, compuLer sclence, cognlLlve
anLhropology, and psychollngulsLlcs - LhaL form Lhe fleld of cognlLlve sclences. 1he
eplsLemology of psychology alms aL a wlder LargeL, slnce, aL leasL ptlmo focle, every
psychologlcal dlsclpllne, from neurosclence and neuropsychlaLry Lo behavlourlsL and cognlLlve
psychology, Lo hlsLorlcal-exlsLenLlal and psychodynamlc Lheraples falls wlLhln lLs scope.
A second lmporLanL dlsLlncLlon beLween Lhe eplsLemology and Lhe phllosophy of
psychology ls LhaL Lhe former, and noL Lhe laLLer ls commlLLed Lo an eplsLemologlcal enqulry.

4
See also 8lock (1980), C' uonohue and klLchener (1996), 1hagard (2007), Symons and Calvo (2009).


vlll

lndeed, Lhe phllosophy of psychology presupposes a naLurallsLlc accounL accordlng Lo whlch a
correcL and compleLe explanaLlon of Lhe human mlnd wlll come from cognlLlve sclences.
1herefore, ln Lhe phllosophy of psychology Lhere ls a naLural lncllnaLlon Lo naLurallzed
eplsLemology (Culne 1969), ln whlch emplrlcal enqulry abouL how we reason subsLlLuLes for
eplsLemologlcal quesLlons abouL Lhe llmlLs and Lhe consLralnLs on human knowledge.
1hls subsLlLuLlon ls Lo lgnore raLher Lhan Lo solve Lhe problems concernlng Lhe warranL of
human knowledge of Lhe mlnd. Moreover, lL presupposes a klnd of sclenLlflc ellmlnaLlvlsm
abouL Lhe menLal, whlch porLends danger for Lhe very exlsLence of Lhe phllosophy of
psychology. ln facL, naLurallzed eplsLemology seems Lo reduce Lhe phllosophy of psychology Lo
a crlLlque of emplrlcal meLhodology ln cognlLlve sclence. ln LhaL case, Lhe psychologlsL, Lhe
neurosclenLlsL or Lhe llngulsL who reflecLlvely conslder Lhe meLhods of Lhelr dlsclpllne and
reason abouL Lhe posslble lnLerpreLaLlon of Lhelr experlmenLs, would Lo do Lhe same work LhaL
Lhe phllosopher of psychology. 1hls facL ls hlghllghLed by Carlo Cabbanl:

A serlous dlfflculLy boLh for a genulne phllosophy of psychology and for genulne explanaLlons of
our consclous experlence would be creaLed by Lhe con[uncLlon of a fully naLurallzed eplsLemology
wlLh Lhe so called ellmlnaLlve revlslonlsm. [.] ln Lhe case of such a 'monollLhlc' verslon of Lhls
opLlon (LhaL ls ln Lhe case where sclence replaces Lhe personal-level accounL or produce an unfalr
'co-evoluLlon' of lL), l Lhlnk we would have a slLuaLlon ln whlch Lhe phllosophy of psychology
would resulL ln belng no more Lhan Lhe more general chapLer of experlmenLal psychology,
wlLhouL a pecullar ldenLlLy and auLonomous problems. (Cabbanl, 2006, pp. 3-6)

1he eplsLemology of psychology runs no such rlsk because of lLs greaLer generallLy. lndeed, as
noLed above, lLs exlsLence ls granLed by Lhe plurallsm of psychologlcal dlsclpllnes. noneLheless,
Lo pursue Lhls lnqulry ls Lo acknowledge LhaL cognlLlve sclence Lakes Lhe psychology of
lndlvlduals broadly as how lL was deflned aL Lhe end of Lhe xx
Lh
cenLury ln WesLern culLure.
1herefore, even Lhough Lhe vlew of Lhe human mlnd glven by Lhe cognlLlve sclences ls Lhe
resulL of an accuraLe sclenLlflc enqulry, lL ls sLlll Lhe ouLcome of a conLlngenL hlsLorlcal
slLuaLlon. 1hls suggesLs LhaL Lhe phllosophy of psychology should pay close aLLenLlon Lo Lhe
many foundaLlonal assumpLlons ln Lhe cognlLlve sclences LhaL are presupposed buL
unexpressed.
1hls dlscusslon of Lhe dlsLlncLlon beLween Lhe phllosophy boLh of mlnd and psychology, on
Lhe one hand, and Lhe eplsLemology of psychology, on Lhe oLher, mlghL be summed up ln Lhe
moLLo: tbete ls oo pbllosopby of psycboloqy wltboot o pbllosopby of mloJ, ooJ tbete ls oo
pbllosopby of mloJ wltboot cooslJetloq ootoloqlcol, eplstemoloqlcol, metboJoloqlcol ooJ
motol lssoes of tbe coocept of mloJ. A phllosophy of psychology may be bullL only by
conslderlng all Lhese klnds of quesLlons. ln facL, Lhe eplsLemology of psychology conslders Lhe
whole range of psychologlcal dlsclpllnes because Lhey, as a plurallLy, address Lhese quesLlons.
And recognlzlng furLher dlmenslons ln Lhe deflnlLlon of Lhe ob[ecL of Lhe psychology forces one
Lo make expllclL lLs fundamenLal assumpLlons and Lo evaluaLe Lhe alLernaLlves.
l Lurn now Lo Lhe problems ralsed by Lhe eplsLemology of psychology. As a branch of
eplsLemology, lL ralses LheoreLlcal lssues boLh ln general and applled eplsLemology. 1he
problems of applled eplsLemology concern Lhe deflnlLlon of Lhe ob[ecL, and of Lhe goals, of
psychology. Should psychology seek unlversal lnvarlanLs ln Lhe psyche, aparL from Lhe
dlfferences ln Lhe hlsLorlcal-culLural conLexL, ln Lhe eLhnlc group, ln Lhe genre and ln Lhe age?
Cr ls psychology raLher a sclence of Lhe lndlvldual, almlng aL parLlcular characLerlsLlcs LhaL
mlghL vary over Llme and culLure? ln regard Lo Lhe goals of psychology, Lhe debaLe ls abouL Lhe
opposlLlon beLween Lhe LheoreLlcal and Lhe pracLlce-LherapeuLlc naLure of psychologlcal
knowledge. Many sclenLlflc accounLs of Lhe mlnd have LherapeuLlc lmpllcaLlons, and every
Intiouuction

lx

LherapeuLlc pracLlce presupposes, aL leasL lmpllclLly, a LheoreLlcal framework for lLs analysls.
1he connecLlon beLween Lhese Lwo aspecLs and Lhe need Lo dlsLlngulsh normal developmenL
and psychlc well-belng from paLhology enLall LhaL even LheoreLlcal psychology ralses deep
eLhlcal quesLlons.
lor whaL concerns general eplsLemology, Lhe plurallsm of psychology seems Lo requlre an
eplsLemologlcal model dlfferenL from LhaL approprlaLe Lo Lhe oLher naLural sclences (ClvlLa
2003). Such a model should accounL for Lhe sense of boLh synchronlc and dlachronlc change ln
psychology. Pence, lL has Lo allow Lhe evaluaLlon and Lhe comparlson beLween dlfferenL
accounLs, aL Lhe same Llme prevenLlng Lhe sLaLemenL of lnsuperable anLlnomles based on
dlfferenL meLhodologles (Marhaba 1976). 8uL lL should also explaln Lhe sense ln whlch Lhe
sclenLlflc enLerprlse lncreases Lhe explanaLory reach of psychologlcal research. Cn a more
absLracL level, an eplsLemologlcal model should make expllclL Lhe seL of crlLerla agalnsL whlch
Lhe success of a paradlgm ls Lo be assessed. Pere agaln psychology ls a speclal case. 1he
lnLlmacy of psychology wlLh our llves locaLes Lhe eLhlcs of sclence aL Lhe cenLre of our concerns
when we conslder psychology. llnally, Lhe eplsLemologlcal enqulry ln psychology may be Lhe
sLarLlng polnL for Lhe developmenL of new, more general eplsLemologlcal models whlch may
also be appllcable Lo oLher sclenLlflc dlsclpllnes.
1he conLenLs of Lhls lssue of nomooo.Meote reflecL Lhe naLure of Lhe eplsLemology of
psychology. ln plstemlc ltellmlootles. Notmotlve ltlotltles ooJ Neotopsycboloqlcol kloJs,
!ennlfer Mundale opens Lhe lnqulry by ldenLlfylng Lwo lmporLanL problems for Lhe
eplsLemology of psychology. ln Lhe flrsL parL of Lhls essay, she polnLs ouL LhaL our Lheorles
abouL human psychology concern ob[ecLs of dlfferenL domalns: [usLlfled bellefs (eplsLemlc
norms), menLal healLh (cllnlcal norms), heurlsLlc sLraLegles of Lhlnklng (cognlLlve norms), rlghL
acLlons (eLhlcal norms), and so on. 1herefore, Lhere ls surely Lhe llkellhood, lf noL lnevlLablllLy,
LhaL normaLlve confllcLs wlll arlse, and lL ls puzzllng Lo know how Lo resolve Lhem" (p. 3). 1hls
poses Lhe problem of how Lo [udge, and of how Lo resolve, confllcLs, and LhaL lnLroduces Lhe
furLher problem of flxlng Lhe framework wlLh respecL Lo whlch one ad[udlcaLes confllcLs. ln Lhe
second parL of Lhe essay, Mundale noLes LhaL many phllosophlcal argumenLs (e.g., mulLlple
reallsablllLy and mulLlple funcLlonallLy argumenLs) rely on unexamlned Laxonomlc assumpLlons
abouL Lhe psychologlcal and neurosclenLlflc domalns. 1herefore, ln Lhe absence of some
prellmlnary classlflcaLory conslderaLlons, argumenLs LhaL depend upon Lhem are noLhlng more
Lhan programmaLlc guesses" (p. 4). Mundale opposes Lo such argumenLs Lhe accuraLe work
LhaL ls belng conducLed ln neurosclence Lo emplrlcally correlaLe neural acLlvaLlons and
psychologlcal funcLlon, flashlng ouL Lhe nomologlcal brldges beLween Lhe Lwo dlsclpllnes" (p.
7). AlLhough research ln Lhls fleld ls buL Lo geL Lo Lhe end, Lhe lssue of creaLlng a proper
Laxonomy for physlcal sLaLes, as well as Lhe problem of correlaLlng physlcal Lo menLal Lypes,
are reasonably emplrlcal maLLers, Lherefore, Lo be lnvesLlgaLed wlLh Lhe besL sclenLlflc Lools we
have aL our dlsposal.
ln dlscusslng Lhe flrsL problem, Mundale seems concerned Lo show how physlcal levels are
auLonomous and do noL lmmedlaLely need Lo surrender Lo hlgher levels of explanaLlon ln Lhe
case of a confllcL. Powever, her argumenL reaches furLher. As she noLes, lf confllcL ls
lnevlLable among Lhose [e.g., cllnlcal and eLhlcal] assumpLlons, Lhe crlLlclsm ls more Lelllng lf
placed wlLhln Lhe defense of one's larger, normaLlve hlerarchles or coordlnaLlon" (p. 4). 1haL
ls, comparlson beLween confllcLlng norms cannoL be solved wlLhouL slLuaLlng lL ln Lhe wlder
conLexL of human (eplsLemlc) raLlonallLy.
3
1hls ls whaL Lhe eplsLemology of psychology
demands.

3
Mundale expllclLly polnLs ouL LhaL: lf we approach normaLlve confllcL, does Lhls lnLerpreLaLlon noL
commlL us, aL Lhe ouLseL, Lo Lhe precedence of LradlLlonal, eplsLemologlcal norms? erhaps even Lo


x

lndeed, Lhe eplsLemologlsL of psychology does noL propose parLlcular soluLlons Lo Lhe
confllcL of norms, buL raLher proposes LhaL, when a confllcL arlses, appeallng nelLher Lo
emplrlcal resulLs nor Lo a prlorl undersLandlng of mlnd and sub[ecLlvlLy ls sufflclenL unless Lhe
crlLerla of resoluLlon of Lhe confllcL are spelled ouL. And Lhe problem for psychology ls LhaL Lhe
deflnlLlon of Lhose crlLerla ls a parL of lLs ob[ecL of lnvesLlgaLlon. 1herefore, Lhe problems LhaL
Mundale lndlcaLes are noL concepLually prlor Lo Lhe saLlsfacLory LreaLmenL of varlous lssues ln
Lhe eplsLemology of psychology" (p. 1). lndeed, Lhose problems preclsely deLecL Lhe domaln of
Lhe eplsLemology of psychology.
1he nexL group of essays ls concerned wlLh lssues abouL Lhe eplsLemology of psychology ln
cognlLlve sclences. ln 5cleotlflc lsycboloqy. 5boolJ we 8oty lt ot ltolse lt?, Poward Cardner
clalms LhaL Wllllam !ames' asplraLlon for an lnLegraLed vlew of psychology has been
abandoned. lndeed, many flelds LhaL were once branches of psychology have already been
asslmllaLed by oLher sclences: for example, psychophyslcs has been asslmllaLed by compuLer
englneerlng, and comparaLlve psychology has by now enLered eLhology. lurLhermore, ln Lhe
lasL years oLher parLs of psychology are galnlng Lhe sLaLus of lndependenL sclences. 1hls ls Lhe
case of neurosclence as well as cognlLlve sclence. llnally, oLher flelds of psychology, such as
soclal psychology, developmenLal psychology, and cllnlcal psychology, whlch are less 'aL rlsk'
of lmmedlaLe absorpLlon" (p. 16) by a sclenLlflc dlsclpllne, are noneLheless separaLlng from
psychology Lo flnd Lhelr way lnLo a general culLural dlsclpllne - lncludlng soclology,
anLhropology, and soclal psychology" (p. 16).
uesplLe Lhls fragmenLed vlew, Cardner's evaluaLlon ls anyLhlng buL pesslmlsLlc. lndeed, he
argues, psychology achleved lmporLanL lnslghLs ln Lhe pasL, lL sLlll conLrlbuLes Lo oLher
sclenLlflc domalns of research, and flnally lL keeps a core of cenLral noLlons LhaL are sLrlcLly
speclflc of lLs analysls, and LhaL wlll hardly be cannlballzed" by oLher sclences. Cardner refers
here Lo whaL he calls Lhe person-cenLered quarLeL" formed by Lhe concepLs of personallLy,
self, wlll, and consclousness, whlch, alLhough Lhey are clearly cenLral ln any dellneaLlon of Lhe
fleld" (p. 17), also cause embarrassmenL Lo psychologlsLs. Pe argues LhaL Lhe sLudy of self or
personallLy ls aL once a problem of psychology and Lhe home ground of llLeraLure" (p. 18).
AlLhough he does noL suggesL a speclflc form of collaboraLlon beLween Lhe Lwo dlsclpllnes, he
acknowledges LhaL psychology ls sLrongly commlLLed Lo a seL of consLrucLs (l) LhaL are reslsLanL
Lo a dlrecL maLerlallsL reducLlon, (ll) LhaL are aL Lhe core of human naLure, and (lll) LhaL suggesL
Lhe narraLlve naLure of human llfe.
MaLLhew 8roome and Llsa 8orLoloLLl agree. ln Meotol llloess os Meotol. lo uefeoce of
lsycboloqlcol keollsm, Lhey defend psychologlcal reallsm abouL Lhe enLlLles (e.g., menLal
dlsorders) used ln psychlaLrlc explanaLlon agalnsL lnsLrumenLal, ellmlnaLlve and reducLlonlsL
vlews. 1hey supporL Lhls LheoreLlcal clalm wlLh Lwo emplrlcal examples, whlch connecL Lhe
pracLlce of psychlaLry wlLh phllosophlcal lnvesLlgaLlon and show LhaL psychlaLrlc explanaLlon
cannoL geL along wlLhouL a genulnely menLal level of explanaLlon. ln parLlcular, wlLh respecL Lo
deluslons, 8roome and 8orLoloLLl apply Moran's (2001) concepL of auLhorshlp Lo show LhaL
Lhe concepLlon of deluslons as menLal dlsorders or paLhologlcal bellefs relles on Lhe analysls
of Lhe reason-relaLlons beLween Lhe sub[ecL's bellefs and on aLLrlbuLlons of self-knowledge and
raLlonallLy" (p. 33). ln Lhe case of personallLy dlsorders, Lhey reporL emerglng llLeraLure
accordlng Lo whlch neuropsychologlcal deflclLs may be llnked Lo Lhe onseL of psychosls and
perhaps an lncreaslng rellance on exLernal vehlcles of cognlLlon" (p. 37). 1hey noLe LhaL Lhls
vlew abouL personallLy dlsorders maLches well wlLh Lhe phllosophlcal Lhesls of exLernallsm of

recognlze poLenLlal normaLlve confllcL as a sub[ecL worLhy of aLLenLlon ls Lo prlvllege eplsLemlc norms"
(pp. 3-4).
Intiouuction

xl

Lhe vehlcle of menLal conLenL. 1herefore, Lhey conclude LhaL for blologlcal psychlaLry Lo have
any valldlLy, and Lo be anyLhlng more Lhan neurosclence, Lhe maln ob[ecL of sLudy needs Lo
remaln Lhe person. 1he normal and Lhe abnormal Lhemselves are noL properLles of Lhe braln"
(p. 38). 1haL ls, Lhere ls a normaLlve dlmenslon of Lhe mlnd LhaL ls boLh relevanL for Lhe
personallLy and lmposslble Lo reduce Lo Lhe non-normaLlve.
8ruce 1hyer's arLlcle, plstemoloqy. o 8ebovlot Aoolytlc letspectlve, clarlfles Lhe
eplsLemologlcal poslLlon of behavloural analysls by hlghllghLlng boLh lLs llmlLs and sLrengLhs.
8ehavlourlsm, he argues, ls llmlLed because lL resLrlcLs lLself Lo Lhe analysls of behavlor-
envlronmenL lnLeracLlons" (p. 47), where behavlour ls lnvesLlgaLed by focuslng on slngle-cases,
and lL has Lo be lnLended as everyLhlng LhaL a person does, overL behavlor as well as
everyLhlng LhaL occurs wlLhln Lhe skln, phenomena such as feellngs, LhoughLs, dreams,
halluclnaLlons, eLc." (p. 49).
6
lurLhermore, he argues, behavlourlsm does noL address
phllosophlcal quesLlons concernlng Lhe naLure of knowledge and absoluLe LruLh, leavlng large
segmenLs of Lhe meLaphyslcal domalns of phllosophy excluded from serlous conslderaLlon" (p.
39). lnsLead, behavlourlsm provldes pracLlcal soluLlons Lo Lhose quesLlons. lL ls, he suggesLs,
slmply concerned wlLh Lhe alm Lo develop saLlsfacLory naLural or physlcallsL explanaLlons for
supposedly non-maLerlal phenomena" (p. 31). 1herefore, lL assumes a pragmaLlc aLLlLude Lo
assess Lhe valldlLy of lLs resulLs: Lo Lhe exLenL one can effecLlvely predlcL and conLrol behavlor,
one has arrlved aL a llmlLed buL LruLhful undersLandlng of funcLlonal relaLlonshlps" (p. 60).
lurLhermore, he argues, lL dlsmlsses every onLologlcal commlLmenL, such as physlcallsm, by
relylng on an economy prlnclple for raLlonal explanaLlons and for Lhe posLulaLlon of LheoreLlcal
enLlLles. 1herefore, he concludes, behavlourlsm ls a ooo-teJoctloolstlc sclence slnce lL does noL
requlre reduclng behavloural explanaLlons Lo more baslc physlcal levels.
1hyer defends a meLhodologlcal agalnsL an onLologlcal vlew of behavlourlsm. 8uL a Lenslon
remalns beLween an lnsLrumenLallsL and pragmaLlsL vlew of behavlourlsm, on Lhe one hand,
and a more radlcal ellmlnaLlve vlew on Lhe oLher. 1haL ls, lL ls hard Lo resolve Lhe merely
programmaLlc alm of subsLlLuLlng physlcallsL for menLal explanaLlons wlLh Lhe vlew LhaL Lhe
LradlLlonal quesLlons abouL knowledge and LruLh are seen as unresolvable, and Lhereby
dlsmlssed from serlous conslderaLlon as pseudoproblems" (p. 60).
7
lf behavlourlsm ls noL
concerned wlLh onLology, lL has noLhlng Lo do wlLh Lhese lssues. CLherwlse, Lo Lhe exLenL LhaL
behavloural explanaLlons are sufflclenL for Lhe purpose of explanaLlon of senslble cases,
behavlourlsm really advances an onLologlcal poslLlon.
1hyer's paper marks a shlfL ln Lhe lssue from modern Lo posL-modern psychology. ln
Ceoetollzloq 1btooqb cooJltloool Aoolysls. 5ystemlc coosollty lo tbe wotlJ of tetool
8ecomloq, Zach 8ecksLead, kenneLh 8. Cabell, and !aan valslner crlLlclse modern psychology,
whlch subordlnaLes Lhe unlqueness of Lhe slLuaLlon of every sub[ecL Lo Lhe sclenLlflc need of
dlscoverlng general laws. 1hey argue lnsLead LhaL Lhe model of sclenLlflc laws LhaL psychology
borrows from naLural sclence ls Loo narrow Lo accounL for Lhe complexlLy of human behavlour
because lL conslders varlables lndependenLly. lnsLead, Lhe auLhors clalm LhaL a new concepLlon
of causallLy ls needed Lo reconclle Lhe parLlcular and Lhe general aspecLs of human behavlour.
1hey flnd a clue Lo Lhls concepLlon ln kurL Lewln's work. Lewln sLressed LhaL Lhe concreLe
slLuaLlon and noLlons of lnLerdependency and lnLerrelaLlonshlps are fundamenLally
consLlLuLlve of ob[ecLs. uslng hls fleld Lheory, Lewln analysed human behavlour as a funcLlon of
boLh Lhe person and Lhe envlronmenL. 8ecksLead and colleagues Lake Lewln's example Lo

6
1hyer noLes LhaL Lhe recelved vlew of Sklnner's behavlourlsm as concerned only wlLh overL behavlour
ls an unforLunaLely wldespread mlsconcepLlon" (p. 49).
7
A slmllar commlLmenL Lo onLologlcal clalms ls also vlslble, for example, ln Moore's (2008) quoLed
synLhesls of behavlourlsm (pp. 39-60).


xll

argue for a dynamlc model of human behavlour, accordlng Lo whlch phenomena are
quallLaLlvely organlzed by Lhe whole sysLem Lhey are embedded wlLhln" (p. 72), and
generallzaLlon ls based on Lhe use of sysLemlcally dependenL raLher Lhan separaLe varlables.
1herefore, Lhey lnLroduce Lhe concepLs of sysLemlc causallLy and caLalysls. ln parLlcular,
caLalysls ls Lhe sLudy Lhe condlLlons LhaL operaLe wlLhln open, lnLranslLlve, and dynamlc
sysLems LhaL enable a parLlcular ouLcome Lo be produced - wblle ptesetvloq tbe fooctlooloq of
tbe ptoJocloq system" (p. 73). Accordlng Lo Lhelr analysls, change ln psychologlcal and soclal
phenomena may be explalned by referrlng Lo cotolysts - l.e., conLexLual facLors LhaL usually
work Lo regulaLe and malnLaln Lhe relaLlonshlps of parLs wlLhln Lhe sysLem. 1he auLhors
conclude by clalmlng LhaL Lhelr condlLlonal analysls provldes frulLful grounds of noL only Lhe
rare and frequenL phenomena, buL undersLandlng Lhe parLlcular, Lhe quallLaLlve whole, and
Lhe relaLlonshlps wlLhln a general framework" (p. 79).
1he nexL Lwo arLlcles lnvesLlgaLe consLrucLlvlsL eplsLemology and exlsLenLlal
psychoLheraples. ln 1be lssoe of tbe uolty ooJ 5peclflclty of lsycboloqy ftom tbe vlewpolot of o
coosttoctlvlst plstemoloqy, Cabrlele Chlarl analyses Lhe sub[ecL of Lhe unlLy of psychology ln
Lhe llghL of hls proposed readlng of consLrucLlvlsm. As Chlarl noLes, Lhe absence of one shared
sysLem of reference for psychologlcal Lheorles makes Lhe eplsLemologlcal sLaLus of psychology
clearly dlfferenL from LhaL of Lhe physlcal sclences. Moreover, he argues, because Lhls slLuaLlon
was Laken Lo be problemaLlc, psychologlsLs have ofLen Lrled Lo solve Lhe problem of Lhe
dlverslLy wlLhln Lhelr dlsclpllne elLher by defendlng Lhe unlLy of psychology or by reduclng
psychology Lo Lhe neurosclence. AgalnsL such a vlew, Chlarl suggesLs LhaL Lhe plurallsm ln
psychology mlghL represenLs a rlchness raLher Lhan a llmlL of lL" (p. 82) and supporLs hls Lhesls
by skeLchlng a paLh Lhrough Lhe wlde fleld of consLrucLlvlsL psychologles.
ln Lhe servlce of Lhls vlew, Chlarl refers Lo kelly's (1933) consLrucLlve alLernaLlvlsm, Lo
Agazzl's (1976) ob[ecLuallsL eplsLemology, and Lo MaLurana's (1987) onLology of Lhe observer.
All Lhese approaches share Lhe vlew LhaL every sclenLlflc dlsclpllne cuLs ouL lLs ob[ecLs by
looklng aL Lhlngs from a cerLaln polnL of vlew and lnvesLlgaLlng Lhem accordlng Lo cerLaln
meLhods" (p. 88) so LhaL Lhe LruLh of Lhe sLaLemenLs of a Lheory musL always be referred Lo
Lhe domaln of Lhe Lheory. lL follows LhaL, accordlng Lo Lhese approaches, Lhe quesLlon on Lhe
'absoluLe' LruLh of a slngle proposlLlon or a Lheory derlves from mlsLaklng 'Lhlngs' for 'ob[ecLs'
[whlch are lnLernal Lo Lhe Lheory]" (p. 88). ConsequenLly Lhe pro[ecL of Lhe unlflcaLlon of
psychology ls unfeaslble", LhaL ls, lmposslble. 1he same can be sald abouL Lhe pro[ecL of Lhe
reducLlon of psychology. lndeed, he argues, Lhe assumpLlon of a consLrucLlvlsL perspecLlve
denles Lhe posslblllLy Lo soundly asserLlng Lhe onLologlcal reducLlon of Lhe ob[ecL of a Lheory Lo
anoLher one. 8aLher, consLrucLlvlsL eplsLemology envlsages onLologlcally more neuLral Lheses,
such as emergenLlsL maLerlallsm.
Louls Poffman's arLlcle, koowloq ooJ tbe uokoowo. Ao xlsteotlol plstemoloqy lo o
lostmoJeto cootext, lnvesLlgaLes Lhe posslblllLy and Lhe exLenL of Lhe lnLegraLlon of
psychoLheraples ln Lhe framework of exlsLenLlal psychology. Poffman noLes LhaL research on
Lhe efflcacy of Lherapy has led us Lo reassess Lhe lmporLance of Lhe parLlcular meLhod used ln
psychoLherapy. lndeed, provldlng a plauslble explanaLlon for Lhe cllenL's problems and uslng
Lhls as a foundaLlon for Lhe LherapeuLlc work ls more lmporLanL Lhan Lhe parLlcular Lechnlques
used" (p. 100). Such a conslderaLlon has Lhe poLenLlal Lo change Lhe fleld of psychoLherapy
and brlng a revlLallzed eLhlcal approach Lo LherapeuLlc pracLlce" (p. 107) because lL urges
psychologlsLs Lowards Lhe lnLegraLlon of dlfferenL Lechnlques. ln facL, Lhe many slmllarlLles
beLween exlsLenLlal psychology and posLmodern phllosophy provlde an ldeal foundaLlon for
psychoLherapy lnLegraLlon. Accordlng Lo Poffman, Lhe prlmary beneflL of lnLegraLlon may be
ln Lhe flexlblllLy or adapLablllLy" (p. 104). 1haL ls, by avoldlng a pragmaLlc eclecLlc approach
Intiouuction

xlll

accordlng Lo whlch every Lechnlque ls good lf lL works, Lhe LheraplsL musL be able Lo assess
whlch Lherapy ls Lhe besL flL for whlch cllenLs" (p. 106) and Lo adapL Lo Lhelr cllenL's speclflc
needs and sLyle ln order Lo be effecLlve" (p. 106). 1hls brlngs Lhe eLhlcal concern LhaL
LheraplsLs should begln Lhe LheraplsL process [.] Lrylng Lo ldenLlfy lf Lhe cllenL ls Lhe rlghL flL
for Lhelr approach Lo Lherapy" (p. 106).
nlcol 1ermlnlo analyses Lhe eplsLemologlcal sLandpolnL of Lacanlan psychoanalysls ln
plstemoloqlo Jello stoJlo Jel coso cllolco. oote sol metoJo Jello pslcoooollsl [LplsLemology of
Lhe sLudy of a cllnlcal case: meLhods and prlnclples of Lhe psychoanalyLlcal model]. 1ermlnlo
beglns wlLh Lhe assumpLlon LhaL Lhe lnslsLence on slngular cases and Lhe eLhlcal consLralnLs of
Lhe Lherapy prevenLs psychoanalysls from saLlsfylng Lhe requesL for conLrollablllLy proper of
Lhe research meLhods of Lhe so-called 'hard' sclences" (p. 112, my LranslaLlon). ln facL, Lhe
sympLoms ln Lhe paLlenLs are messages encoded ln a way LhaL ls known only Lo Lhem, whlle
psychoanalysLs musL decode and reconsLrucL Lhe meanlng of Lhese sympLoms based on Lhelr
personal Lralnlng. 1hls requlres psychoanalysLs Lo make sLraLeglc" abducLlve lnferences, whlch
cannoL be experlmenLally guaranLeed. Clven LhaL Lhere exlsLs a meLhodologlcal uneaslness"
beLween Lhe generallzaLlons of Lhe sclence and Lhelr appllcaLlon ln Lhe cllnlcal praxls, Lhe
psychoanalysL musL sklllfully lnLerpreL sympLoms ln a way LhaL ls conduclve Lo heallng, raLher
Lhan Lo Lhe producLlon of knowledge. noneLheless, 1ermlnlo malnLalns LhaL psychoanalysls can
Lo assume a crlLlcal sLance Lowards expetlmeotol meLhods, whlle keeplng aL Lhe same Llme
Lhe necesslLy of an empltlcol anchorage for any dlscusslon abouL Lhe cllnlcal dlmenslon" (p.
122, my LranslaLlon). Pence, he refers 8elchenbach's (1931) dlsLlncLlon beLween Lhe conLexL of
dlscovery and Lhe conLexL of [usLlflcaLlon, and he shows LhaL, alLhough Lhe cllnlcal experlence
cannoL fall wlLhln Lhe laLLer, lL can sLlll fall wlLhln Lhe former.
1hls collecLlon ends wlLh an arLlcle abouL an emerglng dlsclpllne, l.e., eLhnopsychlaLry, LhaL
reflecLs a crlLlcal answer Lo Lhe quesLlons ralsed by Lhe eplsLemology of psychology. ln
lslcoloqle, etoopslcblottlo, slsteml Jl coto [sychologles, eLhnopsychlaLry, and heallng
sysLems], lero Coppo and SLefanla Conslgllere clalm LhaL Lhe crlses of Lhe WesLern sclence ln
Lhe xx
Lh
cenLury should lead us Lo abandon Lhe old-fashloned poslLlvlsL ldea of knowledge as a
unlversally valld descrlpLlon of naLure. nowadays, Lhey argue, we musL acknowledge LhaL all
sysLems of knowledge and know-how orlglnaLe ln speclflc hlsLorlcal condlLlons and have equal
eplsLemologlcal dlgnlLy. sychology, Lhey argue, cannoL lgnore Lhls new eplsLemologlcal
conLexL: lL needs a radlcal shlfL Lo recognlse boLh Lhe plurallsm of psychologlcal approaches
wlLhln lLs WesLern borders and Lhe exlsLence of oLher sysLems of knowledge and know-how
wlLh Lhelr own lnLernal coherence ln oLher culLures. WlLhln such a framework, psychlaLry musL
be open Lo a radlcal encounLer" (asqualoLLo 2003) wlLh oLher culLures, where oplnlons and
preconcepLlons [.] are dlscussed and wlped ouL" (p. 127, my LranslaLlon). ln Lhls enLerprlse we
rlsk mlsundersLandlng oLher culLures, or mlsLranslaLlng Lhelr concepLs lnLo Lhose drawn from
our own concepLual framework, Lherefore Lo beLray Lhem. lndeed, glven Lhe relaLlvlLy of every
sysLem of knowledge Lo lLs own culLure, Lhey argue, Lhe developmenL of Lhe LheoreLlcal Lools
necessary Lo Lhe confronLaLlon beLween dlfferenL culLures cannoL be guaranLee by ooy general
framework. 1he meLhodology adequaLe Lo Lhls problem ls LhaL of Lhe eLhnopsychlaLrlsLs, who
acL on Lhe fleld" and confronL Lhelr concepLual framework by applylng lL whlle llvlng ln oLher
culLures. Cnly ln Lhls way can one respecL dlfferenL LherapeuLlc pracLlces and acknowledge
Lhelr lnLernal coherence.
1he collecLlon of essays gaLhered ln Lhls volume explores ln several dlrecLlons Lhe many
lssues ralsed by Lhe eplsLemology of psychology. 1he dlfferenL dlrecLlons ln whlch Lhe auLhors
Lake Lhe dlscusslon reflecL Lhelr somewhaL dlfferenL assumpLlons, and demonsLraLe LhaL unlLy
even of purpose ln Lhls fleld ls noL easy Lo aLLaln. noneLheless, some common Lhemes emerge:
(l) a parLlcular aLLenLlon Lo Lhe eplsLemologlcal lssues, noL [usL Lo Lhe meLhodology, ln


xlv

analyslng psychology as a sclence ls posslble and valuable, (ll) Lhe plurallsm of psychology can
be accepLed, and does noL demand reconclllaLlon, (lll) Lhe normaLlve concepL of person for Lhe
developmenL of psychology as a sclence ls non-negoLlable, and flnally (lv) raLlonallLy boLh
grounds Lhe norms for ad[udlcaLlng confllcLs beLween dlfferenL Lheorles and ls essenLlal Lo Lhe
deflnlLlon of human llfe. Cnly by conslderlng Lhese lssues LogeLher can one expecL Lo provlde a
compleLe plcLure of psychology as Lhe sclence of Lhe mlnd.
Cf course, due Lo Lhe vasLness of Lhe fleld, Lhe vlews proposed are buL a prellmlnary skeLch,
and Lhe flnal plcLure ls yeL Lo emerge. 8uL lL ls a coherenL skeLch, and lL suggesLs how one
mlghL proceed Lo flll ln Lhe deLalls of whaL promlses Lo be a coherenL plcLure. l hope LhaL Lhls
volume wlll have seL Lhe sLage for a promlslng fleld of lnvesLlgaLlon.

ACkNCWLLDGLMLN1S
l would llke Lo Lhank !ay Carfleld and Pllary kornbllLh for Lhelr lnslghLful commenLs on an
earller verslon of Lhls manuscrlpL.

8I8LICGkAn

Agazzl, L., (1976). ctltetl eplstemoloqlcl fooJomeotoll Jelle Jlsclplloe pslcoloqlcbe. ln C. Slrl
(Ld.), ltobleml eplstemoloqlcl Jello pslcoloqlo. Mllano: enslero e vlLa, pp. 3-33.
8ermudez, !. L., (2003). lbllosopby of lsycboloqy. A cootempototy lottoJoctloo. London:
8ouLledge.
8lock, n., (Ld.), (1980). keoJloqs lo tbe lbllosopby of lsycboloqy. Cambrldge, MA: Parvard
unlverslLy ress.
8oLLerlll, C., CarruLhers, ., (1999). 1be lbllosopby of lsycboloqy. Cambrldge, uk:
Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.
8uhler, k., (1927). ule ktlse Jet lsycboloqle, llsher: !ena.
ClvlLa, A., (2003). lllosoflo Jello pslcoloqlo. ln n. vassallo (Ld.), lllosofle Jelle scleoze.
Llnaudl: 1orlno.
urlesch, P. A. L., (1923). 1be ctlsls lo lsycboloqy. rlnceLon, n!: rlnceLon unlverslLy ress.
Cabbanl, C., (Ld.), (2006). 5ymposlom oo lbllosopby of lsycboloqy. A cootempototy
lottoJoctloo by Ios lols 8etmoJez. 5wll lbllosopby of MloJ kevlew, 3(3),
hLLp://lgxserver.unlba.lL/mlnd/swlfpmr /0320063.pdf.
Penrlques, C. 8., (Ld.), (2004). uefloloq lsycboloqy. Attlcles ooJ commeototles oo o New
uolfleJ 1beoty (arL 1). Iootool of cllolcol lsycboloqy, [Speclal lssue], 60(12).
Penrlques, C. 8., (Ld.), (2003). uefloloq psycboloqy. Attlcles ooJ commeototles oo o New
uolfleJ 1beoty (arL 2). Iootool of cllolcol lsycboloqy, [Speclal lssue], 61(1).
!aynes, !., (1977). 1be Otlqlo of cooscloosoess lo tbe 8teokJowo of tbe 8lcometol MloJ.
Cxford, uk: PoughLon Mlfflln.
kelly, C. A., (1933). 1be lsycboloqy of letsoool coosttocts. new ?ork, n?: norLon.
C' uonohue, W., klLchener, 8. l., (Lds.), (1996). 1be lbllosopby of lsycboloqy. 8ocklelgh, n!:
Allyn and 8acon.
Llllard, A. S., (1998). tboopsycboloqles. coltotol votlotloos lo tbeoty of mloJ. lsycboloqlcol
8olletlo, 123, pp. 3-30.
Marhaba, S., (1976). Aotloomle eplstemoloqlcbe oello pslcoloqlo cootempotooeo. llrenze:
ClunLl 8arbera.
Intiouuction

xv

MaLurana, P. 8., (1987). 1be bloloqlcol foooJotloos of self-cooscloosoess ooJ tbe pbyslcol
Jomolo of exlsteoce. ln L. 8. Calanlello (Ld.), lbyslcs of coqoltlve ptocesses.
Slngapore: World SclenLlflc, pp. 324-379.
Moran, 8., (2001). Aotbotlty ooJ sttooqemeot. oo ssoy oo 5elf-koowleJqe. rlnceLon, n!:
rlnceLon unlverslLy ress.
asqualoLLo C., (2003). uollo ptospettlvo Jello fllosoflo compototo ollotlzzoote Jello
fllosoflo lotetcoltotole. 5lmpleqoJl, 10(26), pp. 3-27.
Culne, W. v. C., (1969). Ootoloqlcol kelotlvlty ooJ Otbet ssoys. new ?ork, n?: Columbla
unlverslLy ress.
8elchenbach, P., (1931). 1be klse of 5cleotlflc lbllosopby. 8erkeley, CA: unlverslLy of
Callfornla ress.
8oyce, !. 8., (Ld.), (1970). 1owotJ oolflcotloo lo psycboloqy. 1oronLo, Cn: unlverslLy of
1oronLo ress.
SLaaLs, A. W., (1983). lsycboloqys ctlsls of Jlsoolty. lbllosopby ooJ metboJ fot o oolfleJ
scleoce. new ?ork, n?: raeger ubllshers.
SLernberg, 8. !., (Ld.), (2004). uolty lo lsycboloqy. losslblllty ot llpeJteom?. WashlngLon,
u.C.: Amerlcan sychologlcal AssoclaLlon.
Symons, !., Calvo, ., (Lds.), (2009). kootleJqe compooloo to tbe lbllosopby of lsycboloqy.
London, uk: 8ouLledge.
1hagard, ., (Ld.), (2007). lbllosopby of lsycboloqy ooJ coqoltlve 5cleoce. AmsLerdam:
Llsevler.
Wllson, 8. A., (2003). lbllosopby of lsycboloqy. ln S. Sarkar (Ld.), 1be lbllosopby of 5cleoce.
Ao ocyclopeJlo. London, uk: 8ouLledge.


xvll

Urmai siamo tutti psicologi
umbetto Moloocbl
umberLo.malonchl[humana-menLe.lL

Sono passaLl clrca duemllaclnquecenLo annl da quando qualcuno scrlsse, lncldendolo sulla
pleLra del Lemplo dl uelfl, un famoso appello al vlandanLe che cosl reclLava: Conoscl Le sLesso
.". oLremmo conslderare quel moLLo la daLa dl nasclLa della pslcoLerapla conLemporanea.
Che alLro e lnfaLLl la pslcoLerapla se non una mlnuzlosa e cervelloLlca rlcerca del dopplo", dl
quello sLrano personagglo alleno con cul convlvlamo dalla nasclLa e che molLo spesso non
conosclamo affaLLo? AddlrlLLura, caplLa non dl rado che quel Llpo" cl accompagnl fln nella
Lomba senza che sl sla rlusclLl a scamblarcl qualche lmpresslone, qualche oplnlone, qualche
parola! L pensare che abblamo vlssuLo gomlLo a gomlLo per LanLo Lempo! Cl slamo scamblaLl
perflno dl posLo ln qualche rara occaslone! Ma non abblamo mal superaLo quella LaclLa
barrlera del poJote che cl lmpedlva dl curlosare Lroppo, dl lnLeressarcl al suol affarl plu lnLlml:
abblamo avuLo sempre paura dl Lrovarcl faccla a faccla con lul senza scherml e senza
maschere, nudl e senza vell!
1ornando allora all'esorLazlone dell'oracolo a conoscersl lnLlmamenLe, provlamo a chledercl
se, dopo cosl LanLl annl, la slLuazlone e camblaLa, e come. er dare una prlma rlsposLa blsogna
per domandarsl da quall segnall poLremmo evenLualmenLe lnferlre che genere dl
camblamenLo c'e sLaLo (e. se c'e sLaLo!). L se, per caso, quesLa evenLuale mlgllore conoscenza
dl se ha reso plu faclll e paclflcl l rapporLl Lra gll uomlnl, se LuLLa la gamma del vlzl e delle
pegglorl nefandezze umane ha sublLo una rlduzlone, o addlrlLLura e scomparsa.
urLroppo e con LuLLa la buona volonLa, ml pare faclle prevedere la rlsposLa: nel
duemllaclnquecenLo annl fln qul Lrascorsl non sl rllevano progressl slgnlflcaLlvl ln Lale
dlrezlone, non sl rllevano cloe modlflcazlonl sosLanzlall nel comporLamenLo lndlvlduale e
colleLLlvo della specle denomlnaLa nomo sopleos o delle sue plu recenLl varlanLl nomo vlJeos"
e nomo tecbooloqlcos". Come appello, ll conoscl Le sLesso" pare proprlo non abbla avuLo un
gran successo!
Lppure, anche SocraLe aveva rlpeLuLo plu volLe quella sLessa esorLazlone, convlnLo com'era
che solo dalla profonda consapevolezza del proprl llmlLl e, sopra LuLLo, della proprla lgnoranza,
l'uomo avrebbe poLuLo ragglungere quello sLaLo dl auLenLlca saggezza lndlspensablle per una
vlLa lndlvlduale e colleLLlva degna dl essere vlssuLa.
uopo SocraLe, ln realLa, gran parLe della fllosofla e della Leologla occldenLale hanno posLo al
cenLro della proprla rlcerca le lnsondablll caraLLerlsLlche dell'anlmo umano, quel se ablssale,
nascosLo, sfuggenLe e mlsLerloso. A parLlre dalla splendlda lmmaglne plaLonlca del due cavalll e
del cocchlere che ll gulda alla LrlparLlzlone arlsLoLellca ln vegeLaLlva, senslLlva e lnLelleLLlva, la
nozlone dl anlma e le sue caraLLerlsLlche sono sempre sLaLe al cenLro della rlflesslone fllosoflca
ln ognl epoca e, posslamo senz'alLro dlre, ln ognl culLura.
Se andlamo a rlleggere le loro opere con aLLenzlone cl posslamo convlncere che quasl LuLLl l
magglorl pensaLorl, quelll che hanno conLrlbulLo magglormenLe a lacerare ll famoso velo dl
Maya" della nosLra lgnoranza, ognuno dl loro, dlcevo, ha cercaLo dl comprendere sempre
megllo ll rapporLo che susslsLe Lra ll comporLamenLo lsLlnLlvo, anlmalesco, prlmlLlvo per cosl
dlre e quello razlonale e clvlllzzaLo dell'uomo soclale. Come esemplo Llplco, ml vlene ln menLe
CarLeslo, che sl preoccupa dl maLemaLlzzare la conoscenza e dl fondarla su basl cerLe, ma non
Lrascura dl lndagare a fondo la naLura delle passlonl umane.


xvlll
CerLo che oggl anche ArlsLoLele sl meravlgllerebbe assal della preoccupanLe sproporzlone e
del conseguenLe sbllanclamenLo Lra la cresclLa smodaLa delle anlme vegeLaLlve e senslLlve a
dlspeLLo dl quelle lnLelleLLlve. L probabllmenLe, non sarebbe plu LanLo slcuro dl poLer deflnlre
l'uomo anlmale razlonale" a meno dl una sosLanzlale revlslone del Lermlne razlonale"! (e
qualcuno pol dovrebbe pur avverLlrlo che le essenze" sono ormal evaporaLe!).
CuesLa secolare dlscusslone fllosoflca sublsce per una svolLa profonda alla flne del 19
secolo quando ll moLLo delflco sembra perdere la sua lmporLanza a favore dl una profonda
Lrasformazlone della sua sLessa naLura. Accade lnfaLLl che la pslcologla lnlzla a prendere le
dlsLanze dalla fllosofla e, faLlcosamenLe, a cammlnare sulle proprle gambe cercando con
osLlnazlone dl darsl una vesLe auLenLlcamenLe sclenLlflca" e sperlmenLale": e una
leglLLlmazlone dl cul non pu fare a meno dl fronLe agll lndlscussl successl delle sclenze
poslLlve, sue conLemporanee.
La scoperLa freudlana dell'lnconsclo (ml sl permeLLa quesLa rozza sempllflcazlone per
eslgenze dl brevlLa) sembra allora promeLLere una deflnlLlva mlnuzlosa conoscenza del nero
cavallo dl laLone, della componenLe lsLlnLlva, anlmalesca della pslche umana. Ma presLo sl
vede che cosl non e e che l probleml sollevaLl sono ben plu numerosl e dlfflclll dl quelll
apparenLemenLe rlsolLl.
ua allora ll prollferare del meLodl e delle prospeLLlve, dal prlnclpl assunLl come fondanLl allo
svlluppo delle sLraLegle dl cura, ovvero delle pslcoLeraple che oggl vengono praLlcaLe, sl e faLLo
lncessanLe. llno ad arrlvare, con una sorLa dl capovolglmenLo Lemporale, a suggerlre la praLlca
del coooselloq fllosoflco come sosLlLuLlvo del LraLLamenLl del casl plu sempllcl ma anche plu
dlffusl dl dlsaglo pslchlco. llno all'aLLuale dlbaLLlLo sull'uso dlslnvolLo degll pslcofarmacl per
curare slngole paLologle che, ln quesLo quadro molLo confuso, vengono sempllcemenLe
lnvenLaLe e sl molLlpllcano senza sosLa speclallzzandosl flno ad lnLeressare gll aspeLLl plu lnLlml
e marglnall della vlLa quoLldlana.
lndubblamenLe la confuslone e grande soLLo ll clelo e LuLLl ne sono ormal consapevoll. Ma,
flnalmenLe, sosLengono alcunl, abblamo scoperLo anche ll slsLema dl rlcondurre LuLLl l nosLrl
probleml pslcologlcl" alla verlflca, con mezzl sempre plu soflsLlcaLl, dell'eslsLenza o meno dl
fenomenl neurologlcl che possono essere vlsuallzzaLl" con opporLune Lecnlche. Lcco dunque
dlffondersl l'ldea dl poLer monlLorare e forse anche comprendere una buona parLe degll evenLl
menLall superlorl per mezzo della neurolmaglng (come l processl della vlslone o della
memorlzzazlone, per es.) o addlrlLLura dar conLo delle manlfesLazlonl empaLlche ascolLando ll
LlccheLLlo del neuronl specchlo che sparano" la loro ecclLazlone!
Lsagerazlonl, sl dlra, con un assennaLo cenno del capo! L pur vero per che qualche
modesLo ma slgnlflcaLlvo rlsulLaLo le aLLuall neurosclenze lo hanno ragglunLo: come, ad
esemplo, quello relaLlvo allo scarLo Lemporale Lra la scelLa lnconsapevole e quella cosclenLe,
rlsulLaLo che pone una serla lpoLeca sull'anLlca dlspuLa clrca ll famoso problema del llbero
arblLrlo"!
L allora, Lornando al nosLro queslLo lnlzlale, se e quanLo la pslcologla e la sua dlreLLa
emanazlone, la pslcoLerapla lnLesa socraLlcamenLe come cura dell'anlma" abblano lnflulLo o
condlzlonaLo lo svlluppo della socleLa conLemporanea, credo dl poLer rlspondere
LranqulllamenLe che la loro lnfluenza e sLaLa ed e mlnlma, dal punLo dl vlsLa degll effeLLl
concreLl e duraLurl. La conoscenza dl se e un percorso che sl rlnnova da capo a ognl
generazlone, e non c'e progresso cumulaLlvo ln quesLo. Anzl, pare proprlo che l'umanlLa sla
appena naLa e appena LrovaLa dl fronLe al moLLo delflco.
AlLro dlscorso lnvece per la dlffuslone del Lermlnl pslcologlcl e delle parole derlvaLe dal
gergo Lecnlco che hanno ormal colonlzzaLo ll llnguagglo quoLldlano. Cualche osservaLore
aLLenLo ha scorLo ln quesLo progresslvo pslcologlzzarsl delle LemaLlche soclall e, sopraLLuLLo,
del modo con cul se ne parla, una sorLa dl subdolo LenLaLlvo dl anesLeLlzzare l'oplnlone
Bumana.Nente - Column - Philophically Incoiiect

xlx

pubbllca col mosLrare soLLo forma dl paLologla lndlvlduale quello che ln realLa e un problema
dl caraLLere pollLlco e soclale legaLo a scelLe ed opzlonl preclse. ersonalmenLe, non ml sembra
una Lesl peregrlna. L soLLo gll occhl dl LuLLl ll crescenLe lmperversare dl conslgll" che vengono
elarglLl spesso da sedlcenLl esperLl e LuLLologl da ognl seLLlmanale o Lrasmlsslone radlo-
Lelevlslva e relaLlvl ad ognl aspeLLo della vlLa lndlvlduale e colleLLlva. Cosl come gla da Lempo
una persona handlcappaLa e dlvenLaLa dlversamenLe ablle", ora una persona LrlsLe dlvenLa
affeLLa da slndrome depresslva" e un bamblno vlvace (e magarl vlspo e lnLelllgenLe.) vlene
dlchlaraLo affeLLo da slndrome lperclneLlca"! Col rlsulLaLo lnevlLablle, per la persona LrlsLe, dl
senLlrsl lnslcura e lnadeguaLa a vlvere come gll alLrl e per l genlLorl dl un bamblno vlvace dl
rlvolgersl al pedlaLra o al neuropslchlaLra lnfanLlle per farsl prescrlvere una Lerapla a base del
famoso 8lLalln e senLlrsl colpevolmenLe lnadeguaLl.
Ma ormal slamo LuLLl pslcologl e ll dlsaglo e la sofferenza perloplu nascosLa, ll senso dl
sLranlamenLo, la sollLudlne vengono vlssuLl come probleml dl adaLLamenLo, come paLologle da
curare lndlvldualmenLe. Ansla e depresslone sono parole comunl che rlcorrono con frequenza
sempre magglore nelle conversazlonl Lra amlcl, al bar o nel posLl dl lavoro.
are sLrano che a nessuno venga ln menLe che forse e proprlo ll nosLro modello dl vlLa a
produrre quel dlsaglo, che ll rlLmo forsennaLo della vlLa quoLldlana, l'lsolamenLo delle persone
(ln auLo ln un lngorgo, con un Lelefonlno ln mano o ln casa davanLl ad un compuLer o a una
Lelevlslone saLelllLare") e la praLlca scomparsa della vlLa soclale, la sua frammenLazlone
rappresenLlno le vere cause della slLuazlone aLLuale, per molLl versl drammaLlca.
Concludo quesLa breve noLa osservando LrlsLemenLe che oggl un novello SocraLe che osasse
serlamenLe rlproporre l'appello a conoscere se sLessl aLLraverso una cosLanLe rlflesslone e
prendendosl cura clascuno della proprla anlma, farebbe ancor plu rapldamenLe la sLessa flne,
ossla verrebbe plu o meno dellcaLamenLe lnvlLaLo a Logllersl dal pledl!


xxl

Summer Scbool on 1he Soclul Self

Alghero, 20-27 SepLember 2009

cbloto 8tozzo

8eLween 20
Lh
and 27
Lh
SepLember 2009, Lhe laculLy of ArchlLecLure ln Alghero (unlverslLy of
Sassarl) hosLed a one-week lnLerdlsclpllnary summer school, 1he Soclal Self", on Lhe
conLemporary research on phllosophlcal and psychologlcal models as well as neural
mechanlsms underlylng Lhe sense of Lhe self, shaped Lhrough Lhe lnLersub[ecLlve experlence.
1hls summer school was organlzed by rof. lablo 8acchlnl (unlverslLy of Sassarl), rof. vlLLorlo
Callese (unlverslLy of arma), ur. Ludovlca Lorusso (unlverslLy of Sassarl, h.u), rof. Corrado
Slnlgaglla (unlverslLy of Mllan), rof. Sllvano 1agllagambe (unlverslLy of Sassarl), and broughL
LogeLher ma[or flgures ln phllosophy, psychology and neurosclence.
vasudevy 8eddy (orLsmouLh unlverslLy) ln LngagemenL and awareness ln lnfancy"
explored Lhe concepL of Lhe soclal self under Lhe vlewpolnL of developmenLal psychology,
concenLraLlng on Lhe sense of Lhe self as lL emerges aL early sLages of human llfe. She
descrlbed Lhe ways ln whlch an lnfanL relaLlng Lo her own parenLs sLarLs bulldlng up Lhe sense
of Lhe self and oLhers, for she argued LhaL Lo undersLand Lhe self we have Lo undersLand
awareness of oLhers. She descrlbed Lhe developmenL of aLLenLlon and engagemenL, boLh from
and Lowards oLhers, and Lhe sLraLegles for engaglng wlLh oLhers such as playful Leaslng. She
Lhen wldened Lhe focus of Lhls sLudy so as Lo lnclude a reflecLlon of culLure, whlch exlsL aL a
dyadlc level as well as aL large group levels, and emerges Lhrough engagemenL.
naLalle Sebanz (8adboud unlverslLy) focused on 1he soclal self ln lnLeracLlon", and gave an
analysls of LhaL under Lhree dlfferenL vlewpolnLs: concepLual level, percepLual level, and moLor
level. 1he concepLual level analysls was concerned wlLh Lhlnklng abouL self and oLher, and Lhls
dlscusslon lncluded a reference Lo Lhe conLrasL beLween 1heory 1heory and SlmulaLlon 1heory.
1he percepLual level dlscusslon was essenLlally abouL shared acLlon plannlng, and Sebanz
lllusLraLed a serles of experlmenLs meanL Lo suggesL LhaL a person's percepLlon and reacLlon
Llmes when performlng a Lask do change as soon as anoLher's conLrlbuLlon Lo LhaL Lask has Lo
be Laken lnLo accounL. llnally, Lhe moLor level dlscusslon was abouL shared moLor conLrol.
8arry SmlLh (lnsLlLuLe of hllosophy, unlverslLy of London) ln 'Sharlng Lhe momenL buL
belng alone': Lhe exLenL and llmlLs of soclal cognlLlon" soughL a correcL phllosophlcal approach
Lo Lhe concepLs of self and oLhers. 1he CarLeslan vlew, accordlng Lo whlch acqualnLance wlLh
our own mlnd provldes a basls for knowlng oLhers' mlnds, was re[ecLed as lL ls noL clear whaL
Lhe source of our concepL of Lhe self would be ln LhaL case. Slmllarly, boLh SlmulaLlon 1heory
and 1heory 1heory were crlLlclzed on Lhe grounds LhaL Lhey presuppose Lhe perspecLlve of Lhe
self. An alLernaLlve soluLlon called lolle a deux" was Lhen proposed, and descrlbed ln Lerms of
a defaulL ldenLlflcaLlon of own sLaLes wlLh oLhers'.
!ose L. 8ermudez (WashlngLon unlverslLy) ln 1he soclal self ln phllosophy and psychology"
proposed a Laxonomy of dlfferenL sorLs of mlndreadlng, sLarLlng wlLh Lhe slmplesL form, whlch
ls a form of soclal coordlnaLlon ln Lhe anlmal klngdom LhaL lnvolves a senslLlvlLy Lo Lhe
psychologlcal sLaLes of oLher parLlclpanLs ln lnLeracLlon. Whlle Lhls falls ln Lhe caLegory of Lhe
so called mlolmol mlndreadlng, Lhere are more sophlsLlcaLed forms of mlndreadlng quallfled as
sobstootlol mlndreadlng. Cne example of Lhe laLLer conslsLs of proposlLlonal aLLlLude
mlndreadlng, whlch requlres:


xxll

(a) ALLrlbuLlng proposlLlonal aLLlLudes
(b) LxpllclLly represenLlng Lhe agenL's background psychologlcal proflle
(c) 8easonlng abouL how (a) and (b) mlghL [olnLly lssue ln acLlon.

Ceorg norLhoff (unlverslLy of CLLawa) ln 1he self: neurosclence and neurophllosophy"
explored Lhe llnk beLween Lhe sense of Lhe self and reward on Lhe one hand and Lhe self and
emoLlons on Lhe oLher hand under Lhe neurologlcal vlewpolnL, by dlscusslng Lhe role played ln
Lhls conLexL by mldllne corLlcal sLrucLures ln Lhe braln. Self and emoLlons are relaLed Lo each
oLher. Self-relaLedness lncreases ln depressed paLlenLs as opposed Lo healLhy sub[ecLs. 1haL
LranslaLes ln Lerms of abnormal (poslLlve) correlaLlon of subcorLlcal neural acLlvlLy wlLh self-
relaLedness ln depresslon. ln schlzophrenla, exacLly Lhe opposlLe ls observed, namely a
decreased sense of Lhe self.
8ebecca Wllllamson (unlverslLy of WashlngLon) presenLed lmlLaLlon and Lhe soclal self:
soclal cognlLlon and learnlng ln chlldhood", wrlLLen wlLh Andrew MelLzoff (unlverslLy of
WashlngLon), on Lhe developmenL of Lhe sense of Lhe self ln chlldren, wlLh a focus on
lmlLaLlon. Pumans, perhaps unlquely, lmlLaLe oLhers' behavlor, and Lhls ls adapLlve. Chlldren
lmlLaLe body movemenLs, ouLcomes, exacL means. lmlLaLlon ls a soclal mechanlsm LhaL allows
chlldren Lo connecL Lo oLher people, Lherefore has a role ln esLabllshlng culLural, cognlLlve, and
soclal processes. LxperlmenLs were reporLed showlng how lmlLaLlon ls relaLed Lo (l) Lhe
undersLandlng of a goal, (ll) prlor experlence of self and oLher (whlch lnfluences lmlLaLlon), (lll)
Lhe role of lnLenLlonal demonsLraLlons (whlch promoLe lmlLaLlon).
SalvaLore Marla AglloLl (unlverslLy La Saplenza - 8oma) ln llesh made soul: bodles ln Lhe
braln" presenLed dlfferenL varleLles of Lhe dlsrupLlon of Lhe sense of Lhe self under Lhe
neurologlcal vlewpolnL, lncludlng cases of dlsownershlp of one's llmbs. 8epresenLaLlon of
bodles ls dlsLrlbuLed over Lhe braln. lor lnsLance, Lhe exLrasLrlaLe body area ls lnvolved ln
codlng bodlly parLs (vlsually and somaLlcally), buL noL oLher ob[ecLs. 1here are sLudles showlng
LhaL Lhls area ls also acLlve when you observe movlng people. AglloLl also lllusLraLed Lhe rubber
hands and Lhe full body llluslon, as well as Lhe so called enfacemenL" (a phoLograph of your
face ls slowly Lurned lnLo a phoLograph of someone else's face by a compuLer programme),
whlch may be LhoughL Lo challenge Lhe sense of Lhe self.
!esslca Pobson and eLer Pobson (unlverslLy College London) ln Self/oLher relaLlons ln
auLlsm: lmlLaLlon, communlcaLlon and soclal emoLlons" Look Lhe Loplc of Lhe self lnLo
developmenLal psychology, by dlscusslng Lhe sense of self and oLher ln auLlsLlc chlldren
Lhrough Lhe dlsrupLlon LhaL auLlsm brlngs lnLo engagemenL Lowards Lhe oLher. LmpaLhy ls Lo
feel for" Lhe oLher person, so when anoLher person ls for lnsLance ln dlsLress, you feel some
sorL of dlsLress Loo. 1he Pobsons' hypoLhesls ls LhaL chlldren wlLh auLlsm lack empaLhy so
concelved. 1o lend supporL Lo Lhls, a sLudy has been carrled ouL Lo LesL how much concern ls
shown by chlldren ln a slLuaLlon of poLenLlal dlsLress. Among conLrol parLlclpanLs, concern was
manlfesL ln a comblnaLlon of expresslons and acLlons. 1hls paLLern of relaLedness was
relaLlvely absenL among parLlclpanLs wlLh auLlsm: chlldren wlLh auLlsm usually do noL show any
concern / surprlse. 1hls suggesLs LhaL chlldren wlLh auLlsm have a relaLlve lack of person-
relaLed organlzaLlon Lo Lhelr affecLlve sLaLes.
klm SLerelny (WelllngLon unlverslLy) ln LvoluLlon and Lhe socloculLural specles" explored
Lhe self/oLher relaLlon Lhrough an analysls of Lhe evoluLlonary mechanlsms underlylng Lhe
Lransmlsslon of culLure. CreaLures become dlfferenL because of forms of dynamlc feedback,
and LhaL ls LhoughL Lo of key lmporLance Lo Lhe general problem of undersLandlng human
behavlour. SLerelny focused on Lhe processes LhaL lead Lo Lhe esLabllshmenL of dlsLlncLlve
feaLures of human soclal learnlng. 1ransformaLlon has been so rapld and lnLense LhaL some
Events - The Social Self

xxlll
form of feedback learnlng ls needed Lo explaln lL. MosL compeLences LhaL we show ofLen
lnvolve exLenslve use of lnformaLlon. 1oo ofLen we're able Lo cope wlLh novel challenges, and
our capaclLy Lo respond Lo Lhem lnvolves a speclal relaLlon Lo lnformaLlon flow.
MaLLeo Mamell (klng's College London) Look furLher SLerelny's dlscusslon by focuslng on
Lhe Lransmlsslon of culLural values ln Lerms of naLural selecLlon, for lL has been suggesLed LhaL
sLaLlsLlcal meLhods LradlLlonally used ln blology for Lhe sLudy of genes could be employed Lo
sLudy Lhe Lransmlsslon of language and skllls. We wanL Lo know wheLher someLhlng llke
naLural selecLlon, whlch explalns adapLlve change on random geneLlc modlflcaLlons, may also
explaln culLural change. 1hls ldea was supporLed Lhrough Lhe exploraLlon of dlfferenL
processes. Cne ls Lo be found ln groups where lnformaLlon ls shared Lo do beLLer agalnsL
LhreaLs. Pence you have group reproducLlon, and lncreased flLness of a parLlcular group.
AnoLher process ls one ln whlch naLural selecLlon ls generaLed by dlfferences ln flLness
beLween culLural varlanLs - one example ls memes.
vlLLorlo Callese (unlverslLy of arma) ln Soclal self and mlrror neurons" lllusLraLed Lhe role
of mlrror neurons ln provldlng Lhe basls for soclal lnLeracLlon by belng essenLlally llnked Lo
goal-relaLed acLlons. ln Lhe venLral parL of Lhe pre-moLor corLex, whaL we call area l3, Lhere
are neurons LhaL acLlvaLe when an acLlon (movemenL wlLh an alm) ls performed, and LhaL are
senslLlve Lo Lhe dlfferenL alms (see 8lzzolaLLl eL al. 1988). no maLLer how Lhe movemenL ls
performed, Lhe paLLern of acLlvaLlon remalns Lhe same lf Lhe alm ls Lhe same. So Lhese neurons
lmplemenL a goal represenLaLlon whose conLenL ls boLh lnLenLlonal, because lL ls a qool-
ceoteteJ moLor represenLaLlon, and moLor, because Lhe alm ls mapped ln motot tetms. Also,
Lhe llnk beLween empaLhy and mlrror neurons was explored. An experlmenL Lhrough fM8l
recordlng was reporLed Lo show LhaL Lhe specles of Lhe acLor performlng a cerLaln acLlon
maLLers Lo Lhe acLlvaLlon of dlfferenL braln areas. 1he concluslon would be LhaL when we look
aL Lhe face of a conspeclflc expresslng a cerLaln feellng, empaLhy ls posslble, buL Lhls happens
less and less when we lL's abouL specles whlch are farLher away from our own one.
Shaun Callagher (unlverslLy of CenLral llorlda) ln rlmary lnLersub[ecLlvlLy" argued LhaL
Lhe self ls Lo be sLudled ln developmenLal Lerms, as Lhe beglnnlngs of prlmary lnLersub[ecLlvlLy
run along wlLh cerLaln aspecLs of Lhe mlnlmal self. As we percepLually plck up lnformaLlon
abouL Lhe envlronmenL and abouL oLhers, we are glven lnformaLlon abouL ourselves.
lnLeracLlon Lheory was presenLed by Callagher as a vlable alLernaLlve, one whlch re[ecLs Lhe
CarLeslan ldea LhaL oLher mlnds are lnaccesslble and makes a sLrong appeal Lo Lhe klnd of
lnLeracLlon LhaL happens ln prlmary lnLersub[ecLlvlLy. Callagher polnLed ouL LhaL 1heory 1heory
and SlmulaLlon 1heory, however, don'L necessary exclude prlmary lnLersub[ecLlvlLy.
Cregory Currle (unlverslLy of noLLlngham) dlscussed Lhe self as a polnL of vlew as lL feaLures
ln narraLlve ln Lerms of a narraLor. 1he narraLor en[oys some sorL of double perspecLlve on Lhe
acLlon, whlch becomes parLlcularly lnLeresLlng when auLhor and characLer belng spoken abouL
are connecLed ln some speclal way. 1he Llme of Lhe narraLlon and Lhe Llme of Lhe evenLs whlch
are narraLed are dlfferenL, Lhe narraLor knows more aL Lhe Llme of narraLlon Lhan aL Lhe Llme
narraLed. 1he polnL of vlew Lo whlch we are orlenLaLed ls Lhe polnL of vlew of Lhe narraLor, so,
we may conclude, narraLors are more Lhan slmply lnformanLs: Lhey may express a polnL of
vlew, whlch lnfluences our own, Lhrough mechanlsms of lmlLaLlon, we may come Lo
experlence Lhe sLory as someLhlng we aLLend Lo [olnLly wlLh Lhe narraLor. narraLors may also
place us ln close relaLlons Lo Lhe polnLs of vlew of characLers, by explolLlng Lhe same lmlLaLlve
mechanlsms.
Also, an opporLunlLy Lo presenL a shorL paper was glven Lo Lhe parLlclpanLs Clulla 8aLLlloLLl
(unlverslLy of adova, lLaly), Anna 8orLolan (unlverslLy vlLa-SaluLe San 8affaele, Mllan, lLaly),
Masslmlllano Cappucclo (unlverslLy of SLlrllng, ScoLland, unlverslLy of 8enLley (MassachuseLLs),
uSA), Sanneke de Paan (unlverslLy of Peldelberg, Cermany), nevla uolclnl (unlverslLy of


xxlv

MaceraLa, lLaly), Cerllnd Crosse (Max lanck lnsLlLuLe, Lelpzlg, Cermany), 8ossella Mascolo
(unlverslLy of Cagllarl, lLaly), Claudla assos-lerrelra (8lo de !anelro SLaLe unlverslLy, 8rasll),
LlesbeL Cuaeghebeur (unlverslLy of AnLwerp, 8elglum), Susanne uuslLalo (unlverslLy of 1urku,
llnland), nlcole van voorsL vader (Lrasmus unlverslLy 8oLLerdam, 1he neLherlands), Sllvano
Zlpoll Calanl (unlverslLy of Mllan, lLaly).

xxv

Summer Scbool on MlnJ unJ Iunguuge.

Mentul Slmulutlon unJ KnowleJge of the Puxt
Slena, 8-11 !une 2009

Motto ul ueJJo e Mottloo lootool

1he second edlLlon of Lhe Summer School ln
Mlnd and Language on Meotol slmolotloo ooJ
koowleJqe of tbe lost Look place aL Lhe
unlverslLy of Slena from !une 8 Lo !une 11,
2009. lL was organlsed by Lhe professors of Lhe
uocLoral School of CognlLlve Sclences, Cabrlele
usberLl and Clacomo 8omano. 1he summer
school was arranged ln Lwo sesslons of Lwo
days each. 1he flrsL sesslon, held by professor
Cesare Cozzo (unlverslLa La Saplenza, 8ome),
was abouL Mlchael uummeLL's analysls of
LruLh condlLlons for pasL evenLs. 1he second
sesslon, held by professor lerre !acob (lnsLlLuL
!ean nlcod, arls), concerned menLal slmulaLlon, acLlon-mlrrorlng and mlndreadlng.
Cn Lhe flrsL day, Cozzo lllusLraLed Lhe noLlon of LruLh abouL sLaLemenLs concernlng anoLher
place and/or Llme, dlscussed by uummeLL ln 1totb ooJ tbe lost (2003). Pe noLed LhaL,
accordlng Lo Lhe prlnclple of blvalence, every sLaLemenL, llke aL 6.00 p.m. ln Lhe day of hls
forLleLh blrLhday Lhe number of uummeLL's Lle was odd", musL be LruLh or false. Powever,
someLlmes Lhe chance Lo know Lhe LruLh or falslLy of pasL sLaLemenLs goes beyond our
faculLles because we are noL ln LhaL Llme or place. 1herefore, lL ls dlfflculL Lo asserL LhaL pasL
sLaLemenLs have always a LruLh value, conLrary Lo Lhe prlnclple of blvalence. An opposlLlon
abouL Lhe LranscendenL noLlon of LruLh arlses. Accordlng Lo Lhe reallsL, LruLh ls
unexcepLlonable, and undersLandlng a sLaLemenL means Lo couple lL wlLh LruLh condlLlons
regardless of Lhe posslblllLy Lo esLabllsh Lhem. lnsLead, accordlng Lo Lhe anLlreallsL, pasL
sLaLemenLs are Lrue or false only because we provlde Lhem wlLh a LruLh value. ln facL, Lhe LruLh
value of a pasL sLaLemenL ls glven by a dlrecL proof, whlch we can flnd ln Lhe presenL Llme, LhaL
[usLlfles Lhe aLLrlbuLlon of LhaL LruLh value Lo LhaL sLaLemenL. ln Lhe case of emplrlcal
sLaLemenLs ln Lhe presenL Llme, such as here lL's ralnlng", Lhen, Lhe anLlreallsL clalms LhaL Lhe
prlnclple of blvalence ls valld because we can access a dlrecL proof Lo verlfy Lhem. ln Lhe case
of a pasL sLaLemenL abouL Lhe same observable evenL, lnsLead, Lhe prlnclple of blvalence ls
lnvalld because we may lack a dlrecL proof of Lhe evenL. 1herefore, lL ls lmposslble LhaL Lhe
same loglcal prlnclples are valld for Lhe same emplrlcal sLaLemenLs consldered ln Lhe presenL
Llme or ln Lhe pasL.
Cn Lhe second day, Cozzo dlscussed Lhe Lurnlng polnL ln uummeLL's phllosophy consLlLuLed
by Lhe uewey lectotes (2002). 8efore Lhe uewey lectotes, uummeLL endorsed a [usLlflcaLlonlsL
vlew abouL LruLh LhaL ylelded Lo a radlcal anLlreallsm abouL Lhe LruLh value of pasL evenL
sLaLemenLs. Powever, ln Lhe conference 1be keollty of tbe lost, uummeLL came Lo Lhe
concluslon LhaL [usLlflcaLlonlsm can avold lnconslsLency only by becomlng a radlcal vlew, and
clalmed LhaL radlcal anLlreallsm ls repugnanL". 1herefore, he moved Lo a moderaLe
anLlreallsm. uummeLL lnLroduced a spaLlo-Lemporal grld Lo explaln Lhe undersLandlng of pasL


xxvl

sLaLemenLs, and looked Lo Lhe aLLrlbuLlon of a LruLh value Lo pasL sLaLemenLs by Lhe way ln
whlch a chlld learns Lo assess Lhelr relaLed proof. llrsL, Lhe chlld learns whaL ls a dlrecL proof,
l.e., a proof LhaL ls conLemporary Lo Lhe evenL LhaL lL assesses. 1hen, Lhe chlld learns boLh Lo
place presenL evenLs ln oLher spaLlal and Lemporal coordlnaLes and Lo assess proofs for Lhose
evenLs. Slnce lL ls noL posslble Lo have a dlrecL proof for pasL evenLs, Lhe chlld needs Lo learn Lo
refer Lo Lhe communlLy of speakers Lo [usLlfy Lhem. 1herefore, accordlng Lo uummeLL,
language has Lhe fundamenLal funcLlon Lo allow knowledge Lo spread over Lhe communlLy of
speakers. Cozzo concluded by noLlng LhaL, as uummeLL shows, our capaclLy Lo wear Lhe shoes
of an observer ls fundamenLal Lo undersLand pasL sLaLemenLs.
Cn Lhe Lhlrd day, lerre !acob provlded a general lnLroducLlon Lo mlrror neurons (Mns) and
acLlon-mlrrorlng by presenLlng a serles of experlmenLs on boLh macaques and human belngs.
!acob noLed LhaL we can undersLand a percelved acLlon elLher by vlsual analysls or by mapplng
Lhe acLlon ln Lhe moLor reperLolre of Lhe observer. 1hls led Lo Lwo posslble verslons of acLlon-
mlrrorlng. Accordlng Lo Lhe weak verslon, acLlons LhaL do noL belong Lo Lhe observer's moLor
reperLolre and cannoL be so mapped are caLegorlzed on Lhe basls of Lhelr vlsual properLles. lor
example, prlmaLes may have Lhe capaclLy for a deLached vlsual analysls of a blrd's lghL, buL
lack a moLor undersLandlng of lL, slnce Lhey cannoL maLch blrds' wlng movemenLs onLo Lhelr
own moLor reperLolre. Cn Lhe conLrary, followlng Lhe sLrong verslon, an observer achleves a
dlsLlncLlve klnd of 'engaged' or lmmedlaLe undersLandlng by mapplng an agenL's observed
movemenLs onLo her own moLor reperLolre.
Cn Lhe fourLh day, !acob crlLlclzed Lhe proposal of Coldman and Callese (1998) LhaL menLal
slmulaLlon ls allowed by processes of mlrrorlng LogeLher wlLh processes of lmaglnaLlon and
preLence, so LhaL Lhe Mn acLlvlLy would supporL Lhlrd-person mlndreadlng ablllLles. Callese
and Coldman clalm LhaL Mns allow aLLrlbuLlng bellefs boLh Lo forecasL Lhe fuLure behavlour of
an agenL, and Lo explaln lLs pasL behavlour. 1haL ls, Lhe acLlvlLy of Mns ls boLh predlcLlve and
reLrodlcLlve. Accordlng Lo Lhem,

Lhe aLLrlbuLor sLarLs wlLh Lhe quesLlon, 'WhaL goal dld Lhe LargeL have LhaL led hlm Lo perform
acLlon m?' Pe con[ecLures LhaL lL was goal g, and Lrles ouL Lhls con[ecLure by preLendlng Lo have g
as well as cerLaln bellefs abouL Lhe effecLlveness or lneffecLlveness of Lhe acLlon m vls--vls goal
g. 1hls slmulaLlon leads hlm Lo form a (preLend) declslon Lo do m. Pe Lherefore uses Lhls resulL Lo
conclude LhaL Lhe LargeL dld lndeed have goal g. ln Lhls fashlon, Lhe aLLrlbuLor ulLlmaLely makes a
'backward' lnference from Lhe observed acLlon Lo a hypoLheslzed goal sLaLe (Callese & Coldman
1998)

Accordlng Lo !acob, lnsLead, Lhe proposal ls unllkely because of Lhe causal gap beLween acLlon
and bellef. lL seems LhaL, sLarLlng from acLlons, we can predlcL oLher acLlons, buL LhaL we
cannoL aLLrlbuLe menLal sLaLes. Pow mlghL an observer aLLrlbuLe a bellef only by waLchlng an
acLlon? We cannoL form a represenLaLlon of Lhe agenL's lnLenLlon from Lhe percepLlon of her
movemenL. 1herefore, !acob clalmed LhaL lL ls more llkely LhaL Lhe Mn acLlvlLy only predlcLlvely
compuLes Lhe besL moLor command sulLable Lo saLlsfy Lhe agenL's lnLenLlon.
llnally, !acob examlned Lhe hypoLhesls LhaL mlrrorlng mlghL be applled Lo undersLand
emoLlons and affecLlve sLaLes.

8I8LICGkAn

Callese, v., Coldman, A. (1998). Mlrror neurons and Lhe SlmulaLlon 1heory of Mlnd-
readlng, 1teoJs lo coqoltlve 5cleoces, 12, 493-301.

xxvll

Rutgers-Siena )oint Worksbop on MlnJ unJ Culture

CerLosa dl onLlgnano (Slena), 1-2 !une 2009

Nlcolo 5lmooettl

1he flrsL 8uLgers-Slena !olnL Workshop on MloJ ooJ coltote Look

place aL Lhe lnLernaLlonal Conference CenLre of Lhe CerLosa dl
onLlgnano on !une 1
sL
and 2
nd
, 2009. 1he workshop was
organlzed by Lhe uocLoral School of CognlLlve Sclences of Lhe
unlverslLy of Slena and Lhe 8uLgers unlverslLy CenLer for
CognlLlve Sclences (8uCCS) wlLh Lhe parLnershlp of Lhe lnsLlLuLe of
Puman Sclences (SuM) of llorence, Lhe SanLa Chlara Plgh School,
and Lhe lnLer-unlverslLy CenLer for LxperlmenLal Lconomlcs.
1he programme conslsLed of Lwo days, ln whlch professors of
cognlLlve sclence and Lhelr h.u sLudenLs from boLh 8uLgers and
Slena unlverslLy gave lecLures or presenLed papers abouL Lhelr
research Loplcs.
Cn Lhe flrsL day, !erry lodor (8uLgers unlverslLy) opened Lhe
workshop by speaklng abouL ltospects fot o coosol tbeoty of tefeteoce. Pe crlLlclzed krlpke's
(1980) causal Lheory of reference by clalmlng LhaL lL does noL provlde a naLurallsLlc approach
Lo language and reference. lodor conslders krlpke's concepLlon as a verslon of assoclaLlonlsm,
lndeed unable Lo explaln Lhe lnLenLlonallLy and Lhe conLenL of menLal sLaLes. Accordlng Lo
lodor's psychosemanLlc Lheory, lnsLead, Lhe meanlng of an ob[ecL ls a represenLaLlon of LhaL
ob[ecL ln our mlnd. 1herefore, Lhere ls a causal connecLlon beLween LhoughLs ln our mlnd and
Lhe ob[ecLs ln Lhe world. 1hls Lheory ls coherenL wlLh a naLurallsLlc approach Lo cognlLlve
faculLles, grounded on Lhe Lwo hypoLheses of Lhe language of LhoughL (lodor 1973) and Lhe
modularlLy of mlnd (lodor 1983).
ln hls Lalk on lotest oews ftom tbe lobotototy. lts loJexes ooJ tbe woy Jowo, Zenon
ylyshyn (8uLgers) accused Lhe compuLaLlonal Lheory of Lhe mlnd of lacklng an explanaLlon
abouL Lhe represenLaLlonal conLenL of compuLaLlons. Pow menLal represenLaLlons are
connecLed Lo whaL Lhey represenL? 1he compuLaLlonal Lheory of mlnd does noL speclfy Lhe
causal mechanlsm LhaL explalns how Lhe represenLaLlonal Lokens of Lhlngs acqulre Lhelr
conLenL. ln Lhe case of solvlng geomeLry problems ln percepLlon, for example, we label llnes or
verLlces Lo speclfy Lhe lndlvlduals Lo whlch Lhey refer. Powever, causal connecLlon pet se does
noL lmply concepLuallzaLlon. Accordlng Lo Culne, SLrawson and oLhers, you cannoL Lrack
lndlvlduals wlLhouL sorLal concepLs, moreover, you cannoL plck ouL lndlvlduals wlLh only
concepLs. Compare Lhls wlLh krlpke's dlsLlncLlon beLween properLles LhaL flx Lhe referenL of a
proper name and Lhe referenL lLself. ls Lhere someLhlng speclal abouL locaLlon? 1he only
conLenL LhaL non-concepLual represenLaLlon can have ls Lhe demonsLraLlve conLenL.
A lecLure by Masslmo laLLelll almarlnl (unlverslLy of Arlzona), co-auLhored wlLh lodor, on
wbot uotwlo qot wtooq followed. almarlnl remarked LhaL uarwln's Lheory of evoluLlon does
noL make sense of Lhe chromosomes number dlfference across specles. 1he plaLypus, for
example, an anlmal wlLh boLh mammal and repLlllan characLerlsLlcs, has 32 chromosomes
versus Lhe 46 chromosomes of Lhe human specles. Analogously, salamanders have much more
chromosomes Lhan apes. 1hese dlfferences ln Lhe chromosome number are paradoxlcal lf we
assume LhaL, accordlng Lo uarwln, more evolved specles should have a more complex unA,


xxvlll

LhaL ls, more chromosomes. 1hls sheds a doubL abouL Lhe crlLerla accordlng Lo whlch we [udge
Lhe grade of evoluLlon of specles.
Sandro nannlnl (unlverslLy of Slena) gave a lecLure on wby ls lostelos telotlvlty tbeoty
coootet-lotoltlve? A oototollstlc opptoocb to tbe telotloo betweeo teol tlme ooJ tlme lotoltloo.
Pls alm was Lo see wheLher lL ls posslble Lo assess LlnsLeln's relaLlvlLy Lheory ln Lhe llghL of Lhe
sLrong lnLulLlon LhaL Llme ls noL relaLlve Lo an observer. Such reallsm" abouL Llme ls shared
boLh by Lhe common-sense vlew and by many cosmologlcal models under Lhe concepL of
'cosmlc Llme' (e.g., . uavles). nannlnl argued LhaL Lhe lnLulLlon of Llme depends on a braln
mechanlsm LhaL brlngs abouL Lhe menLal consLrucLlon of phenomenal Llme. Pe added LhaL we
cannoL avold Lhls mechanlsm Lo work. Powever, Lhls does noL lmply LhaL phenomenal Llme
mlrrors an alleged unlque and ob[ecLlve real Llme. Cn Lhe conLrary LlnsLeln's relaLlvlLy Lheory,
comblned wlLh neurologlcal Lheorles abouL Llme percepLlon, explalns why we human belngs
percelve Llme as mlnd-lndependenL alLhough lL ls as a maLLer of facL mlnd-dependenL.
Adrlana 8elleLLl and Lulgl 8lzzl (unlverslLy of Slena) gave a lecLure on 1be cottoqtopby of
syotoctlc sttoctotes. locollty ooJ Jellmltotloo effects. 1he noLlon of synLacLlc complexlLy has
played a cenLral role ln Lhe sLudy of several aspecLs of language lnLended as a cognlLlve
capaclLy. 8elleLLl and 8lzzl were parLlcularly lnLeresLed ln Lhe dlmenslon of complexlLy whlch
arlses ln consLrucLlons lnvolvlng A-bar movemenL (relaLlves clauses, quesLlons, eLc.), and whlch
manlfesLs lLself ln boLh adulL grammar performance, and chlld language acqulslLlon. 8y
reporLlng experlmenLal sLudles on Lhe comprehenslon and producLlon of sub[ecL and ob[ecL
relaLlve clauses ln chlldren, Lhey showed how Lhe selecLlve delay of cerLaln ob[ecL relaLlves ls
predlcLed by an lnLervenLlon approach - l.e., an approach accordlng Lo whlch an elemenL
whlch lnLervenes beLween Lhe elemenLs lnvolved ln a local relaLlon, for lnsLance beLween a
moved elemenL and lLs Lrace, and bears a cerLaln slmllarlLy Lo such elemenLs, may dlsrupL Lhe
local relaLlon, or make lL hard Lo process. Moreover, Lhey lllusLraLed some sLraLegles LhaL Lhe
chlld resorLs Lo ln order Lo avold Lhe complex conflguraLlon, avoldlng lnLervenLlon.
Marco Corl's (unlverslLy of Slena) lecLure was enLlLled Oo tbe blttb of coqoltlve stoqes.
complexlty lssoes. Corl clalmed LhaL !ean lageL's sLudles abouL cognlLlve developmenL lnsplre
lmporLanL advances ln machlne learnlng. lageL's geneLlc-evoluLlonary approach ldenLlfled
four unlversal sLages, or perlods, of developmenL ln chlld learnlng ablllLles, where each sLage ls
self-conLalned and bullds upon Lhe prevlous one. Chlldren flrsLly develop sensorlmoLor and
preoperaLlonal skllls, ln whlch Lhe percepLual lnLeracLlons wlLh Lhe envlronmenL domlnaLe Lhe
learnlng process. 1hen, Lhey develop concreLe and formal operaLlonal skllls, ln whlch Lhey sLarL
Lo Lhlnk loglcally and Lo rely on absLracL LhoughL. 8y referrlng Lo lageL's developmenLal
framework, we can Lhlnk of learnlng processes as a physlcal process LhaL we can Lry Lo capLure
by provldlng physlcal laws LhaL explaln Lhe varlaLlons ln Lhe developmenL. Llke for physlcal
laws, where varlaLlonal prlnclples ensure grace and lead Lo capLure Lhe slmpllclLy and elegance
of naLural behavlour, ln cognlLlve sclence varlaLlonal prlnclples glve rlse Lo kernel machlnes
LhaL provlde an effecLlve model of sub-symbollc Lasks llke Lhose relaLed Lo sensorlmoLor and
pre-operaLlonal sLages ln chlldren. ln Lhe end, we can keep Lhe same varlaLlonal framework Lo
lmpose a semanLlc-based regularlzaLlon Lo relaLe semanLlc aLLrlbuLes so as Lo capLure hlgher
levels of cognlLlon.
ln hls lecLure coqoltlve ecooomlcs lo tbe lob. tbe powet of lobels, lnnocenLl (unlverslLy of
Slena) clalmed LhaL problem solvlng abouL declslon-maklng under uncerLalnLy ls envlronmenL-
dependenL. ln facL, he showed LhaL lncludlng wlLhln experlmenLal deslgns conLexLual clues,
such as label" or vlrLual slmulaLlons", makes laboraLory Lasks more famlllar. 1herefore, Lhe
goal Lo mould conLexL-free experlmenLs ls noL only eluslve, buL also lnapproprlaLe Lo
lnvesLlgaLe cognlLlve processes. 1o supporL Lhls vlew, he presenLed an experlmenL on Lravel
Events - Ninu anu Cultuie

xxlx
mode cholces, ln whlch sub[ecLs acqulre ex-post lnformaLlon noL only Lhrough Lhelr own
experlence, buL also Lhrough exLernal lnformaLlon on acLual Lravel Llmes of all Lravel modes.
Pe concluded LhaL vlrLual experlmenLs comblne Lhe lnLernal valldlLy of conLrolled laboraLory
experlmenLs wlLh Lhe exLernal valldlLy of fleld experlmenLs.
Cn Lhe second day, LrnsL Lepore (8uLgers) gave Lhe flrsL lecLure, Oo oqteemeot. Pe noLed
LhaL conLexLuallsm ls very lmporLanL ln eplsLemology, meLaphyslcs, and eLhlcs. Such a vlew ls
shared by phllosophers, llngulsLs, and cognlLlve sclenLlsLs. Cn Lhe conLrary, conLexL lnsenslLlvlLy
seems Lo lmply boLh mlnlmallsm and relaLlvlsm. 1herefore, a use of conLexL senslLlve
expresslons musL be accuraLe. SLrucLural semanLlc Lheorles do noL provlde an accounL of Lhe
condlLlons under whlch senLences are Lrue, because Lhey lack relaLlons beLween expresslons
and Lhe world. 1herefore, many phllosophers and llngulsLs endorse model-LheoreLlc semanLlcs,
whlch do noL share Lhe same deflclL.
8rlan McLaughlln (8uLgers) gave a lecLure on xlsteotlol feelloqs ooJ moootbemotlc
Jelosloos. Pe professed Lo be scepLlcal abouL Lhe prospecL of explalnlng psychologlcal laws
sLarLlng from lodor and ylyshyn's (1988) cognlLlve archlLecLure for mlnd and language, whlch
ls creaLed Lo supporL Lhe sysLemaLlclLy of Lhe mlnd. Pe argued agalnsL Lhem LhaL sysLemaLlclLy
of Lhe mlnd can be obLalned wlLhouL assumlng concepLual ablllLles and sysLemaLlclLy laws.
lurLhermore, he clalmed LhaL Lhere ls noL an adequaLe deflnlLlon of sysLemaLlclLy ln LhoughL
and language. naLural languages are noL sysLemaLlc aL all. 1hls poses an end Lo Lhe debaLe
abouL a scheme ln naLural language.
ln her lecLure, uescottes ooJ poollo, 8affaella ue 8osa (8uLgers unlverslLy) presenLed Lhe
SLandard vlew (Sv) on uescarLes' sensaLlons, accordlng Lo whlch sensaLlons lack lnLrlnslc
lnLenLlonallLy because Lhey appear as purely quallLaLlve feaLures of experlence (or poollo).
Accordlngly Lo Sv, ln percelvlng, for example, Lhe colour red, we are merely experlenclng Lhe
sub[ecLlve feel of redness raLher Lhan percelvlng Lhe properLy of a body. 1he alm of Lhe lecLure
was Lhen Lo esLabllsh LhaL Lhe LexLual evldence offered ln supporL of Sv fall Lo prove LhaL
uescarLes held Sv. lndeed, ue 8osa argued LhaL Lhere are LexLual and LheoreLlcal reasons for
bellevlng LhaL uescarLes held Lhe negaLlon of Sv. Ooollo are noL uescarLes' legacy.
(1exas unlverslLy) Lalked abouL 1be votletles of cooteot. ln Lhe Lalk, he argued LhaL
8urge's exLenslon Lo bellef of Lhe sorL of exLernallsm LhaL uLnam Look ln Lhe Lwln-earLh
examples ls vlLlaLed by a presupposlLlon abouL Lhe relaLlon beLween Je Jlcto bellef ascrlpLlon
and bellef conLenL. 8urge, ln effecL, Lakes our dlfferenLlal wllllngness Lo make Lhe same Je
Jlcto ascrlpLlons Lo reflecL our vlew LhaL sub[ecLs ln hls examples do noL share bellef conLenL.
Powever, Sosa argued LhaL we have good reasons Lo doubL LhaL move. Pe Lrled Lo flnd a
general prlnclple (AscrlpLlon") governlng bellef ascrlpLlon LhaL would block maklng Lhe same
ascrlpLlons buL wlLhouL guaranLeelng LhaL sub[ecLs do noL share bellef conLenLs (our use of
lndexlcals ln bellef ascrlpLlon - whlch 8urge Lrles Lo dlfferenLlaLe from hls cases - ls covered by
AscrlpLlon as a speclal case). A general background Lheme, LhroughouL (Lhough noL made
expllclL or dlscussed dlrecLly), ls LhaL Lhe naLure of llngulsLlc conLenL, lncludlng Lhe semanLlcs of
words used ln bellef ascrlpLlons, ls very dlfferenL from Lhe naLure of menLal conLenL, such as
Lhe conLenL of bellefs.
usberLl (unlverslLy of Slena) gave Lhe lasL lecLure of Lhe Workshop on wllllomsoos
otqomeots oqolost lomlooslty. Pe examlned Lhe Lwo verslons of Wllllamson's koowleJqe ooJ
lts llmlts (2002) argumenL agalnsL Lhe eplsLemlc Lransparency of menLal sLaLes. Pe quesLloned
Lhe prlnclple, whlch concerns Lhe assumpLlon of Lhe flrsL verslon of Lhe argumenL, LhaL our
dlscrlmlnaLlon capaclLles are llmlLed. 1he second verslon of Wllllamson's argumenL relles on a
prlnclple abouL rellablllLy Lo whlch a counLerexample has been provlded by Sellm 8erker.
usberLl defended Lhls counLerexample noL ln Lerms of a relaLlon of consLlLuLlve dependence of
cerLaln condlLlons on bellefs (as ln 8erker's paper), buL ln Lerms of Lhe (absoluLe) rellablllLy of


xxx

cerLaln bellef-formlng meLhods.
1he workshop was accompanled wlLh Lalks provlded by h.u sLudenLs from 8uLgers
unlverslLy and unlverslLy of Slena. Cn Lhe flrsL day, Lhe h.u sLudenLs who gave a speech were
Clullano 8occl (Oo tbe losettloo ooJ lotetptetotloo of lotoootloool eveots), Sarah L. Murray
(vlJeotlols os oot-ot-lssoe ossettloo), lrene lranco (5yotoctlc vlslblllty of Jlscootse teloteJ
ptopettles. tbe cose of 5cooJloovloo embeJJeJ v2), CarloLLa avese (ltoposltloool ottltoJe
tepotts ooJ tbe pozzle of sobstltotloo follote) and SLefano Culdl (ltobloq tbe sttoctote of o
ftome osloq qooJoess-of-flt). Cn Lhe second day, Lalks were glven by Sascla avan
(loJetetmloocy ooJ ttotb-fooctloool coooectlves), Wllllam SLarr (cooJltloools, poestloos ooJ
cooteot), Luca 1ranchlnl (ltoofs ooJ tefototloos. oew Jltectloos lo ptoof-tbeotetlc semootlcs)
and AnLonlno lreno (nybtlJ tooJom flelJs fot scoloble stotlstlcol leotoloq).

1

Epistemic Preliminaries: Normative Priorities and
Neuropsycbological Kinds

Ieoolfet MooJole
*

[mundale[pegasus.cc.ucf.edu

As noLed ln Lhe lnLroducLlon Lo Lhls volume, many foundaLlonal assumpLlons conLlnue Lo be

unexpressed", and many foundaLlonal lssues remaln unresolved, lf noL neglecLed, ln Lhe eplsLemology of
psychology. l focus on Lwo such seLs of lssues. 8rlefly, Lhey are: (1) Lhe resoluLlon of confllcLlng norms
(eplsLemologlcal, cllnlcal, eLhlcal, oLhers), and (2) Laxonomlc lssues, broadly consLrued. lL ls noL my
purpose Lo suggesL resoluLlons of Lhese lssues, buL raLher, Lo hlghllghL Lhelr lmporLance Lo a varleLy of
Loplcs LhaL arlse ln Lhe eplsLemology of psychology. 1hough lL ls dlfflculL Lo say wlLh cerLalnLy, glven Lhe
unseLLled naLure of varlous areas of concern, l suspecL LhaL progress on Lhese lssues may be necessary,
or concepLually prlor Lo Lhe saLlsfacLory LreaLmenL of varlous lssues ln Lhe eplsLemology of psychology
and relaLed flelds.

Many meLaphyslcal and eplsLemologlcal lssues aL Lhe lnLersecLlon of phllosophy, psychology
and neurosclence remaln unresolved. Addresslng Lhese lssues, l argue, may be prellmlnary Lo
any resoluLlon or progress ln Lhese flelds. ln whaL follows, l focus on Lwo such unresolved areas
of concern. lL ls noL my lnLenL LhaL l wlll resolve Lhese lssues, raLher, l alm Lo [usLlfy a case for
more aLLenLlon Lo Lhese problems by showlng how cenLral Lhey are Lo a varleLy of areas,
parLlcularly Lhe eplsLemology of psychology. 1he problems l hlghllghL are: (1) hlerarchles and
confllcLs among norms, lncludlng eplsLemologlcal, cllnlcal, eLhlcal, soclologlcal and oLher
norms, and (2) Laxonomlc lssues, broadly consLrued, parLlcularly Lhose lnvolvlng psychologlcal
and neurosclenLlflc Laxonomy.
WlLh respecL Lo Lhe flrsL lssue, lL ls useful Lo glve an example of a normaLlve confllcL. Cne
example arlses ln Lhe wake of some sLudles (e.g., Alloy and Abramson 1979, 1988) whlch
suggesL LhaL depresslves are sadder buL wlser", or LhaL depresslves make more accuraLe,
reallsLlc predlcLlons Lhan non-depresslves. Slmllarly, work by 1aylor and 8rown (1988),
suggesLs LhaL Lhose who malnLaln an unreallsLlcally poslLlve self-lmage are happler and more
producLlve Lhan Lhose who don'L. As l and oLhers have noLed elsewhere (llanagan, 1991,
klnney, 2000, Mundale, 2004) such work reveals a poLenLlal confllcL beLween eplsLemlc norms,
or norms of raLlonallLy, and cllnlcal norms. As klnney (2000) commenLs, for example, such
resulLs prompL us Lo ask wheLher eplsLemologlcally reallsLlc worldvlews are deslrable for
emoLlonally dlsLraughL paLlenLs, and wheLher some klnds of cognlLlve errors may serve some
klnd of palllaLlve or adapLlve purpose. 1hls poLenLlal confllcL puLs Lhe sLandards of menLal
healLh and Lhe producLlvlLy and saLlsfacLlon assoclaLed wlLh lL aL odds wlLh eplsLemlc norms of
[usLlfled bellef.
Whlle Lhls example shows a poLenLlal confllcL beLween eplsLemlc and cllnlcal norms, Lhere
ls also Lhe posslblllLy of a confllcL beLween eplsLemlc and oLher psychologlcal norms. 1he laLLer
ls hlghllghLed by Lhe recenL moves ln cognlLlve sclence Loward approaches LhaL emphaslze Lhe
slLuaLed, embodled and embedded condlLlon of knowers, on Lhe one hand, and naLurallzed

*
unlverslLy of CenLral llorlda

Bumana.Nente - Issue 11- 0ctobei 2uu9

2

eplsLemology, on Lhe oLher. 8oLh approaches emphaslze Lhe role of heurlsLlcs and blases ln
our Lhlnklng, and, slmllarly, boLh underscore Lhe non-opLlmal or saLlsflclng" sLraLegy LhaL ls
now LhoughL Lo be Lyplcal of human Lhlnklng (see, for example, PerberL Slmon, 1937, 1978,
Chernlak, 1990). ln Lhls way, eplsLemlc sLandards of raLlonallLy LhaL descrlbe how humans
oughL Lo Lhlnk and reason may ulLlmaLely confllcL wlLh psychologlcal norms LhaL descrlbe how
humans acLually Lhlnk and reason, lncludlng common cognlLlve errors, blases and processlng
llmlLaLlons. 1hls poLenLlal confllcL poses dlfflculLles for esLabllshlng crlLerla for raLlonallLy, ls
one Lo [udge accordlng Lo a LheoreLlcal, largely armchalr, maxlmlzlng" sLandard of LradlLlonal
eplsLemology, or by an emplrlcally derlved, saLlsflclng" sLandard LhaL falls wlLhln Lhe
guldellnes descrlblng how human belngs acLually Lhlnk? hllosophers conLlnue Lo educaLe
Lhemselves and Lhelr sLudenLs abouL common reasonlng errors, ever waLchful for Lhe
aLLrlbuLlon error, lnformal fallacy, avallablllLy and represenLaLlveness blases, sLereoLyplng, and
oLher breakdowns ln reason. AL Lhe same Llme, Lhe naLurallsLlcally-orlenLed phllosopher
lnforms sLudenLs noL only of Lhelr apparenL lnevlLablllLy, buL of Lhelr psychologlcal explanaLlon
and posslble heurlsLlc uLlllLy, as well (see, for example, ScoLL lous, 1993, or Cary klrby and
!effery CoodpasLer, 2006, for Lhls comblned approach Lo crlLlcal Lhlnklng).
Slmllarly, naLurallzed eLhlcs (eLhlcs gulded by psychologlcal reallsm) has helghLened Lhe
poLenLlal for confllcLs beLween eLhlcal norms and boLh eplsLemlc and cllnlcal norms
1
. WhaL lf
belng eLhlcal does noL colnclde elLher wlLh belng raLlonal or happy? WhaL lf Lhe sLandards for
eLhlcal declslon maklng requlre unreallsLlc expecLaLlons of our cognlLlve capaclLy? llanagan
dlscusses Lhe poLenLlal for such confllcLs, clLlng acL uLlllLarlanlsm as an example of an eLhlcal
Lheory LhaL ls psychologlcally unreallsLlc ln LhaL lL requlres consLanL evaluaLlon of all posslble
acLlons along wlLh Lhelr posslble consequences ln an aLLempL Lo maxlmlze Lhe greaLesL neL
happlness (llanagan 1991, pp. 32-34). 1he unwleldlness of Lhe hedonlc calculus ls a
longsLandlng crlLlclsm of acL uLlllLarlanlsm LhaL llanagan puLs lnLo Lhe broader conLexL of a
naLurallzed eLhlcs LhaL requlres normaLlve Lheorles Lo fulflll Lhe condlLlons of mlnlmal
psychologlcal reallsm. CpLlmal raLlonal norms are noL conslsLenLly, lf ever achlevable Lo Lhe
exLenL requlred by Lhe eLhlcal norms of uLlllLarlanlsm. 1he normaLlve requlremenLs of
kanLlanlsm are also noLorlously unreallsLlc ln presumlng a klnd of perfecL raLlonallLy, one musL,
for example be able conslsLenLly Lo deLermlne whlch maxlms lL would be reasonable for
Lo follow, and one's self-knowledge musL be lnfalllble enough Lo dlscern whlch
maxlms are guldlng one's acLlons. Also lmporLanLly, for Lhe presenL purposes, kanL famously
drove a wedge beLween happlness, on Lhe one hand, and eLhlcs, on Lhe oLher, openlng Lhe
posslblllLy of a confllcL beLween Lhe sLandards of eLhlcs and Lhose of psychologlcal healLh and
happlness.
Cf course, Lhere are some worldvlews ln whlch Lhe poLenLlal for such normaLlve confllcL ls
greaLly dlmlnlshed, or aL leasL noL lnevlLable. ln Lhe ArlsLoLellan sysLem, for example, eplsLemlc
and eLhlcal norms go LogeLher, and boLh colnclde wlLh Lhe good llfe, or a happy, flourlshlng
llfe. 8elng vlrLuous ls LanLamounL Lo funcLlonlng well (LhaL ls, reasonlng well), whlch ls
LanLamounL Lo employlng one's pracLlcal wlsdom ln chooslng Lhe mean, relaLlve Lo one's self. A
llfe llved conslsLenLly wlLhln Lhe mean conduces Loward happlness, or eudalmonla, Lhe end of

1
Cbvlously, l re[ecL Lhe argumenL LhaL naLurallzed Lheorles, parLlcularly naLurallzed eplsLemology,
cannoL be normaLlve. ArgumenLs for and agalnsL naLurallzed Lheorles Lhemselves go beyond Lhe concern
of Lhls paper, buL ln shorL, l accepL a cooperaLlve verslon of Lhese naLurallzed Lheorles such LhaL
emplrlcal dlscoverles abouL psychologlcal and neurologlcal llmlLaLlons and capablllLles are relevanL Lo
Lhe sLudy of human eLhlcs and eplsLemology.

}ennifei Nunuale - Epistemic Pieliminaiies

3

human llfe. 1he sLandard crlLlclsm of ArlsLoLellan vlrLue eLhlcs ls Lhe commlLmenL Lo
essenLlallsm, ln order for Lhe elemenLs of ArlsLoLle's eLhlcs Lo cohere as Lhey do, one musL
Lhlnk of humans belngs as havlng a deflnlng human naLure or essence, or as belng possessed of
cerLaln flxed LralLs, such LhaL Lhe llfe of moral goodness sLems from Lhe exerclse and
developmenL of our dlsLlncLlve human essence.
Whlle l am noL concerned Lo defend or crlLlclze any parLlcular eLhlcal Lheory, Lhere ls surely
Lhe llkellhood, lf noL lnevlLablllLy, LhaL normaLlve confllcLs wlll arlse, and lL ls puzzllng Lo know
how Lo resolve Lhem. SomewhaL gloomlly, llanagan wrlLes LhaL, 1hls ls noL Lhe besL of all
posslble worlds. Papplness, goodness, and psychologlcal healLh are noL lnexorably llnked.
(llanagan 1991, p. 332) lL ls noLeworLhy LhaL llanagan reaches Lhls concluslon aL Lhe end of a
lengLhy, deLalled work LhaL develops and defends a naLurallzed (psychologlcally reallsLlc)
approach Lo eLhlcs. Pow are we Lo ad[udlcaLe such confllcL?
1he confllcL ls one LhaL llanagan appears prepared Lo llve wlLh, even lf grudglngly. ?eL, lL ls
worLh conslderlng Lhe avallable opLlons. llrsL, should we accepL normaLlve confllcL, or should
we regard lL as a slgn LhaL we have aL leasL one normaLlve accounL wrong? 8ecalllng Lhe above
example, Craham dlspuLes Lhe clalm LhaL depresslon musL necessarlly be an lndlcaLlon of
lrraLlonal Lhlnklng. ln facL, he argues LhaL, .were a person lmmune Lo depresslon ln [usLlflably
depressed clrcumsLances, l Lhlnk we should be lncllned Lo Lhlnk of hlm as psychologlcally
deflclenL. (1994, p. 419) As he furLher explalns

lf you became severely paralyzed ln an accldenL, Lhe facL LhaL you are paralyzed mlghL be a
melanchollc LruLh, an lmporLanL even lf depresslng reallLy, whlch you musL appreclaLe lf you are
Lo make lnLelllgenL declslons abouL Lhe fuLure. Pow sympaLheLlc could we be Lo your pllghL lf we
descrlbed your reasonlng as llloglcal? Should we dlssuade you from bellevlng you are paralyzed?
Should we deny your fuLure ls bleak? (Craham 1994, p. 412).

laced wlLh a [usLlflably depressed person, Lhen, should we add furLher lnsulL by descrlblng hlm
or her as lrraLlonal, as well? Cne could, of course, clalm LhaL Lhls ls noL an example of any hard
cholces beLween Lhe norms of psychologlcal healLh and Lhose of eplsLemlc vlrLue, ln LhaL faclng
a depresslngly bleak fuLure honesLly and raLlonally ls a necessary condlLlon for evenLually
overcomlng LhaL depresslon. 1hls klnd of accommodaLlon, for example, mlghL resulL from
adopLlng a dlfferenL model or sLandard of raLlonallLy, buL noL all cases of apparenL confllcL can
be argued away.
1o reLurn Lo Lhe avallable opLlons, suppose we declde LhaL confllcL among norms ls an
example of whaL phllosopher nlcholas 8escher Lermed an aporeLlc sLrucLure, a seL of
lndlvldually plauslble asserLlons LhaL, Laken LogeLher, are muLually lnconslsLenL. lf one cannoL
resolve Lhe lnconslsLency Lhrough re-lnLerpreLaLlon of Lhe asserLlons, Lhen, one or more
asserLlons musL go, and, furLhermore,

any parLlcular way ouL of an aporeLlc confllcL ls bound Lo be slmply one way among oLhers..
Lhere wlll always be a varleLy of dlsLlncL ways of averLlng Lhe lnconslsLency lnLo whlch ls plunges
us. And ln Lhls llghL, Lhe problem for Lhe phllosopher ls noL one of lnducLlve ampllaLlon buL of
sysLemlc reducLlon - of a resLoraLlon of conslsLency Lhrough cholces of prlorlLy. (8escher 2001, p.
100).

8escher's preference for resolvlng lnconslsLencles among phllosophlcal docLrlnes ls clearly Lo
choose and ellmlnaLe, raLher Lhan Lo accommodaLe, as compeLlLlon and conLroversy
governs muLually excluslve docLrlnes, noL muLual supporLlveness (8escher 2001, p. 101). lf
Lhls ls how we approach normaLlve confllcL, does Lhls lnLerpreLaLlon noL commlL us, aL Lhe
ouLseL, Lo Lhe precedence of LradlLlonal, eplsLemologlcal norms? erhaps even Lo recognlze


4

poLenLlal normaLlve confllcL as a sub[ecL worLhy of aLLenLlon ls Lo prlvllege eplsLemlc norms. ln
oLher words, whaL meLa-normaLlve poslLlon does one Lake ln even approachlng Lhe quesLlon
of how Lo resolve normaLlve confllcL? lL's noL qulLe LhaL lL leaves us on neuraLh's boaL so much
as lL leaves us wonderlng how Lo geL lL ouL Lo sea ln Lhe flrsL place.
lf we declde Lo Lake Lhe LradlLlonal approach and puL conslsLency ahead of all else, LhaL
does noL, of course, Lell us whlch norms Lo prlvllege or whlch Lrade-offs Lo make. ln conLrasL Lo
8escher's recommendaLlons, llanagan's soluLlon suggesLs a saLlsflclng" sLraLegy of seeklng
Lhe very sorL of muLual supporLlveness 8escher warns agalnsL. llanagan clalms LhaL whlle we
cannoL have Lhe besL of all posslble worlds, 1here do exlsL, however, some relaLlons among
Lhe Lhree concepLs [happlness, goodness, and psychologlcal healLh], some paLLerns of co-
occurrence, whlch we can seek Lo ampllfy., and LhaL Calnlng as much coordlnaLlon as ls
posslble among Lhlngs ls a pro[ecL requlrlng human efforL sulLed Lo lLs parLlcular Llme and place
and wlLh no guaranLees of success (8escher 2001, 332). AL Lhe momenL, we do noL even seem
Lo have a clear ldea of whaL would counL as a successful coordlnaLlon among Lhese Lhree, leL
alone Lhelr successful coordlnaLlon wlLh a fourLh elemenL of eplsLemlc vlrLue.
AparL from Lhe puzzle lLself, Lhe clash beLween sLandards ofLen forms Lhe basls of a
crlLlclsm, lf noL re[ecLlon, of a glven Lheory. Condemnlng one normaLlve Lheory because lL
confllcLs wlLh anoLher normaLlve Lheory (or Lheorles) really only pushes Lhe quesLlon back a
sLage furLher lnLo one's overall normaLlve scheme. lL prompLs us Lo ask lf one's overall sysLem
ls one ln whlch normaLlve confllcL can be avolded, as ln some specles of vlrLue eLhlcs, or lf
some klnd of approxlmaLe cooperaLlon can be achleved (as llanagan descrlbes), and lf nelLher
of Lhese, whaL hlerarchles can be defended Lo supporL Lhe re[ecLlon or accommodaLlon of one
norm ln Lhe face of confllcL wlLh anoLher? lL may noL be enough, for example, slmply Lo
condemn one Lheory (a cllnlcal Lheory, for example) slmply because lL esLabllshed norms LhaL
confllcLed wlLh anoLher (an eLhlcal Lheory, for example), wlLhouL sLaLlng one's larger normaLlve
assumpLlons. lf confllcL ls lnevlLable among Lhose assumpLlons, Lhe crlLlclsm ls more Lelllng lf
placed wlLhln Lhe defense of one's larger, normaLlve hlerarchles or coordlnaLlon.
1he second seL of lssues l conslder also has Lo do wlLh unsLaLed or perhaps unfounded
assumpLlons aL Lhe basls of many common crlLlclsms. 1hese have Lo do wlLh Laxonomlc lssues,
broadly consLrued. Cf Lhe palr, perhaps Lhls area has been Lhe mosL producLlve source of
dlfflculLles, because varlous meLhodologlcal gamblLs have been placed LhaL have depended, ln
one way or anoLher, on a resoluLlon LhaL has yeL Lo happen. Moreover, Lhese dlfflculLles have
been lurklng behlnd Lhe scenes slnce naLural sclenLlsLs flrsL began Lo locallze psychologlcal
funcLlon ln Lhe braln.
lor example, Lhe feaslblllLy of varlous sLrengLhs of ldenLlLy Lheory and reducLlonlsm, as well
as relaLed argumenLs concernlng locallzaLlon and reallzaLlon, rely on Laxonomlc assumpLlons
abouL Lhe psychologlcal and neurosclenLlflc domalns LhaL are usually lefL unsLaLed, lf noL
alLogeLher unexamlned. ln Lhe absence of some prellmlnary classlflcaLory conslderaLlons,
argumenLs LhaL depend upon Lhem are noLhlng more Lhan programmaLlc guesses. Conslder,
for example, Lhe unforLunaLely casL dlsLlncLlon beLween Lype vs. Loken ldenLlLy Lheory whlch
has framed Lhe debaLe abouL LheoreLlcal reducLlon slnce Lhe laLLer half of Lhe LwenLleLh
cenLury.
ln Lhe now-famlllar Lype vs. Loken language, Lypes are Lyplcally Laken Lo refer Lo klnds, Lypes
or classes, and Lokens are held Lo be speclflc members of Lhe klnd or Lype of class. (1he cholce
of Lhls Lermlnology, borrowed from lLs orlglnal llngulsLlc conLexL - where lL ls clear, unllke Lhe
appllcaLlon ln quesLlon - ls parL of Lhe Lrouble, as dlscussed below). lor Lhe Lype ldenLlLy
Lheorles, all lnsLances of a parLlcular Lype of psychologlcal Lype (such as havlng a paln) are
ldenLlfled wlLh lnsLances of a correlaLed Lype of neural evenL (such as an acLlvaLlon paLLern ln a

3

parLlcular area or seL of areas). PlsLorlcally, Lype ldenLlLy Lheory was mosL famously advanced
by such phllosophers as SmarL, lace and ArmsLrong, Lhough, wlLh some evoluLlon and
sophlsLlcaLlon of Lhe Lheory, lL has many conLemporary sLalwarLs as well, chlefly, aLrlcla and
aul Churchland.
ln brlef, Lype ldenLlLy Lheory ls a much sLronger clalm Lhan LhaL made by Loken ldenLlLy
LheorlsLs, who clalm LhaL, whlle every Loken of a menLal sLaLe ls a Loken of a neural sLaLe, Lhere
ls no ldenLlLy beLween Lypes of menLal sLaLes and Lypes of neural sLaLes. ln oLher words, for
Lhe Loken ldenLlLy LheorlsL, whenever one ls ln a glven menLal sLaLe, LhaL menLal sLaLe ls
assoclaLed wlLh some braln sLaLe or oLher, buL on oLher occaslons, when one ls ln Lhe same
menLal sLaLe, one mlghL well be ln a dlfferenL braln sLaLe. AlLernaLlvely, Lhe Loken ldenLlLy
LheorlsL mlghL also clalm LhaL one and Lhe same braln sLaLe may, on separaLe occaslons,
correspond Lo dlfferenL menLal sLaLes. Slnce Lhe Loken ldenLlLy LheorlsLs agree LhaL a glven
menLal evenL ls ldenLlcal wlLh some physlcal sLaLe ot otbet, anoLher way of looklng aL Lhelr
poslLlon ls Lo say Lhey ldenLlfy Lhe very broad Lype - menLal evenLs - wlLh Lhe very broad Lype -
neurologlcal evenLs. 1hus, an ldenLlflcaLlon (or correlaLlon) for Lhem amounLs Lo noLhlng more
Lhan an ldenLlflcaLlon of a Loken of Lhe Lype menLal evenL wlLh some Loken of Lhe Lype physlcal
evenL, Lhls ls, afLer all, a mlnlmallsL form of physlcallsm.
2
1hls form of ldenLlLy Lheory has mosL
noLably been held by funcLlonallsLs such as lodor and uLnam.
3

luncLlonallsLs of Lhls sLrlpe argue agalnsL Lhe Lype-Lo-Lype, or one-Lo-one mapplng relaLlon
of Lype physlcallsm. lf Lhls mapplng relaLlon can be successfully refuLed, Lhey argue, Lhen Lype
physlcallsm musL be false and funcLlonallsm (Loken physlcallsm), whlch doesn'L suffer from Lhls
problem, wlns. Cne verslon of Lhls aLLack clalms LhaL dlfferenL physlcal klnds may manlfesL or
reallze Lhe same psychologlcal sLaLe, Lhls argumenL ls known as mulLlple reallzablllLy. 1he oLher
verslon clalms LhaL dlfferenL psychologlcal sLaLes may be manlfesLed by Lhe same physlcal Lype
(mulLlple funcLlonallLy), Lhough Lhls verslon ls less common. lodor and 8lock summarlze Lhe
flrsL klnd of argumenL as follows:

1he argumenL agalnsL [Lype] physlcallsm resLs upon Lhe emplrlcal llkellhood LhaL creaLures of
dlfferenL composlLlon and sLrucLure, whlch are ln no lnLeresLlng sense ln ldenLlcal physlcal sLaLes,
can neverLheless be ln ldenLlcal psychologlcal sLaLes, hence LhaL Lypes of psychologlcal sLaLes are
noL ln correspondence wlLh Lypes of physlcal sLaLes. (8lock & lodor 1980, pp. 237-238)

2
1hough lodor, perhaps ln an unguarded momenL, clalms LhaL 1oken physlcallsm does noL rule ouL Lhe
loglcal posslblllLy of machlnes and dlsembodled splrlLs havlng menLal properLles" (lodor 1981, p. 127),
Lhus obscurlng hls clalm Lo pbyslcollsm.
3
lor Lhe purposes of Lhls essay, l have LreaLed Loken physlcallsLs as funcLlonallsLs, slnce Lhey Lend Lo run
LogeLher as one flnds Lhem. 1echnlcally, of course, one doesn'L necesslLaLe Lhe oLher. luncLlonallsLs
requlre LhaL menLal sLaLes be caLegorlzed by funcLlon, or accordlng Lo speclfled lnpuL/ouLpuL relaLlons,
raLher Lhan by Lhelr physlcal correlaLes. ln prlnclple, Lhls ls conslsLenL wlLh a varleLy of LheoreLlcal
relaLlons beLween neurosclence and psychology. Slmllarly, noLhlng abouL belng a Loken ldenLlLy LheorlsL
requlres LhaL one assenL Lo a sLrlcLly funcLlonal caLegorlzaLlon, even Lhough Loken physlcallsm denles
LhaL Lhere ls a producLlve means of physlcal caLegorlzaLlon. MosL funcLlonallsLs, such as lodor and
uLnam, belleve LhaL a physlcal caLegorlzaLlon of menLal sLaLes ls elLher unobLalnable or, aL besL, non-
frulLful. 1ype physlcallsm, by conLrasL, ls compaLlble wlLh elLher reducLlonlsLlc or ellmlnaLlvlsLlc
maLerlallsm, whereas Loken physlcallsm ls noL, slnce lL denles Lhe correlaLlon of menLal Lypes wlLh
dlsLlncL neurologlcal Lypes.


6

1he problem, of course, ls LhaL Lhe LruLh of Lhe clalm becomes a maLLer of careful example
plcklng (see also Mundale, 1997, Mundale and 8echLel, 1999). l wlll elaboraLe upon Lhls
furLher, momenLarlly.
Conslder flrsL, Lhe Lermlnologlcal lndeflnlLeness LhaL ls leL ln wlLh Lhe very characLerlzaLlon
of Lhese Lwo dlfferenL forms of ldenLlLy Lheory. 1o Lake lodor as a represenLaLlve example, he
wrlLes:

1he ldenLlLy Lheory can be held elLher as a docLrlne abouL menLal parLlculars (!ohn's currenL paln
or 8lll's fear of anlmals) or as a docLrlne abouL menLal unlversals, or properLles (havlng a paln or
belng afrald of anlmals). 1he Lwo docLrlnes, called respecLlvely Loken physlcallsm and Lype
physlcallsm, dlffer ln sLrengLh and plauslblllLy. (lodor 1981, p. 127)

As menLloned ln Lhe beglnnlng of Lhls secLlon, language such as Lhls ls unhelpful unless
accompanled by some sense of whaL Lhe menLal parLlculars and unlversals ote. AparL from
such a conLexL, how are we Lo Lake, for example, 8lll's fear of anlmals"? lodor llsLs Lhls as an
example of a menLal parLlcular or Loken. lf Lhls ls [usL one of many of 8lll's fears (of clowns, of
helghLs, of elevaLors, eLc.), Lhen lL looks llke a parLlcular. ?eL, lf 8lll fears several anlmals, such
as llons and Llgers and bears, Lhen lsn'L 8lll's fear of anlmals beLLer regarded as a klnd? 1he
Laxonomlc dlfflculLles, of course, exLend beyond a glven case such as Lhls, Lo conslderaLlons of
Lhe enLlre psychologlcal and neurosclenLlflc domalns Lhemselves.
1o reLurn Lo Lhe maLLer of careful example plcklng, above, uLnam's famous ocLopus case
of mulLlple reallzaLlon, apparenLly, sLlll aLLracLs supporL. ln lLs orlglnal form, lL reads:

Lhe braln sLaLe LheorlsL [Lype-ldenLlLy LheorlsL] ls noL [usL saylng LhaL polo ls a braln sLaLe, he ls, of
course, concerned Lo malnLaln LhaL evety psychologlcal sLaLe ls a braln sLaLe. 1hus lf we can flnd
even one psychologlcal predlcaLe whlch can clearly be applled Lo boLh a mammal and an ocLopus
(say 'hungry'), buL whose physlcal-chemlcal 'correlaLe' ls dlfferenL ln Lhe Lwo cases, Lhe braln
sLaLe Lheory has collapsed. (uLnam 1967, p. 44).

As a maLLer of careful example plcklng, Lhls ls a prlme example. As 8echLel and l argued Len
years ago (8echLel and Mundale, 1999), Lhe apparenL success of Lhe mulLlple reallzablllLy
argumenL depends, ln parL, on chooslng examples so as Lo mlsmaLch graln slze", or levels of
analysls. sychologlcal sLaLes are chosen aL a coarse graln, or gross level of analysls (e.g.,
hunger"), and coupled wlLh braln sLaLes chosen aL a flne graln, or mlcro-level analysls.
1he lack of conLexL ln whlch such mlsmaLches occur glves llcense Lo any number of
arLlflclally concocLed examples of mulLlple reallzaLlon and/or mulLlple funcLlonallLy. lL ls useful
Lo see anoLher example of Lhls llne of LhoughL. lL would normally be unfalr Lo clLe someone's
vlews from 1974 abouL Lhe usefulness of neurosclenLlflc research Lo psychology, buL (1) Lhe
auLhor's vlews remaln conslsLenL on Lhls polnL, (2) Lhey remaln lnfluenLlal for many
phllosophers of mlnd and (3) my focus ls on Lhe language and underlylng assumpLlons of Lhe
debaLe, raLher Lhan on Lhls parLlcular concluslon, and Lhose also remaln parL of Lhe
conLemporary dlscusslon:
1here are deparLmenLs of psychoblology or psychology and braln sclence ln unlverslLles
LhroughouL Lhe world whose very exlsLence ls an lnsLlLuLlonallzed gamble LhaL such lawful
coexLenslons [beLween psychologlcal and neurologlcal klnds] can be found. ?eL, as has been
frequenLly remarked ln recenL dlscusslons of maLerlallsm, Lhere are good grounds for hedglng
Lhese beLs. 1here are no flrm daLa for any buL Lhe grossesL correspondence beLween Lypes of
psychologlcal sLaLes and Lypes of neurologlcal sLaLes, and lL ls enLlrely posslble LhaL Lhe
nervous sysLem of hlgher organlsms characLerlsLlcally achleves a glven psychologlcal end by a

7

wlde varleLy of neurologlcal means. lL ls also posslble LhaL glven neurologlcal sLrucLures
subserve many dlfferenL psychologlcal funcLlons aL dlfferenL Llmes, dependlng upon Lhe
characLer of Lhe acLlvlLles ln whlch Lhe organlsm ls engaged. ln elLher evenL, Lhe aLLempL Lo
palr neurologlcal sLrucLures wlLh psychologlcal funcLlons could expecL only llmlLed success.
(lodor, 1974, p.123)
1hough lodor's and uLnam's examples have been rehashed numerous Llmes ln Lhe
phllosophlcal llLeraLure, references Lo psychologlcal Lypes, Lokens, klnds, predlcaLes,
parLlculars (Lhe Lermlnology varles conslderably) remaln a blank check for nearly any clalm one
would wlsh Lo make abouL Lhe relaLlon beLween psychology and neurosclence. lorLunaLely,
desplLe Lhe ln[uncLlon of mulLlple reallzablllLy agalnsL any such usefulness, neurosclenLlflc
research ls forglng ahead wlLh correlaLlons beLween neural acLlvaLlons and psychologlcal
funcLlon, fleshlng ouL Lhe nomologlcal brldges beLween Lhe Lwo dlsclpllnes.
ln addlLlon Lo Lhe problems generaLed by Lhe nascenL sLaLe of psychologlcal and
neurosclenLlflc Laxonomy, Lhere are relaLed problems concernlng Lhe ldenLlLy condlLlons of
menLal sLaLes and Lhe manner of Lhelr lndlvlduaLlon. As Lhe foregolng dlscusslon remlnds us,
phllosophers commonly refer Lo Lhe condlLlon of belng ln Lhe same menLal sLaLe or Lhe same
braln sLaLe, elLher from one occaslon Lo Lhe nexL ln Lhe same belng, or beLween Lwo dlfferenL
belngs. As dlscussed above, Lhe sLrengLh of varlous ldenLlLy clalms, for example, Lurns on such
conslderaLlons as wheLher one and Lhe same braln sLaLe could subserve more Lhan one
psychologlcal sLaLe, or wheLher one and Lhe same menLal sLaLe could be subserved by dlfferenL
braln sLaLes. As wlLh Lhe Lhe noLlon of Lypes, dlscusslon abouL belng ln Lhe same sLaLe, wheLher
menLal or physlcal, assumes LhaL we can supply some accounL of Lhe ldenLlLy condlLlons for
menLal evenLs and braln evenLs, Lhough Lhls ls noL Lhe case. Supposedly, Lhe famous hungry
ocLopus and l can be ln Lhe same menLal sLaLe (or, as lL was orlglnally puL, share Lhe same
psychologlcal predlcaLe of hungry") whlle belng ln dlfferenL physlco-chemlcal condlLlons aL
Lhe same Llme. Cf course, uLnam does noL glve us any speclflc crlLerla for whaL would counL
as Lhe same (or same eoooqb) pbyslcol sLaLe. Pe doesn'L, and nelLher does anyone else Lo my
knowledge. lL ls as lf uLnam were assumlng LhaL neurosclenLlflc Laxonomy was compleLe, wlLh
all lLs dlfferenL klnds and lnsLances already sorLed ouL for us. ?eL we know dlfferenLly.
A relaLed problem, of Lhe lndlvlduaLlon of sLaLes, also floaLs unLeLhered Lo any underlylng
explanaLlon. Where does Lhe menLal sLaLe of hungry acLually begln? ln Lhe lnLervenlng hours
afLer one meal, do we gradually come Lo be ln Lhe slngle sLaLe of hungry LhaL lasLs unLll our
nexL meal, or do we pass Lhrough several dlsLlncL menLal sLaLes, ranglng from mlldly hungry Lo
famlshed?
1here ls noLhlng predeLermlned abouL Lhe level of absLracLlon aL whlch Lhe Lype physlcallsL
ls requlred Lo work, ln order Lo be a Lype physlcallsL". lL ls reasonable Lo conclude LhaL Lhe
levels of Lhe correlaLlons and Lhe correlaLlons Lhemselves are emplrlcal maLLers, besL lefL Lo
psychology and neurosclence. Also, as l have emphaslzed LhroughouL Lhls secLlon, tbete ls oo o
ptlotl Jetetmlootloo of wblcb psycboloqlcol ooJ oeotoloqlcol eotltles ote to cooot os types
(oolvetsols), oot of tbe tokeos wblcb ote to be sobsomeJ ooJet tbem. Slnce Lhe success of Lhe
general argumenL agalnsL Lype physlcallsm depends on how one consLrues Lypes and Lokens, lL
ls obvlous LhaL one musL glve some prellmlnary Laxonomlc basls for how Lo consLrue Lhem.
uependlng on one's oLher LheoreLlcal commlLmenLs as well as Lhe sLaLe of Lhe arL, one mlghL
arrlve aL several dlfferenL Laxonomles, noLhlng necesslLaLes LhaL Lhere be [usL one (Mundale,
1997).
8raln mapplng and lLs assoclaLed developmenLs ln neurosclenLlflc Laxonomy ls an acLlvely
evolvlng pro[ecL. Among Lhe posslble grounds for dlvlslon are: evoluLlonary/phylogeneLlc
Lypologles, developmenLal ones, cllnlcal, psychologlcal, cognlLlve, physlologlcal, sensory, moLor
and oLhers. 1here ls also a range of levels aL whlch one mlghL classlfy, ranglng from Lhe level of


8

Lhe lndlvldual neuron (or even lower, as wlLh neuroLransmlLLers, for example), Lo ganglla,
lamlna, sysLems, and cenLral nervous sysLem. 1here are also mulLlple meLhods and
Lechnologles for lndlvlduaLlng braln areas. ln some cases, Lhese dlfferenL sysLems may fall Lo
neaLly colnclde wlLh each oLher. ln shorL, aL leasL aL Lhls sLage, Lhere ls no deflnlLlve Laxonomy
of neurologlcal Lypes" and Lokens".
ln psychology, Laxonomy appears Lo be even messler. We lack boLh verLlcal classlflcaLlon
(Lhe caLegorles under whlch psychologlcal sLaLes are organlzed) as well as horlzonLal
classlflcaLlon (an accounL of Lhe members of a glven psychologlcal caLegory). Clearly, lf a Lype-
Lype correlaLlon falls, Lhe problem may noL be Lype physlcallsm aL all, buL raLher wlLh Lhe
Lypologlcal sysLem(s) aL elLher end. lL ls easy Lo flnd psychologlcal Lypes whlch Jo map neaLly
onLo a Lhelr neurosclenLlflc correlaLes, and lL ls also easy Lo flnd cases of Lhose LhaL don'L. ln
sum: as lL has hlsLorlcally been sLaLed, Lhe case of Lhe funcLlonallsLs agalnsL Lhe Lype
physlcallsLs ls enLlrely founded upon plcklng Lhe rlghL examples. ln order Lo have a more
prlnclpled dlscusslon, lL ls necessary Lo have an aL leasL prellmlnary Laxonomy of Lhe menLal
and Lhe neurologlcal. 1he argumenL could Lhen proceed Lo lssues such as: Whose Laxonomy ls
more successful (predlcLlve, LheoreLlcally fecund, robusLly conflrmed, eLc.)?, and whose clalms
abouL Lhe level of ldenLlflcaLlon beLween Lhe menLal and neurologlcal domalns are beLLer,
glven Lhe human behavlor, cognlLlve processes, eLc., we are Lrylng Lo explaln? lf all we can do
now ls place our beLs, Lhen based on early showlngs, l'm puLLlng my money on Lhe
neurosclenLlsLs.

8I8LICGkAn

Alloy, L. 8., and Lyn, ?. A. (1979). !udgmenL of ConLlngency ln uepressed and
nondepressed SLudenLs: Sadder buL Wlser? Iootool of xpetlmeotol lsycboloqy.
Ceoetol 108: 441-83.
Alloy, L. 8. (1988). uepresslve 8eallsm: lour 1heoreLlcal erspecLlves ln Lauren 8. Alloy
(ed.). coqoltlve ltocesses lo ueptessloo,new ?ork: Cullford, 223-63.
8echLel, W. and Mundale, !.(1999). MulLlple reallzablllLy revlslLed: llnklng cognlLlve and
neural sLaLes, lbllosopby of 5cleoce, 66, 173-207.
8lock, n. and lodor !. A. (1980). WhaL sychologlcal SLaLes Are noL, ln n. 8lock (ed.)
keoJloqs lo tbe lbllosopby of lsycboloqy, vol. 1., Cambrldge: Parvard unlverslLy
ress, pp. 237-230.
Chernlak, C. (1990). Mlolmol kotlooollty, Cambrldge: Ml1 ress (8radford 8ooks).
llanagan, C. (1991). votletles of Motol letsooollty. tblcs ooJ lsycboloqlcol keollsm,
Cambrldge: Parvard unlverslLy ress.
lodor, !. A. (1974). Speclal Sclences, or: ulsunlLy of Sclence as a Worklng PypoLhesls,
5yotbese, 28, 97-113. 8eprlnLed ln n. 8lock (ed.), 1980, keoJloqs lo lbllosopby of
lsycboloqy, vol. 1, Parvard unlverslLy ress, Cambrldge, MA, pp. 120-133 (page
numbers of ln-LexL references are Lo reprlnL edlLlon).
lodor, !. A. (1981). 1he Mlnd-8ody roblem, 5cleotlflc Ametlcoo 244, 124-132.
CarreLL, 8. ( 1994). 1he roblem of uespalr ln lbllosopblcol lsycbopotboloqy Craham
Ceorge and C., Lynn SLephens (eds.), Cambrldge, Mass.: Ml1 ress/8radford, 73-89.

9

Craham, C. (1990). Melanchollc LplsLemology, 5yotbese, 82, 399-422.
klnney, A. (2000). oslLlve llluslons of Well-8elng and lrraLlonallLy: lmpllcaLlons for 8aLlonal-
LmoLlve 8ehavlor 1herapy, Iootool of cootempototy lsycbotbetopy 30, 4, 401-13.
klrby, C. 8. and CoodpasLer, !. 8. (2006). 1blokloq, upper Saddle 8lver, n!, renLlce Pall.
Mundale, !. (1997). now Jo yoo koow o 8tolo Ateo wbeo yoo 5ee Ooe?. A lbllosopblcol
Apptoocb to tbe ltoblem of Mopploq tbe 8tolo ooJ lts lmpllcotloos fot tbe lbllosopby
of MloJ ooJ coqoltlve 5cleoce. SL. Louls, MC: WashlngLon unlverslLy ress.
(ulsserLaLlon).
Mundale, !.(2004). 1haL Way Madness Lles: AL 1he lnLersecLlon Cf
hllosophy And Cllnlcal sychology, Metopbllosopby 33, 3, 661-674.
uLnam, P. (1967). sychologlcal redlcaLes, ln W. P. CaplLan and u. u. Merrlll (eds.), Att,
MloJ, ooJ kellqloo, lLLsburgh, unlverslLy of lLLsburgh ress, 37-48. 8eprlnLed as
1he naLure of MenLal SLaLes, ln n. 8lock (ed.) keoJloqs lo tbe lbllosopby of
lsycboloqy, vol. 1, Cambrldge: Parvard unlverslLy ress, 1980, pp. 223-231 (page
numbers of ln-LexL references are Lo reprlnL edlLlon).
8escher, n. (2001). lbllosopblcol keosooloq. A 5toJy lo tbe MetboJoloqy of lbllosopblzloq.
MolJeo, Mass: 8lackwell.
Slmon, P. A. (1937). MoJels of moo. 5oclol ooJ totloool, new ?ork, Wlley.
Slmon, P. A. (1978). 8aLlonallLy as a rocess and roducL of 1houghL, Ametlcoo cooomlc
kevlew, 68, 1-16.
1aylor, S. L. and !onaLhan, u. 8rown (1988). llluslon and Well 8elng: A Soclal sychologlcal
erspecLlve on MenLal PealLh, lsycboloqlcol 8olletlo , 103: 193-210.


11

Scientific Psycbology: Sbould we Bury it or Praise it?

nowotJ CotJoet
*

hgassL[pz.harvard.edu

A8S1kAC1

ln 120 years slnce Wllllam !ames publlshed hls ltloclples of lsycboloqy, sclenLlflc psychology has made
greaL sLrldes. ?eL !ames' concerns abouL Lhe lack of coherence of psychology have conLlnued unLll Lhls
day. An analysls of Lhe currenL dlsclpllnary Lerraln suggesLs LhaL large parLs of conLemporary psychology
are belng absorbed by Lhe newly emerglng flelds of cognlLlve sclence and neurosclence. Soclal
psychology may become parL of a broader fleld of culLural sLudles, whlle oLher subflelds LhaL have
prlmarlly an applled sLaLus. WhaL wlll remaln cenLral Lo sclenLlflc psychology ls a concern wlLh Lhose
lssues LhaL were plvoLal for Wllllam !ames - self, wlll, consclousness, and personallLy. 1hls endurlng
core" of psychology may beneflL from deeper and more exLended lnLeracLlons wlLh llLerary and oLher
arLlsLlc sLudles.

ln 1987, l was lnvlLed Lo dellver an address Lo Lhe Amerlcan sychologlcal AssoclaLlon. l
declded Lo use Lhls occaslon Lo alr some of Lhe mlsglvlngs LhaL l had abouL Lhe sLaLus of
psychology as a coherenL sclenLlflc dlsclpllne. noL surprlslngly, Lhe Lalk recelved lLs share of
crlLlclsm, and when l prepared a wrlLLen verslon of Lhe Lalk, lL was re[ecLed by a few
malnsLream psychologlcal [ournals. lorLunaLely, a recenLly launched publlcaLlon, New lJeos lo
lsycboloqy, agreed Lo publlsh Lhe crlLlque ln full and lL generaLed a modesL amounL of
dlscusslon ln Lhe ensulng years. 1he lnvlLaLlon Lo conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe presenL volume has glven
me Lhe opporLunlLy Lo revlslL Lhe argumenL puL forLh over Lwo decades ago.

WILLIAM IAMLS' ASIkA1ICNS AND CCNCLkNS

Cne and a quarLer cenLury ago, Lhe esLeemed phllosopher-Lurned-psychologlsL Wllllam !ames
slgned a conLracL Lo wrlLe Lhe flrsL Amerlcan LexLbook ln psychology. As he wroLe Lo hls frlend
1homas W. Ward, l have blocked ouL some readlng ln physlology and psychology. lL seems Lo
me LhaL perhaps Lhe Llme has come for psychology Lo begln Lo be a sclence" (quoLed ln
lelnsLeln, 1984, p. 313). As ls well known, a Lask slaLed Lo be compleLed ln Lwo years dragged
on for a dozen years, buL ln Lhe end !ames had expounded Lhe sub[ecL ln a way whlch has
seldom lf ever been equaled. CerLalnly lL ls dlfflculL Lo Lhlnk of any oLher LexLbook whlch ls read
noL only for pleasure buL also for proflL well over a cenLury afLer lLs lnlLlal publlcaLlon.

ln wrlLlng hls unsurpassed ltloclples of lsycboloqy (1890), !ames soughL Lo share hls vlslon of
psychology and lLs relaLlon Lo physlology, on Lhe one hand, and Lo phllosophy, on Lhe oLher. Pe

1hls paper was presenLed lnlLlally as an lnvlLed address Lo ulvlslon 1 of Lhe Amerlcan sychologlcal
AssoclaLlon upon Lhe auLhor's recelpL of Lhe Wllllam !ames Award. l wlsh Lo dedlcaLe Lhls paper Lo Lhe
memory of Penry A. Murray, wlLh whom l was prlvlleged Lo dlscuss lLs conLenLs shorLly before hls deaLh
ln !une 1988.
Crlglnally publlshed ln: New lJeos lo lsycboloqy. 1992 vol.10, no.2, pp. 179-190
*
Parvard CraduaLe School of LducaLlon, 14 Applan Way, Larsen Pall, 2nd ll Cambrldge, MA 02138 -
617.496.4929


12

was well aware LhaL Lhese flelds of knowledge dld noL yeL fully cohere wlLh one anoLher, buL
he LhoughL LhaL lL would soon be posslble Lo brldge Lhe reglon lylng beLween Lhe physlcal
changes ln Lhe nerves and Lhe appearance of consclousness (ln Lhe shape of sense
percepLlons) (lelnsLeln, 1984, p. 313). !ames composed memorable chapLers on whaL are
now Lhe famlllar sLaples of any psychology LexL: Lhe senses, emoLlons, aLLenLlon, memory,
reasonlng, and percepLlon. ?eL lL ls probably Lhe cenLral chapLers - on Lhe SLream of
Consclousness and on Lhe Self - LhaL consLlLuLe hls mosL dlsLlncLlve conLrlbuLlons.

!ames' opus lmmedlaLely drew pralse among psychologlsLs as well as scholars ln relaLed flelds.
ln llghL of Lhe subsequenL fragmenLed hlsLory of psychology, Lhe commenLs by Lwo colleagues
sLrlke me as parLlcularly apL. llrsL Lhere ls !ames' flrsL sLudenL and close assoclaLe ln
psychology, C. SLanley Pall:

1he auLhor (!ames) mlghL be descrlbed as an lmpresslonlsL ln psychology. Pls porLfollo conLalns
skeLches old and new, eLhlcal, llLerary, sclenLlflc, and meLaphyslcal, some exqulslLe and charmlng
ln deLall and even color, oLhers rough charcoal ouLllnes, buL all LogeLher sLlmulaLlng and
suggesLlve, and showlng a greaL lndusLry and greaL versaLlllLy. 1hls ls Lhrough and Lhrough o
teoJooce book. lLs very lnconslsLencles and lncoherences noL only reflecL buL greaLly magnlfy all
Lhe unresL, dlsLracLlon, and confllcLs of Lhe presenL hour. (quoLed ln knlghL, 1934, p. 43)

1hen hls long-Lerm colleague ln phllosophy, Ceorge SanLayana commenLed:

lL would be pedanLry Lo regreL Lhe loss of loglcal unlLy ln a book so rlch and llvlng, ln whlch a
generous naLure breaks ouL aL every polnL, and Lhe perennlal problems of Lhe human mlnd are
dlscussed so modesLly, so solldly, wlLh such a deep and paLheLlc slncerlLy. (quoLed ln !ames,
1963/1892, p. xl)

Slnce Lhe lnlLlal appearance of Lhe ltloclples, Lens of Lhousands of works ln psychology have
been publlshed, psychology as a dlsclpllne-academlc and pracLlcal-has achleved remarkable
success. 1he flagshlp publlcaLlon lsycboloqlcol 5cleoce recelved 1800 submlsslons ln 2007. ?eL,
lL ls sLlll noL clear Lo many observers LhaL Lhe promlse lmplled by a Lwo-volume LexL ln a new
fleld called psychology has acLually come Lo frulLlon. Clearly advances have been made ln
many, lf noL mosL, of Lhe Loplcs LreaLed by !ames and hls lmmedlaLe successors. 8uL have
Lhese advances added up Lo a unlfled dlsclpllne whose componenLs lnLerrelaLe wlLh one
anoLher? Are Lhey worLhy Lo be called a sclence ln Lhe same sense LhaL blology, chemlsLry, and
physlcs - or, for LhaL maLLer, economlcs or demography - merlL LhaL label? Are Lhere serlous
aLLempLs Lo Lle LogeLher Lhe mlcro" and macro" levels as are currenLly underway ln Lhe
blologlcal and Lhe physlcal sclences?

ln LreaLlng Lhe posslblllLy of psychology as a unlfled sclence, l am dlscusslng a Loplc LhaL
Wllllam !ames would have found of lnLeresL. Pe hlmself had ofLen volced mlsglvlngs abouL Lhe
confused and lmperfecL sLaLe" (erry, 1933, vol. l, p. 40) and Lhe anLe-sclenLlflc condlLlon" of
psychology (Allen, 1967, p. 313). ln my vlew, !ames' concerns have proved all Loo [usLlfled.
sychology has oot added up Lo an lnLegraLed sclence, and lL ls unllkely ever Lo achleve LhaL
sLaLus. lL no longer makes sense Lo dlscuss sclenLlflc psychology as a Lenable long-Lerm goal.
WhaL does make sense ls Lo recognlze lmporLanL lnslghLs LhaL have been achleved by
psychologlsLs, Lo ldenLlfy Lhe conLrlbuLlons whlch conLemporary psychology can make Lo
dlsclpllnes whlch may some day achleve a flrmer sclenLlflc sLaLus, and flnally Lo deLermlne
Bowaiu uaiunei - Scientific Psychology

13

wheLher aL leasL parLs of psychology mlghL survlve as parLlclpanLs ln a scholarly conversaLlon
LhaL obLalns across ma[or dlsclpllnes.

1nL DkLAM, 1nL DCU81S, AND 1nL C1ICNS

ln 1780 lmmanuel kanL developed argumenLs whlch purporLed Lo show LhaL a sclenLlflc
psychology was noL posslble. 1he redoubLable phllosopher ldenLlfled Lhree apparenLly
lnsuperable obsLacles: Lhe mlnd ls lnherenLly affecLed whlle sLudylng lLself, Lhere ls noLhlng of
spaLlal exLenL whlch can be sLudled, and Lhere ls no maLhemaLlcal basls on whlch a sclence can
be consLrucLed. kanL concluded ln maglsLerlal Lerms:

sychology can, Lherefore, never become anyLhlng more Lhan a hlsLorlcal (and, as such, as much
as posslble) sysLemaLlc naLural docLrlne of Lhe lnLernal sense, l.e., a naLural descrlpLlon of Lhe
soul, buL noL a sclence of Lhe soul, nor even a psychologlcal experlmenLal docLrlne. (quoLed ln
WaLson, 1979, p. 88)

osLulaLlng Lhe lmposslblllLy of a fleld ls a rlsky Lhlng Lo do. ln Lhe followlng cenLury,
such formldable sclenLlsLs as Permann von PelmholLz, CusLav lechner, !ohannes Mueller, and
Wllhelm WundL devoLed Lhelr conslderable powers Lo Lhe refuLaLlon of kanL's dlcLum, Lhus
laylng Lhe groundwork for !ames' work and for Lhe poLenLlal emergence of a sclence of
psychology.

ln Lhe second cenLury afLer kanL's dlsmal eplLaph, psychology conquered much of Lhe
academlc world. WhaL followed mlghL be called, ln Lhe argoL of Chlnese dynasLles, Lhe erlod
of Lhe Warrlng Schools: we had funcLlonallsm, behavlorlsm, sLrucLurallsm, CesLalL sychology,
learnlng Lheory, psychoanalysls, and a pack of oLher lsms", we hosLed Lhe movemenLs
surroundlng magneLlc sclenLlsLs llke !ames !. Clbson, Clark Pull, !ean lageL, and 8. l. Sklnner,
and we experlenced a number of worldly successes, such as Lhe lnLelllgence LesL, varlous
lndlces of psychopaLhology recorded ln successlve edlLlons of Lhe uSM manual, and Lhe
lnLegraLed commerclal sphere LhaL spans persuaslon, adverLlslng, and markeLlng. sychology
has become esLabllshed as a poLenL socleLal force, wlLh lLs deparLmenLs, [ournals, lnsLlLuLlons,
and huge organlzaLlons. WlLhln Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lhe mosL promlnenL among Lhem ls Lhe
130,000 member Amerlcan sychologlcal AssoclaLlon (AA), buL slnce 1988 Lhere ls a rlval
group, now called Lhe AssoclaLlon for sychologlcal SocleLy (AS), havlng 20,000 members,
whlch sLyles lL as a sclenLlflc alLernaLlve Lo Lhe more ecumenlcal and more cllnlcally orlenLed
AA.

AL leasL on Lhe level of llp servlce, Lhe dream of a unlfled psychology conLlnues. lL appears aL
Lhe beglnnlng and end of LexLbooks, Lhough much less frequenLly ln Lhe lnLervenlng chapLers.
lL surfaces as well ln unlverslLy caLalogues and ln Lhe bollerplaLe sLaLemenLs of granLlng
agencles. And occaslonally, a scholar - more ofLen an ouLslder or lndependenL researcher"
Lhan a pracLlLloner of normal sclence" - acLually proposes a formula or cenLral dogma" for
Lhe fleld-one LhaL purporLs Lo llnk all subflelds and Lo blnd Lhe mlcro" wlLh Lhe macro"
(Cook, 1986). 8uL for Lhe mosL parL, psychologlsLs (llke oLher academlcs) go abouL Lhelr dally
research and wrlLlng wlLhouL agonlzlng abouL Lhe acLual or poLenLlal coherence of Lhelr fleld.


14

Cccaslonally, as exempllfled by Lhls volume, Lhere has been expllclL concern wlLh Lhe
fragmenLaLlon of Lhe dlsclpllne. lssues of Lhe Ametlcoo lsycboloqlst (8lckman & CoodsLeln,
1987) and New lJeos lo lsycboloqy (8aer, 1987, 8akan, 1987, kranLz, 1987, 8oyce, 1987,
1oulmln, 1987) have been devoLed largely Lo Lhls Loplc. 1he debaLe has been framed ln Lerms
of cenLrlfugal" as opposed Lo cenLrlpeLal" forces ln Lhe fleld, abouL alLernaLlons beLween
coheslon" and spllnLerlng" from one decade or from one generaLlon Lo anoLher, abouL
sysLem-bulldlng as opposed Lo Lendlng one's own llLLle seLLlemenL. ConLroversy has cenLered
on wheLher physlcs, blology, or some oLher dlsclpllne should serve as a model for psychology,
and wheLher we should deplore or revel ln our plurallsm. no less an auLhorlLy Lhan Slgmund
koch (1981) devoLed much of hls career Lo Lhls nexus of lssues and over Lhe years assumed an
lncreaslngly pesslmlsLlc noLe.

1hese and oLher volces call lnLo grave doubL Lhe posslblllLy-ln Lheory or ln pracLlce-of a
unlfled sclenLlflc psychology. 1he evldence of Lhe pasL cenLury glves llLLle consolaLlon Lo Lhose
who would llke Lhe LexLbook vlslon Lo become a reallLy. ln whaL follows l focus on posslble
reacLlons Lo Lhls sLaLe of affalrs and Lhen propose one plauslble Lopography for Lhe comlng
decades.

ln as much as psychology glves llLLle slgn of coherlng, we are faced wlLh Lhe followlng opLlons:

(1) We can slmply close our mlnds Lo Lhe posslblllLy of dlsclpllnary exLlncLlon and
conLlnue whaL we have been dolng. no Super-body ls llkely Lo announce
sychology as a fraud, and so we can malnLaln Lhe sLaLus quo.

(2) lollowlng a well-known suggesLlon made wlLh reference Lo Lhe vleLnam War by Lhe
laLe SenaLor Alken of vermonL, we can slmply Jeclote LhaL psychology ls a success
- as lL has been, accordlng Lo many crlLerla - and swallow any llngerlng doubLs
whlch we mlghL enLerLaln.

(3) We can hope LhaL we are slmply passlng Lhrough a Lemporary phase of
fragmenLaLlon and LhaL some enLerprlslng researcher, or some brllllanL LheorlsL,
wlll dlscover Lhe golden Lhread" LhaL wlll unlfy our fleld.

(4) We can clalm LhaL Lhere has been an un[usLlfled romanLlclzaLlon of oLher
dlsclpllnes. AfLer all, Lhere are many numbers of subflelds of blology: Lhe
geneLlclsLs or molecular blologlsLs lnhablL qulLe dlfferenL worlds from Lhe
evoluLlonlsLs, LaxonomlsLs, or paleonLologlsLs. AL one Llme, my unlverslLy had nlne
dlfferenL deparLmenLs of blology: and economlcs ls aL leasL as Lop-heavy as
psychology wlLh schools LhaL sLruggle agalnsL one anoLher.

1here are cerLalnly oLher opLlons, buL l favor a flfLh. LeL us recognlze LhaL flelds of sclence
evolve, ofLen ln unsuspecLed and unexpecLed ways. nearly every fleld of knowledge beglns as
phllosophy, and psychology conLlnues Lo foreground lLs phllosophlcal orlglns more falLhfully
Lhan any oLher dlsclpllne. 1here was a perlod Lwo cenLurles ago when psychology seemed
lmposslble, a seL of dlscoverles ln Lhe nlneLeenLh cenLury whlch esLabllshed a number of
endurlng psychologlcal paradlgms and concepLs, a complex of soclal and hlsLorlcal facLors ln
Lhe LwenLleLh cenLury whlch earned psychology a place ln vlrLually every academlc
envlronmenL.

13

SLlll, whlle psychology was developlng, so were oLher flelds of knowledge. lL ls agalnsL Lhe
background of oLher evolvlng dlsclpllnes LhaL psychology musL be undersLood and locaLed. ln
Lhe lasL cenLury, psychophyslcs - once Lhe core of psychology - was slowly asslmllaLed lnLo
englneerlng and compuLer sclence, and more recenLly, Lhe sLudy of anlmal behavlor wlLhln
psychology has been complemenLed by work from an eLhologlcal perspecLlve. CerLaln
approaches-such as slmulaLlng LhoughL and behavlor vla neural neLs (8umelharL and
McClelland 1986) - and cerLaln LhemaLlc emphases - such as Lhose of poslLlve psychology -
have recenLly come Lo Lhe fore (Sellgman 2004). lL ls my conLenLlon LhaL whaL we presenLly call
psychology has already begun Lo be absorbed by a number of more fundamenLal dlsclpllnes,
some more sclenLlflc (ln Lhe classlcal sense), some less so. 1he opLlon l favor ls Lo dlscern
LradlLlonal psychology's place(s) wlLhln Lhls emerglng Lopography.

1nL LMLkGING DISCILINAk 1CCGkAn

8oughly parallellng breakLhroughs ln physlcs ln Lhe decades followlng Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe lasL
cenLury, and Lhe parallel advances ln molecular blology aL mld-cenLury, Lhe years aL Lhe close
of Lhe 20Lh cenLury can be well descrlbed as Lhe comlng-of-age of braln- or neurosclence. AL
every level of Lhe nervous sysLem, from Lhe lndlvldual synapse Lo Lhe blood-flow paLLerns
Lhrough Lhe enLlre corLex, our knowledge has accumulaLed aL a phenomenal raLe. 1hose areas
of psychology whlch were LradlLlonally called physlologlcal psychology and comparaLlve
psychology, as well as large porLlons of whaL are called sensaLlon and percepLlon, are rapldly
becomlng Lhe concerns of neurosclenLlsLs. lndeed Lhe flrsL nlne chapLers of !ames 'ltloclples (l
refer hereafLer Lo Lhe shorLer verslon of LhaL LexL) would all flL comforLably lnLo a baslc
neurosclence course.

l should sLress LhaL l am noL endorslng a reducLlonlsL poslLlon. 1he phenomena of sensaLlon,
percepLlon, or oLher psychologlcal sLaLes wlll never be reduclble Lo an accounL ln Lerms of
braln sLaLes." As ls well lndlcaLed ln Lhe ploneerlng work of neurophyslologlsLs llke uavld Pubel
and 1orsLen Wlesel (Pubel, 1979), Lhe caLegorles and Lhe level of psychologlcal analysls wlll
conLlnue Lo be essenLlal noL only ln ordlnary dlscourse buL also ln Lhe work of pracLlclng
neurosclenLlsLs. Powever, ln my vlew, psychologlcally-Lralned lndlvlduals wlll lncreaslngly Lake
Lhelr places as members of research Leams LhaL are problng Lhe sLrucLure and funcLlonlng of
Lhe nervous sysLem. 1he percepLual psychologlsL or psychophyslclsL worklng ln lsolaLlon ls
gradually becomlng an anachronlsm.

lf neurosclence wlll absorb much from Lhe lower reglons" of psychology, an analogous klnd of
rald wlll be made by cognlLlve sclence - perhaps from Lhe Lop", perhaps more laLerally
(Cardner, 1983). 1hls emerglng branch of sclence ls a self-sLyled lnLerdlsclpllnary fleld whlch,
llke LradlLlonal psychology, seeks Lo uncover Lhe baslc processes of LhoughL, however,
adopLlng Lhe currenL vogue, cognlLlve sclenLlsLs regard Lhe compuLer as Lhe mosL sulLable
model for all forms of cognlLlon.
Whlle several dlsclpllnes are candldaLes for membershlp ln an ulLlmaLe cognlLlve sclence,
unLll Lhls polnL researchers ln psychology and of arLlflclal lnLelllgence have been parLlcularly
cenLral ln cognlLlve-sclenLlflc endeavors. Many of Lhe concepLs and paradlgms ln cognlLlve
sclence come from psychology, whlle Lhe meLhods of research and oLher key concepLs sLem
from compuLer sclence, especlally arLlflclal lnLelllgence. Among conLemporary areas of
psychology, Lhe flelds of aLLenLlon, memory, reasonlng, problem-solvlng, and Lhe hlgher
forms" of percepLlon and psychophyslcs are mosL closely afflllaLed wlLh cognlLlve sclence. arLs


16

of developmenLal, educaLlonal, and neuropsychology wlll flL comforLably under Lhe cognlLlvlsL
label as well. MosL of Lhe remalnlng chapLers ln !ames' brlefer LexL, beglnnlng wlLh ChapLer 10
on PablL and concludlng wlLh ChapLer 22 on 8easonlng, would also flnd a proper place ln a LexL
of cognlLlve sclence.

ln Lhe case of cognlLlve sclence, Lhere ls llLLle danger of a reducLlonlsm LhaL wlll exclude
psychologlcal analyses. (When neurosclence ls lncluded wlLhln cognlLlve sclence, lL Lyplcally
assumes a non-reducLlonlsL gulse ln LhaL company.) A greaLer rlsk ls LhaL, ln comlng up wlLh a
core compuLaLlonal Lheory, researchers may shorL change Lhose aspecLs of reasonlng or
problem-solvlng LhaL are characLerlsLlc of humans raLher Lhan mechanlcal ob[ecLs (ureyfus,
1972). Also undeLermlned aL presenL ls Lhe lssue of wheLher Lhe varlous subflelds of cognlLlve
sclence - for example, percepLlon, aLLenLlon, memory, reasonlng - wlll prove any less
unwleldy when LhoughL of ln compuLaLlonal Lerms Lhan Lhey were when concepLuallzed ln
LradlLlonal psychologlcal frames. 1he dlspuLe abouL Lhe approprlaLeness of parallel-dlsLrlbuLed-
processlng models, as agalnsL von neumann symbollc models, lndlcaLes LhaL cognlLlve sclence
may lnherlL psychology's woes (lnker & rlnce, 1988).

When l wroLe my orlglnal paper, neurosclence and cognlLlve sclence sLood as Lhe Lwo
behemoLhs, LhreaLenlng Lo absorb many seLLlemenLs of sclence, lncludlng Lhe malnsLream of
research ln psychology. ln Lhe lasL quarLer cenLury, Lhe Lwo subflelds have largely merged wlLh
one anoLher. nearly all cognlLlve sclenLlsLs Lhlnk now ln Lerms of braln modellng and many of
Lhem acLually use Lhe Lools of neuro-lmaglng. And neurosclenLlsLs, who once spurned cognlLlve
Lerms and labels, now regularly lmmerse Lhemselves ln cognlLlve models. CLher flelds of
psychology, such as soclal psychology, developmenLal psychology, or cllnlcal psychology are
less aL rlsk" of lmmedlaLe absorpLlon, posslbly because Lhey lack easlly LransporLable research
paradlgms, Lhey can conLlnue Lo evolve wlLh less LhreaL of a Lakeover by an lnLerdlsclpllnary
corporaLe ralder."

My remarks abouL Lhese laLLer flelds are even more speculaLlve, buL l wlll venLure a few words
abouL Lhelr posslble faLes. l see soclal psychology as conLlnulng Lo produce sLrlklng
demonsLraLlons abouL human soclal behavlor - Lhe klnds of flndlngs assoclaLed ln Lhe pasL
wlLh researchers llke Solomon Asch, Leon lesLlnger, lrlLz Pelder, SLanley Mllgram, and
Muzafer Sherlf - and more recenLly, wlLh work llke LhaL of 8lchard nlsbeL, Lllen Langer, and
AnLhony Creenwald. As lmpresslonlsLlc and suggesLlve as Lhese flndlngs can be, l do noL see
Lhem addlng up cumulaLlvely lnLo a coheslve sclence. lndeed, mosL are more llkely Lo flnd Lhelr
way lnLo a general culLural dlsclpllne - lncludlng soclology, anLhropology, and soclal
psychology - Lhan Lo be absorbed lnLo more classlcal or asplrlng sclences llke neurosclence or
cognlLlve sclence. SLlll, l noLe Lhe rowlng lnfluence of a fleld someLlmes dubbed soclal cognlLlve
neurosclence (uamaslo 2000, Creene 2003).

A number of currenL flelds or subflelds should conLlnue Lo evolve wlLhouL serlous dlverslon. l
have ln mlnd here subflelds llke educaLlonal psychology, lndusLrlal psychology, and cllnlcal
psychology. lor Lhe mosL parL Lhese areas do noL asplre Lo Lhe sLaLus of pure sclences."
8aLher, Lhey are applled flelds, whlch use meLhods and flndlngs from baslc research ln Lhe
servlce of problems LhaL arlse aL Lhe workplace, Lhe markeL place, Lhe school, or Lhe cllnlc.
1hey wlll malnLaln communlcaLlon wlLh neurosclence, cognlLlve sclence, and culLural sLudles,
buL noL Lo Lhe polnL of belng lnLegrally affecLed by sclenLlflc advances, dlspuLes, or Lakeovers"
ln areas wlLh lmperlallsLlc deslgn.

17

Clearly aspecLs of developmenLal sLudles are relevanL Lo each of Lhe four flelds so far
menLloned, neurosclenLlsLs musL concern Lhemselves wlLh baslc laws and sLages of
developmenL, cognlLlve sclence wlll examlne Lhe developmenL and breakdown of Lhlnklng
capaclLles, culLural sLudles wlll feaLure a componenL deallng wlLh Lhe behavlors of chlldren ln
dlfferenL soclal and culLural conLexLs, and parL of developmenLal psychology wlll conLlnue Lo
be lnLermlngled wlLh educaLlonal and cllnlcal psychology.

ln Lhe pasL a number of ma[or Lhlnkers, such as Pelnz Werner, !ean lageL, and !erome 8runer,
have arLlculaLed Lhe vlslon of an over-archlng developmenLal sclence, somewhaL along Lhe
llnes of cognlLlve sclence, whlch would lnclude maLerlal from neurology, physlology, evoluLlon,
llfe-span sLudles, chlld psychology, psychopaLhology, and perhaps even Lhe sLudy of dlfferenL
sclenLlflc dlsclpllnes (geneLlc eplsLemology). As a card-carrylng developmenLallsL, l flnd Lhls
vlslon appeallng. 8uL l musL noLe LhaL pursulL of Lhls vlslon has almosL compleLely vanlshed ln
Lhe mosL recenL decades.

1nL SUkVIVING CLN1Lk

lL may seem LhaL, ln Lhls Cook's Lour of Lhe dlsclpllnary Lopography of Lhe fuLure, we have
drlfLed far away from Wllllam !ames and hls vlew of psychology. 8uL LhaL ls only because l have
yeL Lo menLlon Lhose sub[ecLs - and Lhose chapLers - LhaL were cenLral ln Wllllam !ames'
own accounL. l refer here Lo Consclousness - LreaLed ln ChapLer 11, 1he Self - LreaLed ln
ChapLer 12, Wlll-Lhe concludlng subsLanLlve chapLer, and ersonallLy, whlch, whlle rarely
menLloned expllclLly by !ames, ls ln facL an lmporLanL presence ln Lhese chapLers.

lor !ames, Lhe lssue of Lhe self or ego - lLs experlences, lLs lnLernal and soclal aspecLs, lLs
asplraLlons, and lLs evoluLlon Lhrough llfe - ls key ln psychology. !ames llved ln Lhe pre-
lreudlan era buL had already lnLulLed some of Lhe lssues whlch were Lo occupy lreud. And
when he heard LhaL lreud was comlng Lo Amerlca, Lhe alllng !ames made hls way from
Cambrldge Lo Clark unlverslLy WorcesLer, MassachuseLLs and declared Lo Lhe vlslLor from
vlenna, 1he fuLure of psychology belongs Lo your work." As Lhe hlsLorlan P. SLuarL Pughes
commenLed, Lhere ls no more dramaLlc momenL ln Lhe lnLellecLual hlsLory of our Llme" (1961,
p. 113).

Slnce Lhe Llme of !ames and lreud, Lhe sLudy of personallLy, self, wlll, and consclousness
(hereafLer, Lhe person-cenLered quarLeL") has occupled a paradoxlcal poslLlon wlLhln
psychology. Cn Lhe one hand Lhese Loplcs are clearly cenLral ln any dellneaLlon of Lhe fleld, and
Lhey occupy predlcLably plvoLal spoLs ln LexLbooks. And yeL l musL acknowledge Lhere ls a
sllghL embarrassmenL abouL Lhese Loplcs. 1o be sure work conLlnues on each of Lhem, and
many of Lhe ma[or flgures ln psychology have had Lhelr say" on Lhese Loplcs. Also, Lhere has
emerged a consensus LhaL personallLy can be descrlbed ln Lerms of flve prlnclpal facLors:
Cpenness, ConsclenLlousness, LxLraverslon, AgreeablllLy, and neuroLlclsm. noneLheless, ln my
vlew, progress here ls less compelllng Lhan ln oLher sLrands of psychology.

lnLeresLlngly, desplLe growlng speculaLlon abouL Lhe naLure of human consclousness, nelLher
cognlLlve sclence, nor neurosclence, nor culLural sLudles has asserLed domlnance over Lhese
Loplcs. l Lhlnk Lhls relucLance occurs noL merely because Lhese lssues are dlfflculL Lo sLudy. l
Lhlnk lL ls because, rlghLly or wrongly, Lhey are seen as cenLral Lo psychology ln a way LhaL


18

noLhlng else ls-lndeed Lhey could be seen hlsLorlcally as Lhe deflnlng feaLures of psychology.
noLably, Lhese Loplcs seem parLlcularly reslsLanL Lo decomposlLlon, elemenLarlsm, or oLher
forms of reducLlonlsm - and of course, Lhe cannlballzlng dlsclpllnes exhlblL sLrong Lendencles
ln Lhls aLomlsLlc dlrecLlon. erhaps equally lnLeresLlng, Lhls deflnlLlon mlghL well be shared
even ln remoLe culLures. Whlle falllng Lo lnLrospecL abouL percepLual or cognlLlve processes,
and dlsplaylng llLLle lnLeresL ln Lhe sLudy of oLher culLures or ln sLages of chlld developmenL -
prellLeraLe socleLles do lnLrospecL and develop folk Lheorles abouL Lhe person and abouL
personal experlences (CeerLz, 1973).

lf Lhese flelds are so cenLral and yeL have wlLnessed llLLle progress, whaL can we expecL of
Lhem ln Lhe fuLure? l Lhlnk LhaL here we flnd a clue ln Lhe expanslve psychologles of Wllllam
!ames, Slgmund lreud, and Penry Murray. ln one way or anoLher, each of Lhese scholars
sensed an lmporLanL LruLh: LhaL Lhe sLudy of self or personallLy ls aL once a problem of
psychology and Lhe home ground of llLeraLure. ln Lhe examples Lhey use and ln Lhe approaches
Lhey adopL, each researcher slgnaled Lhe reallzaLlon LhaL Lhe lmaglnaLlve wrlLer ls Lackllng Lhe
same klnds of lssues as Lhe psychologlsL of personallLy. ln !ames' case, of course, we have Lhe
lengLhy and LorLured relaLlon wlLh hls broLher Penry as well as frequenL references Lo oLher
wrlLers and Lo llLerary examples, ln lreud's case, Lhere ls hls rellance on Lhe greaL auLhors of
Lhe pasL - Sophocles, Shakespeare, uosLoevsky - for so many of hls core concepLs, ln
Murray's case, lL ls hls dellberaLe approprlaLlon of lmages from llLeraLure (e.g., Ao Ametlcoo
lcotos) as well as hls own ploneerlng scholarshlp on Perman Melvllle.

LlLeraLure consLlLuLes an lncredlbly rlch reposlLory of lnformaLlon abouL human naLure and
personallLy, one LhaL sLudenLs lnLeresLed ln Lhe person-cenLered quarLeL" lgnore aL Lhelr perll.
lL ls noL ln Lhe leasL surprlslng LhaL Lhe Lhree scholars clLed here found parLlcularly plvoLal leads
ln Lhe work of Lhe greaL wrlLers. 8uL cruclal lnslghLs abouL human naLure are capLured as well
ln oLher arL forms, ranglng from Lhe vlsual arLs Lo muslc Lo Lhe dance. 1he focus ln Lhls
dlscusslon falls on llLeraLure buL Lhe same llne of analysls can - and should - be exLended Lo
oLher arL forms.

8uL lf Lhere ls a relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe sclenLlflc sLudy of personallLy and Lhe wrlLer's
lnvesLlgaLlon of Lhe world of hls or her characLers, [usL whaL should LhaL relaLlonshlp be?
Should lL be muLual supporL and regular communlcaLlon? Should Lhe psychologlsL aLLempL Lo
locaLe Lhe novellsL's characLers ln hls laboraLory? Should Lhe novellsL draw expllclLly or
lmpllclLly on Lhe psychologlcal Lheorles and concepLs of Lhe Llme? Cr, followlng 8orLy (1979),
should Lhe conversaLlon occur among psychologlsLs and llLerary crlLlcs and LheorlsLs? Should
Lhe meLhods developed by llLerary LheorlsLs be approprlaLed by psychologlsLs Lo help Lhem ln
sLudylng Lhe ways ln whlch Lhe lndlvldual (reader or wrlLer) concelves of and relaLes hls llfe?
Should psychologlcal lnslghLs abouL memory, sense of Llme, or ldenLlflcaLlon be uLlllzed by
sLudenLs of llLeraLure Lo explaln Lhe ways ln whlch flcLlon works for dlfferenL readers or ls
produced by dlfferenL wrlLers? Cr are any or all of Lhese opLlons falr game?

l remaln uncerLaln [usL whlch form Lhls collaboraLlon should Lake and perhaps several forms
deserve exploraLlon. AL Lhe very leasL psychologlcal lnvesLlgaLors of Lhe person-cenLered
quarLeL" oughL Lo sLudy works of arL, lncludlng llLeraLure, wlLh greaL care and LesL Lhelr
porLrayals agalnsL Lhe clalms of sclenLlflc sLudy. CooperaLlve lnvesLlgaLlons among arLlsLs and
psychologlsLs could be very proflLable, Lhough Lhe dlfflculLy of such collaboraLlons should noL
be underesLlmaLed. Whlle Lhe dlsLance beLween psychologlsLs and novellsLs mlghL prove Loo

19

greaL, psychologlsLs and sLudenLs of llLeraLure can each enrlch one anoLher's pursulLs. lndeed,
Lhey may provlde examples and llmlLlng cases" for one anoLher, Lhe psychologlsL's preclse
meLhods and rlgor belng balanced by Lhe llLerary scholar's broad vlew and skepLlcal casL of
mlnd, parLlcularly wlLh respecL Lo reducLlonlsm as ln Lhe flve facLors of personallLy. 1he
psychologlsL's Laxonomles and frameworks need Lo be LesLed agalnsL Lhe rlch range of
characLers found ln llLeraLure and Lhe powerful lnslghLs abouL Lhe naLure of LexL and of readlng
puL forLh recenLly by llLerary scholars. lf Lhe schemes of psychologlsLs prove lnadequaLe for
deallng wlLh Lhese more rounded examples and concepLs, Lhen Lhey need Lo be reconflgured
or alLogeLher scuLLled. lor Lhelr parL, sLudenLs of llLeraLure can beneflL from a sLudy of Lhe way
ln whlch psychologlsLs have concepLuallzed Lhe human personallLy, operaLlonallzed Lhese
varlous concepLuallzaLlons, and LesLed cerLaln LanLallzlng hypoLheses abouL human behavlor ln
Lhe experlmenLal laboraLory.

lL should prove posslble for psychologlcal wrlLers and llLerary scholars Lo do more Lhan read
one anoLher's publlcaLlons. Pere, lndeed, l Lhlnk LhaL we can Lake an lnsLrucLlve leaf from
colleagues ln cognlLlve sclence and neurosclence. 1hese flelds have advanced ln large measure
because researchers reared ln dlsparaLe dlsclpllnes work LogeLher shoulder-Lo-shoulder on
problems of muLual lnLeresL. 1oplcs llke Lhe naLure and appreclaLlon of lrony, Lhe appeal of
falry Lales, or Lhe power relaLlons whlch obLaln among lndlvlduals ln Shakespearean plays,
have already beneflLLed from cross-dlsclpllnary lnvesLlgaLlons (8eLLelhelm, 1977, 8rown &
Cllman, 1989, Wlnner, 1988). Cur own lnvesLlgaLlons aL Parvard ro[ecL Zero have for some
Llme beneflLLed from susLalned collaboraLlons among psychologlsLs, arLlsLs, and experLs ln Lhe
sysLemaLlc sLudy of dlfferenL arL and llLerary forms (Cardner 1982, Cardner &erklns, 1989,
Wlnner, 1982, see also pzweb.harvard.edu). 1he knoLLlesL problems ln arLlsLlc analysls - such
as Lhe quesLlon of wheLher Lhere mlghL be opLlmal lnLerpreLaLlon of a work of arL - call
for lnLerdlsclpllnary lnvesLlgaLlon.

WhaLever collaboraLlon evenLually obLalns among psychologlsLs and lndlvlduals lnvolved ln
llLeraLure and oLher arL forms, one polnL seems clear. 1he parL of psychology mosL llkely Lo
remaln afLer Lhe aforemenLloned cannlballzaLlons have Laken place ls Lhe sLudy of Lhe person-
cenLered quarLeL." CerLaln aspecLs of emoLlon and moLlvaLlon may also elude Lhe cognlLlve
and neurosclences. 1hese are Loplcs for whlch psychologlsLs may have speclal meLhods and
lnslghLs, buL Lhey are equally Lhe concern of wrlLers and oLher arLlsLs, and of Lhose who sLudy
Lhem, llke llLerary crlLlcs and LheorlsLs. no hard sclence la physlcs ls llkely Lo emerge from Lhe
collaboraLlons l envlsage. 8uL an lnLeresLlng and hlghly useful klnd of conversaLlon beLween
behavloral sclence and Lhe humanlLles ls llkely Lo occur lf psychologlsLs and lndlvlduals ln Lhe
arLs make common cause. 1hls lnslghL was noL losL on our forefaLhers, and lL has been
relnforced ln promlslng work underLaken by uonald Spence (1982) and !erome 8runer (1986),
and lrvln ?alom (2003) among oLhers.

WnI1nLk SCnCLCGIS1S?

Cn hls beLLer days Wllllam !ames was a deLermlned opLlmlsL, buL he harbored hls doubLs
abouL psychology. Pe once declared, Lhere ls no such Lhlng as a sclence of psychology" and
added LhaL Lhe whole presenL generaLlon (of psychologlsLs) ls predesLlned Lo become
unreadable old medleval lumber, as soon as Lhe flrsL genulne Lracks of lnslghL are made"
(Allen, 1967, p. 313). l have lndlcaLed my bellef LhaL, over a cenLury laLer, !ames' less opLlmlsLlc
vlslon has maLerlallzed and LhaL lL may be Llme Lo bury sclenLlflc psychology, aL leasL as a slngle
coherenL underLaklng.


20

?eL sclenLlflc psychologlsLs merlL pralse as well. lf we have so far falled ln our more amblLlous
underLaklng, we have developed any number of paradlgms, concepLs, and meLhods whlch
should prove servlceable ln conLemporary and fuLure sclenLlflc endeavors. 1here ls no need Lo
chronlcle Lhese achlevemenLs, because Lhey sLock our LexLbooks and are now ofLen of Lhe
common lore. ln readlng Lhese LexLs l can noL help buL feel prlde abouL my membershlp ln Lhe
psychologlcal gulld, lL ls clearly Lhe work of our fleld whlch has provlded Lhe llon's share of
evldence LhaL Lhe behavloral sclences merlL aLLenLlon and fundlng. lf some psychologlsLs suffer
from physlcs envy," l have no doubL LhaL many ln oLher dlsclpllnes experlence psychology
envy."

We can rlghLly cherlsh Lhe work of our mosL emlnenL pracLlLloners - pasL and presenL - and
Lhe varlous concepLs, flndlngs, and schemes whlch Lhey have developed. WheLher psychology
long endures as a self-conLalned fleld, sclenLlsLs wlll long honor Lhe dlscoverles of uonald Pebb
and karl Lashley, MarLln Sellgman and Mlhaly CslkszenLmlhalyl, Amos 1versky and uanlel
kahneman, Lhe concepLs of ldenLlLy crlsls and cognlLlve dlssonance, Lhe laboraLory procedures
of psychophyslcs, psychollngulsLlcs, and physlologlcal psychology.

Lven as we pay homage Lo our pasL conLrlbuLors, we can parLlclpaLe as full members of
research Leams ln Lhe emerglng dlsclpllnes of cognlLlve sclence, neurosclence, and, perhaps,
culLural sLudles and developmenLal sLudles. lndlvlduals researchlng ln Lhese areas wlll need Lhe
lnslghLs and meLhods of psychology - and lf our colleagues do noL work wlLh us, Lhey wlll only
have Lo repeaL our mlsLakes and relnvenL our flelds.

A Lhlrd polnL ls perhaps more subLle buL lL ls equally lmporLanL. l Lhlnk LhaL Lhe ma[or
conLrlbuLlon LhaL psychologlsLs can make ls Lo conLlnue Lo Lackle Lhe mosL lnLeresLlng
problems LhaL emerge and Lo follow Lhose problems wherever Lhey may lead. 1o paraphrase
an old saw - some sclenLlsLs have avolded psychology because lL ls Loo easy, buL oLhers have
avolded lL because lL ls Loo hard." lL ls ln our bones - as lL was ln Lhe bones of Wllllam !ames
- Lo pursue Lhe hard lssues, Lo dlsplay an audaclous curloslLy abouL Lhe human condlLlon and
Lo follow LhaL curloslLy wherever lL looks.

A cenLury and a half ago, Wllllam !ames' unsLlnLlng curloslLy led hlm Lo physlology and Lhence
Lo psychology - lndeed Lo foundlng aL Parvard around 1873 Lhe flrsL experlmenLal laboraLory
ln Lhe counLry and perhaps ln Lhe world. 1he sclenLlsLs who flocked Lo psychology ln Lhls
cenLury are as glfLed a loL of scholars as any l can lmaglne. erhaps Loday, some of Lhose who
ln an earller era would have Lurned Lo phllosophy are lnsLead aLLracLed Lo compuLer sclence, Lo
braln sclence or geneLlcs, Lo llLeraLure, or llLerary sLudles. Such shlfLlng of alleglances ls
undersLandable and approprlaLe. 8uL my guess ls LhaL a healLhy number of Lhe mosL curlous
wlll conLlnue Lo gravlLaLe Lo Lhose vexed lssues whlch, aL leasL ln Lhelr mlnds, are besL
descrlbed as belng psychologlcal ln naLure.

lf one of Lhose brlghL sLudenLs were Lo wander lnLo my offlce ln search of career advlce, whaL
would l say? l would counsel Lhe sLudenL Lo look for Lhose lssues, problems, and phenomena
LhaL seem Lo sLraddle Lhe newly emerglng flelds. l would have ln mlnd Lhose phenomena or
problems LhaL lle aL Lhe boundary of Lhe lndlvldual self and Lhe soclal self, whlch sLraddle
sLream of consclousness as a psychologlcal concepL and sLream of consclousness as a presence
ln llLeraLure, whlch ralse developmenLal lssues ln a neurologlcal conLexL or Lackle neurologlcal
lssues ln a developmenLal conLexL, whlch occur aL Lhe lnLerface of pure cognlLlon" and

21

cognlLlon as lL unfolds ln Lhe school or aL Lhe worklng place. lf psychology lndeed Lurns ouL Lo
be a fleld for foxes, raLher Lhan for hedgehogs - as l belleve ls Lhe case - Lhen l would Lry Lo
converL psychologlsLs lnLo Lhe sleekesL and cleveresL foxes around.

ln closlng, Lhen, l flnd myself Laklng a leaf from Marc AnLony. Pavlng proposed a funeral for
psychology as we know lL, l have as well engaged ln pralse for much of whaL psychology has
accompllshed. l have suggesLed LhaL Lhere ls much producLlve work lefL for Lhose who, for
whaLever reason, choose Lo conLlnue Lo call Lhemselves psychologlsLs and wlsh Lo pursue Lhe
klnds of lssues and quesLlons whlch are LradlLlonally consldered psychologlcal. ln so dolng, l
belleve l have been falLhful Lo Lhe vlslon of Wllllam !ames, a man whose lnLellecL was far Loo
capaclous ever Lo be corralled lnLo a slngle dlsclpllne, and who ln facL Lhrlved by allghLlng on a
Loplc for awhlle and Lhen movlng on Lo anoLher one. !ames remlnds one of Lhe proverblal fox,
ln lsalah 8erlln's flgure, Lhe lmpresslonlsL palnLer, ln Lhe words of C. SLanley Pall. Wllllam
!ames' long-Llme colleague 1heodore llournoy puL lL well:

[!ames] genlus ls so abundanL, so varled, and so llLLle preoccupled wlLh Lhe appearance of
conLradlcLlon LhaL ln gaLherlng ln hls varlous uLLerances, one does noL easlly frame hlm lnLo a
Lruly harmonlous whole. lndeed lL ls almosL a quesLlon wheLher he hlmself would have been able
Lo produce a perfecLly llnked and coherenL sysLem from Lhe magnlflcenL Lreasure of maLerlal
whlch he has lefL us. (quoLed ln Allen, 1967, p. 493)

As we psychologlsLs move Lo Lhe second cenLury of a posL !ameslan world, we could do worse
Lhan Lo emulaLe hls splrlL and hls example.

8I8LICGkAn

Allen, C.W. (1967). wllllom Iomes. new ?ork: vlklng.
8aer, u. M. (1987). uo we really wanL Lhe unlflcaLlon of psychology? New lJeos lo
lsycboloqy, 3, 333-360.
8akan, u. (1987). sychology's dlgresslons. New lJeos lo lsycboloqy, 347-330.8eLLelhelm,
8. (1977). 1be oses of eocbootmeot. 1be meooloq ooJ lmpottooce of folty toles. new
?ork: vlnLage.
8lckman, L. & CoodsLeln, L. (Lds.) (1987). roceedlngs of Lhe naLlonal conference on
graduaLe educaLlon ln psychology [Speclal lssue]. Ametlcoo lsycboloqlst, 42 (12).
8orlng, L. C. (1930). A blstoty of expetlmeotol psycboloqy. new ?ork: AppleLon-CenLury
CrofLs.
8rown, 8. & Cllman, A. (1989). ollLeness Lheory ln Shakespeare's four ma[or Lragedles.
looqooqe lo 5oclety, 18, 139-212.
8runer, !. S. (1986). Actool mloJs, posslble wotlJs. Cambrldge, MA: Parvard unlverslLy
ress.
Commlsslon on 8ehavloral and Soclal Sclences and LducaLlon of Lhe naLlonal 8esearch
Councll (1988). 1eo eot Ootlook. WashlngLon, uC: naLlonal Academy ress.
Cook, n. (1986). 1be btolo coJe. London, u.k.: MeLhuen.


22

uamaslo, A. (2000). 1be feelloq of wbot boppeos, new ?ork, ParvesL
ureyfus, P. (1972)..wbot compotets coo Jo. A ctltlpoe of opplleJ teosooloq. new ?ork:
Parper.
lelnsLeln, P. (1984). 8ecomloq wllllom Iomes. lLhaca, n?: Cornell unlverslLy ress.
Cardner, P. (1983). 1be mloJ's oew scleoce. new ?ork: 8aslc 8ooks.
Cardner, P., & erklns, u. (Lds.) (1989). Att, mloJ, ooJ eJocotloo. keseotcb ftom ltoject
2eto. urbana, lL: unlverslLy of llllnols ress.
CeerLz, C. (1973). Cn Lhe naLure of anLhropologlcal undersLandlng, Ametlcoo 5cleotlst, 7J,
47-33.
Creene, !. u. (2003). lrom neural ls" Lo morals oughL": WhaL are Lhe moral lmpllcaLlons
of neurosclenLlflc morals psychology? Notote kevlews Neotoscleoce, 4, 847-830.
Pall C., & Llndzey C. (1978). 1beotles of petsooollty. new ?ork: Wlley.
Polland, n. n. (1988). 1be btolo of kobett ltost. A coqoltlve opptoocb to lltetotote. new
?ork, 8ouLledge.
Pubel, u. (1979). 1he braln, 5cleotlflc Ametlcoo , 24144-33.
Pughes, P. S. (1961). cooscloosoess ooJ soclety, new ?ork, vlnLage.
!ames, W. (1890). ltloclples of psycboloqy 8osLon, MA: PolL.
!ames, W. (1963). lsycboloqy. 8tlefet cootse. new ?ork, lawceLL. (Crlglnal work publlshed
1892. 8osLon, MA: PolL).
koch, S. (1981). 1he naLure and llmlLs of psychologlcal analysls, Ametlcoo lsycboloqlst, 31
237-269.
knlghL, M. (1934).wllllom Iomes. ParmondsworLh, u.k.: enguln.
kranLz, u. L. (1987). sychology's search for unlLy. New lJeos lo lsycboloqy, 3 329-
339.Murray, P. A. (1938).xplototloos lo petsooollty. new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy
ress.
CrnsLeln, 8. (1986). 1be psycboloqy of cooscloosoess. new ?ork: enguln.
erry, 8. 8. (1933). 1be tbooqbt ooJ cbotoctet of wllllom Iomes. Cambrldge, MA: Parvard
unlverslLy ress.
lnker, S., & rlnce A. (1988). Cn language and connecLlonlsm: Analysls of a parallel
dlsLrlbuLed processlng model of language acqulslLlon.coqoltloo,2873-193.
8orLy, 8. (1979). lbllosopby ooJ tbe mlttot of ootote. rlnceLon, n!: rlnceLon unlverslLy
ress.
8oyce, !. 8. (1987). More order Lhan a Lelephone book. New lJeos lo lsycboloqy, 5, 341-
343.
8umelharL, u., & McClelland u. (1986). lotollel-JlsttlboteJ ptocessloq. Cambrldge, MA: Ml1
ress.
Sellgman, M. (2004). Aotbeotlc bopploess, new ?ork, lree ress.

23

Spence, u. (1982). Nottotlve ttotb ooJ blstotlcol ttotb. meooloq ooJ lotetptetotloo lo
psycboooolysls. new ?ork: norLon.
1oulmln, S. (1987). Cn noL over unlfylng psychology, New lJeos lo lsycboloqy, 5, 331-333.
WaLson, 8. l. (Ld.) (1979). 8oslc wtltloqs lo tbe blstoty of psycboloqy new ?ork: Cxford
unlverslLy ress.
Wlnner, L. (1988). 1be polot of wotJs. cbllJteo's ooJetstooJloq of metopbot ooJ ltooy
Cambrldge, MA Parvard unlverslLy ress.
?alom, l. (2003). wbeo Nletzscbe wept, ubllcaLlon lnformaLlon noL avallable.


23

Mental Illness as Mental: In Defence of Psycbological
Realism

Mottbew k. 8toome
*

m.r.broome[warwlck.ac.uk

llso 8ottolottl
**

l.borLoloLLl[bham.ac.uk

A8S1kAC1

1hls paper argues for psychologlcal reallsm ln Lhe concepLlon of psychlaLrlc dlsorders. We revlew Lhe
followlng conLemporary ways of undersLandlng Lhe fuLure of psychlaLry: (1) psychlaLrlc classlflcaLlon
cannoL be successfully reduced Lo neuroblology, and Lhus psychlaLrlc dlsorders should noL be concelved
of as blologlcal klnds, (2) psychlaLrlc classlflcaLlon can be successfully reduced Lo neuroblology, and Lhus
psychlaLrlc dlsorders should be concelved of as blologlcal klnds. oslLlon (1) can lead elLher Lo
lnsLrumenLallsm or Lo ellmlnaLlvlsm abouL psychlaLry, dependlng on wheLher psychlaLrlc classlflcaLlon ls
regarded as useful. oslLlon (2), whlch ls lnsplred by Lhe growlng lnLeresL ln neurosclence wlLhln
sclenLlflc psychlaLry, leads Lo blologlcal reallsm or essenLlallsm. ln Lhls paper we endorse a dlfferenL
reallsL poslLlon, whlch we label psycboloqlcol teollsm. sychlaLrlc dlsorders are ldenLlfled and addressed
on Lhe basls of Lhelr psychologlcal manlfesLaLlons whlch are ofLen descrlbed as vlolaLlons of eplsLemlc,
moral or soclal norms. A couple of examples are proposed by reference Lo Lhe paLhologlcal aspecLs of
deluslons, and Lhe facLors conLrlbuLlng Lo Lhelr formaLlon.

0. IN1kCDUC1ICN

ln currenL lnLernaLlonal classlflcaLlons of psychlaLrlc dlsorders, Lhe Lerm 'dlsorder' ls used Lo
plck behavloural and psychologlcal sLaLes LhaL saLlsfy Lhe followlng crlLerla:

l) Lhey occur as parL of a syndrome or paLLern,
ll) Lhey are assoclaLed wlLh Lhe lndlvldual's dlsLress, dlsablllLy, lncreased rlsk of
sufferlng, deaLh, paln, dlsablllLy, or a slgnlflcanL loss of freedom,
lll) Lhey are noL merely a culLurally sancLloned response Lo a parLlcular evenL,
lv) whaLever Lhelr orlglnal cause, Lhey musL be consldered as a manlfesLaLlon of
behavloural, psychologlcal or blologlcal dysfuncLlon ln Lhe lndlvldual.

Concernlng (lll) and (lv), lL ls lmporLanL Lo sLress LhaL nelLher devlanL behavlour nor confllcLs
LhaL are prlmarlly beLween Lhe lndlvldual and socleLy are regarded as menLal dlsorders unless
Lhe devlance or confllcL ls a sympLom of a dysfuncLlon of Lhe lndlvldual.
1he auLhors of Lhe uSM-lv do noL Lo offer speculaLlons abouL a common aeLlology or
naLure of psychlaLrlc dlsorders, buL oLher auLhors have been less resLralned. MenLal healLh
professlonals have vlewed Lhe concepLlon of dlsorder ouLllned above ln Lhree broad fashlons
(see Parland eL al. 2009).

*
PealLh Sclences 8esearch lnsLlLuLe, Warwlck Medlcal School, unlverslLy of Warwlck ClbbeL Plll,
CovenLry Cv4 7AL (uk)
**
School of hllosophy 1heology and 8ellglon, unlverslLy of 8lrmlngham LdgbasLon, 8lrmlngham 813
211 (uk)


26

A flrsL opLlon ls a comblnaLlon of anLl-essenLlallsm and pragmaLlsm. lL ls noL worrylng LhaL
psychlaLry cannoL be reduced successfully Lo neuroblology, because psychlaLry ls essenLlally
pragmaLlc. sychlaLrlc classlflcaLlon fulflls cerLaln concerns and purposes, whlch may well be ln
confllcL. An example of Lhls ls offered by a dlagnosls of schlzophrenla ln Lhe early sLages of
lllness: Lhe dlagnosls may be useful Lo Lhe lndlvldual ln Lerms of accesslng LreaLmenL, sLaLe
beneflLs and so on, buL may also have deleLerlous consequences ln engenderlng sLlgma and
perhaps LherapeuLlc pesslmlsm ln some professlonals, carers and paLlenLs. Accordlng Lo Lhe
pragmaLlc vlew, dlsorders Lhemselves are noL necessarlly expecLed Lo have a dlscreLe essence
or Lo consLlLuLe a naLural klnd.
1he second opLlon ls ellmlnaLlvlsm: lf Lhe enLlLles of psychlaLry cannoL be reduced Lo Lhelr
puLaLlve blologlcal underplnnlngs, and psychlaLry cannoL be successfully reduced Lo
neurosclence, Lhen psychlaLrlc classlflcaLlon ls noL useful and wlll be gradually replaced by
neuroblologlcal classlflcaLlon.
1he Lhlrd opLlon ls essenLlallsm. 1hls concepLlon has a more opLlmlsLlc Lake on Lhe success
of reduclng psychlaLry Lo neuroblology, and vlews psychlaLrlc dlsorders as belng valldaLed
Lhrough Lhe dlscovery a dlscreLe, ldenLlflable blologlcal 'essence'. 1hls ls Lhe domlnanL
concepLlon ln conLemporary psychlaLry.
ln Lhls paper we shall offer an alLernaLlve reallsL accounL Lo blologlcal reallsm. We shall
argue LhaL we cannoL come Lo a proper undersLandlng of psychlaLrlc dlsorders, and Lo an
explanaLlon of Lhe reasons why psychlaLrlc condlLlons are paLhologlcal, wlLhouL deploylng
psychologlcal noLlons whlch lnvolve eplsLemlc, moral or soclal norms, such as raLlonallLy and
[usLlflcaLlon ln Lhe case of deluslons (see 8orLoloLLl and 8roome 2008), and approprlaLeness of
emoLlonal responses ln Lhe case of personallLy dlsorders (see lckard 2009).
1. CCNCL1ICNS CI SCnIA1kIC DISCkDLkS

MosL classlflcaLlon sLraLegles for psychlaLrlc dlsorders seek Lo model Lhemselves on Lhe
Laxonomles of naLural sclence. 1he classlcal Laxonomlc sLraLegy ln psychlaLrlc classlflcaLlon
Lakes for granLed LhaL Lhere are robusL enLlLles LhaL exlsL 'ouL Lhere' ln naLure.

lf psychlaLrlc sympLoms are blologlcal naLural klnds, blologlcal varlables such as geneLlc codes and
drug response may help us lsolaLe Lhelr underlylng reallLy. 8lomedlcal maLerlallsLs assume LhaL,
because physlcal dlseases are Lhe bedrock reallLy of medlcal sclence, ln order Lo be sclenLlflcally
valld, hlsLrlonlc personallLy dlsorders and schlzophrenla have Lo be undersLood as physlcal
dlseases. As dlsease Lhey musL have underlylng blopaLhologlcal processes. (Zachar 2000, p. 233)
1here are dlfferenL ways of ldenLlfylng Lhe essence of whaL exlsLs ln naLure. Are Lhe enLlLles of
psychlaLrlc classlflcaLlon naLural klnds wlLh rlgld essences, analogous Lo Lhose enLlLles LhaL
make up Lhe perlodlc Lable of elemenLs? 1he consLlLuenLs of Lhe perlodlc Lable of elemenLs are
noL all ldenLlfled ln Lhe same way. Some elemenLs have a slngle deflnlng crlLerlon (aLomlc
number). CLher elemenLs are ldenLlfled Lhrough several crlLerla, whlch may be welghed
equally or dlfferenLlally. ln Lhe classlcal concepLlon of psychlaLrlc dlsorders Lhere ls a slngle
underlylng crlLerlon by whlch such dlsorders can be ldenLlfled. Lxamples of a slngle crlLerlon
psychlaLrlsLs may suggesL would lnclude a speclflc cognlLlve abnormallLy, a change ln
funcLlonlng of a cerLaln neural clrculL, or a dlsLlncL geneLlc polymorphlsm.
Powever, Lhls concepLlon of psychlaLrlc dlsorder ls obvlously ln conLrasL wlLh Lhe leadlng
paradlgm ln psychopaLhology research, whlch ls LhaL of cognlLlve neuropsychlaLry. CognlLlve
neuropsychlaLry ls deflned as a sysLemaLlc approach Lo Lhe explanaLlon of psychopaLhology ln
Natthew R. Bioome, Lisa Boitolotti - Nental Illness as Nental

27

Lerms of cognlLlve neuropsychologlcal deflclLs. AlLhough Lhe deflclLs are ulLlmaLely cognlLlve
ones, cognlLlve neuropsychlaLry ls llnked Lo Lhe baslc neurosclences, because lL lnvesLlgaLes
Lhe neural subsLraLes of lmpalred cognlLlve mechanlsms" (Palllgan and uavld 2001, page
209). Palllgan and uavld explaln LhaL flrsL cognlLlve neuropsychlaLry alms Lo brldge Lhe gap
beLween Lhe funcLlonal descrlpLlon of psychlaLrlc dlsorders wlLh Lhe framework of cognlLlve
neuropsychology, and Lhen lL alms Lo llnk Lhls framework Lo braln sLrucLures and Lhelr
paLhology. lor Lhe cognlLlve neuropsychlaLrlsL, Lhe enLlLles of psychopaLhology are real, buL
furLher, Lhey can be Lraced back Lo neuropsychology, and ulLlmaLely Lo braln sLrucLure and
funcLlon.
Cne quesLlon ls wheLher cognlLlve neuropsychlaLry assumes LhaL we can Lalk abouL
lnLenLlonallLy all Lhe way down. lf so, LhaL concluslon would perhaps go agalnsL some lnsLances
of blologlcal reallsm, such as LhaL of !erry lodor:

l suppose LhaL sooner or laLer Lhe physlclsLs wlll compleLe Lhe caLalogue Lhey've been complllng
of Lhe ulLlmaLe and lrreduclble properLles of Lhlngs. When Lhey do, Lhe llkes of spln, charm and
charge wlll appear upon Lhelr llsL. 8uL abouLness surely won'L, lnLenLlonallLy slmply doesn'L go
LhaL deep. lL's hard Lo see how one can be a 8eallsL abouL lnLenLlonallLy wlLhouL also belng, Lo
some exLenL or oLher, a 8educLlonlsL. lf Lhe semanLlc and lnLenLlonal are real properLles of Lhlngs,
lL musL be ln vlrLue of Lhelr ldenLlLy wlLh (or maybe of Lhelr supervenlence on?) properLles LhaL
are Lhemselves nelLher lnLenLlonal nor semanLlc. lf abouLness ls real, lL musL really be someLhlng
else (lodor 1987, p. 97).

1he relaLlonshlp beLween reallsm and reducLlonlsm abouL lnLenLlonallLy depends on Lhe
preferred concepLual approach Lo psychlaLry, psychopaLhology, and psychlaLrlc dlsorders more
broadly. lor lnsLance, lf Lhe reducLlon Lo Lhe blologlcal lefL noLhlng dlsLlncLly psychologlcal ln
Lhe classlflcaLlon and undersLandlng of psychlaLrlc dlsorders, Lhen ellmlnaLlvlsm would ensue.
1he ellmlnaLlvlsL opLlon, whlch would lead Lo 'ellmlnaLlve mlndless psychlaLry' (ln Lhe words
of !ablensky and kendell 2002), carrles on from lodor's concluslon above and from Lhe
Churchlands' programme of ellmlnaLlve maLerlallsm ln Lhe phllosophy of mlnd (see 8ermudez
2006). 1he vlew suggesLs LhaL Lhe enLlLles of psychlaLry can and should be ellmlnaLed and LhaL
new enLlLles should replace Lhem, based on Lhe blologlcal underplnnlngs of whaL we now call
'dlsorders'. 1hls process may sLarL as a process of reducLlon (from Lhe dlsorder behavlourally
deflned Lo lLs neuroblologlcal bases), buL ln Lhe end psychlaLry as we know lL wlll noL [usL be
glven solld sclenLlflc foundaLlons by belng reduced Lo neuroblology, lL wlll dlsappear
alLogeLher. llrsL, neurologlcal explanaLlons wlll be glven onLologlcal prlmacy over psychologlcal
explanaLlons, and Lhen Lhe enLlLles maklng up Lhe neuroblologlcal explanaLlons wlll be
regarded as Lhe only consLlLuenLs of a sclenLlflcally respecLable onLology. As a consequence,
Lhe Lerms now used ln psychlaLry wlll noL be found Lo plck ouL real Lhlngs ln Lhe world (a blL
llke 'phloglsLon' afLer Lhe Chemlcal 8evoluLlon) and psychlaLry wlll be found Lo offer an
lnaccuraLe and mlsleadlng accounL of whaL dlsorders are. 1he process of ellmlnaLlon wlll mlrror
LhaL ln oLher branches of medlclne, whereby molecular, lmaglng and compuLaLlonal Lools
have largely replaced cllnlcal skllls ln maklng a dlagnosls" (!ablensky and kendell 2002, p. 22).
Clven LhaL Lhe crlLerla for someLhlng Lo be a dlsorder depend heavlly on dlagnosLlc crlLerla,
when Lhe meLhods for maklng a dlagnosls change, Lhe varlous condlLlons dlagnosed wlll also
have Lo change. 1hls poslLlon wlll lead Lo Lhe ellmlnaLlon of our 'folk' psychopaLhology and
classlflcaLlon, Lerms such as 'schlzophrenla', 'blpolar', 'depresslve psychosls' may no longer
exlsL. Schlzophrenla wlll elLher be dlagnosed on Lhe basls of radlcally dlfferenL crlLerla, and
hence mean someLhlng dlfferenL, or a new Lerm wlll have Lo be lnvenLed. LlLher way, Lhe
LradlLlonal Laxonomy of psychopaLhology wlll be ellmlnaLed.


28

2. 1nL LLUSIVL C8ILC1IVI1 CI SCnIA1kIC DISCkDLkS

Lxempllfylng Lhe medlcal model of psychlaLrlc dlsorders, usLun and colleagues (2002, p. 30)
suggesL LhaL, aL lLs slmplesL, a dlsorder ls an ldenLlflable and dlsLlncL seL of slgns and
sympLoms LhaL commonly produce dlsablllLy". lurLher, for such a dlsorder Lo become
cllnlcally slgnlflcanL" lL musL be a producL of a harmful dysfuncLlon". 1hls ls a blologlcal
concepL lndexlng a fallure of an lnLernal mechanlsm Lo perform one of Lhe funcLlons for whlch
lL ls naLurally deslgned" (p. 31). luncLlon and mechanlsm are Lo be undersLood here ln
evoluLlonary Lerms. Parm ls conLlngenL upon Lhe lndlvldual's parLlcular soclal conLexL and as
such converLs a dysfuncLlon lnLo a dlsorder (usLun eL al. 2002). 1he only relevanL funcLlons are
naLural funcLlons of some lnLernal mechanlsm, LhaL ls, funcLlons of Lhe mechanlsm whlch
depend on evoluLlon (Wakefleld and llrsL 2003). 1wo of Lhe purporLed advanLages of adopLlng
Lhls approach are LhaL (l) Lhe concepL of dlsorder ln psychlaLry wlll be analogous Lo LhaL used ln
oLher medlcal condlLlons (Wakefleld and llrsL 2003, Wakefleld and SplLzer 2002) and LhaL (ll)
Lhe false-poslLlves arguably creaLed wlLh Lhe over-lncluslve deflnlLlon of Lhe uSM-lv wlll no
longer consLlLuLe a problem.

All dlsorders (menLal as well as physlcal) are condlLlons ln whlch some funcLlon ln Lhe lndlvldual ls
noL worklng as expecLed and, as a resulL, Lhe lndlvldual ls experlenclng some form of harm -
Lyplcally buL noL always ln Lhe form of dlsLress or dlsablllLy (Wakefleld and SplLzer 2002, p. 33).

1he classlflcaLlon ln uSM-lv was based on Lhe assumpLlon LhaL sclence lLself wlll Lell us how Lo
classlfy psychlaLrlc dlsorders. 8lologlcal valldaLors were consulLed Lo ald Lhe uSM Laxonomlc
process based on Lhe convlcLlon LhaL paLlenLs wlLh Lhe same dlagnosls share an underlylng
paLhophyslologlcal process. Accordlng Lo Cooper, Lhe uSM-lv alms Lo produce a classlflcaLlon
analogous Lo LhaL found ln Lhe naLural sclences, and assumes LhaL menLal dlsorders are naLural
klnds (Cooper 2004, page 10). AlLhough some menLal dlsorders may be naLural klnds, and
oLher may be parLlal klnds (cases of Lhe dlsease slmllar Lo each oLher ln some, buL noL all,
fundamenLal aspecLs), for many dlsorders, cases of Lhe same dlagnosls won'L have ln common
any fundamenLal properLy amenable Lo naLural sclenLlflc sLudy. 1hls lmmedlaLely ralses lssues
abouL how one deLermlnes such 'fundamenLal properLles'. ClasslflcaLlon of psychlaLrlc
dlsorders ls alded by clusLer analysls - Lhe clusLerlng of daLa on dlfferenL axes resulLs ln a
'psychlaLrlc enLlLy'. 1he varlables are chosen by Lhe classlfler on Lhe basls of a Lheory whlch ls
lnfluenced by psychlaLrlsLs' bellefs regardlng Lhe aeLlology of menLal lllness (l.e., a body of a
prlorl, frequenLly lmpllclL and unsLaLed assumpLlons). 1hus, Lhe 'fundamenLal properLles' are
noL ldenLlfled by dlrecL observaLlon or lnference from Lhe evldence abouL Lhe causal processes
leadlng Lo Lhe dlsorder, buL are deLermlned by Lhe cholce of relevanL varlables, whlch ls ln Lurn
a producL of exlsLlng background bellefs.
Accordlng Lo Paslam (2002a,b) and Cooper (2004), psychlaLrlc dlsorders vary wldely and
very few, lf any, wlll meeL Lhe crlLerla for belng a naLural klnd. 8eallsLs assume LhaL Lhe
classlflcaLlon we have should somehow be LranslaLable lnLo neurosclence and cognlLlve
psychology and LhaL Lhls ls Lhe only klnd of reallsm Lhere ls. lor Lhe blologlcal reallsLs, lL would
seem LhaL all dlagnoses are equally llkely Lo be naLural klnds, wheLher one ls sLudylng
personallLy dlsorder, demenLla, schlzophrenla or hysLerla. As Cooper (2004) and Paslam
(2002a,b) also argue, kendell suggesLs LhaL alLhough some dlsorders are naLural klnds, oLhers
are noL and are falsely LreaLed as lf Lhey are - Lhls ls Lhe telflcotloo fallacy, whereby anyLhlng
LhaL can be glven a name becomes o tbloq, a naLural caLegory LhaL can be sclenLlflcally
lnvesLlgaLed and advocaLed ln explanaLlon and predlcLlon of sclenLlflc phenomena (!ablensky

29

and kendell 2002, and kendell 2002). lor lnsLance, usLun and colleages seem Lo commlL Lhe
relflcaLlon fallacy ln LhaL Lhey belleve LhaL neurosclence and molecular geneLlcs wlll valldaLe
and reflne our currenL descrlpLlve caLegorles" (usLun eL al. 2002, p. 41). valldaLlon would lmply
a dlscreLe and paLhognomlc blologlcal proflle for Lhese dlsorders. Such an approach ls
supporLed by Andreason who seems Lo slmllarly endorse an onLologlcal reallsL vlew wlLh
respecL Lo Lhe caLegorles of psychlaLry:

As a sclenLlflc dlsclpllne, psychlaLry seeks Lo ldenLlfy Lhe blologlcal facLors LhaL cause menLal
lllness. 1hls model assumes LhaL each dlfferenL Lype of lllness has a dlfferenL speclflc cause.
(Andreason 1984, p. 30)
Cooper (2004) ls crlLlcal of Lhe approach ln Lhe uSM-lv and offers a concepLlon of dlsease LhaL
dlffers from Wakefleld's.

8y 'dlsease' we alm Lo plck ouL a varleLy of condlLlons LhaL Lhrough belng palnful, dlsflgurlng or
dlsabllng are of lnLeresL Lo us as people. 1hls class of condlLlons ls by lLs naLure anLhropocenLrlc
and corresponds Lo no naLural class of condlLlons ln Lhe world. l suggesL LhaL by dlsease we
mean a condlLlon LhaL lL ls a bad Lhlng Lo have LhaL ls such LhaL we conslder Lhe affllcLed person
Lo be unlucky, and LhaL can poLenLlally be medlcally LreaLed. All Lhree crlLerla musL be a
condlLlon Lo be a dlsease. 1he crlLerlon LhaL for a condlLlon Lo be a dlsease lL musL be a bad
Lhlng ls requlred Lo dlsLlngulsh Lhe blologlcally dlfferenL from Lhe dlseased. 1he clalm LhaL Lhe
sufferer musL be unlucky ls needed Lo dlsLlngulsh dlseases from condlLlons LhaL are unpleasanL
buL normal, for example LeeLhlng. llnally, Lhe clalm for a condlLlon Lo be a dlsease lL musL be
poLenLlally medlcally LreaLable ls needed Lo dlsLlngulsh dlseases from oLher Lypes of mlsforLune,
for example economlc problems and legal problems. (Cooper 2004, pp. 7-8)
AlLhough Cooper's poslLlve accounL of dlsease ls much more aLLracLlve Lhan Wakefleld's, lLs
poLenLlal shorLcomlngs are LhaL lL ls problemaLlc Lo esLabllsh wheLher a condlLlon ls poLenLlally
LreaLable: we know LhaL wheLher someLhlng can be LreaLed changes dramaLlcally across Llme,
and dependlng on Lhe socleLy and lndlvldual ln whlch Lhe dlsorder ls manlfesLed and ldenLlfled.
1hus, we may noL be able Lo Lell wheLher someLhlng ls a dlsease before we can esLabllsh
wheLher Lhere ls a medlcal LreaLmenL for lL, especlally as Lhere ls llkely Lo be conLroversy boLh
abouL whaL needs Lo be medlcally LreaLed and abouL whaL counLs as a medlcal LreaLmenL. As
Cooper fully acknowledges, wheLher a condlLlon ls bad luck for an lndlvldual mlghL depend on
characLerlsLlcs of LhaL lndlvldual and of Lhe socleLy ln whlch she llves, Lhereby suggesLlng LhaL a
condlLlon whlch mlghL be consldered a dlsorder for some people aL some Llme would lose Lhe
label for oLher people aL Lhe same Llme, or for Lhe same people aL oLher Llmes.
ln anoLher aLLempL Lo provlde an accounL of Lhe ob[ecLlvlLy of menLal lllness wlLhouL fully
embraclng Lhe reducLlon of Lhe psychlaLrlc Lo Lhe neuroblologlcal, 1hornLon (2002) holds LhaL
psychlaLrlc classlflcaLlon ls based on funcLlonal properLles and suggesLs Lhe analogy wlLh
polsons and herbs. Members of each group may lack any exacL physlcal slmllarlLy buL
membershlp of Lhe group ls deLermlned by funcLlon: (a) ln order Lo be a polson, Lhe subsLance
musL have a cerLaln effecL on planL or anlmal physlology, (b) ln order Lo be an herb, Lhe planL
musL play a cerLaln role ln Lhe preparaLlon of food. luncLlonal klnds, as we can see wlLh Lhe
example of herbs, are Lled up wlLh human pracLlces and as such may reflecL value [udgmenLs.
1hornLon Lhen dlscusses wheLher a classlflcaLory sysLem based on funcLlonal klnds would
compromlse ob[ecLlvlLy.

l wlsh Lo focus on Lhe vlew LhaL menLal lllness lacks ob[ecLlvlLy because lL ls deflned ln
psychosoclal, eLhlcal, and legal concepLs. Why would Lhls follow? lL would follow on Lhe [olnL
assumpLlon LhaL such concepLs are essenLlally evaluaLlve and LhaL values are noL parL of Lhe


30

world. lf classlflcaLlons reflecL values, Lhen even lf Lhey were rellable, LhaL would sLlll noL lmply
ob[ecLlvlLy or valldlLy because boJ Lhere been dlsagreemenL (abouL Lhe lmpllclL values) Lhls need
noL lmply any mlsLake. (1hornLon 2002, p. 233)

1hornLon ouLllnes and opposes Lhe vlew LhaL values are noL ln Lhe world and LhaL Lhe only klnd
of classlflcaLory sysLem LhaL can have valldlLy ls one LhaL ls devold of human lnLeresLs and
values and ls creaLed from Lhe sLandpolnL of naLural sclence. lf Lhls vlew ls re[ecLed, Lhen many
of Lhe Lenslons beLween ob[ecLlvlLy and relaLlvlsm ln psychlaLry dlssolve.

Mcuowell's argumenL ls LhaL ootbloq can occupy Lhe exLreme ob[ecLlve end of a scale of
ob[ecLlvlLy cashed ouL ln Lerms of mlnd lndependence. 1he very ldea of applylng concepLs ln
[udgmenL presupposes a sub[ecL who flnds lL naLural Lo make [udgmenLs ln a parLlcular way, Lo
flnd parLlcular ways of golng on naLural (1hornLon 2002, p. 234).

8ernard Wllllams gave us one of Lhe clearesL accounLs of ob[ecLlvlLy. ln boLh hls lnfluenLlal
sLudy of uescarLes and elsewhere (Wllllams 1978, Wllllams 1983), Wllllams descrlbes Lhe
absoluLe concepLlon of Lhe world" (Wllllams 1978, p. 64):

[l]f knowledge ls whaL lL clalms Lo be, Lhen lL ls knowledge of a reallLy LhaL exlsLs lndependenLly of
LhaL knowledge, and lndeed [.] lndependenLly of any LhoughL or experlence. knowledge ls of
whaL ls Lhere ooywoy (Wllllams 1978, p. 64).

Wllllams suggesLs LhaL lf people have Lrue knowledge of Lhe world, Lhey successfully represenL
lL. Powever, represenLaLlons may dlffer. ln Lhls case a furLher represenLaLlon musL be found
LhaL explalns and resolves Lhe seemlng lnconslsLency. 1he summaLlon, resoluLlon and
lLeraLlons of such represenLaLlons are whaL Wllllams Lerms Lhe absoluLe concepLlon of Lhe
world". Wllllams hopes LhaL sclence wlll achleve such a goal (Wllllams 1983, p. 139):

1he alm ls Lo ouLllne Lhe posslblllLy of a convergence characLerlsLlc of sclence, one LhaL could
meanlngfully be sald Lo be a convergence on how Lhlngs (anyway) are. 1haL posslblllLy, as l have
explalned lL, depends heavlly on noLlons of explanaLlon. 1he subsLance of Lhe absoluLe concepLlon
[.] lles ln Lhe ldea LhaL lL could nonvacuously explaln how lL lLself, and Lhe varlous perspecLlval
vlews of Lhe world, are posslble (Wllllams 1983, p. 139).

Mcuowell conLends LhaL Wllllams relles on a fundamenLal dlsLlncLlon beLween appearance and
reallLy (Wllllams 1978, p. 241, Mcuowell 1998a, p. 117) and concelves of sclence as
lnLrlnslcally non-dlsLorLlng, as a pure or LransparenL mode of access Lo reallLy" (Mcuowell
1998a, p. 119). Pe offers Lwo powerful crlLlclsms of Wllllams' vlew. llrsL, any LoLallzlng
ob[ecLlve accounL would have Lo lnclude local perspecLlval accounLs wlLhln lL, Lhus,
descrlpLlons of sub[ecLlve properLles may noL be lnLelllglble lndependenLly of undersLandlng
Lhelr use Lo say how (as one Lakes lL) Lhlngs are" (Mcuowell 1998a, p. 124). Second, he
crlLlclzes Lhe ldea of sclence as a pote means of accesslng reallLy lLself.

Surely whaLever ls subsLanLlve ln any acLual vlew of sclenLlflc meLhod ls lLself parL of a subsLanLlve
vlew of whaL Lhe world ls llke, whlch cannoL escape belng Lhe producL of a parLlcular locaLlon ln
Lhe hlsLory of sclence. Cne's bellefs abouL whlch sorLs of LransacLlons wlLh Lhe world yleld
knowledge of lL are noL prlor Lo, buL parL of, one's bellefs abouL whaL Lhe world ls llke, necessarlly
so, slnce Lhe LransacLlons Lhemselves Lake place ln Lhe world. lf a characLerlzaLlon of sclenLlflc
meLhod ls Lo be general enough Lo be able Lo survlve radlcal alLeraLlons ln sclenLlflc Lheory, lL
needs Lo appeal Lo hlghly absLracL noLlons llke LhaL of slmpllclLy, and such noLlons requlre

31

deLermlnaLe conLenL, and Lhe pracLlcal blLe ln Lhe selecLlon of one hypoLhesls as superlor Lo
oLhers, only ln Lhe conLexL of some speclflc bellefs. (Mcuowell 1998a, p. 126).

Mcuowell's polnL here ls LhaL, on Lhe vlew of sclenLlflc meLhod LhaL Wllllams endorses, we are
lefL wlLh a sclence LhaL ls absLracL and free of hlsLorlcal parochlallsm, buL wlLh no deLermlnaLe
conLenL. lnsplred by Mcuowell's poslLlon on Lhe sclenLlflc worldvlew, 1hornLon argues LhaL a
Laxonomy of klnds can Lhus be non-problemaLlcally and respecLably supplemenLed by klnds
LhaL can be ldenLlfled on Lhe basls of human lnLeresLs and value [udgmenLs. AlLhough Lhere ls
noLhlng wrong abouL pursulng Lhe pro[ecL of blologlcal reducLlonlsm and searchlng for
blologlcal valldaLors for psychlaLrlc dlsorders, blologlcal reallsm needs noL be Lhe only paLh Lo
resculng ob[ecLlvlLy, and for provldlng a framework for sclenLlflc research ln psychlaLry.
ln Lhe nexL secLlon, we suggesL LhaL for Lhe purposes of ldenLlfylng whaL ls paLhologlcal
abouL condlLlons LhaL are classlfled as psychlaLrlc dlsorders, we need Lo be psycboloqlcol
reallsLs.

3. 1CWAkDS SCnCLCGICAL kLALISM

1o whaL exLenL should psychlaLrlc dlsorders be LhoughL of as sLrlcLly analogous Lo oLher
medlcal dlsorders? WhllsL lL ls naLural Lo suppose LhaL psychlaLrlc condlLlons share some
feaLure of physlcal dlsorders (e.g. Lhey presenL obsLacles Lo Lhe saLlsfacLlon of an lndlvldual's
lnLeresLs and negaLlvely affecL Lhe well-belng of LhaL lndlvldual), Lhey also have dlsLlncLlve
feaLures. We wanL Lo argue LhaL some of Lhese feaLures can be adequaLely characLerlzed only
by uslng Lhe vocabulary of Lhe menLal. We do noL deny LhaL psychlaLrlc dlsorders can be
descrlbed as dlsLurbances of neuroblologlcal mechanlsms, buL we lnslsL LhaL Lhey are
paLhologlcal ln vlrLue of Lhelr manlfesLaLlons, and Lhey manlfesL as dlsLurbances of Lhe mlnd.
1aylor (1999, p. vlll) sLaLes LhaL menLal lllness ls noL 'menLal' aL all, buL Lhe behavloral
dlsLurbance assoclaLed wlLh braln dysfuncLlon and dlsease". Cur reply Lo such sLaLemenL ls
LhaL menLal lllness ls menLal preclsely because ln order Lo esLabllsh wheLher a cerLaln
behavlour ls dlsLurbed we need Lo apply psychologlcal concepLs. 1hls ls of course orLhogonal Lo
Lhe quesLlon abouL how Lhese dlsLurbances are caused, and 1aylor ls rlghL LhaL braln
dysfuncLlon and braln deflclLs wlll be aL Lhe basls of Lhese behavloural manlfesLaLlons.
As perhaps some of Lhe prevlous dlscusslon made clear, Lhe assumpLlon ln Lhe currenL
psychlaLrlc llLeraLure ls LhaL Lhere ls only one player ln Lhe game of valldaLlng psychlaLrlc
caLegorles, and LhaL ls blology: even phenomenology ls forced Lo serve as a Lool Lo render such
blologlcal valldaLlon posslble. WlLh very few excepLlons, Lhere ls no debaLe abouL wheLher
dlsorders can be valldaLed psychoanalyLlcally, cognlLlvely, soclally, or even as kraepelln dld, by
cllnlcal course. LquaLlng Lhe naLural wlLh whaL neuroblology can consLraln our undersLandlng
of menLal lllness: lL ls as lf currenLly Lhere were only one way of Lhlnklng abouL classlflcaLlon
and dlagnosls ln psychlaLry, and oLher opLlons were blocked ouL or hldden from enqulry.
neuroblologlcal psychlaLry has become Lhe paradlgm ln Lhe fleld and Lhus lL has led Lo a
re[ecLlon of Lhe poLenLlal conLrlbuLlons of alLernaLlve approaches ln cllnlcal pracLlce and
psychlaLrlc research. neuroblology can explaln why a cerLaln dlsorder occurred, and how besL
we should LreaL lL, and can enllghLen Lhe connecLlons beLween LhaL dlsorder and oLher aspecLs
of normal or abnormal funcLlonlng. 8uL lL cannoL be an exhausLlve and excluslve explanaLlon of
Lhe reason why Lhe observed devlaLlon from normal funcLlonlng ls potboloqlcol. We shall argue
LhaL psychlaLrlc dlsorders manlfesL ln changes ln Lhe menLal, and ln Lhe way ln whlch people
behave wlLh respecL Lo eplsLemlc, moral or soclal norms.
ln Lhe case of deluslons, a merely neuroblologlcal lnvesLlgaLlon becomes problemaLlc early
on. unllke some oLher sympLoms of psychosls, deluslons are noL dlscreLe elLher Lemporally or


32

ln Lerms of Lhelr demarcaLlon from oLher menLal sLaLes. lL would seem lnconcelvable Lo
lnsLrucL a sub[ecL Lo buLLon-press when deluded and when non-deluded, for example, ln a
neurolmaglng experlmenL. ueluslons are usually LhoughL of as false bellefs LhaL are malnLalned
ln Lhe face of sLrong counLerevldence (aL leasL accordlng Lo Lhe doxasLlc concepLlon of
deluslons), buL, as any cllnlclan can aLLesL, Lhere ls a loL more Lo a deluslon Lhan merely belng
wrong. MosL conLemporary accounLs of deluslon vlew Lhem as non-dlscreLe menLal sLaLes, a
sympLom observed when a number of dlfferlng dlmenslonal aLLlLudes Lo a bellef conLenL are
adopLed. CharacLerlsLlcs of deluslons lnclude lmplauslblllLy, convlcLlon, belng unfounded, belng
dlsLresslng, causlng preoccupaLlon, and noL belng shared by oLhers (lreeman 2007). ueluslons
can Lake up a loL of Lhe cognlLlve resources of Lhose who are affecLed by Lhem and lnvolve
lnaccuraLe self-narraLlves (Cerrans 2009). ln addlLlon, some argue LhaL deluslons are noL
merely doxasLlc aLLlLudes, buL brlng abouL a new mode of experlence (SLephens and Craham
2006), or lnvolve Lhe access Lo an alLernaLlve, non-acLual, reallLy ln whlch Lhe sub[ecL remalns
Lrapped (Callagher 2009).
ueluslons may lead Lo Lhe sub[ecL's whole experlence of Lhemselves and Lhe world Lo be
alLered. WhaL was once banal, and beneaLh consclous aLLenLlon, becomes sallenL and self-
referenLlal (8roome eL al. 2003, Cray eL al. 1993, Pemsley 1993, kapur 2003, kapur eL al.
2003). 1he normaLlve, soclally condlLloned, rules for llnklng reasons, causes and explanaLlons
can be dlsrupLed, and we are lefL wlLh Lhe hallmark of deluslon: namely, LhaL Lhe reasons Lhe
person glves for holdlng her deluslonal bellefs elLher do noL look llke reasons or are noL
regarded as lnLersub[ecLlvely good reasons. 1he effecL of an lnapproprlaLe dopamlne-drlven
generaLlon of sallence Lo oLherwlse neuLral represenLaLlon leads Lo Lhe prlvaLe creaLlon of
affecL-laden meanlng and new reason-relaLlons LhaL cannoL be shared or recognlzed by oLhers
as valld. lurLher, ln some cases, Lhe degree of cerLalnLy engendered ls such LhaL some
phllosophers have hypoLheslsed LhaL for deluslons, as for Lhose bellefs we all hold wlLhouL
doubL, Lhe glvlng of and asklng of reasons does noL make sense (Campbell 2001). AlLernaLlvely,
Lhe LenaclLy wlLh whlch a person can hold on Lo her deluslon comblned wlLh Lhe lmplauslblllLy
of Lhe conLenL of Lhe deluslon has been explalned by Lhe esLrangemenL of such person from
Lhe shared background of pracLlces and norms followed by Lhe members of Lhe communlLy
(8hodes and Clpps 2008).
ueluslons held wlLhouL doubL are exLremely reslsLanL Lo counLerevldence or
counLerargumenL, conLrlbuLlng Lo Lhe lsolaLlon of Lhe person reporLlng and bellevlng Lhem.
1hls shows how deluslons manlfesL behavlourally and lnLerpersonally: lL ls by observlng how
Lhe person behaves wlLh respecL Lo her bellefs, and by wlLnesslng such behavlour ln Lhe
process of Lhe glvlng and asklng of reasons LhaL one suspecLs deluslons, noL ln vlewlng a braln
scan or a geneLlc sequence. LlsLlng Lhese feaLures of deluslons helps us reallze LhaL Lhe ldea of
whaL ls paLhologlcal ln deluslon cannoL be fully capLured wlLhouL referrlng Lo psychologlcal
noLlons and an lnLerpersonal dlmenslon. 1hls does noL mean LhaL lL ls lmposslble Lo
reduce Lhe concepL of deluslon Lo lLs blologlcal underplnnlngs or Lo characLerlse deluslons on
Lhe basls of Lhelr physlcal aeLlology, buL LhaL focuslng on local braln dysfuncLlons won'L glve us
a sense of why Lhe deluslon ls a dlsorder, and why boLh Lhe cllnlcally-Lralned and lay
lnLerlocuLor can spoL LhaL someLhlng ls awry when converslng wlLh a person wlLh deluslons.
ueluslons sLreLch our folk-psychologlcal caLegorles and pracLlces (8orLoloLLl 2009).
AlLhough LhaL of deluslons ls our LesL-case ln Lhls paper, lL ls by no means a speclal case.
AnoLher example, whlch we shall noL develop here buL deserves aLLenLlon, ls LhaL of
personallLy dlsorders (borderllne personallLy, narclsslsm, hlsLrlonlc personallLy, eLc.). lckard
(2009, p. 93) observes LhaL paLlenLs ofLen seem Lo lack Lhe vlrLues of, for lnsLance,
Lemperance and moderaLlon, falrness and generoslLy Lo oLhers, humlllLy, LrusL, paLlence, and

33

love and respecL for self and oLhers", and Lhls ls ofLen aL leasL parLlally due Lo acuLe neglecL or
abuse ln chlldhood, where Lhe opporLunlLles for developlng a good characLer ln relaLlon Lo Lhe
expecLaLlons of oLhers were serlously compromlsed. 1he way ln whlch Lhe behavlour of Lhese
paLlenLs devlaLes from Lhe norms of Lhe communlLy ln whlch Lhey llve, and Lhe way ln whlch
Lhelr 'fallures of characLer' manlfesL conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe dlagnosls of Lhelr condlLlon. As wlLh
deluslons, surface feaLures are aL Lhe basls of Lhe classlflcaLlon of personallLy dlsorders.
ersonallLy dlsorders concern boLh a person's behavlour ln relaLlon Lo herself (e.g., self-harm)
and her lnLerpersonal relaLlonshlps (e.g., unwllllngness Lo share goods and cooperaLe, and
oLher forms of anLl-soclal behavlour). As lckard observes, Lhls does noL mean LhaL personallLy
dlsorders cease Lo be condlLlons LhaL can be sclenLlflcally explalned and medlcally LreaLed.
8aLher, lL ls by observlng devlaLlons from norms ln behavlour LhaL Lhe condlLlon ls dlagnosed
and sLarLs Lo be LreaLed and Lraced back Lo lLs neuroblologlcal feaLures.

Are ClusLer 8 us medlcal condlLlons desplLe Lhe facL LhaL Lhey lnvolve fallures of vlrLue and
characLer? [.] [1]here ls good reason Lo hold LhaL us are properly LreaLed ln conLemporary,
mulLldlsclpllnary, menLal healLh cllnlcs, lnvolvlng psychlaLrlsLs, psychologlsLs, and
psychoLheraplsLs of varlous benLs. AL leasL ln Lhls respecL, Lhey are medlcal condlLlons. (lckard
2009, p. 96)

Cbvlously, deluslons and personallLy dlsorders are phenomena LhaL can be sLudled wlLh Lhe
means of neuroblologlcal lnvesLlgaLlon and can be medlcally LreaLed. 1he baslc polnL we
aLLempLed Lo make ln Lhls secLlon by reference Lo Lhese condlLlons ls LhaL we need a
psychologlcal and menLal vocabulary Lo explaln whaL makes Lhe behavlours Lyplcal of Lhese
condlLlons paLhologlcal. Why would anyone Lhlnk LhaL Lhe use of a menLal vocabulary already
lmplles a Lendency Lo ootl-scleotlflc feellngs or a rellance on sopetoototol phenomena?
Mcuowell remlnds us LhaL one shouldn'L belleve LhaL Lhe domaln of sclenLlflc lnvesLlgaLlon
encompasses all LhaL ls naLural and real, and Lalks abouL Lhere belng a second naLure:

1he Lherapy l offer ls a remlnder of Lhe ldea of second naLure, whlch Lends, l suggesL, Lo be
forgoLLen under Lhe lnfluence of a fasclnaLlon wlLh modern sclence. 1he ldea of acLuallsaLlons of
concepLual capaclLles does lndeed belong ln a loglcal space LhaL conLrasLs wlLh Lhe one ln whlch
modern sclence dellvers lLs dlsLlncLlve klnd of undersLandlng. 8uL we should noL allow Lhe loglcal
space of sclenLlflc undersLandlng Lo hl[ack Lhe very ldea of Lhe naLural. 1he ldea of acLuallsaLlons
of concepLual capaclLles belongs ln Lhe loglcal space of reasons, buL concepLual capaclLles are parL
of Lhe second naLure of Lhelr possessors. (Mcuowell 1998b, p. 367)

lL ls Lhe sLrucLure of Lhls second naLure whlch helps us provlde an accounL of whaL menLal
lllnesses are, teolly. MenLal lllness ls apparenL ln Lhe realm of reasons, as abnormal, skewed, or
consLralned behavlour. Changes ln lnLerpersonal behavlour and reason glvlng map on Lhe
broad caLegorles of menLal lllnesses we are famlllar wlLh. MenLal lllnesses os llloesses manlfesL
aL Lhe level of observable behavlour and devlaLlons from eplsLemlc, moral or soclal norms.
WhaL one sees ln blologlcal Lerms may be changes ln recepLor funcLlon, abnormal
neuroLransmlLLer meLabollsm, or underdeveloped orblLofronLal corLex. 8uL such changes are
noL 'dlsordered' ln and of Lhemselves.
nexL we offer Lwo examples ln whlch psychologlcal reallsm seems vlndlcaLed by reference
Lo deluslons. llrsL, we shall argue LhaL an assessmenL of Lhe capaclLy for reason-glvlng can be
proflLably used Lo characLerlse deluslons, a meLhodology LhaL may brlng addlLlonal beneflLs
oLher Lhan Lhe purely Laxonomlcal (see also 8orLoloLLl and 8roome 2008). Second, we conslder
slLuaLlons ln whlch Lhe dlsorder mlghL noL be affecLed by facLors purely lnLernal Lo Lhe


34

sub[ecL's braln buL also by feaLures of Lhe envlronmenL surroundlng Lhe sub[ecL (see also
8orLoloLLl and 8roome 2009a).

4. kLASCN GIVING AND DLLUSICNS

1he noLlon of auLhorshlp as Lhe capaclLy Lo endorse a LhoughL as one's own and [usLlfy lL on
Lhe basls of reasons has been developed by 8lchard Moran and dlscussed exLenslvely ln Lhe
phllosophlcal and psychologlcal llLeraLure (Carman 2003, lerrero 2003, Lawlor 2003, Moran
2001, Moran 2004). 1he noLlon of auLhorshlp, as we see lL, ls noL necessarlly Lled Lo Lhe
raLlonallLy of Lhe bellefs endorsed or Lo Lhe raLlonallLy of Lhe process of formaLlon of such
bellefs. 8aLher, auLhorshlp lles ln Lhe capaclLy Lo endorse Lhe conLenL of a bellef and make lL
one's own by [usLlfylng lL wlLh reasons. AuLhorshlp concelved ln Lhese Lerms generaLes a form
of flrsL-person auLhorlLy. 8y Laklng responslblllLy for Lhe LhoughLs we reporL, we can relaLe Lo
Lhe conLenL of Lhose LhoughLs ln a way no Lhlrd person can. 1he bellef ls noL [usL self-ascrlbed,
lL ls also endorsed and seen as parL of a self narraLlve LhaL underlles agency. We suggesL LhaL
Lhe sub[ecL wlLh deluslons has a psychlaLrlc dlsorder whlch becomes apparenL ln Lhe quallLy of
Lhe sub[ecL's reason glvlng. 1hus a radlcal fallure of auLhorshlp of bellefs, whlch ls Lled Lo
conslderaLlons abouL self-knowledge more generally, can slgnal Lhe presence of a bellef LhaL ls
noL [usL badly lnLegraLed wlLh oLher bellefs, badly supporLed by Lhe evldence and lmperfecLly
raLlonal, buL Lruly paLhologlcal.
uue Lo Lhe menLloned feaLures of auLhorshlp, namely lLs dependence upon Lhe capaclLy Lo
engage ln reason glvlng and lLs conLrlbuLlon Lo self knowledge, lL ls an explanaLorlly useful
noLlon when applled Lo deluslons. A dlscusslon of auLhorshlp ln psychopaLhology can help us
ldenLlfy whaL (lf anyLhlng) makes deluslons dlfferenL from ordlnary bellefs, and can conLrlbuLe
Lo Lhe classlflcaLlon of some bellefs as deluslonal on Lhe basls of Lhe reasonlng paLLerns
exhlblLed by Lhe sub[ecLs of Lhose bellefs. 8uL lL can also have an added value. lL can Lell us
someLhlng abouL how sub[ecLs relaLed Lo Lhe conLenL of Lhelr deluslonal bellefs, wheLher Lhey
Lruly endorse Lhelr conLenL and can be made responslble for Lhe acLlons Lhey perform on Lhe
basls of Lhose bellefs and oLher lnLenLlonal sLaLes.
!aspers' and subsequenL accounLs of Lhe classlflcaLlon of deluslons rely on Lhe dlsLlncLlon
beLween 'form' and 'conLenL'. 1he Lheme of Lhe deluslon, such as persecuLlon, conLrol,
lnfaLuaLlon, deLermlnes lLs conLenL. 1he sLrucLure of Lhe deluslonal bellef and lLs relaLlonshlp
Lo reasons Lhe sub[ecL can offer Lhe lnLervlewer for holdlng lL consLlLuLes Lhe form. 1he form of
a deluslon ls affecLed by wheLher Lhe reasons provlded Lo Lhe lnLervlewer by Lhe sub[ecL are
'undersLandable'. When Lhese reasons are deemed un-undersLandable Lhe deluslon ls sald Lo
be prlmary or auLochLhonous. 1hls explalns why Lhe form of a deluslon has been vlewed as of
parLlcular lmporLance boLh ln Lerms of dlagnosls buL also of prognosls: conLenL has been seen
as somewhaL more 'eplphenomenal' and relaLed Lo Lhe sub[ecL's blography, concerns and
culLure, whereas Lhe form reflecLs Lhe paLhologlcal processes. 1he form of a bellef so lnLended
can Lell us (l) wheLher a bellef ls genulne, (ll) wheLher lL ls well lnLegraLed ln an exlsLlng sysLem
of bellefs, and (lll) Lo whaL exLenL Lhe sub[ecL has self-knowledge wlLh respecL Lo LhaL bellef. lL
can help us answer quesLlons abouL self-knowledge, because Lhe form shapes aLLrlbuLlons of
auLhorshlp. Cnly Lhe auLhor of a bellef ls ln a poslLlon Lo make Lhe conLenL of a bellef one's
own and [usLlfy lL wlLh reasons or defend lL from ob[ecLlons.
lallures of auLhorshlp come ln degrees. lf sub[ecLs wlLh deluslons are unable Lo glve any
reasons for Lhelr deluslonal sLaLes, Lhen Lhey cannoL be regarded as Lhelr auLhors. 1here are
sub[ecLs who reporL Lo belleve someLhlng qulLe sLrlklng wlLh convlcLlon and someLhlng LhaL
would seem Lo be of greaL consequence for Lhemselves. 8uL when asked Lo provlde Lhe

33

reasons why Lhey are commlLLed Lo Lhe conLenL of Lhese bellefs, LhaL ls, Lo make expllclL Lhe
grounds for holdlng Lhe bellefs, Lhey cannoL answer. lor lnsLance, conslder Lhe case of a 21-
year old man who has Lhe sudden convlcLlon LhaL cerLaln songs played on Lhe radlo used hls
volce ln Lhe role of lead slnger, buL cannoL explaln why (?ager and ClLlln 2003). 1he slgnlflcance
of Lhe bellef reporLed make lL an ldeal candldaLe for auLhorshlp, buL Lhe sub[ecL ls unable Lo
provlde any reason LhaL mlghL convlnce oLhers LhaL hls bellef ls llkely Lo be Lrue.
ln oLher cases, sub[ecLs endorse a bellef on Lhe basls of reasons, buL Lhese are reasons LhaL
oLhers fall Lo regard as relevanL Lo Lhe conLenL of Lhe bellef. lor lnsLance, suppose LhaL Lhere ls
a man who belleves LhaL hls wlfe ls unfalLhful Lo hlm because Lhe flfLh lamp-posL along on Lhe
lefL ls unllL (Slms 2003). 1he sub[ecL ls aLLempLlng Lo [usLlfy hls bellef, buL falls Lo supporL hls
bellef on Lhe basls of reasons LhaL oLhers can share and undersLand. Less perplexlng cases are
Lhose ln whlch Lhe sub[ecL wlLh deluslons comes up wlLh undersLandable reasons ln supporL of
Lhe reporLed deluslonal bellef, buL such reasons are noL lnLersub[ecLlvely good reasons. Pere
auLhorshlp ls presenL, Lo some exLenL. A good example ls LhaL of Lhe woman who clalms LhaL
her blood ls belng ln[ecLed ouL of her body ln her sleep because she has spoLs on her arms.
When Lhe lnLervlewer says LhaL Lhe spoLs are freckles and LhaL he has Lhem Loo, she agrees
LhaL Lhe spoLs are slmllar Lo freckles, buL conLlnue Lo belleve LhaL she ls belng ln[ecLed (Slms
2003).
As Lhe prevlous examples suggesL, deluslons can vary wldely wlLh respecL Lo Lhe level of
commlLmenL LhaL sub[ecLs manlfesL Lowards Lhe conLenL of Lhelr deluslonal bellefs. Pere
commlLmenL ls noL [usL supposed Lo Lrack Lhe lmporLance of Lhe deluslon ln Lerms of acLlon-
guldance, perslsLence or lnLegraLlon wlLh oLher lnLenLlonal sLaLes of Lhe sub[ecL, buL lL ls also
supposed Lo glve us clues as Lo wheLher Lhe sub[ecL ls a genulne auLhor of her bellefs. lf Lhe
sub[ecL cannoL provlde any reason, or any reason LhaL malnLalns meanlngful relaLlons Lo Lhe
conLenL of Lhe bellefs, for endorslng Lhe bellefs, Lhe lnLervlewer mlghL elLher doubL LhaL Lhe
sLaLe reporLed ls a genulne bellef (comlng Lo challenge Lhe lnLenLlonallLy of Lhe reporLed sLaLe)
or lnLerpreL Lhe lnablllLy Lo provlde reasons as a breakdown of self-knowledge. 1hls laLLer
move ls even beLLer [usLlfled ln slLuaLlons where noL only Lhe auLhorshlp of Lhe bellefs ls
compromlsed, buL also Lhelr ownershlp, as ln Lhe case of lnserLed LhoughLs (see 8orLoloLLl and
8roome 2009b).
1he concepLlon of deluslons as menLal dlsorders or paLhologlcal bellefs relles on Lhe
analysls of Lhe reason-relaLlons beLween Lhe sub[ecL's bellefs and on aLLrlbuLlons of self-
knowledge and raLlonallLy.

S. 'Lk1LkNALISM' AND SCnCA1nCLCG

neurolmaglng and geneLlcs have made a slgnlflcanL lmpacL on undersLandlng menLal lllness,
and on undersLandlng psychlaLry, buL Lhls should noL bllnd us Lo Lhe lmpacL of recenL sLudles ln
epldemlology and prognosls of menLal lllness. As ls ofLen Lhe case ln psychlaLry, flndlngs
around schlzophrenla have deLermlned research Lrends ln wlder psychlaLry. lL has become
clear LhaL Lhere ls marked heLerogenelLy ln Lhe raLes of schlzophrenla, and LhaL furLher, some
of Lhls heLerogenelLy can be explalned by urban blrLh and upbrlnglng, mlgraLlon, eLhnlclLy, and
whaL has been Lermed 'soclal defeaL' (CanLor-Craae and SelLen 2003, SelLen and CanLor-Craae
2003). A parLlcularly lmporLanL body of research ls Lhe M8C ALSC sLudy LhaL demonsLraLed a
LwenLyfold raLe lncrease ln Lhe lncldence of psychosls ln London, compared wlLh noLLlngham
and 8rlsLol, wlLh Lhe very hlghesL raLes belng wlLhln Lhe black and eLhnlc mlnorlLy groups
(Morgan eL al. 2003a,b, 2006a,b, Morgan and learon 2007, learon and Morgan 2006,
klrkbrlde eL al. 2007a,b).


36

1hese epldemlologlcal flndlngs were compounded boLh by conLlnuum models of psychosls
(!ohns and van Cs 2001), suggesLlng LhaL raLes of psychoLlc experlence ln a non-help-seeklng
populaLlon were dependenL upon many of Lhe same varlables LhaL explalned cases of Lhe
dlsorder, and by a seemlng fallure ln Lhe neurodevelopmenLal model of schlzophrenla ln
explalnlng how someone wlLh odd ldeas and developmenLal delay became a person wlLh a
frank psychoLlc dlsorder (8roome eL al. 2003). Pence, for Lhe problems Lhe sLudy of
schlzophrenla brlngs researchers and cllnlclans, Lhe answers provlded by neurosclence and
geneLlcs may noL be sufflclenL. 1rylng Lo connecL psychologlcal, blologlcal, and soclal models of
psychosls ls lmporLanL, and Lrylng Lo emplrlcally LesL Lhe relaLlonshlps beLween Lhese varleLles
of varlables has become a focus of psychosls research.
lncreaslngly, accounLs of psychosls relaLlng neuropsychologlcal funcLlon, dopamlne,
sympLoms, sLress, and soclal lsolaLlon have been publlshed. A very lnfluenLlal accounL ls
kapur's sallence Lheory (kapur 2003, kapur eL al. 2003). kapur llnks dopamlne dysregulaLlon Lo
Lhe aberranL sallence of boLh lnLernal and exLernal represenLaLlons and Lo Lhe
sympLomaLology of psychosls. ln a serles of remarkable experlmenLs, Myln-Cermeys, van Cs,
and oLher colleagues from MaasLrlchL (Myln-Cermeys eL al. 2001a,b, 2003a,b, 2003)
demonsLraLed a relaLlonshlp beLween psychoLlc experlences and sLress and 'dally hassles'. 1hls
senslLlvlLy was ln parL consequenL upon Lhe reacLlvlLy of Lhe parLlclpanLs' dopamlnerglc sysLem
and Lhelr hlsLory of llfe evenLs, and furLher, neuropsychologlcal lmpalrmenL amelloraLed Lhls
senslLlvlLy. LlleL, lreeman, and colleagues (LlleLL eL al. 2007) demonsLraLed how Lhe experlence
of walklng Lhrough a busy urban sLreeL lncreased anxleLy levels, negaLlve bellefs abouL oLhers,
and exaggeraLed reasonlng blases llnked Lo Lhe formaLlon and malnLenance of deluslons.
Pence, for schlzophrenla and oLher psychoLlc dlsorders, we are lefL wlLh Lhe heLerogenelLy of
lncldence raLes, Lhe role LhaL belng parL of an eLhnlc mlnorlLy group, or belng a mlgranL plays,
plus daLa suggesLlng LhaL Lhe urban envlronmenL has an lmmedlaLe and measurable lmpacL
upon levels of paranola ln boLh healLh conLrols and paLlenLs.
ln conLrasL Lo much of Lhe work of Lhe 1990s, Lhls reblrLh of soclal psychlaLry has led Lo a
renewed lnLeresL ln exLernal facLors Lo Lhe braln ln Lhe genesls of psychosls. 1he ldea of an
envlronmenL, or llved experlence, LhaL ls somehow 'psychoLogenlc' ls a consequence of Lhe
daLa sLresslng how much varlance ln psychopaLhology could be aLLrlbuLed Lo conLexL and
exposure. Clven LhaL many commenLaLors vlew Lhese flndlngs as a challenge Lo wholly
neurosclenLlflc or geneLlc accounLs of menLal lllness, can lL be suggesLed LhaL psychopaLhology
may be consequenL upon facLors extetool Lo Lhe braln? ln phllosophy, exLernallsm ls llnked Lo
Lhe LruLh of one of Lwo clalms (8owlands, 2003): flrsL, Lhe locotloo clalm, Lhe ldea LhaL some
menLal phenomena are noL spaLlally locaLed lnslde boundarles of sub[ecL LhaL has or
undergoes Lhem, and second, Lhe possessloo clalm, Lhe ldea LhaL Lhe possesslon of aL leasL
some menLal sLaLes by a sub[ecL depends on feaLures LhaL are exLernal Lo lLs boundarles. 8ased
upon how varlous exLernallsL phllosophers accepL or re[ecL Lhese clalms, Lwo broad varleLles of
exLernallsm are descrlbed ln Lhe llLeraLure. veblcle exLernallsm, ls based predomlnanLly on Lhe
locaLlon clalm and suggesLs LhaL Lhe very vehlcles and processes of cognlLlon ln parL exlsL
ouLslde Lhe skln of menLal sub[ecLs. cooteot exLernallsm ls drlven by Lhe possesslon clalm and
argues LhaL Lhe lndlvlduaLlon of proposlLlonal aLLlLudes ls dependenL upon properLles/relaLlons
exLernal Lo Lhe skln.
ls Lhe focus on vehlcle exLernallsm, or 'exLended cognlLlon' (Clark and Chalmers 1998, Clark
2003), helpful when we Lhlnk abouL psychosls? Clven Lhe effecL LhaL Lhe world, and speclflcally
urban experlence, may have on boLh Lhe raLes and sympLoms of psychosls, can exLernal facLors
Lo Lhe braln have a role, ln Lerms of lnformaLlon processlng and cognlLlon, ln Lhe aeLlology of
psychosls? As a llsL on a plece of paper may supplemenL Lhe neurally encoded memory we

37

have of whaL we wanL Lo shop for ln Lhe supermarkeL, cerLaln cognlLlve acLs may be subserved
or supplemenLed by physlcal enLlLles or relaLlonshlps ln Lhe exLernal world. Such a Lheory has
been llnked Lo evoluLlonary concerns: lf Lhe envlronmenL can encode cerLaln lnformaLlon
rellably, and we can easlly access and uLlllze such lnformaLlon, Lhen lL would be lnefflclenL Lo
develop lnLernal mechanlsms Lo do such work. CerLalnly, emplrlcal daLa suggesL LhaL worklng
memory and oLher neuropsychologlcal, lnLernal deflclLs may be llnked Lo Lhe onseL of
psychosls and perhaps an lncreaslng rellance on exLernal vehlcles of cognlLlon. uo cerLaln
envlronmenLs yleld parLlcular lnformaLlon lf Lhe lndlvldual ls ln a glven 'lnLernal'
(neurochemlcal, affecLlve, neuropsychologlcal) sLaLe? As Lhe emplrlclsL sLrand of Lhe doxasLlc
accounL of deluslon argues, Lhe deluslonal conLenL ls ln Lhe percepLlon of Lhe world.
uo my experlences when walklng down LlecLrlc Avenue bear Lhe lnformaLlonal conLenL LhaL
l am Palle Selassle, and hence Cod lncarnaLe for Lhe 8asLafarlans? ln hls lnfluenLlal MloJ ooJ
wotlJ, Mcuowell argues LhaL for Lhe LhoughLs of any of us Lo have genulne lnLenLlonallLy and
Lo be abouL Lhe world requlres Lhe world lLself Lo be concepLually sLrucLured and reallLy Lo
exerL a raLlonal lnfluence on whaL we can Lhlnk (Mcuowell 1996). 1he deluded are noL slmply
mlsLaken and, as we have dlscussed elsewhere (8orLoloLLl and 8roome 2008), Lhe world and
lnLernal evenLs become meanlngful ln a non-publlc manner. WlLhln Lhe phllosophy of mlnd,
exLernallsm has been vlewed as challenge Lo Lhe vlew LhaL menLal conLenL ls wholly dependenL
upon lnLernal varlables such as blologlcal sLaLes ln Lhe braln. Slmllarly, an exLernallsL
psychopaLhology would puL pressure on Lhe ldea LhaL we could have a descrlpLlon of menLal
dlsorder purely based on lnLernal, blologlcal varlables. As such, lL can supporL a 'psychologlcally
reallsL' poslLlon where Lhe menLal varlables are Lhe focus, and Lhey ln Lurn are deLermlned by
boLh lnLernal and exLernal facLors Lo Lhe organlsm.

6. CCNCLUSICN

1he currenL classlflcaLlon [lotetootloool closslflcotloo of ulseoses, 8] ls a hoLch-poLch of
classlflcaLlons by cause, paLhology, course and cllnlcal paLLern. lL ls an emplrlcal uLlllLarlan
scheme such as Pughllngs !ackson conLrasLed wlLh a sclenLlflc one.. [.] lL flles ln Lhe face of
Laxonomlc recLlLude, buL perslsLs for lack of anyLhlng beLLer whlch would be generally
accepLable. (Lewls 1979, p. 193)

ln LhlrLy years llLLle seems Lo have changed from Lewls' assessmenL of lCu-8. Avallable
classlflcaLlons are heLerogeneous, Lhe dlsorders descrlbed under one caLegory do noL
necessarlly have anyLhlng ln common, and Lhe blologlcal paradlgm governs Laxonomlc efforLs
wlLh no good reason (see also 8roome 2007 and Cooper 2004). ln Lhls paper we have argued -
largely by examples - LhaL some psychologlcal noLlons whlch are eplsLemlc ln characLer, such as
Lhose of raLlonallLy and self-knowledge, and some feaLures of Lhe exLernal envlronmenL LhaL
affecL Lhe compllance wlLh soclal and moral norms ln Lhe lndlvldual, play an lmporLanL role ln
Lhe deLecLlon and dlagnosls of menLal lllness, and Lhus ln lLs concepLuallsaLlon. 1hese
psychologlcal noLlons also play a role ln our aLLempLs aL classlfylng psychlaLrlc dlsorders.
ln Lhe flrsL example we presenLed, noLlons of reason glvlng and auLhorshlp of LhoughLs
conLrlbuLe Lo a characLerlsaLlon of deluslons as paLhologles of bellefs LhaL has Lhe poLenLlal Lo
lmprove our undersLandlng of deluslons and Lo supporL welcome changes ln Lhe LreaLmenL of
people wlLh deluslons. 1he noLlon of auLhorshlp, when applled Lo reporLed deluslons, can Lell
us someLhlng abouL whaL ls puzzllng abouL deluslons, why Lhey Lake us by surprlse and why we
mlghL doubL ln some clrcumsLances wheLher Lhe people who reporL Lhose deluslons really
endorse Lhem as bellefs. 8uL oLher lessons can be learnL. llrsL, Lhere ls no one Lype, 'deluslon',
LhaL flLs all Lhe experlences of sub[ecLs of deluslons, because Lhe form of deluslons can make a


38

huge dlfference Lo Lhe quallLy of reason glvlng ln lnLervlews and Lo Lhe exLenL Lo whlch we Lake
sub[ecLs Lo have knowledge of Lhelr own consclous menLal sLaLes. 1he oLher lesson Lo learn ls
LhaL we cannoL draw a sharp dlsLlncLlon beLween deluslons and oLher non-deluslonal bellefs
LhaL are also very lmplauslble or badly supporLed by evldence. ln deluslons as ln oLher
lrraLlonal bellefs auLhorshlp may fall, alLhough ln deluslons lL generally falls Lo a greaLer exLenL
Lhereby offerlng some clues abouL Lhe paLhologlcal naLure of deluslons. 1hls fallure Lo provlde
a demarcaLlon whlch ls quallLaLlvely sharp ls noL an lndlcaLlon LhaL psychologlcal or menLal
noLlons are hopeless aL conLrlbuLlng Lo classlflcaLlon, buL LhaL Lhey are aL Lhe rlghL level of
concepLual sophlsLlcaLlon Lo provlde Lhe Lools of analysls LhaL are needed ln accounLs of
menLal dlsorders. Applylng such noLlons does noL solve all Lhe classlflcaLlon problems buL
lmproves undersLandlng and allows dlscrlmlnaLlons LhaL oLher levels of analysls cannoL
capLure.
LxLernallsm serves as an example of a second challenge Lo blologlcal reallsm ln
psychopaLhology. lf menLal conLenL ls noL wholly dependenL causally upon lnLernal varlables,
such as braln sLaLes, Lhen a psychopaLhology relylng purely on neurosclence wlll fall Lo explaln
Lhe varlance ln menLal sLaLes LhaL we vlew as psychopaLhology. uaLa from psychosls and
schlzophrenla research lncreaslngly have demonsLraLed Lhe role of llved experlence ln boLh Lhe
developmenL of odd experlences buL also poLenLlally ln Lhe heLerogeneous lncldence raLes of
psychoLlc lllness. sychologlcal reallsm allows us Lo keep psychopaLhology ln focus and
malnLalns agnosLlclsm as Lo Lhe preclse causal varlables, lnLernal and exLernal, Lo Lhe lndlvldual
LhaL may lead Lo menLal dlsorder.
CurrenLly psychopaLhologlcal sLaLes and menLal dlsorders use crlLerla LhaL rely on
psychologlcal Lerms and refer Lo devlaLlons from norms (eLhlcal, eplsLemlc, soclal, eLc.). MenLal
lllness lLself can be LhoughL of Lhe klnd of dlsorder one ldenLlfles as when normal reason-
glvlng, all oLher Lhlngs belng equal, breaks down. 1hus, concreLely speaklng, a braln scan,
geneLlc abnormallLy, blood LesL, and so on, can never o ptlotl serve as Lhe sole crlLerlon for Lhe
dlagnosls of menLal lllness. Such LesLs can conLrlbuLe Lo dlagnoslng dlsorders when dlsorders
are deflned ln Lerms of Lhose crlLerla, or Lo furLher elucldaLlng physlology. ln Lhls respecL,
neurolmaglng has undoubLedly made greaL advances ln Lhe sLudy of Lhe braln. Powever, ln
order Lo dlagnose menLal lllness, one Lalks Lo one's paLlenLs. 1o brlng blologlcal lnvesLlgaLlons
lnLo dlagnosLlc use, we can 'ellmlnaLe' menLal lllness and choose Lo redeflne psychlaLrlc
dlsLurbances uslng oLher crlLerla Lhan Lhose we now employ. 1hls approach would lead Lo a
radlcal shlfL ln boLh Lhe professlon (and posslble exlsLence) of psychlaLry, as well as Lo a change
ln Lhe wlder socleLal percepLlon and undersLandlng of menLal lllness. lL would also generaLe a
concepLual dlfflculLy: lL doesn'L Lake an experL Lo recognlse LhaL someone ls menLally
dlsordered, buL how would one declde wheLher dopamlne quanLal slze, funcLlonal M8l
acLlvaLlons, or repeaLs of geneLlc polymorphlsms were abnormal ln Lhe absence of a
dlsordered person? And Lhls ls Lhe crux of Lhe lssue: for blologlcal psychlaLry Lo have any
valldlLy, and Lo be anyLhlng more Lhan neurosclence, Lhe maln ob[ecL of sLudy needs Lo remaln
Lhe person. 1he normal and Lhe abnormal Lhemselves are noL properLles of Lhe braln.

8I8LICGkAn

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39

8orLoloLLl, L. and 8roome, M.8. (2009a). 1he fuLure of sclenLlflc psychlaLry. ln M8 8roome
and L 8orLoloLLl (eds.) lsycblotty os coqoltlve Neotoscleoce. lbllosopblcol letspectlves.
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40

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43

Epistemology: A Bebavior Analytic Perspective

8toce A. 1byet
*

bLhyer[fsu.edu

A8S1kAC1

1he fleld of behavlor analysls conLalns Lhree dlsLlncL elemenLs. 1he pracLlce of applled behavlor analysls,
Lhe research meLhodology known as Lhe experlmenLal analysls of behavlor (largely relylng on slngle-
sub[ecL deslgns), and Lhe phllosophy of sclence known as behavlorlsm. 8ehavlorlsm has well arLlculaLed
poslLlons on a varleLy of LradlLlonal Loplcs conLalned wlLhln convenLlonal phllosophy, Loplcs such as
consclousness, aesLheLlcs, eLhlcs and values, onLology, free wlll and deLermlnlsm, onLology, and
eplsLemology. A revlew of Lhe general fleld of behavlor analysls ls followed by a descrlpLlon of Lhls fleld's
perspecLlve on eplsLemology, whlch ls largely reallsL, parslmonlous, and cenLers around demonsLraLlons
relaLlng Lo Lhe predlcLlon and conLrol over selecLed behavlor. noLlons of causallLy as eschewed ln favor
of demonsLraLlng funcLlonal relaLlonshlps beLween envlronmenLal evenLs and subsequenL behavlor. 1o
Lhe exLenL LhaL one can effecLlvely predlcL and conLrol behavlor, one has arrlved aL a llmlLed
undersLandlng LhaL ls LruLhful.

LIS1LMCLCG: A 8LnAVICk ANAL1IC LkSLC1IVL

l ofteo colleJ eplstemoloqy my fltst love.
(8. l. Sklnner, 1983, p. 393)

Ooe of tbe oltlmote occompllsbmeots of o scleoce of vetbol bebovlot moy be oo empltlcol loqlc ot o
Jesctlptlve ooJ ooolytlc scleotlflc eplstemoloqy.
(8. l. Sklnner, 1937, p. 431)

l come to bebovlotlsm.becoose of lts beotloq oo eplstemoloqy, ooJ l bove oot beeo JlsoppoloteJ.
(8. l. Sklnner, clLed ln SmlLh, 1986, p. 263)

1hls paper wlll presenL an overvlew of a behavlor analyLlc perspecLlve on Lhe Loplc of
eplsLemology. Many readers may noL be famlllar wlLh Lhe fleld of behavlor analysls, and
provldlng an overvlew of Lhls Lhrlvlng dlsclpllne wlll be helpful ln placlng Lhe eplsLemologlcal
dlscusslon lnLo a larger conLexL. Whlle behavlor analysls ls ofLen seen prlmarlly as a fleld wlLhln
Lhe larger dlsclpllne of psychology, Lhe appllcaLlon of behavlor analysls wlLhln a wlde range of
professlons, lncludlng soclal work, educaLlon, soclology, pollLlcal sclence, phllosophy,
economlcs and many oLhers, ls leadlng Lo Lhe poslLlon LhaL behavlor analysls emerglng as a
credlble lndependenL professlonal dlsclpllne ln lLs own rlghL. 1hls vlew ls supporLed by Lhe
expanslon of graduaLe degree programs ln behavlor analysls, an accredlLaLlon mechanlsm for
such programs, Lhe emergence of sLaLe-endorsed cerLlflcaLlon or llcensure programs for Lhe
pracLlce of behavlor analysls, Lhrlvlng professlonal assoclaLlons and [ournals, and a professlonal
code of eLhlcs.

*
College of Soclal Work, llorlda SLaLe unlverslLy - Correspondence concernlng Lhls arLlcle may be
addressed Lo 8ruce A. 1hyer, h.u., College of Soclal Work, 296 Champlons Way, llorlda SLaLe
unlverslLy, 1allahassee, lL uSA or vla emall uslng 8Lhyer[fsu.edu


46

8ehavlor analysls, hereafLer abbrevlaLed as 8A, has Lhree general areas, Lhe pracLlce of
opplleJ bebovlot ooolysls, a research meLhodology known as Lhe expetlmeotol ooolysls of
bebovlot, and Lhe phllosophy of sclence known as bebovlotlsm. 8A ls supporLed by a number of
professlonal assoclaLlons, foremosL of whlch ls Lhe AssoclaLlon for 8ehavlor Analysls -
lnLernaLlonal (A8Al, see hLLp://www.abalnLernaLlonal.org). A8Al has over 63 afflllaLed chapLers
locaLed around Lhe world, lncludlng over 13,300 members, wlLh 3800+ ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes
alone. lLs annual conference aLLracLs over 3000 aLLendees, and Lhe organlzaLlon sponsors
several hlghly clLed [ournals. 1he pracLlce of behavlor analysls ls legally regulaLed ln a number
of sLaLes ln Lhe uSA, and a naLlonal behavlor analysls cerLlflcaLlon board helps assure LhaL Lhe
pracLlLloners of applled behavlor analysls possess cerLaln mlnlmal quallflcaLlons (see
hLLp://www.bacb.com/). We wlll revlew each of Lhese Lhree elemenLs of behavlor analysls, as
Lhey are essenLlal Lo undersLandlng Lhe fleld's eplsLemologlcal poslLlons.

ALILD 8LnAVICk ANALSIS

Applled behavlor analysls (A8A) ls Lhe dlsclpllne's pracLlce wlng, conslsLlng of cerLlfled behavlor
analysLs, as well as professlonals wlLhln oLher dlsclpllnes who are Lralned ln A8A and make use
of lLs prlnclples ln Lhe dellvery of professlonal servlces ln dlverse flelds such as psychology,
soclal work, medlclne, and educaLlon. As ouLllned ln 8aer, Wolf, and 8lsley's (1969, p. 91)
semlnal plece, analyLlc behavloral lnLervenLlon ls Lhe process of applylng someLlmes LenLaLlve
prlnclples of behavlor Lo Lhe lmprovemenL of speclflc behavlors, and slmulLaneously evaluaLlng
wheLher or noL any noLed changes are lndeed aLLrlbuLable Lo Lhe process of appllcaLlon". A8A
has several deflnlng aLLrlbuLes:

1he problem under lnvesLlgaLlon musL be soclally slgnlflcanL. Applled behavlor analysLs
are noL usually lnLeresLed ln sLudylng Lrlvlal lssues.
8oLh Lhe lnLervenLlon(s) and Lhe ouLcomes musL be behavloral ln naLure. 1he
lnLervenLlons sLudled musL be derlved from prlnclples of learnlng Lheory, and Lhe
ouLcomes lnclude ob[ecLlve measures of whaL people acLually do, noL merely whaL
Lhey may say Lhey have done, wlll do, or marks Lhey place on a plece of paper, as ln
compleLlng a sympLom quesLlonnalre, raLlng scale, or aLLlLudlnal measure.
1he approach ls analyLlc, ln LhaL each case ls a small scale experlmenL almed aL
provldlng plauslble evldence LhaL Lhe lnLervenLlon was funcLlonally relaLed Lo observed
changes ln behavlor.
1he approach ls Lechnologlcally based, explalned as 1he besL rule of Lhumb for
evaluaLlng a procedure descrlpLlon as Lechnologlcal ls probably Lo ask wheLher a
Lyplcally Lralned reader could repllcaLe LhaL procedure well enough Lo produce Lhe
same resulLs, glven only a readlng of Lhe descrlpLlon (8aer, Wolf, & 8lsley, 1968, p. 93).
Slmllarly, Lhe ways used Lo measure Lhe ouLcome varlables should be slmllarly
Lechnologlcally descrlbed.
1he approach musL be concepLually sysLemaLlc, wlLh Lhe presumpLlve effecLs of Lhe
lnLervenLlon expllcable ln Lerms of conLemporary learnlng prlnclples, and Lhe resulLs
havlng a bearlng on Lhe valldlLy of Lhese underlylng behavloral prlnclples.
1he approach musL be effecLlve, ln LhaL behavloral ouLcomes are cllnlcally lmproved.
1he approach musL be generallzable, ldeally yleldlng long-Lerm changes, noL slmply
Lemporary ones, and generaLe effecLs repllcable among oLher lndlvlduals wlLh slmllar
problems.

Biuce A. Thyei - Epistemology: A Behavioi Analytic Peispective

47

1hus, ln summary, an behavlor analysls wlll make obvlous Lhe lmporLance of Lhe behavlor
changes, lLs quanLlLaLlve characLerlsLlcs, Lhe experlmenLal manlpulaLlons whlch analyze wlLh
clarlLy whaL was responslble for Lhe change, Lhe Lechnologlcally exacL descrlpLlon of all
procedures conLrlbuLlng Lo LhaL change, Lhe effecLlveness of Lhose procedures ln maklng
sufflclenL change for value, and Lhe generallLy of LhaL change (8aer, Wolf, & 8lsley 1968, p. 97,
emphasls ln orlglnal).

1hese feaLures are conLended Lo ralse Lhe fleld of A8A Lo LhaL of a genulne sclence of human
behavlor and lLs conLrol.
1he approach of A8A ls used ln a wlde varleLy of areas, lncludlng menLal healLh, healLh care,
educaLlon, developmenLal dlsablllLles, all of Lhe applled healLh professlons, eLc. 8ehavlor
analysls ls dlsLlncL from Lhe fleld of professlonal psychology by llmlLlng lLself Lo Lhe analysls of
behavlor-envlronmenL lnLeracLlons. ln conLrasL, Lhe Amerlcan sychologlcal AssoclaLlon sLaLes
LhaL sychology ls Lhe sLudy of Lhe mlnd and behavlor" (downloaded from
hLLp://www.psychologymaLLers.org/psycdeflnlLlon.hLml on 29 SepLember 2009). Well and
good. 1hls seems clear enough, and qulLe leglLlmaLe. !usL as geneLlclsLs solely focus on geneLlc
conLrlbuLlons Lo undersLandlng behavlor, physlologlsLs Lhe funcLlonlng of organ sysLems for
Lhe same purpose, neurochemlsLs Lhe role of hormones and oLher aspecLs of chemlsLry as Lhey
effecL one's acLlons, Lhe behavlor analysL's nlche ln sclence ls Lhe lnLersecLlon of Lhe
envlronmenL wlLh human acLlvlLles and Lhelr reclprocal lnLeracLlons.

1nL LkLkIMLN1AL ANALSIS CI 8LnAVICk

1he aspecL of 8A called Lhe experlmenLal analysls of behavlor (LA8) refers Lo an approach Lo
emplrlcal research whlch ls generally known as slngle-case research deslgns. Much
convenLlonal lnqulry ln Lhe soclal and behavloural sclences uses nonomeLhlc deslgns, research
lnvolvlng large groups of lndlvlduals and ln puLLlng hypoLheses Lo Lhe LesL uslng Lhe
hypoLheLlco-deducLlve meLhod. ulfferences beLween groups (e.g., one LhaL recelves a
LreaLmenL compared Lo one LhaL dld noL) or wlLhln groups (e.g., Lhe level of funcLlonlng of a
group of lndlvlduals before and afLer Lhey recelved a glven LreaLmenL) are examlned uslng
lnferenLlal sLaLlsLlcs. 1he exLernal valldlLy of such sLudles ls Lyplcally clalmed on Lhe basls of
conducLlng a sLudy on a randomly selecLed or oLherwlse represenLaLlve sample of persons
reflecLlve of a larger populaLlon of persons of lnLeresL (e.g., people wlLh a parLlcular Lype of
problem or dlagnosls).
LA8 uses a dlfferenL approach Lo sclenLlflc lnqulry. lnsLead of Laklng a few observaLlons
from many cllenLs, as ln nomoLheLlc research, Lhe ldlographlc LA8 meLhod obLalns many
observaLlons from one or a very few number of people, ldeally a number of Llmes before and
afLer Lhelr exposure Lo some envlronmenLally-based LreaLmenL. lf Lhe preLesL measures
(known as a basellne) are sLable, and change ln Lhe ouLcome measures ls seen lmmedlaLely
afLer Lhe lnLroducLlon of Lhe lnLervenLlon, wlLh Lhese changes belng boLh rapld, obvlous, and
lmporLanL, Lhls ls consLrued as prellmlnary evldence of a causal llnk beLween whaL was done
(Lhe dellberaLe change ln Lhe envlronmenL) and changes ln behavlor. A slngle such
demonsLraLlon ls of course very weak evldence, whlch ls why LA8 relles on an array of
sophlsLlcaLed research deslgns, Lhrough whlch uslng a process of repllcaLed flndlngs lnvolvlng
Lhe dellberaLe lnLroducLlon and someLlmes Lhe removal of an lnLervenLlon, lncreaslngly
plauslble evldence can accrue supporLlng Lhe conLenLlon LhaL Lhere ls a genulne funcLlonal
relaLlonshlp beLween lnLervenLlon x and ouLcome ?. SomeLlmes Lhls can occur wlLhln an
lndlvldual cllenL, and someLlmes Lhe research lnvolves repllcaLed flndlngs across a number of
cllenLs. 1he 'lnLervenLlons', experlmenLal manlpulaLlons or lndependenL varlables of Lhe
behavlor analysL usually conslsL of envlronmenLally-based sLlmull, ofLen consLrued as


48

relnforclng or averslve consequences, changes ln Lhe physlcal envlronmenL, Lhe presenLaLlon
or removal of anLecedenL sLlmull, and Lhe use of verbal meLhods of conLrol.
1he meLhodology of slngle-case research ls lald ouL ln a number of LexLbooks on behavlor
analyLlc deslgns (e.g., Sldman, 1960, !ohnsLon & ennypacker, 1993, 1hyer & Myers, 2007,
8lley-1lllman & 8urns, 2009), and alLhough Lhls approach dld noL orlglnaLe wlLh Lhe
behavlorlsLs (Lhe fleld of medlclne seems a more llkely candldaLe), Lhey elevaLed lL Lo Lhelr
prlmary approach Lo sclenLlflc lnqulry. CerLalnly when Lhe level of analysls lnvolves lndlvldual
sub[ecLs, slngle case deslgns possess numerous advanLages over nomoLheLlc research. 1he
prlmary meLhod of lnferrlng change ln slngle-case deslgns conslsLs of vlsually lnspecLlng daLa
presenLed ln Lhe forms of llne graphs. 1hls produces a very conservaLlve approach Lo lnference
because lf Lhe daLa are hlghly varlable, a change ln behavlor ls mlnor, or oLherwlse noL
obvlous, lL ls easy Lo overlook. 1hls resulLs ln Lhe concluslons drawn from LA8 research flndlngs
belng falrly robusL ones ln LhaL wlLhouL compelllngly dramaLlc changes ln a cllenL's paLLern of
daLa (say from pre-LreaLmenL Lo posL-LreaLmenL levels of behavlor), Lhe naLural Lendency ls Lo
lnfer LhaL no dlfferences occurred. 1hls LA8 meLhodology of slngle-case deslgns has been
wldely employed ln a varleLy of baslc sclences and applled professlons, such as psychlaLry
(8arlow & Persen, 1973, Chassan, 1967). WlLhln Lhe domaln of evldence-based pracLlce, slngle-
case research deslgns are sald Lo be Lhe hlghesL level of evldence useful ln maklng declslons
and represenL Lhe mosL rlgorous lnvesLlgaLory meLhodology for maklng causal lnferences aL
Lhe level of lndlvlduals (CuyaLL & 8ennle, 2002).

8LnAVICkISM

1he phllosophy of sclence known as bebovlotlsm represenLs Lhe Lhlrd domaln of behavlor
analysls and Lhe Lerm ls noL lnLended Lo refer Lo Lhe appllcaLlon of learnlng Lheory prlnclples Lo
applled problems, or Lo Lhe research meLhodology. 8aLher, 8ehavlorlsm ls noL Lhe sclenLlflc
sLudy of behavlor by a phllosophy of sclence concerned wlLh Lhe sub[ecL maLLer and meLhods
of psychology (Sklnner, 1969, p. 221). AlLhough Lhe focus of Lhe presenL arLlcle ls on a
behavlor analyLlc approach Lo eplsLemology, behavlorlsm as a phllosophy has lLs own
perspecLlve Lo mosL of Lhe LradlLlonal concerns of general phllosophy, lncludlng eLhlcs,
consclousness, free wlll, values, deLermlnlsm and self-conLrol, language, and aesLheLlcs (see
Chlesa, 1994, 1hyer, 1997, LaLLal & Chase, 2003, Lelgland, 2003). 1here ls a wlde-ranglng
[ournal called 8ebovlot ooJ lbllosopby, esLabllshed ln 1973 and publlshed by Lhe Cambrldge
CenLer for 8ehavloral SLudles (see hLLp://www.behavlor.org/behavlor/lndex.cfm?page
=hLLp3A//www.behavlor.org/behavlor/whaL_ls_behavlor_analysls.cfm).1hls [ournal ls
expllclLly devoLed Lo examlnlng Lhe behavloral perspecLlve Lo phllosophlcal lssues and of
course arLlcles reflecLlng a behavloral orlenLaLlon regularly appear ln malnsLream phllosophy
[ournals (e.g., Addls, 1982, uay & Moore, 1993, Payes, 1983, Moore, 1990, 1998, 8eed, 1981).
1hls LrlnlLy of applled behavlor analysls, Lhe experlmenLal analysls of behavlor, and of
behavlorlsm comprlses Lhe general fleld of behavlor analysls.
1he Lerm 'behavlorlsm' ls sub[ecL Lo dlfferenL lnLerpreLaLlons, lncludlng meLhodologlcal
behavlorlsm, phllosophlcal behavlorlsm, and radlcal behavlorlsm.
MeLhodologlcal behavlorlsm conLends LhaL Lhe proper sub[ecL maLLer of psychology
conslsLs solely of overL behavlor - acLlons or funcLlons LhaL can be deLecLed Lhrough dlrecL
observaLlon or proper lnsLrumenLaLlon. MeLhodologlcal behavlorlsm aLLempLs Lo explaln overL
behavlor, and whlle accepLlng Lhe exlsLence of lnner sLaLes such as LhoughLs and feellngs,
holds LhaL Lhey cannoL be sLudled sclenLlflcally. hllosophlcal behavlorlsm .sLands for
analyzlng or reduclng menLal sLaLes lnLo dlsposlLlons Lo behave." (uay & Moore, 1993, p. 78).

49

1he poslLlon Laken ln Lhe presenL paper presenLs LhaL known as radlcal behavlorlsm, wlLh Lhe
word radlcal meanlng 'compleLe' as opposed Lo some exLreme poslLlon. 8adlcal behavlorlsm
vlews behavlor as everyLhlng LhaL a person does, overL behavlor as well as everyLhlng LhaL
occurs wlLhln Lhe skln, phenomena such as feellngs, LhoughLs, dreams, halluclnaLlons, eLc.
WlLh radlcal behavlorlsm, Lhe phenomenon of Lhe LooLhache paln ls as real and leglLlmaLe a
sub[ecL for Lheorlzlng and research as ls Lhe acL of consumlng an asplrln. 8oLh are behavlor of
Lhe person's body. 1he facL LhaL one ls prlvaLe, noL vlslble Lo oLhers, does noL vlLlaLe Lhe reallLy
of Lhese lnner evenLs.
1he poslLlon of radlcal behavlorlsm ls mosL commonly assoclaLed wlLh Lhe psychologlsL 8. l.
Sklnner and ls slgnlflcanLly dlfferenL from meLhodologlcal behavlorlsm ln LhaL radlcal
behavlorlsm Joes accepL Lhe reallLy of prlvaLe evenLs and aLLempLs Lo develop effecL ways Lo
explaln, predlcL and conLrol Lhem. 1he vlew LhaL Sklnner only consldered publlcally observable
acLlvlLles as sulLable sub[ecLs for sclenLlflc ls an unforLunaLely wldespread mlsconcepLlon. Pls
early 1933 LexL LlLled 5cleoce ooJ nomoo 8ebovlot conLalns chapLers on Loplcs such as
'LmoLlon', '1hlnklng', 'rlvaLe LvenLs ln a naLural Sclence', '1he Self', and hls lasL book, keceot
lssoes lo tbe Aoolysls of 8ebovlot (1989) publlshed ln Lhe year of hls deaLh had chapLers on
'1he lace of leellng ln Lhe Analysls of 8ehavlor', '1he Crlglns of CognlLlve 1houghL', '1he
lnlLlaLlng Self', and '1he LlsLener'. Clearly, aLLempLlng Lo develop LheoreLlcal accounLs of Lhe
lnner llfe of human belng, whlle remalnlng conslsLenL wlLh Lhe naLural sclence orlenLaLlon of
behavlor analysls, was an endeavor whlch consumed Sklnner's professlonal llfe.
1he quoLes presenLed aL Lhe beglnnlng of Lhls arLlcle suggesLs LhaL eplsLemologlcal
concerns, explalnlng whaL knowledge ls and how we know Lhlngs, was acLually a cenLral faceL
of Sklnner's Lheorlzlng, meLhodology, and Lo a lesser exLenL hls emplrlcal research.
1hls phllosophy of sclence called radlcal behavlorlsm ls comprlsed of an amalgam of
axlomaLlc poslLlons, each of whlch ls lndlvldually suscepLlble Lo debaLe, buL are also wldely
held and respecLable perspecLlves. A selecLed number of Lhese are llsLed ln 1able 1 and wlll be
dlscussed below, and lL wlll be seen how Lhese converge lnLo a coherenL behavlor analyLlc
approach Lo eplsLemology.

1able 1
5electeJ lbllosopblcol losltloos AssocloteJ wltb 8ebovlotlsm

An AccepLance of:

8eallsm
naLurallsm
hyslcallsm
ueLermlnlsm
oslLlvlsm
Lmplrlclsm
CperaLlonlsm
arslmony
ragmaLlsm
SclenLlflc SkepLlclsm

A 8e[ecLlon of:

MenLallsm
MeLaphyslcs
uuallsm
Clrcular 8easonlng
8elflcaLlon
8adlcal SkepLlclsm


30

SCML nILCSCnICAL ASSUM1ICNS CI kADICAL 8LnAVICkISM
1hls assumpLlon accepLs Lhe ob[ecLlve reallLy of an exLernal world whlch exlsLs lndependenLly
of Lhe percepLlons of Lhe observer. 8eallsm ls a commonly accepLed assumpLlon of mosL
phllosophles, especlally phllosophles of sclence. 1o accepL reallsm ls noL Lo dlspuLe Lhe
premlse LhaL human belngs, Lo some exLenL, soclally consLrucL aspecLs of our world. lor
example, when Lhe wrlLer was growlng up, sclence explalned LhaL Lhere are nlne planeLs, wlLh
Lhe ouLermosL one belng luLo. A few years ago, members of Lhe lnLernaLlonal AsLronomlcal
unlon voLed luLo 'off Lhe solar sysLem' ln Lhe sense LhaL lL ls no longer deslgnaLed as a Lrue
planeL. 1hus chlldren Loday are LaughL LhaL our solar sysLem has only elghL Lrue planeLs. 1he
consLrucLlon of soclal reallLy has lndeed changed. luLo, however, has noL changed. lL swlms
along Lhe perlphery of our solar sysLem, possesslng an ob[ecLlve reallLy LhaL ls undlsLurbed by
Lhe machlnaLlons of man Lo classlfy lL. Slmllarly, homosexuallLy was deflned as a menLal lllness
for many years, and lL was noL unLll 1974 LhaL a voLe of members of Lhe Amerlcan sychlaLrlc
AssoclaLlon lead Lo changes ln dlagnosLlc nomenclaLure so LhaL lL was no longer seen as a
dlsease. 1he reallLy of human sexual orlenLaLlon and preferences exlsLs, unchanged ln lLs
naLure, alLhough Lhe llves of gay men and lesblans have cerLalnly been alLered by Lhls more
congenlal appralsal. 1he dlsLance beLween 8ome and arls ls an ob[ecLlve facL. WheLher Lhls
dlsLance be measured ln kllomeLers, mlles, furlongs or cublLs maLLers noL. 1emperaLure ls an
ob[ecLlve reallLy, regardless of how lL ls measured (uslng Lhe Celslus, lahrenhelL, or kelvln
scales). A person has behaved ln a cerLaln way, and Lhese acLlons can poLenLlally be ob[ecLlvely
measured, and by dolng so behavlor analyLlc research comes lnLo closer conLacL wlLh naLure's
reallLles ln Lhls regard. Cne may choose Lo sLudy how human belng soclal consLrucL Lhe world
ln whlch we llve, or one can choose Lo sLudy Lhe ob[ecLlve reallLles represenLed by
behavlor/envlronmenLal lnLeracLlons. 8ehavlor analysls focuses on Lhe laLLer, alLhough Lhe
process whereby people soclally consLrucL aspecLs of reallLy would of course also be a
leglLlmaLe Loplc for behavlor analyLlc lnqulry.
1he assumpLlon of reallsm ls also assoclaLed wlLh a number of slmllar perspecLlves, such as
physlcallsm, whlch has been deflned as: Lhe docLrlne LhaL Lhe only measures Lhrough whlch
reallLy comes Lo be known ls Lhrough an undersLandlng of physlcal maLLer (8eber, 1993, p.
437) and Lhe vlew LhaL only Lhe physlcal world exlsLs and LhaL menLal processes are a mere
by-producL of physlcal ones (Corslnl, 2002, p. 603). Pere are some represenLaLlve quoLes
lllusLraLlng Lhe reallsLlc, physlcal, world as addressed by radlcal behavlorlsLs:
We operaLe ln one world, Lhe world of physlcs. Crganlsms are a parL of LhaL world,
and Lhey reacL Lo lL ln many ways (Sklnner, 1933, p. 139).
lL mlghL be slmpler for Lhe radlcal behavlorlsL Lo say LhaL Lhe world LhaL we observe
(whlch ls varlously called Lhe 'maLerlal' or 'physlcal' world) ls sufflclenL Lo accounL for
'psychologlcal' phenomena (Lelgland, 1993, p. 331).
WhaL ls lacklng ls Lhe bold and exclLlng behavlorlsLlc hypoLhesls LhaL whaL one
observes and Lalks abouL ls always Lhe 'real' or 'physlcal' world (Sklnner, 1943/1988, p.
160).
8ehavlor ls LreaLed as baslc physlcs.lew have aLLempLed Lo exhausL Lhe power of a
slmple, physlcallsLlc descrlpLlon of behavlor, LhaL ls Lhe goal of Lhls paper.1hls arLlcle
skeLches Lhe ouLllnes of a mechanlcs of behavlor, ln Lhe hope LhaL lL wlll encourage Lhe
reconslderaLlon of our procedures from Lhe vanLage of a unlfled physlcallsL

31

perspecLlve.1he forces LhaL bend an organlsm Loward an lncenLlve are no less real
Lhan Lhose LhaL bend llghL Loward Lhe sun (kllleen, 1992, pp. 429, 437).
1he behavlorlsLs re[ecLed Lhe sLrucLurallsLs' aLLempL Lo dlsLlngulsh beLween Lhe world
of physlcal evenLs and Lhe world of consclous sLaLes (phllosophlcal duallsm), Lhey were
sLeadfasL maLerlallsLs (ulnsmoor, 1999, p. 1).

noL all behavlor analysLs endorse physlcallsm however. Lelgland (1993) conLends LhaL
maLerlallsm ls a sufflclenL foundaLlon wlLhouL Lhe reducLlonlsm assoclaLed by some wlLh
physlcallsm.
MosL behavlor analysLs however do noL acLlvely deny Lhe exlsLence of nonphyslcal,
supernaLural, menLal, or lncorporeal enLlLles. 8eallzlng LhaL lL ls lmposslble Lo prove LhaL
1here are no such Lhlngs as black swans, lL ls slmllarly seen LhaL asserLlng LhaL Lhere ls no
such Lhlng as Lhe ego, Lhe self-concepL, ghosLs, or allens from ouLer space ls a loglcally weak
poslLlon. 8aLher Lhan asserLlng LhaL, say, 'Lhe mlnd' does noL exlsL, behavlor analysLs Lry and
exLend Lhe scope of Lhelr research Lo develop saLlsfacLory naLural or physlcallsL explanaLlons
for supposedly non-maLerlal phenomena. 1o Lhe exLenL Lhey can be successful ln Lhls efforL,
Lhe need Lo lnvoke meLaphyslcal or menLallsLlc mechanlsms ls unneeded. 8uL dolng so, lL ls
hoped, Lhe role of Lhe mlnd as a causal or acLlvaLlng agenL explalnlng human behavlor wlll be
progresslvely more and more clrcumscrlbed, and, perhaps, evenLually dlscarded as
unnecessary. 1hls leads Lo Lhe nexL prlnclple.

Porsimony
8ehavlor analysls favors potslmooy, a preference Lo accepL Lhe slmpler of Lhe avallable and
adequaLe explanaLory accounLs for a glven phenomenon. LpsLeln (1984) presenLs an excellenL
revlew of Lhe phllosophlcal and sclenLlflc value of parslmony, and wlLhln psychologlcal
Lheorlzlng Lhls vlew ls wldely known by Lhe example of Morgan's Canon, explalned as:

ln no case ls an anlmal acLlvlLy Lo be lnLerpreLed ln Lerms of hlgher psychologlcal processes, lf lL
can be falrly lnLerpreLed ln Lerms of processes whlch sLand lower ln Lhe scale of psychologlcal
evoluLlon and developmenL (Morgan 1903, p. 39).

lor example, Lhe so-called mlrror LesL ls sald Lo be an lndlcaLor of 'self-awareness' or of a self-
concepL. A chlld or oLher anlmal 'passes' Lhe mlrror LesL and ls Lhus sald Lo demonsLraLe self-
awareness when lL can use a mlrror Lo locaLe an ob[ecL on lLs body whlch lL cannoL dlrecLly see
(Callup, 1979). 1he behavlor of uslng a mlrror ln Lhls manner could perhaps be an lndlcaLor of
an lnner-lnlLlaLlng mechanlsm of behavlor called a self-concepL (Lhe vlew favored by mosL
anlmal eLhologlsLs) ot lL could be more parslmonlously explalned vla an anlmal's (or chlld's)
experlences wlLh mlrrors, and hlsLory of belng shaped Lo use Lhem for varlous purposes, such
as Lo obLaln relnforcemenL. very few non-human specles can pass Lhe mlrror LesL, and Lhus
self-awareness was convenLlonally seen as a properLy llmlLed Lo Lhe hlgher prlmaLes, lncludlng
man. Sklnner and hls colleagues aLLempLed Lo see lf passlng Lhe mlrror LesL could be
accompllshed by a naive plgeon, uslng convenLlonal Lralnlng Lechnlques of relnforcemenL vla
successlve approxlmaLlons. 1he answer was clear - plgeons could pass Lhe mlrror LesL, afLer
proper Lralnlng. 1hls leaves researchers wlLh aL leasL Lwo explanaLlons for an anlmal's ablllLy Lo
use mlrrors Lo locaLe an ob[ecL on lLs body whlch lL cannoL see. 1he LradlLlonal accounL
lnvolves hypoLheLlcal, lnvlslble, and menLal lnner medlaLors such as a 'self-concepL', an
accounL whlch poses Lhe rlsks of relflcaLlon and clrcular reasonlng (e.g., 1he chlmpanzee has
self-awareness. Pow do you know LhaL? Pe passes Lhe mlrror LesL. Why does he pass Lhe
mlrror LesL? Pe has self-awareness). 1he second accounL ls much more parslmonlous, and


32

aLLrlbuLes Lhe anlmal's ablllLles Lo lL hlsLory of lnLeracLlons wlLh lLs envlronmenL, and of lLs pasL
successful (e.g., leadlng Lo relnforcemenL) use of mlrrors Lo deLecL unseen ob[ecLs. 1he laLLer
explanaLlon ls compleLely naLurallsLlc, much slmpler and does provlde an adequaLe
explanaLlon for Lhe phenomena. lL ls also a common-sense accounLlng whlch mosL lay-people
can undersLand, especlally afLer waLchlng a fllm of Lhe lnlLlally naive blrd slowly belng shaped
lnLo passlng Lhe mlrror LesL crlLerlon. 1he need Lo use hypoLheLlcal menLal enLlLles such as self-
concepL compleLely evaporaLes once a Lhorough accounL ls provlded of an organlsm's learnlng
hlsLory. 1he behavlor analysL ls lnLeresLed ln developlng slmllarly parslmonlous explanaLlons
(deflned as Lhe ablllLy Lo boLh predlcL and conLrol behavlor) for a wlde range of lnfrahuman
and human acLlvlLles, parLlcularly Lhose commonly consldered Lo reflecL Lhe operaLlon of
supposedly menLal mechanlsms, whose exlsLence ls lnferred from Lhe behavlor Lhey are sald Lo
cause. Lxamples lnclude LhoughLs, wlshes, dlsposlLlons, lmpulses, drlves, lnslghL, self-concepL,
and so forLh. ln general, any occulL enLlLy sald Lo reslde wlLhln Lhe lndlvldual and cause hlm or
her Lo acL ln cerLaln ways ls grlsL for Lhe concepLual and meLhodologlcal mlllsLones of Lhe
behavlor analysL. 1o Lhe exLenL LhaL Lhe behavlors sald Lo be caused by Lhese lnner enLlLles can
be more parslmonlously explalned, predlcLed, and conLrolled for by a reLrospecLlve
examlnaLlon of a person's learnlng hlsLory, and/or Lhe conLrlved prospecLlve manlpulaLlon of
conLlngencles of relnforcemenL, punlshmenLs, and oLher aspecLs of one's envlronmenL, Lhe
need Lo hypoLheslze Lhese lnner causes ls ellmlnaLed ln favor of a more parslmonlous
accounLlng requlrlng fewer assumpLlons and lnferences. 1heoreLlcal and experlmenLal
aLLempLs, consldered successful by many, lnclude efforLs Lo behavlorally operaLlonallze a
varleLy of Lhese presumpLlve lnner causes, lncludlng varlous psychologlcal Lerms (Sklnner,
1943), anxleLy (Sklnner & LsLes, 1941), psychosls (Sklnner, 1936), Lhe ablllLy Lo solve problems
(Sklnner, 1966), consclousness (Sklnner & 8lanshard, 1967), value [udgmenLs (Sklnner, 1971),
and feellngs (Sklnner, 1987). Many oLher behavlor analyLlc wrlLers have conLlnued Lhls
LradlLlon ln Lhe hope Lo move Lhe fleld away from aLLempLlng Lo explaln behavlor on Lhe basls
of hypoLheLlcal lnner causes Lo varlables exLernal Lo Lhe lndlvldual.
!usL as physlcal sclence gave up concepLs such as Lhe aeLher and phloglsLon when more
parslmonlous and emplrlcally supporLed ways Lo explaln Lhe Lransmlsslon of llghL Lhrough a
vacuum, or of Lhe process of combusLlon were developed, lL ls hoped LhaL slmllar advances can
be promoLed ln explalnlng human behavlor. lor example, varlous raclal groups ln Lhe unlLed
SLaLes score dlfferenLly, on average, when Laklng sLandardlzed LesLs of lnLelllgence. 8aLher
Lhan vlewlng Lhese dlfferences as a funcLlon of some lnnaLe aLLrlbuLe called 'lnLelllgence', Lhe
behavlor analysL explores Lhe role of Lhe sLlmulaLlng (or lack Lhereof) lnLellecLual envlronmenL
ln whlch chlldren are ralsed. lL has been shown LhaL raclal dlsparlLles on lnLelllgence LesLs are
largely aLLrlbuLable Lo Lhe degree Lo whlch chlldren are exposed Lo a varled and challenglng
verbal communlLy and Lo sLlmulaLlng parenLal and famlllal lnLeracLlons (ParL & 8lsley, 1993).
Afrlcan-Amerlcan chlldren Lend Lo do less well on sLandardlzed LesLs, llkely due Lo a more
lmpoverlshed lnLellecLual and famlly envlronmenL, whereas Aslan sLudenLs Lend Lo ouL-
perform Caucaslan chlldren because of Lhe greaLer number of hours ln Lhe school day, number
of days of school aLLended Lo per year, and Lo culLural pracLlces lnvolvlng sLudenLs aLLendlng
enrlchmenL classes afLer regular school hours. 1hls behavlor analyLlc perspecLlve ls also an
opLlmlsLlc one. lL ls Lechnlcally posslble Lo enrlch chlldren's lnLellecLual envlronmenLs, and Lo
lmprove Lhelr LesL score, buL we have yeL Lo develop a meLhod Lo lmprove 'lnLelllgence'
dlrecLly, such as by manlpulaLlng one's geneLlc endowmenL.
Morgan's Canon was lmporLanL ln Lhe laLLer parL of Lhe 1800s and early 1900s ln reduclng
anLhropomorphlsm ln comparaLlve psychology, and behavlor analysLs aLLempL Lo use lL as an
lnLellecLual and meLhodologlcal lever Lo pry ouL Lhe llngerlng Lendency Lo ascrlbe human

33

acLlons Lo lnLernal and hypoLheLlcal enLlLles, cleverly labeled dryads (an lnner splrlL lnhablLlng
Lrees) by Lbel (1974) ln a brllllanL essay on Lhls Loplc.

4 kejection of uuo/ism ond Mento/ism
1he behavloral perspecLlve on Lwo lssues has been alluded Lo above and are closely llnked. lf
one ls commlLLed fully lnvesLlgaLlng a maLerlallsL, naLurallsL, physlcallsL accounL of behavloral
phenomena, llLLle aLLenLlon ls glven Lo duallsL (Lhe human conslsLs of Lhe maLerlal body and
Lhe lmmaLerlal mlnd) or menLal mechanlsms as meanlngfully coherenL explanaLlons.

8elng opposed Lo menLallsm ls aL Lhe very hearL of whaL radlcal behavlorlsm ls all
abouL.When Lalklng of lnner sLaLes, Sklnner does noL deny LhaL Lhey exlsL. 8aLher he
dlspuLes Lhe causal role LhaL funcLlonallsm asslgns Lo Lhem (uay & Moore, 1993, p.
81).
l am a radlcal behavlorlsL slmply ln Lhe sense LhaL l flnd no place ln Lhe formulaLlon
for anyLhlng whlch ls menLal (8. l. Sklnner,, clLed ln uay and Moore, 1993, p. 83).
8ehavlorlsm . re[ecLs a duallsLlc vlew of Lhe person LhaL dlvldes Lhe person lnLo
behavlor and someLhlng else and whlch consequenLly LreaLs behavlor as Lhe superflclal
manlfesLaLlon of processes Laklng place aL some oLher, lnaccesslble, unobservable, and
usually hypoLheLlcal level (Chlesa, 1994, p. 201).
1he pracLlce of looklng lnslde Lhe organlsm for an explanaLlon of behavlor has Lended
Lo obscure Lhe varlables whlch are lmmedlaLely avallable for a sclenLlflc analysls. 1hese
varlable lle ouLslde Lhe organlsm, ln lLs lmmedlaLe envlronmenL and ln lLs
envlronmenLal hlsLory (Sklnner, 1933, p. 31).
1he phllosophy of a sclence of behavlor LreaLed as a sub[ecL maLLer ln lLs own rlghL
aparL from lnLernal explanaLlons, menLal or pbysloloqlcol (Sklnner, 1989, p. 122,
emphasls ln orlglnal).
A radlcal behavlorlsm denles Lhe exlsLence of a menLal world, noL because lL ls
conLenLlous or [ealous of a rlval, buL because Lhose who clalm Lo be sLudylng Lhe oLher
world necessarlly Lalk abouL Lhe world of behavlor ln ways whlch confllcL wlLh an
experlmenLal analysls (Sklnner, 1969, p. 267).

4voidonce of keificotion ond circu/or keosoninq

8elflcaLlon lnvolves LranslLlonlng from dlscusslng a hypoLheLlcal enLlLy as a descrlpLlve label Lo
ascrlblng reallLy sLaLus Lo LhaL enLlLy. Pere are Lwo slmllar formal deflnlLlons:
1he error of regardlng an absLracLlon as concreLe, and aLLrlbuLlng causal powers Lo lL
(Corslnl, 2002, p. 822), and
AcLlng as lf one belleved LhaL Lhe absLracL or hypoLheLlcal were real. lrom a purely
raLlonallsLlc perspecLlve lL ls a cognlLlve/emoLlonal acL of chlldren and oLher
unsophlsLlcaLed folk, ln reallLy lL ls one of Lhe more seducLlve ways ln whlch soclal
sclenLlsLs dlsLorL and mlsrepresenL Lhe sLaLus of many of Lhelr hypoLheLlcal enLlLles and
consLrucLs (8eber, 1983, p. 631).

8ehavlor analysLs conLend LhaL vlewlng human acLlvlLy as Lhe expresslon of some lnner, causal
agenL of Lhe mlnd usually represenLs Lhe loglcal error of relflcaLlon. lor example, ln 1977
8andura posLulaLed Lhe exlsLence of an lnner agency he labeled self-efflcacy. Self efflcacy was
sald Lo be causally responslble for much LhaL human belngs dld, or falled Lo underLake. A
syclnlC search underLaken by Lhe auLhor on 3 CcLober 2009 found no arLlcles wlLh Lhe Lerm
self-efflcacy ln Lhe LlLle, prlor Lo 1973, and over 3000 publlshed slnce 1973. 1hls concepL of


34

self-efflcacy, as orlglnaLed by 8andura (1977), has proven Lo be lncredlbly generaLlve of
concepLual research ln a wlde array of areas. roducLlve and heurlsLlc, self-efflcacy possesses
Lhese LheoreLlcally deslrable quallLles Lo a very sLrong exLenL. Powever from Lhe perspecLlve of
behavlor analysls, when used Lo explolo Lhe acLlons of people Lhe Lerm ls boLh a relflcaLlon and
promoLes Lhe loglcal error of clrcular reasonlng. 8andura (1977) hlmself sald LhaL Lhe besL way
Lo change self-efflcacy ln a poslLlve way ls Lo provlde lndlvlduals wlLh successful experlences ln
masLerlng some Lask. Cne can explaln a person's reporLed hlgh levels of self-efflcacy largely on
Lhe basls of Lhelr pasL successful bebovlots, behavlors whlch have been relnforced. 1helr
subsequenL behavloral skllls, ooJ sense of self-efflcacy are seen more parslmonlously as a
dlrecL funcLlon of Lhese pasL person-envlronmenLal lnLeracLlons. 1here ls no need Lo posLulaLe
LhaL success enhances self-efflcacy, and Lhls enhanced self-efflcacy ln causally responslble for
one's fuLure anLlclpaLed and real success ln masLerlng oLher Lask. 1he behavlor analysL ls more
llkely Lo explaln currenLly successful behavlor dlrecLly on Lhe basls of pasL successful learnlng
experlences, bypasslng Lhe need for any lnLernal causaLlve agenLs such as self-efflcacy.
Slmllarly, Sellgman (1976) hypoLheslzed LhaL exposure of an anlmal Lo lnescapable averslve
evenLs engendered an lnLernal sLaLe he labeled 'learned helplessness'. Moreover, Lhls lnLernal
sLaLe of learned helplessness, once creaLed by Lhe negaLlve vlclsslLudes of llfe, was causally
responslble for an lndlvldual's subsequenL leLharglc behavlor, depressed affecL, and lnablllLy Lo
resolve llfe's dlfflculLles, ln a word, depresslon. 1he behavlor analysL asks 'Why ls lL necessary
Lo lnserL Lhls hypoLheLlcal lnner causal mechanlsm? lL ls more parslmonlous Lo explaln
depresslon (behavlorally, affecLlvely, and cognlLlvely) on Lhe basls of exposure Lo punlshlng,
ofLen dlfflculL Lo escape, llfe experlences. Sellgman hlmself found LhaL Lhe besL way Lo help
anlmals overcome hls experlmenLally-lnduced learned helplessness and learn Lo escape from
averslve sLlmull was Lo manually move Lhem away from uncomforLable shocks Lo a safe parL of
Lhe cage. WlLh some negaLlvely relnforclng experlences llke Lhls behlnd Lhem Lhe anlmals soon
resumed Lhelr prevlous pracLlce of movlng away from averslve sLlmulaLlon Lo a safe parL of Lhe
cage, as opposed Lo passlvely lylng Lhere wlLhouL aLLempLlng Lo escape.

Pere ls whaL Lbel (1974) had Lo say abouL Lhe pracLlce of lnvenLlng lnner causal agenLs:

ln Lhe physlcal world Loday Lhere ls less room for supernaLural lnfluences Lhan Lhere used Lo be.
1here are fewer homes for dryads. 8uL ln Lhe world of Lhe mlnd, some of Lhem sLlll seem Lo lurk
ln Lhe woods and LhlckeLs. Cf course Lhey are noL called dryads. 1hose who speak wlLh scholarly
care call Lhem hypoLheLlcal consLrucLs. SomeLlmes Lhey are called LralLs.1hose who accepL Lhem
as real and lmporLanL do noL lnqulre Loo closely whaL sLuff Lhey may be made of. 8uL Lhey are
cherlshed because Lhey seem Lo explaln why dlfferenL people behavlor ln dlfferenL ways (p.
483).as Lhe mlnd Look up resldence prlnclpally ln Lhe braln, Lhe dryads reappeared ln Lhe gulse
of menLal faculLles, aLLenLlon, percepLlon, memory, reasonlng, lmaglnaLlon, wlll power and Lhe
llfe (Lbel 1974, p. 486).

1he lnvenLlon of Lhese dryads of Lhe mlnd can glve rlse Lo clrcular reasonlng, as ln:

1he only evldence we have LhaL a person ls more or less lnLelllgenL ls LhaL he behaves
more or less lnLelllgenLly. 1o say he behaves lnLelllgenLly becoose he possesses
lnLelllgence ls compleLely clrcular.1he only evldence we have of a person's creaLlvlLy
ls Lhe quallLy of hls creaLlons. 1o say LhaL he creaLes effecLlvely becoose of hls
creaLlvlLy ls compleLely clrcular.Careful psychologlsLs are no doubL aware of Lhls klnd
of clrcularlLy and do Lhelr besL Lo avold lL. 8uL when hypoLheLlcal consLrucLs are used
Lo explaln observed behavlor, lL ls very dlfflculL Lo avold.ln none of Lhese cases do we

33

have any evldence for Lhe exlsLence or naLure of Lhe presumed cause aparL from Lhe
effecL lL ls supposed Lo produce (Lbel, 1974, p. 486).
When we say LhaL a man eaLs becoose he ls hungry, smokes a greaL deal becoose he
has Lhe Lobacco hablL, flghLs becoose of Lhe lnsLlncL of pugnaclLy, behaves brllllanLly
becoose of hls lnLelllgence, or plays Lhe plano well becoose of hls muslcal ablllLy, we
seem Lo be referrlng Lo causes. 8uL on analysls Lhese phrases prove Lo be merely
redundanL descrlpLlon (Sklnner, 1933, p. 31).

Pow can one escape Lhls poLenLlal Lrap?

1o valldaLe an explanaLory consLrucL one musL show LhaL lL ls funcLlonally relaLed Lo home
behavloral varlable raLher Lhan Lhe one ls was lnvoked Lo explaln (Lbel, 1974, p. 490)

and

1he ob[ecLlon Lo lnner sLaLes ls noL LhaL Lhey do noL exlsL, buL LhaL Lhey are noL relevanL ln a
funcLlonal analysls. We cannoL accounL for Lhe behavlor of any sysLem whlle sLaylng wholly lnslde
lL: evenLually we musL Lurn Lo forces operaLlng upon Lhe organlsm from wlLhouL (Sklnner, 1933,
p. 33).

1hus Lo say LhaL my cllenL meeLs Lhe currenL dlagnosLlc crlLerla for speclflc phobla, because she
ls observed Lo scream and run away aL Lhe slghL of dogs, has a very hlgh hearL aLe ln Lhelr
presence, and Lalks a greaL deal abouL her fear of dogs, ls Lo perhaps leglLlmaLely descrlbe ln a
summary form her condlLlon. 1o say LhaL she bos a phobla commlLs Lhe error of relflcaLlon.
1here ls no evldence for Lhe exlsLence of Lhe enLlLy labeled a phobla aparL from Lhe avoldanL
behavlors, fearful self-reporLs, and physlologlcal arousal Lhe phobla ls sald Lo cause. 1hls ls
relflcaLlon. 1o furLher say LhaL she runs away screamlng from dogs becoose she has a phobla
commlLs Lhe error of clrcular reasonlng. 1he soluLlon ls Lo always refer Lo labels such as phobla
(or self-efflcacy, learned helplessness, lnLelllgence, Lhe superego, eLc.) as unproven
hypoLheLlcal consLrucLs, and Lo seek causal explanaLlons exLernal Lo Lhe lndlvldual. lor
example, my cllenL dlsplayed no phoblc behavlor Lowards dogs unLll, aL Lhe age of 67, she was
savagely aLLacked by a large dog. Slnce LhaL Llme she avolded dogs whenever posslble and was
very fearful ln Lhelr presence. 1he presumpLlve coose of her phoblc behavlor, elevaLed hearL
raLe when near dogs, ooJ self-reporLs of hlgh anxleLy relaLed Lo dogs, can all be parslmonlously
accounLed for by her Lerrlbly averslve experlence of havlng been aLLacked by a dog. 1hls ls a
Lrue anecdoLe, by Lhe way, (see 1hyer, 1981) and demonsLraLes Lhe superlor explanaLory uLlllLy
of seeklng envlronmenLally based explanaLlons over hypoLheLlcal lnner mechanlsms of
causaLlon.

Pere ls oLher ways behavlor analysLs have addressed Lhls problem:

behavlor lLself can be Laken as noLhlng buL 'evldence' for a dlsposlLlon Lo behave aL a parLlcular
Llme ln one way raLher Lhan anoLher. 1he dlsposlLlons Lhen become lnner enLlLles of focal
lmporLance ln any analysls. As a resulL, when people speak of dlsposlLlons Lo behave, Lhe
opporLunlLy all Loo frequenLly presenLs lLself for relfylng Lhese dlsposlLlons Lo behave back lnLo
some speclal klnd of causal lnner sLaLe. uolng so, of course, Lurns dlsposlLlons lnLo causes LhaL
are [usL as occulL as any menLal cause, an lronlc Lurn of evenLs for a poslLlon Lrylng Lo clrcumvenL
any appeal Lo menLal evenLs (uay & Moore 1993, p. 79).


36

Proqmotism
ragmaLlsm ls A phllosophlcal docLrlne ln whlch values, meanlngs and LruLhs of proposlLlon
are Laken as equlvalenL Lo Lhe pracLlcal, emplrlcal consequences derlvable from Lhem
(8eeber, 1993, p. 387). Pere ls how a number of wrlLers have llnked behavlorlsm and
pragmaLlsm:

Sklnner's (1936) auLoblographlcal case sLudy descrlblng Lhls approach Lo psychology
ls a powerful endorsemenL of pragmaLlsm.1he descrlpLlon ls of research meLhods
deslgned Lo obLaln useful resulLs, LhaL ls, resulLs LhaL lead Lo Lhe predlcLlon and conLrol
of behavlor. 1he greaLer slgnlflcance of Lhe revlew ls LhaL lL ls an eplsLemologlcal
sLaLemenL: knowlng abouL someLhlng ls achleved by maklng lL work (LaLLal & Lalpple,
2003, pp. 49-30) .Sklnner's poslLlon wlLh respecL Lo Lheory and ln more general
Lerms ls Lhoroughly and undenlably pragmaLlc. (LaLLal & Lalpple, 2003, p. 31).
lL ls clear LhaL Sklnner's vlews on Lhe goals of sclence, as well as hls general vlew of
LruLh, could be descrlbed as sLrongly pragmaLlc ln naLure (Lelgland, 1999, p. 483).
1he phllosophy of radlcal behavlorlsm ls a descendenL of Lhe pragmaLlsm of C. S.
lerce. 1ruLh ls 'successful worklng' ln Lhe words of one modern behavlorlsL (SLaddon,
2001, p. 96).
LxplanaLlons LhaL asslsL Lhe sclenLlsL ln deallng wlLh behavlor ln a producLlve way, of
LhaL supporL Lhe experL ln solvlng Lhe same klnd of problems efflclenLly, wlll be
consldered valld (1ouelnho & neno, p. 64).
1he ulLlmaLe crlLerlon for Lhe goodness of a concepL ls noL wheLher Lwo people are
broughL lnLo agreemenL buL wheLher Lhe sclenLlsL who uses Lhe concepL can operaLe
successfully upon hls maLerlal - all by hlmself lf need be. WhaL maLLers Lo 8oblnson
Crusoe ls noL wheLher he ls agreelng wlLh hlmself buL wheLher he ls geLLlng anywhere
wlLh hls conLrol over naLure (Sklnner, 1943, p. 293).
8esponses Lo some forms of sLlmulaLlon are more llkely Lo be 'rlghL' Lhan responses
Lo oLhers, ln Lhe sense LhaL Lhey are more llkely Lo lead Lo effecLlve behavlor (Sklnner,
1933, p. 139).
SclenLlflc knowledge ls verbal behavlor, Lhough noL necessarlly llngulsLlc. lL ls a corpus
of rules for effecLlve acLlon, and Lhere ls a speclal sense ln whlch lL could be 'Lrue' lf lL
ylelds Lhe mosL effecLlve acLlon posslble (Sklnner, 1974, p. 233).

Pereln we obLaln gllmpses of Lhe eplsLemologlcal poslLlon of Lhe radlcal behavlorlsL. We
'know' someLhlng LruLhful abouL behavlor-envlronmenL relaLlons when we can effecLlvely
predlcL and conLrol behavlor. noLe LhaL Lhls ls a llmlLed form of 'knowlng'. 8ehavlorlsLs avold
dlscusslng knowlng or LruLh ln ldeal Lerms. 1yplcally Lhe search for causes of behavlor ls
eschewed ln favor of Lhe more modesL goal of aLLempLlng Lo esLabllsh funcLlonal relaLlonshlps
beLween Lhe manlpulaLlon of conLlngencles of relnforcemenL and punlshmenL, and changes ln
behavlor. 1hls funcLlonal analysls of behavlor (lA8) ls lllusLraLed ln Lhe pracLlce of applled
behavlor analysls, whereln (Lyplcally) a problem behavlor ls ldenLlfled, careful observaLlons ln
Lhe person's naLural envlronmenL are made abouL whaL precedes Lhe LargeLed behavlor, and
whaL consequences follow lL. Analysls may also be underLaken of posslbly relevanL blologlcal
facLors (lllness, medlcaLlons, sLaLes of deprlvaLlon such as LhlrsL or hunger, eLc.). 1hese
observaLlons may lead Lo LenLaLlve guesses abouL facLors whlch appear Lo lnfluence Lhe LargeL
behavlor. 1hese guesses are LesLed by Lhe dellberaLe alLeraLlon of envlronmenLal sLlmull Lo see
lf Lhey effecL Lhe LargeL ln Lhe predlcLed manner. lf Lhls ls acLually observed, and Lhe effecL

37

repllcaLed, Lhen ln a very real sense we know how Lo predlcL and conLrol behavlor (aL leasL ln a
llmlLed sphere) (see dlscusslon by 1ourlnho & neno, 2003).
A concreLe example may help. A behavlor analysL ls asked Lo consulL regardlng an
elemenLary school chlld who ls consLanLly demandlng aLLenLlon from Lhe Leacher. lL has
reached Lhe polnL of belng lnLruslve Lo Lhe classroom's normal acLlvlLles and Lo Leachlng. 1he
behavlor analysL observes Lhe chlld ln hls/her classroom seLLlng and noLes whaL happens
before and afLer eplsodes of demandlng aLLenLlon. lL may appear LhaL aLLenLlon seeklng ls
mosLly llkely Lo occur when Lhe chlld ls noL worklng on her asslgned Lasks, and lL may also be
obvlous LhaL Lhe chlld ls generally lgnored whlle she ls worklng, and LhaL she appears Lo en[oy
Lhe Leacher's aLLenLlon. ALLenLlon-seeklng behavlor could be operaLlonally deflned and
measured over some represenLaLlve Llme perlod (called Lhe basellne) durlng whlch no speclflc
lnLervenLlon ls lnLroduced. 1hen, afLer Lhe chlld's basellne ls sLable (e.g., noL clearly golng up or
golng down) Lhe behavlor analysL could lnLroduce a slmple conLlngency-based lnLervenLlon,
namely Lhe Leacher ls lnsLrucLed Lo perlodlcally walk over Lo Lhe oLherwlse demandlng sLudenL,
bot ooly when she ls approprlaLely worklng, and quleLly pralse her for belng on Lask. When Lhe
sLudenL ls off Lask and demands aLLenLlon, she ls quleLly dlrecLed Lo geL back ln her seaL and
resume worklng, wlLh no oLher aLLenLlon belng pald Lo her. 1hls manlpulaLlon ls malnLalned for
a sufflclenLly long perlod of Llme for lL Lo be consplcuously obvlous lf Lhe chlld has lncreased
her on-Lask work and decreased her demands for aLLenLlon. 1hese daLa would be formaLLed ln
a slmple llne graph and lnferences made abouL changes ln behavlor vla vlsual lnspecLlon. lf
Lhere were no obvlous changes, Lhen lL would appear LhaL Lhe behavlor analysL mlssed plcklng
up on Lhe genulnely relevanL facLors responslble for Lhe demandlng of aLLenLlon. lf however,
under Lhe new reglmen on-Lask behavlor lncreased and lnapproprlaLe demands for aLLenLlon
decllned, Lhen Lhls would supporL Lhe vlew LhaL Leacher aLLenLlon was lnadverLenLly
relnforclng Lhe chlld's demands for aLLenLlon. 1o compleLe Lhe funcLlonal analysls Lhe behavlor
analysL would arrange for Lhe Leacher Lo resume her prlor pracLlces of lgnorlng Lhe sLudenL
when she was dlllgenLly worklng, and of paylng aLLenLlon Lo be when she made lnapproprlaLe
demands. lf Lhe chlld's behavlor reverLed Lo near basellne levels, Lhls ls sLronger evldence LhaL
Leacher aLLenLlon was lnadverLenLly malnLalnlng Lhe lnapproprlaLe demands. 1he flnal sLep Lo
compleLe Lhe lA8 would be Lo relnsLaLe Lhe new conLrlved conLlngency program, and have Lhe
Leacher resume Lhe pracLlce of aLLendlng Lhe sLudenL only when she was on-Lask, and of
redlrecLlng her Lo her desk when she made lnapproprlaLe demands. lf lmprovemenLs were
agaln seen, lL would appear LhaL Lhe behavlor analysL had compleLed Lhe funcLlonal analysls
and found a way Lo predlcL and conLrol Lhe behavloral paLLerns whlch were Lhe cause for Lhe
orlglnal referral.
Pas Lhe behavlor analysL dlscovered Lhe Lrue 'cause' of Lhe chlld's lnapproprlaLe aLLenLlon-
seeklng? ?es, lf Lhe goals of predlcLlon and conLrol have been saLlsfacLorlly meL. lurLher
analysls beyond a saLlsfacLory demonsLraLlon of Lhe funcLlonal relaLlonshlp beLween an
lnLervenLlon and behavlor change ofLen leads Lo Lhe problem of lnflnlLe regress. lor example lL
could be asked why Lhe chlld llsLened Lo Lhe Leacher, or followed her polnLed flnger. AL one
level, an answer Lo Lhls quesLlon could lnvolve explanaLlons relaLed Lo opLlcs or acousLlcs.
lrom Lhe eye, furLher explanaLlons would lnvolve Lhe anaLomy of Lhe eye and physlology of
Lhe reLlna and from Lhe reLlna Lo Lhe conducLlon of elecLrlcal lmpulses along Lhe opLlc nerve Lo
Lhe braln. lrom Lhere Lhe neurochemlsLry of synapses, Lhe acLlons of molecules, Lhe
operaLlons of aLoms, neuLrons, proLons, and elecLrons, and Lhen down Lo Lhe level of oLher
sub-aLomlc parLlcles, could all be lnvoked as posslble 'causes'. Powever, from a pragmaLlc
perspecLlve, Lhe problem was solved by manlpulaLlng how Lhe Leacher provlded aLLenLlon Lo
Lhe demandlng sLudenL. no furLher level of analysls ls requlred. 1hls lllusLraLes how, curlously,
behavlor analysls ls a ooo-teJoctloolstlc sclence. 1he analysls focuses on Lhe level of person-


38

envlronmenL lnLeracLlons, delves no deeper, and lnvokes no more fundamenLal levels of
analysls. lurLher lnvesLlgaLlons may lndeed be useful, say of physlologlcal varlables, buL Lhese
are ouLslde Lhe fleld of behavlor analysls.

pistemo/oqy
Clven Lhe above, lL would appear Lhe eplsLemologlcal poslLlon of Lhe behavlor analysL ls a
raLher llmlLed one, lnvolvlng Lhe effecLlveness of Lhe Lechnlques of behavloral conLrol derlved
from experlmenLal research. ln a real sense Lhe poslLlon ls lf lL works, lL ls rlghL 1hls ls a more
modesL goal Lhan LhaL underLaken by LradlLlonal phllosophlcal approaches Lo eplsLemology, as
descrlbed by CarreLL (1999, p. 69): As responslble Lhlnkers we all wanL Lo hold a bellef lf and
only lf lL ls Lrue. 1he cenLral goal of eplsLemology ls, Lherefore, Lo help us dlsLlngulsh LruLh from
falslLy and our goal ls noL slmply Lo belleve whaL ls Lrue, buL also Lo ovolJ bellevloq wbot ls
folse(p. 78, emphasls ln orlglnal). CarreLL (1999) rlghLly polnLs ouL LhaL boLh crlLerla, bellevlng
'LruLh' and dlsbellevlng 'falslLy' are lmporLanL. lf one only values Lhe flrsL prlnclple Lhen one, Lo
be secure, should belleve evetytbloq, as LruLhful bellefs would be Lhereby encompassed. lf only
values Lhe laLLer prlnclple, avoldlng falslLy, Lhen one should adopL Lhe poslLlon of Lhe radlcal or
yrrhonlan skepLlc and belleve ootbloq, slnce false bellefs would Lhereby be excluded. 1he crux
of Lhe maLLer ls arrlvlng aL Lhe rlghL balance Lo successfully adopL Lrue bellefs and re[ecL false
ones. lor Lhe behavlorlsL, Lhe soluLlon conslsLs of experlmenLaLlon, whaL Lhe sclenLlsLs of Lhe
mld-1800s called a poslLlve demonsLraLlon. uslng Lhe meLhodology of an experlmenLal
analysls, Lhe behavlorlsL can make a valld deLermlnaLlon of Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween selecLed
envlronmenLal manlpulaLlons (e.g., lnLroduclng cerLaln arrangemenLs of relnforcemenL,
punlshmenL, shaplng, dlscrlmlnaLlon learnlng, schedules of relnforcemenL, eLc.) and Lhelr
subsequenL effecLs on behavlor. Clven sufflclenL successful demonsLraLlons of an apparenLly
funcLlonal relaLlonshlp, one LenLaLlvely generallzes Lo oLher clrcumsLances, lncludlng Lhe
fuLure. 1he supposed problem of lnducLlon ls largely lgnored. lf someLhlng has been rellably
demonsLraLed ln Lhe pasL, one may assume wlLh modesL assurance LhaL Lhe funcLlonal
relaLlonshlp wlll be valld ln Lhe fuLure. noL wlLh cerLalnLy, buL wlLh some measure of pracLlcal
assurance. An assurance every crlLlc of lnducLlon makes use of when Lhey seek Lo Lurn on Lhe
llghLs, flush Lhe LolleL, or sLarL an auLomoblle. CerLaln operaLlons have produced cerLaln effecLs
falrly rellably ln Lhe pasL, and we boLh lnfer and acL on Lhe supposlLlon LhaL Lhese operaLlons
wlll remaln slmllarly effecLlve ln Lhe fuLure.
ln Sklnner's vlew:

We may now Lake LhaL more humble vlew of explanaLlon and causaLlon whlch seems
Lo have been flrsL suggesLed by Mach and ls now a common characLerlsLlc of sclenLlflc
LhoughL, whereln, ln a word, explanaLlon ls reduced Lo descrlpLlon and Lhe noLlon of
funcLlon subsLlLuLed for LhaL of descrlpLlon (Sklnner, 1931/1972, pp. 448-449).
1he Lerms 'cause' and effecL' are no longer wldely used ln sclence.A 'cause' becomes
a 'change ln an lndependenL varlable' and an 'effecL' a 'change ln a dependenL
varlable'. 1he old 'cause-and-effecL' connecLlon becomes a 'funcLlonal relaLlon.' 1he
new Lerms do noL suggesL bow a cause causes lLs effecL, Lhey merely asserL LhaL
dlfferenL evenLs Lend Lo occur LogeLher ln a cerLaln order.We wanL Lo know why men
behave as Lhey do. Any condlLlon or evenL LhaL can be shown Lo have an effecL upon
behavlor musL be Laken lnLo accounL. 8y dlscoverlng and analyzlng Lhese causes we
can predlcL behavlor, Lo Lhe exLenL LhaL we can manlpulaLe Lhem, we can conLrol
behavlor (Sklnner, 1933, p. 23).

39

So Sklnner's vlew ls LhaL knowledge ls acLlon, or Lhe capaclLy Lo acL. 1o know a Lhlng
ln Lhe world ls Lo acL or Lo have Lhe capaclLy Lo acL dlfferenLlally wlLh regard Lo lL. 1o
know a Lhlng sllghLly ls Lo have a llmlLed capaclLy for dlfferenLlal acLlon regardlng Lhe
Lhlng, Lo now a Lhlng Lhoroughly ls Lo have a comprehenslve reperLolre of behavlor
regardlng lL (SchnalLLer, 1987, p. 39).

1he search for absoluLe LruLh ls dlsmlssed by Lhe behavlor analysL as an essenLlally
unresolvable problem. And Lhls dlsmlssal ls a feaLure Lhe behavlorlsLs share wlLh Lhe loglcal
poslLlvlsLs, who posLulaLed as Lhelr vetlflcotloolst ptloclple, Lhe asserLlon LhaL a sLaLemenL ls
meanlngful lf and only lf, lL ls, ln prlnclple, capable of belng convlnclngly verlfled or falslfled.
SLaLemenLs lncapable of such resoluLlon were dlsmlssed by Lhe loglcal poslLlvlsLs as essenLlally
meanlngless or as pseudoproblems. seudoproblems are Lhemselves problemaLlc lf for no
oLher reason as Lhey dlsLracL Lhe aLLenLlon of researchers from solvable lssues, and dlverL large
resources of Llme and energy ln Lhelr lnvesLlgaLlon. 1hls of course leaves large segmenLs of Lhe
meLaphyslcal domalns of phllosophy excluded from serlous conslderaLlon (WhaL ls Lhe good?
WhaL ls beauLy?) , and slmllarly Lhe behavlorlsL Lends Lo avold (lf noL dlsmlss) dlscusslons of
ulLlmaLe LruLh, goodness, or cause.
1he perspecLlve LhaL Lhe uLlllLy of some behavlor (lLs LruLhfulness, ln a llmlLed sense) ln
helplng us lnLeracL wlLh Lhe world says noLhlng abouL Lhe eLhlcal approprlaLeness of Lhe
behavlor. lf l am Lhe sLrongesL passenger on a llfe boaL, l may survlve, Lhrough recourse Lo
cannlballsm, long enough Lo safely reach land. ln Lerms of my personal survlval Lhls could be
seen as a relnforclng ouLcome. 1haL does noL necessarlly make lL a deslrable one. SLaddon
(2004) addresses Lhe problems of Lhe naLurallsLlc fallacy lmpllclL ln behavlorlsL eplsLemology,
Lhe vlew LhaL whaL ls ls synonymous wlLh whaL ooqbt to be or whaL ls good. lor example,

Sklnner gave us no real answer Lo Lhe anclenL quesLlons 'WhaL ls Lhe good?" unlnLeresLed ln pure
speculaLlon, drlven Lo acLlon, he was much more lnLeresLed ln uslng sclence Lo do good Lhan ln
uslng phllosophy Lo dlscover whaL good ls. 8adlcal behavlorlsm purporLs Lo Lell us how Lo modlfy
Lhe envlronmenL so LhaL people wlll acL vlrLuously. lL neglecLs Lo speclfy whaL vlrLue ls (SLaddon
2001, p. 97).

1hls ls noL necessarlly a weakness. LxLendlng Lhe purvlew of sclence Lo domalns ln whlch lL
lacks adequaLe experLlse commlLs Lhe sln of sclenLlsm, Lhe un[usLlfled appllcaLlon of sclenLlflc
oplnlon lnLo non-sclenLlflc areas.
Moore (2008, pp. 433- 436) provldes a serles of sLaLemenLs whlch summarlze Lhe behavlor
analyLlc poslLlon on eplsLemology:

1. 1he mosL slgnlflcanL and relevanL form of human behavlor sald Lo show sclenLlflc knowledge ls
operanL behavlor, whlch ls analyzed ln Lerms of conLlngencles of relnforcemenL LhaL conLrol boLh
Lhe verbal and nonverbal operanL behavlor of Lhe sclenLlsL.
1.1 SclenLlflc knowledge does noL dlffer ln prlnclple from any oLher klnd of knowledge.
1.2 knowledge ls power, and Lhe fundamenLal lssue ls Lhe exLenL Lo whlch clalms of sclenLlflc
knowledge funcLlon as forms of dlscrlmlnaLlve sLlmulaLlon LhaL conLrlbuLe Lo effecLlve acLlon
wlLh respecL Lo Lhe envlronmenL.
2. Clalms of sclenLlflc knowledge (e.g., Lheorles, explanaLlons) and Lhe Lerms or concepLs Lhereln
are lnsLances of verbal behavlor, Lhey are always and have only been maLLers of dlfferenLlal
behavlor ln dlfferenLlal clrcumsLances. Any such clalms of sclenLlflc knowledge may Lherefore be
analyzed ln Lerms of conLlngencles of relnforcemenL LhaL conLrol Lhe verbal behavlor of Lhe
sclenLlsL ln quesLlon.


60

2.1 1he same prlnclples LhaL apply Lo undersLandlng Lhe sources and developmenL of operanL
behavlor ln general apply Lo undersLandlng Lhe sources and developmenL of (verbal)
behavlor sald Lo show sclenLlflc knowledge.
2.2 1he sophlsLlcaLed (verbal) behavlor sald Lo show sclenLlflc knowledge develops and ls
malnLalned Lhrough Lhe acLlon of envlronmenLal consequences, whlch selecLs lLs mosL
lmporLanL forms.
3. Some elemenLs may well be accesslble Lo only one lndlvldual. 1hose elemenLs may be parLs of
Lhe conLlngencles conLrolllng Lhe behavlor of Lhe sclenLlsL dolng Lhe speaklng or of Lhe person
belng spoken abouL.
4. AccounLlng for knowledge clalms ls noL a maLLer of appeallng Lo unobservable acLs, sLaLes,
mechanlsms, processes, sLrucLures, or enLlLles elsewhere ln some oLher dlmenslon, aL some
oLher level (e.g., neural, menLal, cognlLlve, concepLual, psychlc, hypoLheLlcal, sub[ecLlve), for
whlch observable behavlor ls Lhe llcense LhaL makes such appeals sclenLlflcally respecLable [.]
(Moore 2008, pp. 433- 436)

1hls summary by Moore (2008) encapsulaLes much of Lhe precedlng dlscusslon.
8ehavlorlsm ls keen lnLeresLed ln eplsLemology, and deflne knowlng as our ablllLy Lo predlcL
and conLrol behavlor. lL esLabllshed a rlgorous meLhodology for explorlng, developlng and
demonsLraLlng such predlcLlve and conLrolllng Lechnology, and applles Lhls successfully Lo
human affalrs.
A shorL anecdoLe ls approprlaLe Lo lnclude ln Lhls closlng secLlon

When Lhe young Sklnner was Lold by Alfred norLh WhlLehead LhaL a psychologlsL should closely
follow developmenLs ln phllosophy, Sklnner replled, lL ls qulLe Lhe oLher way around-we need a
psychologlcal eplsLemology (Sklnner, 1984, p. 29) (clLed from C'uonohue & lerguson, 2001, p.
70).

8. l. Sklnner and Lhose assoclaLed wlLh behavlorlsm have aLLempLed Lo develop an
eplsLemologlcal poslLlon, one based on a number of convenLlonal phllosophlcal assumpLlons,
each of whlch ls axlomaLlc, belng seen as almosL self-evldenL buL lncapable of sLrong
phllosophlcal or experlmenLal proof. WlLh lLs cenLral concern over developlng effecLlve
demonsLraLlons of Lhe ablllLy Lo predlcL and conLrol behavlor, behavlor analysls has an
eplsLemologlcal poslLlon LhaL ls boLh llmlLed yeL far-reachlng. LlmlLed ln Lhe sense LhaL
LradlLlonal concepLs of how one arrlves as knowledge of 'LruLh' are seen as unresolvable, and
Lhereby dlsmlssed from serlous conslderaLlon as pseudoproblems. 1o Lhe exLenL one can
effecLlvely predlcL and conLrol behavlor, one has arrlved aL a llmlLed buL LruLhful
undersLandlng of funcLlonal relaLlonshlps whlch are valld across persons, and over Llme,
relaLlonshlps beLween envlronmenLal evenLs and Lhelr effecLs of behavlor. Powever Lhls
llmlLed eplsLemologlcal undersLandlng ls aL Lhe same Llme far reachlng ln Lhe sense LhaL when
LesLed uslng Lhe meLhods of Lhe experlmenLal analysls of behavlor and exLrapolaLed lnLo Lhe
world of helplng persons solve soclally slgnlflcanL problems Lhrough Lhe fleld's pracLlce
domaln, applled behavlor analysls, Lhe resulLs have been asLonlshlng. As demonsLraLed ln an
lncredlble array of dlsclpllnes and problems, behavlor analysLs have, over Lhe pasL 30 years,
developed an effecLlve Lechnology of human behavlor change wlLh pracLlcal and effecLlve
appllcaLlons Lo educaLlon, medlclne, psychology, soclal work, economlcs, and mosL human
servlce professlons. As a concepLually conslsLenL model, behavlor analysls en[oys an
evldenLlary foundaLlon, concepLual rlchness, and appllcablllLy achleved by no oLher approach

61

Lo human behavlor change. 1hls ls a slgnlflcanL achlevemenL, one made posslble by Lhe fleld's
narrow focus on only one aspecL of eplsLemology - lf a Lechnology works ln rellably conLrolllng
human behavlor, Lhen one has achleved some level of a valld, LruLhful undersLandlng of Lhe
real world. And LhaL, says Lhe behavlor analysL, ls whaL eplsLemology ls all abouL. As lnscrlbed
on Lhe Lomb of karl Marx ln London's PlghgaLe cemeLery, 1he phllosophers have lnLerpreLed
Lhe world ln varlous ways. 1he polnL however, ls Lo change lL.

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1hyer, 8. A. (Ld.) (1999). 1be pbllosopblcol leqocy of bebovlotlsm. uordrechL, 1he
neLherlands: kluwer Academlc ubllshers.
1hyer, 8. A. (1999). LdlLor's preface. ln 8. A. 1hyer (Ld.). 1be pbllosopblcol leqocy of
bebovlotlsm (lx - xv). uordrechL, 1he neLherlands: kluwer Academlc ubllshers.
1hyer, 8. A. & Myers, L. L. (2007). A soclol wotkets qolJe to evolootloq ptoctlce ootcomes.
Alexandrla, vA: Councll on Soclal Work LducaLlon.
1ourlnho, L. Z. & neno, S. (2003). LffecLlveness as LruLh crlLerlon ln behavlor analysls.
8ebovlot ooJ lbllosopby, J1, 63-80.
Zurlff, C. L. (1980). 8adlcal behavlor eplsLemology. lsycboloqlcol 8olletlo, 87, 337-330.


63

Ceneralizing Tbrougb Conditional Analysis:
Systemic Causality in tbe World of Eternal Becoming

2ocb 8ecksteoJ,
zbecksLead[clarku.edu

keooetb k. cobell
kcabell[clarku.edu

Iooo volsloet
*

[valslner[clarku.edu

1he chlef goal of any sclenLlflc endeavor ls generallzaLlon. kurL Lewln was a cruclal flgure ln psychology
who advocaLed for and creaLed a sysLem ln whlch boLh Lhe parLlcular phenomenon ln lLs rlchness and
general laws could be esLabllshed. Lewln emphaslzed Lhe need for broad ranglng concepLs LhaL would
do [usLlce Lo human exlsLence and soclal reallLy. Pls credo - unlfy wlLhouL undue slmpllflcaLlon - ls Lhe
cornersLone of sclence. We can see, on Lhe one hand, Lewln's deslre Lo remaln loyal Lo Lhe baslc
assumpLlons of sclence (e.g., laws, generallzablllLy, explanaLlons) and hls dedlcaLlon, on Lhe oLher, Lo
LreaLlng Lhe whole person and Lhe rlchness of human and soclal reallLy. lL ls clear from Lewln's look aL
sclence - wlsseoscboft - LhaL Lhe eplsLemologlcal LreaLmenL of generallzaLlon Lakes Lhe form of caLalysls
(ln Lewln's Lerms cooJltloool-qeoetlc explanaLlon) - Lhe sLudy of condlLlons under whlch someLhlng
happens. 1he sLudy of caLalyLlc naLure of phenomena vlews Lhe parLs of a sysLem, lnLeracLlng wlLh Lhe
oLher parLs, Lo form a CesLalL - a whole LhaL enLalls Lhe person, Lhe envlronmenL, and Lhelr relaLlonshlp
(umwelt). ln Lhls approach, Lhe phenomena cannoL be sLudled as a-conLexLual, buL embedded wlLhln a
dynamlc and changlng sysLem of becomlng. 1here ls a creaLlve Lenslon beLween Lhe general and
parLlcular ln Lewln's sysLem of LhoughL and hls emphasls on hollsm. We address how Lhe goals of flndlng
regularlLles and laws co-exlsL wlLh Lhe noLlons of a dynamlc and ever-changlng world. Pow can soclal
reallLy be modeled ln any sLaLlc Lerms lf lL ls always ln flux?

keywords: CenerallzaLlon, CaLalysls, SysLem, Pollsm

lL ls mlldly lronlc LhaL Lhe quesLlon of generallzaLlon - a self-obvlous goal of any wlsseoscboft -
ls belng dlspuLed ln Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe 21
sL
cenLury. 1here are Lwo general lmpulses -
seemlngly conLradlcLory - underglrdlng much of Lhe LhoughL of psychologlsLs such as Cordon
AllporL, Abraham Maslow, Carl 8ogers, Wllllam SLern and kurL Lewln. 1he flrsL ls an lmpulse
Lowards a psychology LhaL embraces Lhe unlque human belng ln Lhe process of becomlng. 1he
second regards ensurlng and promoLlng psychology as a sclence LhaL esLabllshes baslc
knowledge. 1hus Lhe former reaches Lowards concreLeness, rlchness and fullness of human
experlence and Lhe laLLer Lowards absLracLlon and Lhe derlvaLlon of laws. 8econclllng Lhese
dual pro[ecLs has proven Lo be problemaLlc slnce Lhey have Lyplcally been regarded as
anLlLheLlcal and one musL be sacrlflced aL Lhe alLar of Lhe oLher. We here prove LhaL such
elLher-or aLLlLude mlsses Lhe polnL - lL ls preclsely ln Lhe rlch deLalls of Lhe phenomenology of

*
Clark unlverslLy


66

Lhe whole where generallzed laws operaLe. ln Lhe blologlcal, soclal, and psychologlcal sysLems
generallLy of laws resulLs ln ampllfled varlablllLy and unlqueness (Maruyama, 1963, 1999).
Powever ln psychology Loday, Lhe goal of generallzaLlon looms large ln dlscusslons of
exLernal valldlLy and wheLher a researcher's flndlngs apply beyond Lhelr sample Lo a wlder
populaLlon. 1hls ls a resulL of narrowlng down psychologlsLs' search for knowledge Lo Lhe use
of lnducLlve generallzaLlon Lechnlques. 1hls lnducLlve focus has been furLher forLlfled by Lhe
posLmodern approaches LhaL emphaslze parLlcular descrlpLlons and locallzed knowledge
consLrucLlon - and deny Lhe posslblllLy of generallzaLlons all LogeLher. 1haL ls, Lhe very
parLlcular, relaLlonal and slLuaLed condlLlons of phenomena have seemlngly precluded Lhe
esLabllshmenL of general laws. 1he lmpulse of Lransferrlng knowledge from one conLexL Lo
anoLher and esLabllshlng general laws are conLradlcLory Lo Lhe lmpulse of a posLmodern
approach LhaL Lrles Lo do [usLlce Lo Lhe rlchness of human exlsLence. lronlcally, lL falls preclsely
ln LhaL. lndeed, greaL novellsLs who descrlbe Lhe dramas ln Lhe llves of Lhelr lnvenLed
characLers - always parLlcular slngle cases! - are appreclaLed preclsely because Lhey lnLulLlvely
Lrlgger generallzaLlon Lendencles ln Lhelr readers. osL-modernlsL ldeology has made soclal
sclences noL lnLo a deposlLory of local knowledge, buL of local sLorles of no generallzablllLy.
Anyone who wanLs Lo learn abouL Lhe reallLles of Lhe human condlLlon geLs more lnslghL from
Lhe flcLlonal characLers such as Anna karenlna, Aurellano 8uendla, or - even - Parry oLLer.
SomeLhlng has gone dramaLlcally wrong ln Lhe soclal sclences over Lhe pasL few decades LhaL
Lhe quesLlon of generallzaLlon could be noL only found dlfflculL Lo solve, buL even denled as a
problem ln need for a soluLlon.
As lrreconcllable as Lhe fldellLy Lo Lhe phenomena ln lLs concreLeness and Lhe generallzaLlon
of unlversal and lawful knowledge may seem Lo conLemporary soclal sclenLlsLs, we wlll vlslL
Lhls posslblllLy. uoes Lhe unlqueness of psychologlcal phenomena preclude generallzaLlon? lf
noL, whaL Lhen ls Lhe paLh Lowards generallzaLlon ln Lhe dynamlc world of becomlng?

GLNLkALI2A1ICN CCNCkL1L UNIUL SI1UA1ICN

We address and elaboraLe generallzaLlon Lhe concreLe slLuaLlon and Lhe unlqueness of
human llvlng. 1hls challenglng endeavor has been underLaken by varlous Lhlnkers, lncludlng
Lhose we menLloned above. Cordon AllporL (1933) succlncLly descrlbed Lhe naLure of Lhe
dllemma:

1he flrsL facL LhaL sLrlkes us ls Lhe unlqueness of boLh Lhe process and Lhe producL. Lach person ls
an ldlom unLo hlmself, and apparenL vlolaLlon of Lhe synLax of Lhe specles. An ldlom develops ln
lLs own pecullar conLexL, and Lhls conLexL musL be undersLood ln order Lo comprehend Lhe ldlom.
?eL aL Lhe same Llme, ldloms are noL enLlrely lawless and arblLrary, lndeed Lhey can be known for
whaL Lhey are only by comparlng Lhem wlLh Lhe synLax of Lhe specles. (AllporL 1933, p. 17)

1he crux of Lhe dllemma sLems from Lhe vlew LhaL unlqueness - lncludlng conLexL dependence
- and LranslLory naLure of human llfe and lawfulness are lncommensurable. kurL Lewln ls
wldely consldered Lhe founder of soclal psychology and acLlon research and, as we wlll dlscuss
below, consldered generallzablllLy Lo be a chlef alm of sclence and hls research. Lewln was
concerned wlLh descrlblng parLlcular, concreLe, and dynamlc soclal worlds, as we wlll dlscuss
below. ?eL, Lewln also consldered Lhe developmenL of absLracL concepLual ldeas and general
analyLlcal Lools cruclal Lo creaLlng soclal change (ue 8lvera, 1976). Pere we can speclflcally see
Lhe dlalogue beLween Lhe parLlcular - a dynamlc soclal world - and Lhe unlversal or general law
- how Lo change Lhe soclal world, or soclal change. ln Lhls sense, Lewln's work creaLed a
Zach Becksteau, Kenneth R. Cabell, anu }aan valsinei - ueneializing Thiough Conuitional Analysis

67

dlalogue beLween whaL we mlghL call baslc psychology" and applled psychology". lor such a
dlalogue Lo occur, Lewln had Lo conslsLenLly deal wlLh generallzaLlon from Lhe parLlcular Lo Lhe
unlversal. lnsLead of flndlng Lhls an lnsurmounLable problem and avoldlng or reduclng Lhe
complexlLy and unlqueness of human exlsLence, kurL Lewln argued LhaL lL was only by Laklng
lnLo accounL Lhe very concreLe and unlque slLuaLlon whlch lncludes Lhe person LhaL
generallzaLlon ls posslble.
Pow dld Lewln come Lo Lhls lnslghL and whaL are Lhe lmpllcaLlons for psychology Loday? We
address Lhese quesLlons by examlnlng Lewln's LreaLmenL of Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween
lndlvldual evenLs and law ln hls LreaLmenL of Lhe confllcL beLween whaL he called Lhe
ArlsLoLellan and Calllean modes of LhoughL (Lewln, 1931, 1933, valslner, 1984). Lewln offers
ample lnsplraLlon for posslble paLhways Lowards generallzaLlon whlle emphaslzlng Lhe
slLuaLlon. We wlll Lhen dlscuss systemlc coosollty and how Lhe noLlon of caLalysls offers a
promlslng concepLual Lool LhaL enables generallzaLlon.

1heory and Act|on: 1ens|ons |n the Lew|n|an System: kurL Lewln poslLed LhaL psychology had
reached a sLage where emplrlcal work and Lhe pllloq op of focts had become a deLrlmenL Lo
Lhe progress of psychology (Lewln, 1936). 1hls evaluaLlon ls even more Lrue now, 70 years
laLer. AlLhough emplrlcal lnvesLlgaLlons provlde a correcLlve Lo speculaLlve phllosophy, Lewln
argued, lL ls Lhe comblnaLlon of Lheory and emplrlcal research LhaL ls needed ln
psychology. lndeed, Lewln clearly emphaslzed Lhe need for broad ranglng concepLs LhaL would
do [usLlce Lo human exlsLence and soclal reallLy and, Lherefore, called for concepLs LhaL could
unlfy wlLhouL undue slmpllflcaLlon, Lhey musL lnclude boLh person and envlronmenL, boLh law
and lndlvldual case" (Lewln, 1936, p. 7). We can see, on Lhe one hand, Lewln's deslre Lo remaln
loyal Lo Lhe baslc assumpLlons of sclence (e.g., laws, generallzablllLy, and explanaLlons) and hls
dedlcaLlon, on Lhe oLher, Lo LreaLlng Lhe whole person and Lhe rlchness of human and soclal
reallLy (8eber & 8ecksLead, 2009).
1hls posLure - naLural for any sclenLlsL aL hls Llme - can be found LhroughouL Lewln's
wrlLlngs, however, hls analysls and dlscusslon of Lhe shlfL beLween ArlsLoLellan and posL-
Calllean physlcs offers a peneLraLlng analysls of Lhe LheoreLlcal shorLcomlngs of psychology as
well as provldlng a nlce phllosophlcal groundlng of hls work and LhoughL, especlally ln relaLlon
Lo Lhe Lheme of generallzaLlon and overcome Lhe opposlLlon beLween unlversal concepL and
lndlvldual evenL" (Lewln, 1936, p. 8). noLably, Lewln's (1927, 1931) reflecLlons on Lhe confllcL
beLween ArlsLoLellan and Calllean modes of LhoughL lllumlnaLe Lhe developmenL of lawfulness
LhaL conLlnues Lo underglrd psychology and how Lhls ls lnLerrelaLed wlLh Lhe process ln
ArlsLoLellan LhoughL of flxlng Lhe locus of causallLy ln Lhe ob[ecL wlLh Lhe upshoL LhaL ob[ecLs
and evenLs become deLached from, analyzed, and undersLood aparL from Lhelr surroundlng
envlronmenL and lsolaLed from oLher ob[ecLs.

Ar|stote||an and ost-Ga|||ean hys|cs: Lewln's crlLlque of psychology and Lhe developmenL of
hls ldeas sLemmed ln parL from hls comparlson of ArlsLoLellan and posL-Calllean approaches Lo
physlcs (Lewln, 1933). lor Lewln, Lhe use of sLaLlsLlcal analyses - based on large samples - ls
largely derlved from an ArlsLoLellan framework LhaL grouped ob[ecLs lnLo blnary and
homogeneous classes (e.g., cold and warm, llghL and heavy) and requlred evenLs Lo be regular
and frequenL (e.g., orblL of heavenly bodles) ln order Lo be consldered lawful (and Lhus Lhe
ob[ecL of lnqulry for sclence). AL Lhe Llme of hls Lhlnklng abouL Lhe lssue - laLe 1920s - Lhe
avalanche of Lhe emplre of chance" (Clgerenzer eL al., 1989) onLo psychology was only
sLarLlng.
1he classlflcaLory sysLem ln ArlsLoLellan physlcs grouped ob[ecLs and phenomena LogeLher
around Lhe ptloclple of commooollty. Accordlngly, ob[ecLs and evenLs were grouped LogeLher


68

based Lhelr apparenL slmllarlLles - whaL Lhey had ln common. ln reLurn, Lhe explanaLlon of a
parLlcular ob[ecL's behavlor was derlved from Lhese apparenL slmllarlLles. lor lnsLance, tbloqs
tbot wete llqbt (e.g., smoke, balloons, sheeLs ln Lhe wlnd) were grouped LogeLher because of
Lhelr apparenL quallLy of llghLness". 1hlngs LhaL were llghL Lyplcally wenL up ln normal
condlLlons. 1hls meanL cerLaln ob[ecLs had an opwotJ teoJeocy. Cb[ecLs wlLhln Lhe
classlflcaLory group whlch exempllfled Lhls behavlor/movemenL - an upward Lendency - was
explalned Lo be caused by Lhe essence of Lhe ob[ecL - Lhe characLerlsLlc of belng llghL. 1he
lmmedlaLe resulL ls LhaL phenomena become grouped ooJ explalned by Lhe characLerlsLlcs
shared by Lhe group. ln our example, Lhlngs were grouped by Lhelr shared llghL quallLy and Lhe
ob[ecLs upward Lendency was Lhen explalned by llghL quallLy. ln Lhls sense ArlsLoLellan mode of
explanaLlon ls lnherenLly LauLologlcal ln LhaL phenomena are explalned by Lhe essence of Lhe
group ln whlch lL was lncluded. All members of class x" are characLerlzed by Lhe quallLy of x-
ness" belng aLLrlbuLed Lo each and every member of Lhe class.
Lewln polnLed ouL LhaL such klnd of clrcular reasonlng was qulLe common ln psychology. Pe
noLed LhaL clrcular reasonlng leads Lo a klnd of loglc LhaL, slnce negaLlvlLy (l.e., Lewln ls
referrlng Lo a LralL such as sLubbornness) ls frequenLly observed ln many Lhree year olds,
negaLlvlLy ls lnherenL ln Lhe naLure of Lhree year olds (Lewln, 1933, p. 13). 1hls loglc furLher
serves as Lhe explanaLlon for Lhe appearance of a concreLe case of negaLlvlLy (lbld). 1hls
LauLology ls evldenL Loday LhroughouL psychology - especlally ln cross-culLural psychology as
dlfferences beLween groups are lnLerpreLed Lo be caused by Lhe sLaLlc essences of gender" or
culLure" (valslner, 2007, p. 26). 1hls approach and loglc makes posslble Lhe sample-Lo-
populaLlon form of generallzaLlon, however, Lhese generallzaLlons are underglrded by
grouplng lndlvlduals lnLo homogeneous classes and Lransformlng classes such as Amerlcan"
lnLo essences LhaL Lhen become pro[ecLed lnLo Lhe psychologlcal sysLems of Lhe lndlvlduals and
are poslLed as Lhe causes of dlfferences LhaL are assumed by Lhe o ptlotl caLegorlzaLlons.
negaLlvlLy.
Lqually problemaLlc for Lewln was LhaL Lhe classlflcaLory sysLem of ArlsLoLle had profound
lmpllcaLlons for noLlons concernlng lawfulness, and hence generallzaLlon. 1o relLeraLe, Lhe
essence of a Lhlng and lLs behavlor was derlved by Lhe class of ob[ecLs lL was grouped wlLh
based on absLracL, common feaLures. 1hese common feaLures, furLher, are based on Lhe
Lendencles of ob[ecLs (e.g., smoke and balloons have Lhe Lendency of upwardness) and llnked
wlLh how frequenL an evenL occurs. As Lewln (1933) commenLed, lL ls Lhese frequency rules
.. LhaL deLermlne Lhe naLure and Lendency Lo be ascrlbed Lo each class of ob[ecLs (p. 7). 1haL
ls ln order Lo glean Lhe Lendency of any ob[ecL lL musL be occur repeaLedly and frequenLly.
1hus Lhe crlLerla for lawfulness from Lhe ArlsLoLellan vlew cenLered on commonallLy and
frequency of ob[ecLs and necessarlly exclude one-Llme or lndlvldual evenLs. Lewln (1933)
argues LhaL Lhls approach lnevlLably leads Lo Lhe concluslon, LhaL whlch does noL occur
repeaLedly lles ouL of Lhe realm of Lhe comprehenslble" (p. 14). 1hls frequenLlsL model, Lewln
argued, permeaLed (and currenLly - 70 years laLer - domlnaLes) psychology Lhrough Lhe use of
sLaLlsLlcs and Lhe derlvlng whaL Lhe group has ln common vla Lhe mean. Cf course psychology's
rellance on Lhe mean remalns unabaLed - wheLher Lhls ls ln experlmenLal or survey meLhods -
and repllcaLlon remalns a cruclal (and yeL seldom non-uLlllzed ln currenL psychologlcal
research) crlLerlon for generallzaLlon.
1he consequences of a frequenLlsL approach are aL leasL Lhreefold. llrsL, lndlvldual evenLs
are vlewed as lncomprehenslble and arblLrary slnce lawfulness ls belleved Lo be relaLed Lo
regularlLy, and consldered Lhe anLlLhesls of Lhe lndlvldual case" (Lewln, 1933, p. 17). Cf course,
Lhls emphasls on frequency and regularlLy has lead psychology Lo lnsLlLuLlonallze sLaLlsLlcs as
tbe paLh for consLrucLlng knowledge and laws. lurLhermore, as Lewln (1933) noLes, such

69

sLaLlsLlcal lnvesLlgaLlons are . unable as a rule Lo glve an explanaLlon of Lhe dynamlcs of Lhe
processes lnvolved" slnce Lhey adhere Lo Lhe same LauLologlcal Lraps menLloned above (p. 21).
lndlvldual cases musL be comblned Lo form averages. ue 8lvera (1976) descrlbes Lhe
lmpllcaLlons of Lhls approach

1he effecL of Lhls focuslng on averages raLher Lhan lndlvlduals ls LhaL Lhe experlmenLer makes Lhe
ob[ecLlve condlLlons Lhe sub[ecL" of Lhe experlmenL, raLher Lhan hls sub[ecLs. lL ls presumed LhaL
a parLlcular experlmenLal slLuaLlon
1
has Lhe same meanlng for each sub[ecL (or each sub[ecL
wlLhln some deslgnaLed class). Slnce, ln facL, dlfferenL sub[ecLs may glve an ob[ecLlve slLuaLlon
qulLe dlfferenL meanlngs, and slnce apparenLly slmllar responses may also have dlfferenL
meanlngs, lL ls evldenL LhaL dlfferenL processes may be occurrlng ln dlfferenL sub[ecLs.
ConsequenLly, Lhere are many dlfferenL posslble lnLerpreLaLlons, and one ls noL sure of Lhelr
LheoreLlcal slgnlflcance. (8lvera 1976, p. 11)

As a resulL of focus on regularlLy and Lhe hlgh value placed on observaLlon and classlflcaLlon
lnsLead of Lheory-bulldlng, Lhe lndlvldual and non-repeaLable evenLs - and Lhus unlqueness -
are forcefully ellmlnaLed from psychologlcal lnvesLlgaLlon. ConsequenLly, as Cordon AllporL
observes, psychologlsLs lnLeresLed ln sLudylng human belngs are lead Lo look for unlversal
processes common Lo Lhe specles" and sLudy mlnd-ln-general raLher Lhan mlnd ln parLlcular"
(AllporL, 1933).

Move to a post-Ga|||ean v|ew: 1he shlfL from an ArlsLoLellan approach Lo Calllean or posL-
Calllean can be seen ln Lhe noLlon of lawfulness and Lhe change from a sLrlcLly hlsLorlcal
approach leadlng Lo an emphasls of frequency and regularlLy Lo Lhe concreLe slLuaLlon and
noLlons of lnLerdependency and lnLerrelaLlonshlps as fundamenLally consLlLuLlve of ob[ecLs.
lmporLanLly, Lhe posL-Calllean vlew re[ecLed Lhe ArlsLoLellan ldea LhaL regularlLy, frequency
and repeLlLlon were Lhe hallmarks of lawfulness. 1he Calllean mode of LhoughL, Lhen,
exLended law from solely repeaLed and frequenL evenLs Lo one-Llme and unlque evenLs.
SlgnlflcanLly, Lhls LranslLlon Lo an all-embraclng homogenlzaLlon and harmonlzaLlon of Lhe
whole fleld . gave Lo Calllean physlcs Lhe lnLoxlcaLlng feellng of lnflnlLe-breadLh, because lL
does noL, llke absLracL class concepLs, level ouL Lhe rlch varleLy of Lhe world and because a
slngle law embraces Lhe whole fleld" (Lewln, 1933, p. 23). 1he homogenlzaLlon of law, for Lhe
Calllean LhoughL and for Lewln, does geL rld of heLerogenelLy or Lhe rlch varleLy of Lhe world"
buL raLher allows for boLh law and unlqueness. lndlvldual cases and evenLs are noL opposed,
lnsLead, generallLy ls reached Lhrough Lhe parLlcular and slngular phenomenon. ?eL Lhls law
(and form of generallzaLlon) dld noL derlve from an absLracLlon LhaL lumped LogeLher ob[ecLs
based on common feaLures and Lendencles regularly and frequenLly observed, raLher, lL was
Lhrough Laklng Lhe concreLe slLuaLlon as Lhe basls and Lhen deLermlnlng Lhe condlLlons under
whlch dlfferenL evenLs occur. Lvery evenL, Lhen, should be consldered lawful ln Lhe sense of
noL a random and ulLlmaLely mysLerlous occurrence.
1he Calllean mode LhoughL, Lherefore, changed Lhe locus of causaLlon away from Lhe
lottloslc ptopettles of Lhe ob[ecL Lo Lhe sLrucLural relaLlonshlps betweeo ob[ecLs. 1haL Lhls, Lhe
crlLerla of frequency and regularlLy, along wlLh Lhe Leleologlcal benL ln ArlsLoLellan framework,
flxed Lhe lawfulness and causallLy ln Lhe ob[ecL lrrespecLlve of Lhe envlronmenL and Lhe
relaLlonshlps wlLh oLher ob[ecLs ln Lhls envlronmenL. lnsLead, wlLh Lhe shlfL Lo Lhe Calllean
vlew Lhe slLuaLlon assumes as much lmporLance as Lhe ob[ecL" and lL ls only by Lhe concreLe
whole whlch comprlses Lhe ob[ecL and Lhe slLuaLlon are Lhe vecLors whlch deLermlne Lhe
dynamlcs of Lhe evenL deflned" (Lewln, 1933, p. 29). 1haL ls whlle properLles of ob[ecLs

1
We can add here quesLlonnalres and surveys (Wagoner & valslner, 2003).


70

belonged Lo Lhe ob[ecL lrrespecLlve of lLs surroundlng, Lhe Calllean vlew consldered welghL",
for example, Lo be depend on Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe ob[ecL and envlronmenL (Lewln,
1933, p. 28).

I|e|d theory: A ho||st|c framework: 1he lmpllcaLlons Lewln drew from Lhe confllcL of
ArlsLoLellan and Calllean modes of LhoughL ls reflecLed ln hls Lheory. As we have lllusLraLed,
Lewln aLLempLed general law and parLlcular slLuaLlon, and Lo broaden psychologlsLs' sub[ecL
maLLer or vlew of Lhe human belng. Lewln's work, ln conLrasL Lo many of hls colleagues,
focuses on developlng a psychologlcal sclence of Lhe whole human belng. lor Lewln any
recourse Lo lnherenL personallLy or essence of an lndlvldual lndependenL of Lhe envlronmenL
could noL asslsL ln undersLandlng human behavlor. undersLandlng any human behavlor enLalls
undersLandlng Lhe slLuaLlon of an lndlvldual as lL exlsLs for Lhe parLlcular person. 1hls was
capLured ln Lewln's classlc formula for behavlor, 8=f(,L), whlch sLaLes LhaL behavlor ls a
funcLlon of Lhe person and envlronmenL for LhaL person. Lewln's fleld Lheory aLLempLs Lo
descrlbe and speclfy Lhe here-and-now fleld ln whlch Lhe person ls slLuaLed ln lLs LoLallLy (e.g.,
lnLerrelaLlons). 1he baslc posLulaLes of fleld Lheory, accordlng Lo Lewln (1931), are LhaL (a)
behavlor has Lo be derlved from a LoLallLy of co-exlsLlng facLs, (b) Lhese coexlsLlng facLs have
Lhe 'dynamlc fleld' ln so far as Lhe sLaLe of any parL of Lhls fleld depends on every oLher parL of
Lhe fleld" (p. 23). 1he whole slLuaLlon was noL sLaLlc buL lnsLead dynamlc and comprlsed of
many dlfferenL non-reduclble elemenLs.
Lewln devoLed conslderable efforL Lo how Lo represenL Lhe fleld or llfe space of a person.
Agaln, Lhe person was consldered Lo be lnLerdependenL wlLh her envlronmenL and Lherefore
could noL be undersLood separaLely from lL. 1he envlronmenL and here-and-now slLuaLlon was
a consLlLuLlve parL of Lhe person's behavlor and one cannoL dlsenLangle a person from Lhelr
envlronmenL. Lewln (1936) Lhus Lrled Lo represenL all relevanL" aspecLs of Lhe slLuaLlon as lL
exlsLed for Lhe person, and he offered Lhe general guldellne LhaL wbot ls teol bos effects." ln
oLher words, Lewln aLLempLed Lo represenL Lhe heLerogeneous fleld or llfe space of Lhe person
Lhrough deLalled observaLlon wlLh an eye Lowards derlvlng behavlor from Lhe condlLlonal-
geneLlc characLerlsLlcs" of an ob[ecL or evenL. 1hese characLerlsLlcs were dynamlc processes
LhaL exlsLed beneaLh Lhe phenomenal properLles.

1owards a new understand|ng of genera||zat|on: As dlscussed above, Lewln sLressed Lhe
necesslLy of Lheory, buL Lheory had Lo be Lled Lo and lnformed by rlch descrlpLlons of all
relevanL aspecLs of Lhe llfe-space of Lhe lndlvldual. ue 8lvera (1976) has noLed LhaL, because
of Lhe unlque slLuaLlon of every sub[ecL, [Lewln] argued for Lhe sLudy of each lndlvldual case"
(p. 18). ?eL for psychology Lo be a sclence -ln Lhe sense of wlsseoscbofteo - lL musL also
dlscover laws and allow for generallzablllLy. SLresslng Lhe value of Lheory, Lewln asserLs LhaL
Lhe accumulaLlon of facLs Lhrough emplrlcal sLudles cannoL answer . Lhe quesLlon LhaL ls
mosL lmporLanL for pracLlcal purposes - namely, whaL musL one do Lo obLaln a deslred effecL ln
glven concreLe cases?" (Lewln, 1936, p. 4). Laws, for Lewln, deflne funcLlonal relaLlonshlps
beLween dlfferenL characLerlsLlcs of an evenL or slLuaLlon . [and] are noLhlng more Lhan
prlnclples accordlng Lo whlch Lhe acLual evenL may be derlved from Lhe dynamlc facLors of Lhe
concreLe slLuaLlon" (Lewln, 1936, p. 11). lleld Lheory was Lewln's aLLempL Lo brlng Lheory
bulldlng lnLo dlalogue wlLh Lhe concreLe slLuaLlon. 1hls concreLe analysls requlred Lhe use of
condlLlonal - raLher Lhan causal - ways of Lhlnklng abouL experlmenLaLlon (Lewln, 1927) LhaL
was a forerunner Lo our proposal for a caLalyLlc focus ln psychology here.
lleld Lheory ls noL wlLhouL flaws aL Lhe concepLual and pracLlcal levels. lL has been crlLlclzed
for lLs llmlLaLlons on whaL can and should be represenLed ln Lhe fleld and weakness ln Lhe

71

maLhemaLlcal formullzaLlons (London, 1944). Powever, de 8lvera remlnds us LhaL fleld Lheory
ls more of an approach Lhan a rlgld sysLem of concepLs Lo be applled Lo dlfferenL psychologlcal
lssues (ue 8lvera, 1976, p. 4). 1he rlchness of Lewln's concepLs and hls aLLempLs Lo sLay close
Lo Lhe phenomena of concern wlLhouL undue slmpllflcaLlon ls lmpresslve. 1hus we Lake Lewln's
ldeas as suggesLlve ways Lo honor boLh baslc knowledge consLrucLlon and Lhe unlqueness of
human llfe. aradoxlcally, lL ls [usL Lhls emphasls on Lhe slLuaLlon as essenLlal Lo generallzed
knowledge LhaL ls so provocaLlve. Lewln (1933) polnLed ouL LhaL Callleo dld noL Lake an
average of balls rolllng down hllls, buL raLher absLracLly concelved of ldeal slLuaLlons and
condlLlons and demonsLraLed LhaL Lhe behavlor of a ball depended on Lhe slLuaLlon (p. 26).
lnsLead of lgnorlng Lhe lndlvldual pecullarlLles of Lhe slLuaLlon, Lewln's experlmenLal
phenomenology" (see ue 8lvera, 1976 for a dlscusslon of Lhls approach) and emphasls on
descrlblng Lhe slLuaLlon ln as much deLall posslble relnsLaLed Lhe slLuaLlon (l.e., person-
envlronmenL relaLlonshlp) as Lhe key unlL of analysls. Slngle evenLs were no longer consldered
lncompresslble and ouLslde Lhe grasp of sclence. An addlLlonal lmpllcaLlon Lo resLorlng Lhe
slngle and unlque evenL Lo lnvesLlgaLlon ls LhaL lL has Lhe corollary effecL of belng closer Lo
human experlence. 1haL ls, we experlence llfe as meanlngful and purposeful, and noL arblLrary
and random as Lhe ArlsLoLellan mode of LhoughL would lmply. lurLhermore, Lewln's approach
was Lo connecL Lhe concreLe Lo Lhe concepLual and deal wlLh Lhe essenLlal sLrucLures (l.e.,
relaLlonshlps) LhaL occur beneaLh observaLlon and descrlpLlon. lnsLead of generallzaLlon based
on slmllarlLles beLween common, absLracL feaLures, generallzaLlon ls based on processes
underlylng Lhe phenomena. 1hus Lhe focus on essenLlal sLrucLures moves us from breaklng
phenomena aparL and sLudylng elemenLs ln lsolaLlon Lo a sysLemlc orlenLaLlon LhaL ls orlenLed
Lowards systemlc coosollty.

IkCM CAUSAL VAkIA8LLS 1C SS1LMIC CAUSALI1

1he open dynamlc sysLem model ls essenLlal when sLudylng Lhe effecLs of Lhe quallLaLlve
whole. arLs and Lhelr relaLlonshlp Lo each oLher, as well as Lo Lhe whole, have lnLerrelaLed
funcLlons and effecLs and Lherefore cannoL be LreaLed as separaLe varlables. 1yplcal analyLlc
sLudy of psychologlcal sysLems reduced Lhe whole Lo lLs consLlLuenL parLs, Lhelr relaLlonshlps
lgnored, and only some parLs are selecLed plcked for sLudylng. 1he sysLem cannoL be sLudled
unless Lhe aggregaLe of Lhe quallLaLlve whole ls observed as a sysLem - as lnLerrelaLed parLs
funcLlonlng ln relaLlon Lo one anoLher. 1hls sysLemlc approach was lnherenL ln Lhe Calllean
mode of LhoughL and was manlfesLed ln Lewln's focus on Lhe concreLe slLuaLlon and behavlor
as a funcLlon of Lhe person-envlronmenL relaLlonshlp.
Modern experlmenLal psychology aLLempLs Lo reduce a complex sysLem Lo lLs consLlLuenL
parLs. 1hls allows for experlmenLaLlon Lo produce causallLy ln a one-Lo-one model - lf x ls
presenL Lhen Z follows. Such a formula beglns Lo glve blrLh Lo modern experlmenLal meLhods,
forLlfled by lf-Lhen" loglc (Sllfe & 8lchardson, 1993). ln order Lo make sense of phenomena,
psychology reduces Lhe complex whole Lo varlables LhaL presumably lnLeracL". sychologles
reduced one-Lo-one varlable equaLlons begln Lo acqulre a mechanlsLlc quallLy. SLern, who
dlsagrees wlLh Lhe one-Lo-one causal and mechanlcal porLrayal of Lhe psyche, says,

1he lndlvldual ls more Lhan an aggregaLe of physlcal and psychologlcal phenomena, [usL whaL
more ls enLalled here wlll now be expressed ln Lerms of nonphenomenal aLLrlbuLes. 1hus, Lhe
naLure of Lhese hypoLheLlcal componenLs ls noL mechanlcal buL personal": Lhe many and
fragmenLed phenomena presenL wlLhln Lhe lndlvldual are explalned by and unlfled Lhrough
aLLrlbuLes LhaL orlglnaLe or reslde ln Lhe lndlvldual, lnsofar as Lhe laLLer ls a unlLary whole. (SLern
1911, p. 48)


72

LmoLlon, cognlLlons, and acLlons are noL lsolaLed enLlLles, buL raLher are enmeshed LogeLher
and grounded ln Lhe whole person. Moreover, Lhese lnLer-relaLed domalns are always
dynamlc. uynamlcs lmplles change, and change lmplles developmenL. 1herefore Lhe
generallzaLlons musL address and encompass change as long as Lhe lndlvldual changes - Lhusly
forclng psychology lnLo a dynamlc sysLems Lheory and requlrlng a dynamlc model of
generallzaLlon. Already back ln Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe 20
Lh
cenLury, Wllllam SLern emphaslzed
Lhls polnL when saylng LhaL Lhe parLlcular ls ever subordlnaLe Lo Lhe general [even as] Lhe
general musL ever accommodaLe Lhe lndlvldual." (SLern, 1911, p. 31).
Modern psychology, whlch selecLlvely chooses and lgnores parLs of Lhe whole ln order Lo
make causal sLaLemenLs, musL develop a dynamlc model - ln Lheory, pracLlce, and
generallzaLlon. Accordlng Lo Lewln, Lhe properLles of a Lhlng are noL lnLrlnslc Lo lL buL, raLher,
sLem from lLs lnLerrelaLlonshlp wlLh oLher elemenLs ln a glven sysLem - agaln relnforclng Lhe
dynamlc lnLeracLlon of parLs wlLhln a sysLem. lndeed, all psychologlcal and behavloral
funcLlonlng ls parL of an open and dynamlc sysLem. 1hls means LhaL all Lhe processes and
componenLs of Lhe sysLem work as a quallLaLlve whole Lo produce Lhe resulLlng phenomenon.
1he valldlLy of causal sLaLemenLs based on reducLlonlsL approaches ls unLenable because Lhey
fall Lo Lake lnLo accounL essenLlal aspecLs of Lhe whole. A sLudy of reduced or selecLed parLs of
Lhe quallLaLlve whole may yleld an enLlrely dlfferenL phenomenon (e.g., aLLempLlng Lo sLudy
Lhe affecL or rellglous ecsLasy Lhrough Lhe flrlng of neurons).
lf phenomena are quallLaLlvely organlzed by Lhe whole sysLem Lhey are embedded wlLhln
(and lnLerrelaLed wlLh) Lhen generallzaLlon should noL be based on premlses of separaLe
varlables, buL raLher qeoetollzotloo sboolJ be boseJ oo tbe ptemlses of qeoetollzloq ooJet
wbot systemlc cooJltloos sometbloq occots. 1here are Lwo lmporLanL concepLs Lo Lhls
eplsLemologlcal vlew of generallzaLlon. 1he flrsL ls LhaL of Pollsm - dlscussed prevlously. 1he
second concepL ls LhaL of caLalysls - Lhe sLudy of condlLlons under whlch someLhlng happens
(SalvaLore, valslner, SLrauL-?agodzlnkl and Clegg, 2009). 1he lnLegraLlon of Lhese Lwo concepLs
wlLhln an open and dynamlc sysLem can allow for Lhe producLlon of generallzed knowledge
LhaL does noL buLcher" Lhe phenomena by reduclng lL Lo lLs elemenLal parLs, buL raLher,
descrlbes, undersLands, and analyzes Lhe phenomena as a quallLaLlve whole.

1he ke|at|onsh|ps and Interact|ons |n System 1heory: ln order Lo generallze Lhe condlLlons
under whlch someLhlng occurs, lL ls lmporLanL Lo sLudy Lhe general models of open and
dynamlc sysLems. Cpen sysLems accounL for exchange and relaLlon glven Lhe parLlcular parLs ln
Lhe whole envlronmenL. 1hls lmplles open ended and lnLranslLlve lnLeracLlons - LhaL ls,
provlded LhaL A, 8, C sLand for Lhe parLs of Lhe sysLem, and A > 8 sLand for a relaLlon, lL mlghL
be Lhe case LhaL A > 8 and 8 > C whlle aL Lhe same Llme C > A. ln general, an lnLranslLlve and
open sysLem can also suggesL Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lwo parLs as equlvalenL Lo, or
lndeLermlnaLe (see below). Lach of Lhese relaLlonshlp or quallLles of relaLlng Lo" suggesL an
asymmeLrlc relaLlon. An asymmeLrlc relaLlon lmplles LhaL A's relaLlon Lo 8 ls noL Lhe same as
8's relaLlon Lo A. A greaLer Lhan slgn lmplles a relaLlonshlp of domlnance. 1herefore, A > 8 ls
equlvalenL Lo A domlnaLes 8" or A has domlnance over 8". ConsequenLly, a less Lhan" slgn
(<) lmplles an asymmeLrlc relaLlonshlp of Lhe domlnaLed, an equal" slgns (=) lmplles an
equlvalenL power relaLlon, and lndeLermlnaLe lmplles an unknown relaLlonshlp (valslner,
2000).

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
A > 8 A > 8 A > 8
8 > C 8 > C 8 > C

73

C > A C = A C--[?]--A

Lach of Lhese models dlsplay dlfferenL parLs wlLhln a sysLem and Lhelr relaLlonshlp Lo some
oLher parL. 1he parLs and Lhelr lnLeracLlons wlLh oLher parLs as a whole ls a sysLem. 8uL how
can we conclude causallLy from such a sysLem of lnLeracLlng and exchanglng parLs? 1wo
sysLems, wlLh Lhe same parLs - A, 8, C - buL dlfferenL relaLlonshlp of Lhe parLs wlll yleld
dlfferenL resulLs. ln each of Lhe models Lhe speclflc relaLlon beLween Lhe parLs ls of key
relevance - lf a relaLlonshlp ls Laken ouL, Lhe sysLem collapses, and Lhe resulL does noL occur.
Slnce Lhe resulL ls dependenL on Lhe lnLeracLlon of oll parLs ln Lhe sysLem, and noL of Lhe
lndlvldual varlables, we can conclude LhaL Lhere exlsLs a causal relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe
sysLem and some ouLcome. 5ystemlc coosollty flLs Lhe noLlon of causes of Lhe quallLaLlve whole
and ls necessary ln consLrucLlng Lhe generallzaLlon of condlLlons under whlch someLhlng
occurs.

Irom causa||ty to cata|ys|s: ChemlsLry and blology have accepLed Lhe open and dynamlc
naLure of sysLemlc phenomena. CaLalysls ls Lhe sLudy Lhe condlLlons LhaL operaLe wlLhln open,
lnLranslLlve, and dynamlc sysLems LhaL enable a parLlcular ouLcome Lo be produced - wblle
ptesetvloq tbe fooctlooloq of tbe ptoJocloq system. Such model can provlde sufflclenL
foundaLlons for generallzaLlon whlle sLlll keeplng Lhe quallLy of Lhe whole lnLacL. 1hls
generallzaLlon can be reached Lhrough a process model LhaL allows for Lhe dlaloglcal exchange
beLween Lhe parLlcular and Lhe unlversal.
CaLalysLs offer an alLernaLlve concepLual Lool Lo lnvesLlgaLe sysLemlc causallLy (valslner,
2007). We can see Lhe baslc noLlons of caLalysLs ln everyday llfe. lor example, lndlvlduals walk
down Lhe crowded sLreeLs of 8osLon, MassachuseLLs on a dally basls. As a whole, Lhe sLreeLs ln
8osLon may be busy - a conglomeraLe of mulLlple people golng varlous places. 8uL, lL ls noL
everyday when Lhe sLreeL ls busy LhaL Lhe crowd becomes consldered a parade, a rally/proLesL,
or an anarchlsL mob. lor example, lL Lakes a declared hollday Lo Lransform Lhe normal sLreeL
envlronmenL and crowd lnLo a parade. 1he elemenLs - people, sLreeL vendors, pollce eLc - co-
exlsL and co-occur ln everyday llfe. Powever, lL ls Lhe creaLlon and sysLemlc lmplemenLaLlon of
Lhe hollday LhaL caLalyzes and organlzes Lhese elemenLs lnLo Lhe phenomenon of a parade".
Llkewlse, lL Lakes Lhe speclflc caLalyLlc condlLlons of a conLroverslal soclo-pollLlcal evenL Lo
modlfy Lhe crowded sLreeL lnLo a proLesL or rally. 1hus Lhe noLlon of caLalysls can be employed
Lo undersLand how repeaLed ooJ unlque evenLs occur wlLhouL reduclng Lhe complexlLy of llfe
Lo more elemenLal parLs.

1he sycho|og|ca| Cata|yst: ln many sysLems, Lhere are consLralns or barrlers LhaL lnhlblL Lhe
occurrence of cerLaln phenomena. lL Lakes Lhe help of a cotolyst Lo lower Lhe acLlvaLlon barrler
- Lhe barrler or consLralnL lnhlblLlng a phenomena's occurrence - ln order Lo achleve Lhe
emergence of Lhe phenomena. Powever, because Lhe phenomena ls a resulL of lnLeracLlng and
exchanglng parLs wlLhln a sysLem, Lhe caLalysL has an lmporLanL funcLlon of changlng Lhe
relaLlonshlps and lnLeracLlons beLween one or more parLs wlLhln Lhe sysLem. Slmllar Lo our
open, dynamlc, and lnLranslLlve sysLem models, Lhe caLalysL changes Lhe relaLlonshlps of parLs
wlLhln Lhe sysLem Lo regulaLlng, malnLalnlng, amblguous, or oLher relaLlonshlps. As we sLaLed
above, sysLem causallLy lmplles Lhe change of one relaLlonshlp wlLhln Lhe sysLem wlll yleld a
dlfferenL resulL. 1herefore, Lhe caLalyLlc overcomlng of a barrler, resulLlng ln Lhe changlng of a
relaLlonshlp noL usually changed, alLers Lhe sysLem as a whole, causlng some novel (someLlmes
rare) phenomena.
Assume a sysLem conLalns parLs A, 8, and C where A--[?]--8, 8 > C and C > A. Cbvlously Lhe
open locus ln Lhls sysLem ls A--[?]--8-where [?] can Lake dlfferenL forms (e.g. leL Lhese be <


74

and >). lf a condlLlon ls presenL, Lhe [?] Lakes Lhe form of > and Lhe sysLem operaLes as a
dynamlc lnLranslLlve cycle (A>8>C>A. eLc). 1he condlLlon ls a caLalysL-a condlLlon necessary
LhaL ls ln lLself noL parL of Lhe causal sysLem A-8-C-operaLes as Lhe malnLalner of Lhe dynamlc
sLeady sLaLe of A-8-C.
Pow does Lhe caLalysL work? lL may tempototlly bloJ wltb Lhe process of LranslLlon ln Lhe
sysLem, so Lhe process observed ln Llme may be

A A8 8 C

released ouLcome" 8

ln Lhe processes of LranslLlon Lhere ls an lnLermedlaLe form - A8 - LhaL faclllLaLes Lhe
LranslLlon ln lLs sLable form, and enables Lhe producLlon of Lhe ouLcome" (consequenL)- 8.
now, conslder Lhe scenarlo where Lhe caLalysL ls noL avallable and ls replaced by anoLher one
(C). 1he sysLem ls now challenged and can change lLs organlzaLlon:

A A8 D C

C released C ouLcome" 8 noL produced

1he new sysLem AuC enLalls a loss of C and emergence of u as lLs parL. Such quallLaLlve
LransformaLlon wlLhln Lhe causal sysLem lLself ls an example of developmenL - broughL by
Lhrough Lhe alLeraLlon of Lhe condlLlons of funcLlonlng of Lhe sysLem. 8y way of changlng lLself
Lhe sysLem ends up produclng an ouLcome (8) - yeL lL keeps repllcaLlng lLself ln lLs muLaLed" (8
replaced by u) form. 1he causal sysLem may reLurn Lo produclng 8 lf Lhe caLalysL replaces C
and lf C can be replaced by 8 as a resulL. lf noL, Lhe sysLem has developed lnLo a new
lrreverslble form - Lrlggered by Lhe change of Lhe caLalysLs.
1he generallzed feaLure of Lhe causal sysLem ls lLs absLracL quallLy-all causal processes are
based on cycllcal sysLems LhaL reproduce Lhemselves and may be Lrlggered Lo modlfy
Lhemselves. All ouLcomes" of Lhese caLalyzed causal sysLems are by-producLs of such self-
preservaLlon of Lhe sysLem. lL ls Lhe caLalysLs-noL causal agenLs" LhaL would produce dlrecL
effecLs"-LhaL lead Lo ouLcomes as always loJltect effects of Lhe causal sysLem.

1nL 1kANSI1ICN S1A1L IN nUMAN LIVLS: MAkING CI 1nL IU1UkL

asL, presenL, and fuLure forms brlng ln Lhe noLlon of becomlng, emergence and developmenL
over Llme. 1he 1ra[ecLory LqulflnallLy Model (1LM - SaLo eL al, 2007, 2009) explalns Lhe
Lemporal relaLlonshlp beLween a unlllnear acLuallzed pasL, an lnflnlLeslmal presenL, and Lhe
mulLlple poLenLlal Lra[ecLorles of Lhe fuLure. Comblnlng a caLalyLlc model wlLh Lhe 1ra[ecLory
LqulflnallLy Model (1LM) glves Lhe followlng: A person (A) has a unlllnear acLuallzed pasL and
mulLlple fuLure posslblllLles (llgure1):

range of 8 [b
1
, b
2
, b
3
,.b
n
}


73

pasL presenL fuLure

llgure 1. 1he unlllnear acLual pasL faclng Lhe lndeLermlnaLe fuLure

1he speclflc presenL condlLlons/conLexL acL as a caLalysL (C) LhaL help ln Lhe acLuallzaLlon of
one posslblllLy (b
1
) wlLhln Lhe seL of posslblllLles 8 [b
1
, b
2
, b
3
,.b
n
} Lhrough Lhe alLeraLlon of a
speclflc posslblllLles (b
2
) relaLlon and lnLeracLlon wlLh Lhe resL of Lhe posslblllLles wlLhln Lhe
seL/sysLem (llgure 2):

CaLalysL C

range of 8 [b
1
, b
2
, b
3
,.b
n
}

b
2

pasL presenL fuLure

llgure 2. CaLalyLlc movemenL Lowards deLermlnaLe fuLure

1he caLalysL lowers Lhe acLlvaLlon barrler" - Lhe barrler lnhlblLlng (or blocklng) fuLure poLenLlal
from acLuallzlng - for Lhe blndlng agenL. Puman psyche operaLes Lhrough Lhe enablemenL of
fuLure posslblllLles - allowlng some of Lhem Lo be consLrucLed lnLo acLuallLles. Along Lhe 1LM
model, lnLermedlaLe caLalyLlc developmenL occur ln Lhe face of Lhe fuLure, along a serles of
posslble fuLure opLlons wlLhln a seL 8 [b
1
, b
2
, b
3
,.b
n
}. 1he caLalysL acceleraLes acLuallzaLlon of
one of Lhese posslblllLles by acqulrlng a regulaLory role. 1hls regulaLory role changes Lhe
relaLlonshlp of one of Lhe parLs wlLh Lhe oLhers ln Lhe sysLem, yleldlng a dlfferenL resulL. lor
example, Lhe caLalysL (C) for Lhe glven person (A) may change Lhe funcLlon of opLlon b
2
-
blfurcaLlng Lhe Lra[ecLorles so LhaL anyLhlng oLher Lhan opLlon b
2
ls blocked and lnhlblLed,
whlle opLlon b
1
ls promoLed as an alLernaLlve - opposlLlonal - course (llgure 3):

CaLalysL C
b
1

range of 8 [b
1
, b
2
, b
3
,.b
n
}

b
2

pasL presenL fuLure

llgure 3. ulfferenLlaLlon of Lhe Lra[ecLorles for dlalogue wlLh Lhe fuLure

1he opLlons for Lhe fuLure are now llmlLed Lo Lhe [b
1
, b
2
} conLrasL, whlle Lhe resL of Lhe fleld of
posslblllLles vanlshes (valslner, 2009). 1he acLual llfe course becomes negoLlaLed by Lhe fuLure
conLrasL [b
1
, b
2
} ln lLs relaLlon Lo recollecLed pasL conLrasL [a
1
, a
2
} - a blfurcaLlon process LhaL ls
reconsLrucLed ln Lhe presenL based on Lhe memorles of Lhe pasL.

An examp|e. rocesses of culLural caLalyLlc klnd can be observed ln an example of culLlvaLlng
and modlfylng Lhe envlronmenL - whaL we call . ln Lngllsh, LhaL Lerm has underLones of
lllegallLy, rule-breaklng, vandallsm, and courage. 1hls ls noL Lhe case ln oLher languages - lLallan


76

for lnsLance - where lL deslgnaLes graphlc deslgns. lndlvlduals have mulLlple ways of
communlcaLlng messages (llgure 4). under ordlnary clrcumsLances, Lhe acL of drawlng on walls
or flllng cablneLs ls auLomaLlcally blocked by our culLural sysLem of caLalysLs. When confronLed
wlLh Lhe affordances of an empLy wall and of pens ln our hands, we neverLheless do noL rush
Lo use Lhese affordances. 1he slLuaLlon ls very dlfferenL lf we are operaLlng under Lhe caLalyLlc
condlLlons of proLesL" - here Lhe usual regulaLory mechanlsms are overrldden by Lhe
generallzed feellngs LhaL Lurn Lhe person lnLo a creaLor of desLrucLlve acLs. An lndlvldual may
have a presenL message Lo be communlcaLed, and Lhey have an lnflnlLe number of ways Lo
communlcaLe Lhls message. Powever, Lhe mlnuLe Lhe lndlvldual seLs fooL wlLhln a soclal
seLLlng, Lhere ls a regulaLlon on whaL can be sald and how messages can be communlcaLed.
under no ordlnary clrcumsLances would an ouLslde vlslLor enLer an offlce and sLarL wrlLlng
messages on spaces noL meanL for Lhose. Slgns locaLed ln Lhe acLlvlLy seLLlng (e.g., no
1alklng") and generallzed norms (e.g., one doesn'L Lalk abouL pollLlcs aL Lhe dlnner Lable")
seek Lo resLrlcL Lhe range of posslble messages. lurLhermore, a person carrles around a
luggage of such culLural regulaLors wlLhln one's own personal culLure. 1herefore, cerLaln
opLlons of communlcaLlon means are blocked by Lhe caLalyLlc condlLlon of Lhe soclal seLLlng
LhaL ls seL up by varlous soclal lnsLlLuLlons. 1hese opLlons begln Lo vanlsh away unLll Lhey
become exLlncL - or can be re-acLlvaLed under condlLlons of change ln Lhe soclal aLmosphere.

llgure 4. ublqulLous Lakeover of (prevlous) blank wall on clLy sLreeL wlLh 'grafflLl'

When a second seL of caLalyLlc condlLlons ls presenL - Lhe fear of condemnaLlon and [udgmenL
(soclal punlshmenL - Lhe only opLlons lefL are Lhose of anonymlLy. 1hls can se observed mosL
ofLen when one person wrlLes whaL Lhey Lruly feel by Lhe means of grafflLl. Cbservlng grafflLl
Lhen becomes a caLalysL for oLhers looklng for freedom of expresslon Lo do Lhe same -
respondlng and addlng Lo Lhe orlglnal grafflLl Lo Lhe polnL LhaL a grafflLl dlalogue may occur. A
demonsLraLlon of dlsorder operaLes as an lndexlcal slgn - ln C. S. elrce's Lerms - for allowlng
furLher consLrucLlon of dlsorder. ?eL when Lhe general mode of operaLlon for Lhe self ls
consLrucLlve a slgn of dlsorder calls for lLs ellmlnaLlon (cleanlng up"). A plece of rubblsh nexL
Lo a garbage bln calls for pottloq lt lo LhaL conLalner - whlle Lhe same slgn for a person on a
mlsslon of desLrucLlon suggesLs pollloq oll tbe cooteots of tbot cootoloet oot Lo [oln Lhe plece
of rubblsh.

77

Lmot|ona|-Sem|ot|c Med|ators as Cata|ysts: 1he regulaLory funcLlon of slgns can be seen
Lhrough emoLlonal-semloLlc markers LhaL re-conflgure Lhe person-envlronmenL relaLlonshlp.
!osephs (2003) dlscusses emoLlonal-semloLlc and lllusLraLes how caLalysLs synLheslze parLs
where dlrecL and unmedlaLed synLhesls ls noL posslble" wlLhouL Lhe caLalysL (p. xll) Lhrough
Lhe followlng example [noLe: Lhls example was lnlLlally used by lrlLz Pelder (1938)].

lf l generally haLe warLs on Lhe face, yeL Lhe man l fall ln love wlLh happens Lo have a permanenL,
halry (and Lhus parLlcularly dlsgusLlng) exemplar rlghL on hls chln, unavoldably Lenslon ls bullL up.
?eL soon, lf noL lmmedlaLely, l may flnd myself ln a poslLlon Lo llke, even Lenderly Louch Lhls
orlglnally dlsgusLlng body mark . 1here ls nelLher mysLery nor paLhology ln Lhls process . lL ls
Lhe powerful emoLlonal-semloLlc caLalysL (my felL noLlon of love, and Lhe value l aLLach [and l
learned sboolJ be aLLached] Lo my parLner) whlch radlcally Lransforms my relaLlon Lo Lhe world
(here Lo a drasLlc exemplar of a warL) Lhrough an lmmedlaLe overgenerallzaLlon of Lhls value
orlenLaLlon .. WhaL happened ls an emoLlonally Lrlggered LransformaLlon of my meanlng-sysLem
due Lo a sLrong and felL value orlenLaLlon - a hlgher level regulaLor (Lhe caLalysL) whlch leads Lo a
new, generallzed quallLy of Lhe meanlng-sysLem. (Pelder 1938, p. xlll)

ln Lhls example, Lhe feellng and value of love, ln Lhls example, serves as Lhe caLalysL ln
reorlenLlng Lhe lndlvldual's meanlng-sysLem and person-world relaLlon. 1he feellng of love
generallzes from someLhlng deslrable - Lhe loved one - Lo encompass whaL was prevlously
dlsgusLlng. 1hls emoLlonal-caLalysL acLs as a hlgher order regulaLor and, as affecLlve caLalysLs,
funcLlon rapldly and beyond raLlonal and sLep by sLep efforL (!osephs, 2003).
Lspeclally for our purposes concernlng generallzaLlon, Lhls brlngs us Lo Lwo lmporLanL
polnLs. 1he flrsL concerns Lhe hollsLlc naLure of caLalysls and emphasls on Lhe slLuaLlon. 1hls
example lncludes a shlfL ln meanlng-sysLem and value orlenLaLlon based on Lhe relaLlonshlp of
Lhe parLlcular person Lo Lhe parLlcular lover. AddlLlonally, as !osephs' parenLheLlcally noLes, Lhe
soclal suggesLlon LhaL one should value one's parLner was embedded ln Lhe soclal conLexL ln
whlch Lhe person was lnLerrelaLed. ln order Lo undersLand Lhe phenomena (l.e., meanlng-
change), we have Lo lnvesLlgaLe Lhe whole and noL lsolaLed parLs. Second, caLalysLs are abouL
(ofLen) unlque evenLs and processes, and noL averages. lL would be polnLless from Lhls
perspecLlve Lo see lf Lhls parLlcular shlfL (LransformaLlon of dlsgusL Lo value and appreclaLlon)
occurs frequenLly and/or by many people. 1he maLLer aL hand ls Lhe general process
(emoLlonal-semloLlc caLalysls).

Genera||z|ng the Cata|yt|c Who|e: Slnce phenomena are noL caused, buL raLher, are caLalyzed,
we musL develop a concepL of generallzaLlon LhaL encompasses Lhe general sysLem ln whlch
someLhlng occurs (or resulLs). 1he caLalyLlc sysLems model noL only lncorporaLes Lhe pasL,
presenL, and fuLure, of a phenomenon's developmenL, buL also lncorporaLes Lhe quallLaLlve
whole of Lhe sysLem. 1he consLrucLlon of Lhe phenomena wlLhln Lhls framework forces Lhe
observer Lo vlew Lhe whole of Lhe sysLem, and noL Lo forgeL or selecLlve lgnore Lhose varlables
LhaL, lf forgoLLen or lgnored, could resulL ln a dlfferenL phenomena, or no phenomena aL all.
1hls presenLs a model for experlmenLal procedures LhaL most conslder person and
envlronmenL as a quallLaLlvely organlzlng whole.

Irom the art|cu|ar to the Un|versa|: D|a|og|ca| Genera||zat|on. Lewln presenLed Lhe dlalogue
beLween Lhe parLlcular and Lhe unlversal. CenerallzaLlon ls Lhe ablllLy Lo absLracL from Lhe
concreLe, produclng general represenLaLlve feaLures LhaL can be applled Lo slmllar phenomena
wlLhln a fuzzy caLegory". 1herefore, generallzaLlon ls a dlalogue beLween Lhe concreLe and
Lhe absLracL or Lhe parLlcular and Lhe unlversal. 1he caLalyLlc model allows for undersLandlng
sysLem causallLy ln a quallLaLlve whole, as well as Lhe dlalogue beLween Lhe concreLe and Lhe


78

absLracL. 1he caLalyLlc model ls absLracLed from speclflc concreLe phenomena - noL of hlgh
frequency, buL raLher lndlvldual phenomena of rare occurrences - LhaL are Lhen applled (or
generallzed) Lo oLher rarely occurrlng phenomena. 1he generallzaLlon ls noL for Lhe
undersLandlng of Lhe llkellhood, probablllLy, or average frequency of Lhe rare phenomena, buL
raLher, Lo undersLand Lhe sysLemlc processes LhaL promoLes or lnhlblLs Lhe rare occurrences of
Lhe phenomena. School shooLlngs do noL happen everyday. lL ls hard Lo sLudy Lhe slngle
varlables, one by one, LhaL cause" LhaL lndlvldual Lo shooL fellow sLudenLs aL Lhe school. ln
facL, people and guns are presenL ln our world wlLh hlgh frequency, buL Lhelr synLhesls and
modlflcaLlon lnLo school shooLlng rarely occurs. 1he experlmenLal model of one-Lo-one
causallLy ls noL sufflclenL ln explanaLlon. 8aLher, Lhe caLalyLlc model - showlng Lhe dynamlc
lnLeracLlon of lndlvlduals, condlLlons, conLexLs, and caLalyLlc agenLs - can ald ln Lhe
undersLandlng of Lhlngs LhaL do noL normally occur wlLhouL Lhe presenLaLlon of a caLalyLlc
condlLlon or agenL.

CCNCLUSICN: GLNLkALI2A1ICN 1AkLS LACL 8ASLD CN Ak1ICULAk WnCLLS

1he world exlsLs ln parLlculars - and any generallzaLlon from Lhose ls based on slngle unlque
encounLers wlLh Lhe world. sychology's rellance on Lhe mulLlple examples (samples) Lo
generallze Lo an absLracL sample (called populaLlon") ls an lmpoverlshed proxy for Lhe slngle
case Lo generlc case generallzaLlon. Lewln's eplsLemologlcal sLance was clear and producLlve -
proven by any pracLlLloner's lnevlLable rellance on Lhe dlrecL slngle encounLers wlLh Lhe world.
sychology seems Lo have confused Lhe noLlon of obsttoctloo and Jemoctotlc mojotlty
Jomloooce ln lLs pasL cenLury. 1he laLLer ls whaL Lhe Lra[ecLory of lnducLlve generallzaLlon
enLalls - Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe lndlvldual cases ln a populaLlon ls - poorly buL represenLaLlvely -
capLured by Lhe rellance on Lhe averages. Sure, an average ls an absLracLlon as well - oLherwlse
sLaLemenLs llke Lhe chlldren ln Lhe sLudy were, on Lhe average, ln Lhe 3.67 grade age level"
would be lmmedlaLely percelved as meanlngless.
All generallzaLlon lnvolves absLracLlon. ln Lhe case of generallzaLlon from a slngle case,

Lo generallze ls Lo recognlze llkeness whlch had been prevlously masked by dlfferences, to
tecoqolze tbe llkeoess ls olso tbetefote to tecoqolze tbese Jlffeteoces os lttelevoot, and Lo
JlsteqotJ tbem from Lhe polnL of vlew of Lhe general concepLlon (8aldwln 1901, p. 408, added
emphasls)

lL becomes clear LhaL our cognlLlve faclllLy Lo dlscounL lmmedlaLely observable dlfferences and
replace Lhem wlLh an opposlLe focus - LhaL of slmllarlLy - ls based on our maklng of CesLalLs ln
our meanlng sysLem. Such CesLalLs come aL dlfferenL hlerarchlcal levels - Lhe hlgher levels
enLall generallzaLlon of Lhe whole flelds of experlence. 1hus, Lhe percepLual deLecLlon of a
cloudless sky" and lLs color (blue sky") can lead Lo aesLheLlc generallzaLlon (beauLlful sky")
wlLh hyper-generallzaLlon (how beauLlful!").
1hus, generallzaLlon Lakes place by Lwo rouLes: (l) Lhe analyLlc-Lo-synLheLlc (recognlLlon of
dlfferences and Lurnlng LhaL recognlLlon lnLo recognlLlon of llkeness), and Lhe (ll) hollsLlc move
Lo hlgher order CesLalLs (wlLhln whlch Lhere are no dlfferences-Lhe cloudless sky, or on
overwhelmlng feellng of happlness, have no dlsLlncL parLs Lo compare). ln boLh cases Lhe
concreLe deLalls are subsLlLuLed by slgns. CenerallzaLlon ls posslble Lhrough human
preponderance for semlosls.
Soclal 8eallLy ls dynamlc. 1haL ls Loo say, our world ls consLanLly ln flux and phenomena are
consLanLly emerglng (and ln Lhe sLaLe of becomlng). When looklng aL sclence - wlsseoscboft -

79

Lhe eplsLemologlcal LreaLmenL of generallzaLlon should develop ouL of Lhe consLralnLs formed
by Lhe posL-modern push, LhaL ls, Lhe very parLlcular, relaLlonal and slLuaLed condlLlons of
phenomena have seemlngly precluded Lhe esLabllshmenL of general laws. Powever, oLher
eplsLemologlcal LreaLmenL of generallzaLlon and general laws need noL be of a homogenous
and classlflcaLory naLure (ArlsLoLellan noLlon of prlnclple of commonallLy), fundamenLal for Lhe
lnducLlve generallzaLlon of frequenL numbers (ArlsLoLellan foundaLlon of Lhe ob[ecLs
Lendency" based on frequenL recurrences) ln a sample Lo a LargeL populaLlon. osL-Calllean
LhoughL noL only denled Lhe eplsLemologlcal LreaLmenL of generallzaLlon Lhrough frequency",
buL also changed Lhe locus of causaLlon away from Lhe lottloslc ptopettles of Lhe ob[ecL Lo Lhe
sLrucLural relaLlonshlps betweeo ob[ecLs. lL was Lewln's developmenL fleld Lheory LhaL allows
Lhe parLlcular and Lhe general Lo engage ln dlalogue wlLhln Lhe open and dynamlc fleld" or
sysLem. 1he developmenL of sysLemlc causallLy from Lewln's fleld Lheory suggesLs LhaL
generallzaLlon should noL be based on separaLe and lndependenL varlables, buL raLher,
generallzaLlon should Lake place ouL of a caLalyLlc model and Lhe condlLlons under whlch
someLhlng occurs. 1hls condlLlonal analysls provldes frulLful grounds of noL only Lhe rare and
frequenL phenomena, buL undersLandlng Lhe parLlcular, Lhe quallLaLlve whole, and Lhe
relaLlonshlps wlLhln a general framework.

8I8LICGkAn

AllporL, C. (1933). 8ecomloq. 8oslc cooslJetotloos fot o lsycboloqy of letsooollty. new
Paven: ?ale unlverslLy ress.
8aldwln, !. M. (1901). ulctloooty of pbllosopby ooJ psycboloqy. new ?ork: MacMlllan
Clegg, !. (Ld). (2009). 1be Obsetvotloos of nomoo 5ystems. lessoos ftom tbe nlstoty of Aotl-
keJoctloolstlc mpltlcol lsycboloqy. new 8runswlck (u.S.A) and London (u.k.):
1ransacLlon ubllshers.
ue 8lvera, !. (Ld.). (1976). llelJ 1beoty os nomoo-5cleoce: ConLrlbuLlons of Lewln's 8erlln
Croup. new ?ork: Cardner ress.
Clgerenzer, C., Swl[Llnk, Z., orLer, 1., uasLon, L., 8eaLLy, !. & kruger, L. (1989). 1be emplte
of cbooce. Cambrldge: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.
!osephs, l. (2003). uloloqlcollty lo uevelopmeot. WesLporL, C1: raeger.
Lewln, k. (1927). CeseLz und LxperlmenL ln der sychologle. 5ymposloo, 1, 373-421.
Lewln, k. (1931). 1he confllcL beLween ArlsLoLellan and Calllelan modes of LhoughL ln
conLemporary psychology. Iootool of Ceoetol lsycboloqy, 5, 141-177.
Lewln, k. (1933). A Jyoomlc tbeoty of petsooollty. new ?ork: McCraw-Plll.
Lewln, k. (1936). ltloclples of 1opoloqlcol lsycboloqy. new ?ork & London: McCraw-Plll
8ook Company.
London, l. (1944). sychologlsLs' mlsuse of Lhe auxlllary concepLs of physlcs and
maLhemaLlcs, lsycboloqlcol kevlew, 31, 266-291.
Maruyama, M. (1963). 1he second cyberneLlcs: uevlaLlon ampllfylng muLual causal
processes. Ametlcoo 5cleotlst, 51, 164-179.
Maruyama, M. (1999). PeLerogram analysls: where Lhe assumpLlon of normal dlsLrlbuLlon ls
llloglcal. nomoo 5ystems Moooqemeot, 18, 33-60.
8eber, !. & 8ecksLead, Z. (2009). AnLl-reducLlonlsLlc emplrlclsm ln conLemporary
psychologlcal research. ln !. Clegg (Ld.), 1be Obsetvotloos of nomoo 5ystems. lessoos
ftom tbe nlstoty of Aotl-keJoctloolstlc mpltlcol lsycboloqy (pp. 141-166). new
8runswlck (u.S.A) and London (u.k.): 1ransacLlon ubllshers.
SalvaLore, S., valslner, !., SLrouL-?agodzlnsky, S., and Clegg, !. (Lds) (2009). l5. eotbook of


80

lJloqtopblc 5cleoce 2008. vol 1.. 8ome: llrelra ubllshlng.
SaLo, 1., ?asuda, ?., kldo, A., Arakawa, A., Mlzoguchl, P., and valslner, !. (2007). Sampllng
reconsldered: ldlographlc sclence and Lhe analyses of personal llfe Lra[ecLorles. ln !.
valslner, !., & A. 8osa, A. (Lds.), combtlJqe nooJbook of 5oclo-coltotol lsycboloqy (p.
82-106). new ?ork: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.
SaLo, 1., Pldaka, 1. and lukuda, M. (2009). ueplcLlng Lhe uynamlcs of Llvlng Lhe Llfe: 1he
1ra[ecLory LqulflnallLy Model. ln. ln !. valslner, . Molenaar, M. Lyra and n.
Chaudhary (Lds), uyoomlc ptocess metboJoloqy lo tbe soclol ooJ Jevelopmeotol
scleoces (p. 217-240). new ?ork: Sprlnger
Sllfe 8.u. & Wllllams, 8.n. (1993). wbots 8ebloJ tbe keseotcb? ulscovetloq nlJJeo
Assomptloos lo tbe 8ebovlotol 5cleoces. 1housand Caks, CA: Sage ubllcaLlon.
SLern, W. (1911). ule Jlffeteotlelle psycboloqle lo lbteo metboJlscbeo qtooJloqeo.
Lelpzlg: 8arLh.
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valslner, !. (1984) 1wo alLernaLlve eplsLemologlcal frameworks ln psychology: 1he
Lypologlcal and varlaLlonal modes of Lhlnklng. Iootool of MloJ ooJ 8ebovlot,
3, 4, 449-470.
valslner, !. (2000). coltote ooJ bomoo Jevelopmeot. new uelhl: Sage.
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unlverslLy ress.
valslner, !. (2007). coltote lo mloJs ooJ socletles. new uelhl: Sage.
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ln 1. SaLo (Ld. ) 1M. 1okyo:
Wagoner, 8., and valslner, !. (2003). 8aLlng Lasks ln psychology: from sLaLlc onLology Lo
dlaloglcal synLhesls of meanlng. ln A. Culerce, A. PofmelsLer, l. SLaeuble, C. Saunders
and !. kaye (Lds.), cootempototy tbeotlzloq lo psycboloqy. Clobol petspectlves (pp.
197-213). 1oronLo: CapLus ress.

81

Tbe Issue of tbe Unity and Specificity of Psycbology
from tbe Viewpoint of a Constructivist Epistemology
Cobtlele cblotl

gabrlele.chlarl[Llscall.lL

A8S1kAC1
A cerLaln consLrucLlvlsL psychology converges wlLh a cerLaln eplsLemology of psychology ln re[ecLlng as
meanlngless Lhe pro[ecL of Lhe unlflcaLlon of Lhe varlous psychologlcal schools and Lheorles, as well as
Lhe Lrend Lo Lhe progresslve reducLlon of psychologlcal phenomena Lo neurophyslologlcal processes. l
shall dlscuss Lhe sub[ecL by referrlng Lo Lhe work of Lhe lLallan eplsLemologlsLs L. Agazzl and S. Marhaba,
Lhe Amerlcan psychologlsL C. A. kelly, and Lhe Chllean blologlsL P. MaLurana.

1. IN1kCDUC1ICN
l lmaglne LhaL lL could be very reassurlng Lo sLudy a dlsclpllne llke physlcs, maLhemaLlcs,
blology, chemlsLry, and move on a ground LhaL conslders only Lhe posslblllLy of chooslng whlch
fleld of lnqulry Lo dedlcaLe oneself: maLhemaLlcal analysls raLher Lhan maLhemaLlcal loglc,
quanLum mechanlcs raLher Lhan asLrophyslcs, blodlverslLy raLher Lhan molecular blology,
chemlsLry of maLerlals raLher Lhan organlc chemlsLry, noL Lo menLlon Lhe posslblllLy of
dedlcaLlng oneself Lo flelds of lnqulry derlvlng from lnLersecLlons of Lhe above dlsclpllnes:
maLhemaLlcal physlcs, blochemlsLry, physlcal chemlsLry, and so forLh. A graduaLe ln one of
Lhese dlsclpllnes can easlly dlscuss and confronL wlLh graduaLes of oLher cognaLe dlsclpllnes
(Lhose envlsaged noL casually ln Lhe one faculLy of maLhemaLlcal, physlcal and naLural
sclences), due Lo Lhe posslblllLy of maklng reference Lo a well-esLabllshed body of knowledge
and a shared experlmenLal meLhod. 1hlngs seem Lo go ln a very dlfferenL way for someone
lnLeresLed ln psychology. Lven Lhough, ln order Lo faclllLaLe Lhe course of learnlng by
fragmenLlng lL, Lhe sub[ecLs of Lhe graduaLe program ln psychology appear dlvlded lnLo speclflc
Loplcs (general psychology, developmenLal psychology, soclal psychology, psychology of
personallLy, cllnlcal psychology, and so on) ln Lhe same way as lL happens ln maLhemaLlcal,
physlcal and naLural sclences, Lhe sLudenL ln psychology soon flnds ouL LhaL Lhe same sub[ecL ls
LaughL ln a dlfferenL (someLlmes ln a very dlfferenL) manner ln oLher faculLles, or even, ln Lhe
same faculLy, by dlfferenL Leachers. 1he panorama of psychology appears even more
varlegaLed lf one conslders lL ln lLs relaLlon elLher wlLh oLher psy-dlsclpllnes" - some of Lhem
of medlcal maLrlx (llke psychlaLry and psychopharmacology), oLhers derlvlng from dlsclpllnary
lnLersecLlons (llke psychophyslology, or psychosomaLlcs) - or wlLh Lhe lncreaslng number of
neuro-dlsclpllnes" (from neuropsychology Lo neuroeconomy and neuroLheology!), whlch are
flllaLlons of Lhe more and more prollflc and popular cognlLlve sclence
1
.

* ConLracL rofessor of Cllnlcal sychology aL Lhe unlverslLy of llorence, lLaly, co-dlrecLor of Lhe School
of speclallzaLlon ln consLrucLlvlsL-orlenLed cognlLlve psychoLherapy aL Lhe CLSlc of llorence.

1
See Lhe recenL Neoto-moolo by Legrenzl and umllLa (2009).


82

All Lhls ls well known, and someone Lrled Lo explaln Lhe reason of such dlfference.
Marhaba, ln Aotloomle eplstemoloqlcbe oello pslcoloqlo cootempotooeo [LplsLemologlcal
anLlnomles ln conLemporary psychology] (1976) made lL ln a way l see as parLlcularly effecLlve
slnce over LhlrLy years:
Whlle Lhe physlclsL deals wlLh Lheorles anLagonlsL each oLher, buL all wlLhln Lhe same sysLem of
reference, Lhe psychologlsL has Lo choose beLween Jlffeteot ooJ opposlte sysLems of reference.
ln oLher words, Lhe eplsLemologlcal Llssue of psychology ls covered wlLh locetotloos, as opposed
Lo Lhe subsLanLlally unlLary Llssue of Lhe LradlLlonal naLural sclences. (Marhaba 1996, p. 29)
2

1he resulL ls a manlfesL dlsunlLy of psychology or, we could even say, Lhe emergence and
developmenL of varlous psychologles, characLerlzed by numerous and varlous LheoreLlcal
assumpLlons LhaL, ln Lurn, could refer Lo varlous eplsLemologlcal cholces (whlch Marhaba
sysLemaLlzes ln Lerms of nlne anLlnomles, each of Lhem deflnlng Lwo radlcally dlfferenL
soluLlons), cholces of whlch Lhe psychologlsLs are more or less aware.
now, lf we accepL LhaL Lhe dlfference beLween psychology and LradlLlonal naLural sclences
conslsLs ln Lhe presence/absence of an unamblguous sysLem of reference, we could ask (a)
where does Lhls dlfference derlve from, (b) lf lL ls posslble Lo ellmlnaLe lL, and how, and (c) lf lL
ls Lo be hoped, and even necessary, Lo do so, or lf, on Lhe conLrary, Lhe anLlnomlc arLlculaLlon
of Lhe eplsLemology of psychology represenLs a rlchness raLher Lhan a llmlL of lL. erlodlcally
Lhere ls someone who sLruggles Lo suggesL how Lo ellmlnaLe Lhls dlfference beLween
psychology and Lhe LradlLlonal naLural sclences, by conslderlng Lhls ellmlnaLlon boLh posslble
and necessary for Lhe developmenL of psychology as an acLually sclenLlflc dlsclpllne. ln my
oplnlon, Lhe posslble success of such a pro[ecL would be equlvalenL Lo a sorL of
eplsLemoclde", whlch anyhow has no chance Lo maLerlallze. l shall defend my poslLlon by
sLarLlng from a speclflc approach of conLemporary psychology, generlcally known as
consLrucLlvlsm, whlch, due Lo lLs pecullarlLles (or aL leasL Lo Lhe pecullarlLles of some of lLs
expresslons, ln Lhe absence, as we shall see below, of an unamblguous deflnlLlon), appears
respecLful of eplsLemlc and LheoreLlcal dlfferences.

2. 1nL A11kAC1ICN ICk 1nL NA1UkALI2A1ICN CI SCnCLCG

1he flrsL quesLlon, relaLlve Lo Lhe dlfference beLween psychology and Lhe LradlLlonal naLural
sclences, refers Lo Lhe aLLempL Lo deflne whaL Lhe sysLem of reference of Lhese laLLer conslsLs
ln, and whaL lLs (aL leasL seemlng) unlvoclLy and success derlve from.
AL a flrsL analysls - cerLalnly sllghLly superflclal compared Lo Lhe complexlLy of Lhe
eplsLemologlcal reflecLlon - one could asserL LhaL Lhe sysLem of reference of naLural sclences
conslsLs ln Lhe assumpLlon of Lhe exlsLence of a glven reallLy, lndependenL from Lhe observer,
and ln Lhe bellef LhaL Lhe appllcaLlon of Lhe sclenLlflc meLhod allows Lhe accumulaLlon of
fragmenLs of knowledge of such a reallLy. Such an assumpLlon acLually appears so wldely
shared by Lhe communlLy of sclenLlsLs Lo be consldered beyond dlspuLe. Powever, Lhe clear
dlscrepancy beLween Lhe sclenLlflc praxls and Lhe phllosophlcal reflecLlons, have for long led
conLemporary eplsLemologlsLs Lo crlLlclze Lhe ldea LhaL lL can be deflned a sclenLlflc meLhod
(kuhn, 1962), or LhaL Lhe developmenL of sclence has been allowed from lLs acLual appllcaLlon
(leyerabend, 1976).

2
1hroughouL Lhe arLlcle, lf noL oLherwlse speclfled, all Lhe LranslaLlon of Lhe lLallan quoLaLlons lnLo
Lngllsh ls mlne.
uabiiele Chiaii - The Issue of the 0nity anu Specificity of Psychology

83

ln Lhe aLLempL Lo esLabllsh lLself as a sclence, psychologlcal knowledge - already exlsLlng as
Lhe docLrlne of Lhe soul" ln Lhe sphere of phllosophlcal speculaLlon - has sLrlven Lo assume
Lhe research meLhods of Lhe sclences par excellence - lndeed, a dlfflculL aLLempL when Lhe
ob[ecL of sLudy ls noL clearly, and, Lherefore, unanlmously ldenLlflable. lor example, when Lhe
ob[ecL of sLudy was represenLed by Lhe lmmedlaLe experlences of consclousness, as for Lhe
sLrucLurallsLs of Lhe Lelpzlg's laboraLory, Lhe meLhod of cholce was lnLrospecLlon", whlch
allows Lhe emplrlcal observaLlon of Lhe conLenLs of lndlvldual consclousness ln place of Lhe
lnspecLlon" addressed Lo Lhe conLenLs of Lhe exLernal world (Marhaba, 1980). Moreover,
when Lhe ob[ecL of Lhe psychologlcal lnvesLlgaLlon was represenLed by menLal funcLlons meanL
as adapLlve behavlors - as ln funcLlonallsL psychology - Lhe meLhod conslsLed ln Lhe sub[ecLlvlsL
observaLlon. Such a meLhod was replaced by Lhe ob[ecLlvlsL or behavloral observaLlon wlLh Lhe
success of behavlorlsm, whose ob[ecL of sLudy ls Lhe observable behavlor. And one could go on
menLlonlng Lhe ob[ecLs of sLudy of gesLalL psychology, cognlLlve psychology, psychoanalysls,
eLc., and Lhe correspondlng meLhods regarded as more sulLable Lo Lhe sclenLlflc" sLudy of
such ob[ecLs.
WhaL may appear pecullar and may conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe percepLlon of a dlfference beLween
psychology and Lhe naLural sclences ls LhaL all Lhe above schools", as well as Lhelr derlvaLlons,
survlve and carry ouL Lhelr research programs raLher Lhan progresslvely subsLlLuLlng each oLher
accordlng Lo a loglc of developmenL for psychologlcal knowledge. 1hls phenomenon
represenLs lLself wlLhln Lhe same schools. 1herefore, for lnsLance, wlLhln whaL ls deflned on
Lhe whole as cognlLlve psychology", Lhe developmenLal Lheorles of lageL, vygoLskl[ and
8owlby llve LogeLher and Lhrlve wlLhouL Lhe happenlng of subsLlLuLlons derlvlng from Lhe
proven groundlessness or Lhe abandonlng of Lhe rlval Lheorles. 1helr success seems Lo be more
Lled Lo quesLlons of soclo-culLural (naLlonallsLlc, academlc, afflllaLlve) or of personal order (l
feel Lhls Lheory closer Lo my polnL of vlew, a crlLerlon LhaL would horrlfy physlclsLs, or LhaL,
whenever held, would cerLalnly noL be dlsclosed by one of Lhem).
ConsequenLly Lo such a vlew, lL appears boLh lnapproprlaLe Lo Lalk of ooe psychology, and
un[usLlflable Lo search for a soluLlon Lo whaL seems Lo some psychologlsLs as a hlndrance for a
dlsclpllne whlch asplres Lo deflne lLself sclenLlflc. Such research can lead Lo Lwo paLhs, LhaL ls,
elLher (l) Lhe oolflcotloo of Lhe varlous schools and Lheorles by uslng a slngle meLaLheoreLlcal
framework able Lo lncorporaLe Lhe maln LheoreLlcal perspecLlves lnLo a coherenL whole, or (ll)
Lhe extloctloo of psychology as a consequence of Lhe progresslve reducLlon of psychologlcal
phenomena Lo neurophyslologlcal processes (and Lhe resulLlng recovery of one frame of
reference). 1he flrsL soluLlon has been recenLly reproposed by Penrlques (2003) ln Lhe form of
a 1tee of koowleJqe 5ystem, glvlng blrLh Lo a debaLe ln Lwo speclal lssues of Lhe Iootool of
cllolcol lsycboloqy (Penrlques & Cobb, 2004, Penrlques, 2003). Cn Lhe oLher hand, Lhe
reducLlonlsL LempLaLlon, whlch has always gone along wlLh Lhe hlsLory of psychology, ls
en[oylng a parLlcular revlval, due Lo Lhe developmenL of neurosclences and, ln parLlcular, Lo
Lhe use of neurolmaglng Lechnology. l shall crlLlclze boLh pro[ecLs from Lhe polnL of vlew of
consLrucLlvlsL psychology, and show how Lhe laLLer converges wlLh a cerLaln eplsLemology of
psychology.
3. 1nL CCNS1kUC1IVIS1 LIS1LMCLCG
1he spreadlng of consLrucLlvlsL perspecLlves ln psychology represenLs a phenomenon LhaL
would deserve Lo be analyzed by Lhe soclology of psychology. 1he dlsLlncLlve feaLures of Lhose
eplsLemologlcal assumpLlons, nowadays easlly ldenLlfled and grouped under Lhe label of
psychologlcal consLrucLlvlsm", have been recognlsed o postetlotl as already presenL boLh ln


84

Lhe work of !ean lageL on cognlLlve developmenL
3
, and ln a ponderous Lwo-volumes book on
personallLy and psychoLherapy, 1be lsycboloqy of letsoool coosttocts (1933) by Ceorge A.
kelly, whlch wenL unnoLlced ln Llmes domlnaLed by psychoanalysls and behavlorlsm. lL ls only
aL Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe nlneLeen LlghLles LhaL Lhe ad[ecLlve consLrucLlvlsL" progresslvely
beglns Lo be used ln psychology, boLh ln lLaly and Lhe Anglo-Saxon counLrles, Lo lncur laLer
such a wldespread use of Lhe Lerm leadlng Lo lLs lnflaLlon. lL appears LhaL Lhe maln caLalysLs of
such phenomenon have been LrnsL von Clasersfeld, a psychologlsL wlLh an eclecLlc Lralnlng
and excellenL capaclLles of popularlzaLlon, and Lwo Chllean blologlsLs, PumberLo MaLurana and
lranclsco varela. von Clasersfeld had Lhe merlL of provldlng a convlnclng lnLerpreLaLlon of
lageL's Lheory ln Lerms of a radlcal consLrucLlvlsL eplsLemology" (1980), dlsLlngulshlng lL from
Lhe Lrlvlal consLrucLlvlsm" of so many cognlLlve psychologlsLs endorslng meLaphyslcal reallsm
(von Clasersfeld, 1984). MaLurana (1978), subsequenLly ln collaboraLlon wlLh varela, proponed
a blologlcal Lheory of knowledge LhaL refers Lo Lhe onLology of Lhe observer". 1helr Lheory of
auLopolesls" (1980, 1987), Lhough complex and noL always adequaLely undersLood, has had an
unexpecLed success ln psychology, parLlcularly ln psychoLherapy and famlly Lherapy - maybe
due Lo lLs sysLemlc formulaLlon. 1he brllllanL analyses of a cyberneLlc, Pelnz von loersLer
(1981), Lhe revlval" of one of Lhe founders of Lhe pragmaLlcs of human communlcaLlon, aul
WaLzlawlck (1984), and of lLs lnsplrer, Cregory 8aLeson (1972, 1979), LogeLher wlLh Lhe
redlscovery of kelly's (1933/1991) Lheory and psychoLherapy of personal consLrucLs (8uLL,
2008), conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe spreadlng and popularlLy of consLrucLlvlsL eplsLemology, as well as
Lhe afflnlLles of consLrucLlvlsm wlLh Lhe movemenL of soclal consLrucLlonlsm (Cergen, 1983),
and Lhe narraLlve Lurn boLh ln psychology (8runer, 1986, 1990) and psychoLherapy (Angus &
McLeod, 2004).
ln Lurn, Lhe spreadlng of consLrucLlvlsL eplsLemology has produced parLlcularly wlde effecLs
ln Lhe fleld of psychoLherapy, causlng Lhe emergence of new perspecLlves of LreaLmenL, and
consLrucLlvlsL lnLerpreLaLlons and developmenLs of already well-esLabllshed psychoLherapeuLlc
approaches
4
. 8uL how can psychologlcal consLrucLlvlsm be deflned?
1he Lask ls noL easy, glven LhaL many psychologlsLs deflne Lhemselves as consLrucLlvlsLs
slmply for Lhelr bellef LhaL personal knowledge requlres an acLlve parLlclpaLlon by Lhe
lndlvldual (see for lnsLance Mahoney, 1988). Powever, Lhls deflnlLlon ls clearly Loo generlc Lo
be applled Lo a greaL parL of Lhe psychologlcal schools. Cn Lhe conLrary, von Clasersfeld
regards as dlscrlmlnaLory Lhe glvlng up of meLaphyslcal reallsm ln favour of a vlew of
knowledge as vlablllLy raLher Lhan represenLaLlon (llke ln cognlLlvlsLs). 1haL ls, one's knowledge
of reallLy ls among Lhe posslble compaLlble wlLh Lhe envlronmenLal consLralnLs: all of Lhem are
leglLlmaLe, and none of Lhem allows Lo know reallLy as lL ls.
1he dlsLlncLlon beLween radlcal and Lrlvlal consLrucLlvlsm ls noL Lhe only proposed ln order
Lo Lry Lo deflne more clearly an eplsLemology whlch would oLherwlse rlsk no longer havlng a
speclflc meanlng
3
. ln a prevlous arLlcle, lsycboloqlcol coosttoctlvlsms. A metotbeotetlcol
Jlffeteotlotloo (Chlarl & nuzzo, 1996), we suggesLed LhaL consLrucLlvlsm ls essenLlally an
aLLempL Lo Lranscend Lhe reallsLlc and ldeallsLlc vlews of knowledge (whlch see lL, respecLlvely,
as a teflectloo or a tepteseototloo of a glven reallLy, or as an loveotloo wlLhouL any
foundaLlon), polnLlng ouL a Lhlrd way" conslsLlng ln Lhe meLaLheoreLlcal assumpLlon LhaL Lhe
sLrucLure and organlzaLlon of Lhe known - Lhe knower-as-known lncluded - ls lnexLrlcably
llnked Lo Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe knower (lbld., p. 78). ln Lerms of Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween

3
Cne has only Lo menLlon, among hls numerous wrlLlngs, lo coosttoctloo Jo kel cbez lofoot, 1937.
4
As l documenLed ln my recenL coosttoctlvlst lsycbotbetopy. A Nottotlve netmeoeotlc Apptoocb, 2009.
3
lor a descrlpLlon of Lhe mosL lmporLanL dlsLlncLlons, see Chlarl and nuzzo, 2009, pp. 44-34.

83

knowledge and reallLy, Lhls connecLlon can Lake Lhe shape of an orderlng and organlzaLlon of a
world consLlLuLed by Lhe person's experlence (a sLance we deflned as eplstemoloqlcol
coosttoctlvlsm), or Lhe sense of a reclprocal speclflcaLlon beLween knower and known,
resulLlng ln Lhe overcomlng of Lhe sub[ecL/ob[ecL dlchoLomy (betmeoeotlc coosttoctlvlsm).
sychologlsLs and psychoLheraplsLs deflnable ln our Lerms as eplsLemologlcal consLrucLlvlsLs
adhere Lo an onLologlcal reallsm slnce Lhey acknowledge Lhe exlsLence of a real world LhaL
neverLheless, from a gnoseologlcal sLandpolnL, Lhey belleve posslble Lo know only by means of
petsoool coosttocts, LhaL ls, heurlsLlc narraLlves useful Lo lLs undersLandlng. kelly's personal
consLrucL Lheory can be (and ls) more commonly lnLerpreLed ln such Lerms, such as lageL's
Lheory accordlng Lo von Clasersfeld's lnLerpreLaLlon: Lherefore, boLh kelly and von Clasersfeld
posLulaLe Lhe exlsLence of Lwo reallLles, Lhe exLra-llngulsLlc and Lhe experlenLlal, Lhus sharlng a
sub[ecL-ob[ecL duallsm.
1he alLernaLlve Lo such opposlLlon/separaLlon beLween sub[ecL and ob[ecL derlves from
conslderlng such enLlLles" as, ln Lurn, Lhe producL of a personal consLrucLlon rooLed ln a
background of blologlcal, soclal and culLural pracLlces. ersons are enmeshed ln a world Lhey
cannoL observe and descrlbe from Lhe ouLslde: persons are lo Lhe world, and Lhelr knowledge
can only be a speclflcaLlon, an lnLerpreLaLlon hlsLorlcally founded raLher Lhan Llmeless,
conLexLually verlflable raLher Lhan unlversally valld, and llngulsLlcally generaLed and soclally
negoLlaLed raLher Lhan cognlLlvely and lndlvldually produced (lbld., p. 174). 1he dlfferenL
dlsclpllnary approaches sprlnglng up ln Lhe lasL LwenLy years, wldely lnLerconnecLed and Lo a
greaL exLenL expresslons of Lhe movemenL of soclal consLrucLlonlsm, all refer Lo Lhe adheslon
Lo a hermeneuLlc consLrucLlvlsL eplsLemology: narraLlve psychology (Sarbln, 1986), culLural
psychology (8runer, 1986, 1990), dlscurslve psychology (Ldwards & oLLer, 1992, Parre &
CllleLL, 1994), posLmodern psychology (kvale, 1992). 1hough noL dlrecLly psychologlcal (buL
wlLh ample psychologlcal lmpllcaLlons), Lhe Lheory of auLopolesls, wlLh Lhe onLology of Lhe
observer LhaL characLerlzes lL (MaLurana, 1988), can be duly lncluded ln Lhe llsL.
Lven Lhough Lhe consLrucLlvlsL perspecLlve can be regarded as Lhe avanL-garde of
conLemporary psychology, lLs afflnlLles clearly appear wlLh Lhe numerous -lsms LhaL
phllosophlcal reflecLlon has proposed over Lhe cenLurles ln Lhe aLLempL Lo quesLlon Lhe
posslblllLy Lo come Lo absoluLe LruLhs: among Lhem, skepLlclsm, relaLlvlsm, nomlnallsm,
perspecLlvlsm, Llll Lhe more recenL pragmaLlsm. lurLhermore, Lhe afflnlLles beLween Lhe
consLrucLlvlsL perspecLlve (aL leasL LhaL one we deflned as hermeneuLlc consLrucLlvlsm) and
Lhe onLologlcal premlses of phenomenology and hermeneuLlcs have been polnLed ouL
6
- ln
parLlcular, Lhe overcomlng of Lhe ob[ecLlvlsL and sub[ecLlvlsL poslLlons Lhrough Lhe
conslderaLlon of Lhe lnLerdependence sub[ecL/ob[ecL - so much LhaL one could sLaLe LhaL Lhe
consLrucLlvlsL movemenL represenLs Lhe presenL aLLempL Lo recover Pusserl's (1976) pro[ecL of
a re-foundaLlon of sclence (ln parLlcular psychology) wlLhouL foundaLlons, LhaL ls, on Lhe basls
of llved experlence of phenomena (Armezzanl, 2002, Chlarl & nuzzo, 2000).
ln Lhe second secLlon, l menLloned Lhe dlscrepancy beLween sclenLlflc praxls and Lhe
eplsLemologlcal reflecLlons on lL. ln Lhe case of psychology and Lhe human sclences ln general,
Lhls dlscrepancy has Lhe effecL of a polemlc confronLaLlon among schools" as lf Lhe LruLh of
Lhelr proposlLlons could be verlfled on Lhe basls of common crlLerla. AnoLher effecL equally
unsusLalnable from an eplsLemologlcal vlewpolnL conslsLs ln syncreLlsm, LhaL ls, Lhe
accepLance of proposlLlons derlvlng from dlfferenL approaches as lf Lhey had a value
lndependenL from Lhem and could Lherefore be added Lo enrlch Lhe body of psychologlcal
knowledge. 1he aLLempL Lo glve unlLy Lo psychology derlves from Lhe shareable unsaLlsfacLlon
for Lhese Lwo opposlng aLLlLudes, buL goes along wlLh an underesLlmaLlon of Lhe complex

6
As we Lrled Lo documenL ln Chlarl and nuzzo, 2009, pp. 29-34.


86

eplsLemologlcal quesLlons lmplled. Cn Lhe conLrary, such quesLlons flnd a naLural"
conslderaLlon wlLhln Lhe approaches LhaL see Lhemselves ln a consLrucLlvlsL vlew of knowledge
- or, aL leasL, ln Lhose referable Lo Lhe above deflnlLlon of hermeneuLlc consLrucLlvlsm. 1he
consequence ls a common re[ecLlon of Lhe aLLempLs Lo make psychology more sclenLlflc" (by
naLurallzlng lL), boLh Lhrough Lhe pursulL of unlLy and Lhe pro[ecL of a reducLlonlsL exLlncLlon,
because, so Lo speak, Lhere ls no case Lo answer": lf any, Lhe problem of Lhe sclenLlflclLy of
psychology dwells elsewhere.
1o show Lhe subsLanLlal agreemenL abouL Lhe lssues of unlLy and reducLlonlsm beLween Lhe
eplsLemologlcal reflecLlon and Lhe consLrucLlvlsL Lrend ln psychology, l shall malnly refer Lo Lhe
work of Lwo auLhors: Lhe lLallan eplsLemologlsL Lvandro Agazzl (ln parLlcular ctltetl
eplstemoloqlcl fooJomeotoll Jelle Jlsclplloe pslcoloqlcbe [8aslc eplsLemologlcal crlLerla of Lhe
psychologlcal dlsclpllnes], 1976), and Lhe Amerlcan psychologlsL Ceorge A. kelly (1933/1991).
Cf course Lhe cholce ls noL casual, buL broughL forLh by Lhe parLlcularly sLrlklng afflnlLles
beLween o cettolo eplsLemologlcal reflecLlon and o cettolo consLrucLlvlsL approach ln
psychology
7
. l shall also refer Lo some elemenLs of MaLurana's Lheory of auLopolesls and Lhe
onLology of Lhe observer pecullar Lo lL, slnce lLs level of absLracLlon ls such as Lo produce
conslderaLlons abouL Lhe maLLers ln hand, boLh of eplsLemologlcal and psychologlcal order
8
.
4. 1nL CCNS1kUC1IVIS1 LkSLC1IVL WI1n kLILkLNCL 1C 1nL UNI1 CI SCnCLCG
kelly ls one of Lhose rare psychologlsLs who regard phllosophlcal reflecLlon as essenLlal for
LheorlzaLlon and sclenLlflc research, so Lo make expllclL Lhe phllosophlcal assumpLlons from
whlch he chooses Lo sLarL before beglnnlng Lhe exposlLlon of hls LheoreLlcal consLrucLlon.
Among Lhese assumpLlons, a promlnenL place ls occupled by coosttoctlve oltetootlvlsm. kelly
proposes an alLernaLlve Lo LhaL occomolotlve ftoqmeotollsm, predomlnanL ln sclence, whlch
conslsLs ln bellevlng LhaL knowledge derlves from Lhe accumulaLlon of fragmenLs of LruLhs
abouL Lhe world, gaLhered Lhrough Lhe observaLlon of facLs and Lhe generaLlon by lnducLlon of
laws and Lheorles. Cn Lhe conLrary, kelly wrlLes, we assume LhaL all of our presenL
lnLerpreLaLlons of Lhe unlverse are sub[ecL Lo revlslon or replacemenL (1933, p. 13).
9

lor kelly, Lhen, knowledge ls a personal lnLerpreLaLlon, derlvlng from Lhe separaLlon lnLo
segmenLs of Lhe undlfferenLlaLed flux of evenLs, on Lhe basls of Lhe consLrucLlon of recurrenL
Lhemes, or regularlLles. ln order Lo selze" regularlLy aL leasL Lhree elemenLs are needed: Lwo
of Lhem allow absLracLlng Lhe aspecLs of slmllarlLy, whlle Lhe Lhlrd allow absLracLlng Lhe
aspecLs of dlfference. lor Lhls reason Lhe petsoool coosttocts are concepLuallzed as blpolar,
and lncluded ln a coosttoctloo system. ln Lhls conLexL, whaL ls of lnLeresL Lo us
10
ls Lhe

7
l lmaglne however, as an ouLslder, LhaL noL all Lhe eplsLemologlsLs of psychology share Agazzl's Lheses,
and aware, Lhrough dlrecL experlence, LhaL noL all Lhe psychologlsLs deflnlng Lhemselves as
consLrucLlvlsLs share Lhe assumpLlons and lmpllcaLlons of kelly's personal consLrucL Lheory.
8
Cn Lhe afflnlLles beLween personal consLrucL Lheory and Lhe Lheory of auLopolesls see Chlarl and
nuzzo, 2009, posslm.
9
Who ls noL famlllar wlLh psychology, buL ls maybe acqualnLed wlLh Lhe eplsLemologlcal reflecLlons from
opper onwards, could Lhlnk LhaL Lhls sLaLemenL ls ouLdaLed by now (afLer all, lL daLes back Lo over flfLy
years ago) and LhaL lLs lnnovaLlve characLer has gone losL for long. Cn Lhe conLrary ln human sclences
(psychology lncluded) Lhe abandonmenL of an LnllghLenmenL or poslLlvlsLlc vlew of knowledge ls a
process sLlll ln progress, so LhaL Lhe approaches, lndlcaLed as posLmodernlsL", LhaL crlLlclze Lhe
posslblllLy of ulLlmaLe" knowledge of reallLy by underllnlng lLs soclal and culLural maLrlx are sLlll placed
on Lhe frlnge of academlc psychology.
10
lor Lhe ln depLh sLudy of Lhe Lheory l refer Lo Lhe LexLs above quoLed.

87

lmpllcaLlon as Lo Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween knowledge and reallLy: namely, Lhe way by whlch,
Lhrough Lhelr consLrucLs, persons segmenL Lhelr experlence, Lhus cuLLlng ouL" Lhe ob[ecLs"
LhaL compose Lhelr personal experlence by glvlng Lhem properLles (meanlngs), and asslgnlng
Lhe relaLlonshlps wlLh oLher ob[ecLs" (correspondlng Lo Lhe placemenLs of Lhe consLrucLs
wlLhln Lhe hlerarchlcally ordered sysLem whlch Lhey are parL of). 1herefore, personal
knowledge ls meanL as a LheoreLlcal sysLem whose hypoLheses - l.e., whaL Lhe slngle
consLrucLs allow Lo anLlclpaLe ln Lhe course of evenLs - are conLlnuously verlfled by means of
behavlor, wlLh Lhe funcLlon of an experlmenL, Lhus glvlng shape Lo a clrcular relaLlon beLween
knowledge and reallLy, slmllar Lo LhaL recognlzable, noL casually, ln lageL. lL ls Lhe process LhaL
kelly lllusLraLes by recurrlng Lo Lhe analogy of Lhe person-as-sclenLlsL": a sclenLlsL, wheLher
sLrlvlng Lo glve sLrucLure and meanlng Lo Lhe personal world around hlm or her, or applylng
hlm or herself Lo Lhe sLudy of parLlcular seLs of ob[ecLs (Lhose LradlLlonally belonglng Lo
physlcs, blology, psychology, or anyLhlng you llke).
1he person-as-sclenLlsL descrlbed by kelly clearly refers Lo Lhe flgure of sclenLlsL skeLched
by a cerLaln eplsLemology, and parLlcularly, as preannounced, by Lhe eplsLemologlcal reflecLlon
of Agazzl (1976). Lach sclence, meanL as esLabllshed herlLage of knowledge, presenLs lLself as a
looqooqe Lalklng abouL a unlverse of ob[ecLs". 1he ob[ecLs" of a sclence are noL Lo be
mlsLaken for Lhlngs": a slngle Lhlng can become ob[ecL of dlfferenL sclences dependlng on Lhe
polnL of vlew" from whlch one chooses Lo conslder lL, ln Lhe sense LhaL lL ls Lhe assumpLlon
of a cerLaln polnL of vlew on 'Lhlngs' raLher Lhan anoLher, Lo place ourselves wlLhln Lhls lnsLead
of Lhls oLher sclence (p. 11). An example wlll make clear Lhe concepL:
Conslder, for lnsLance, a waLch: lf we ask ourselves how much lL welghs, or whaL are Lhe laws
regulaLlng Lhe moLlon of lLs balance, we make lL an ob[ecL" of physlcs. lf we ask ourselves whaL ls
Lhe composlLlon of lLs case, or Lhe degree of pureness of lLs rubles, we conslder lL an ob[ecL" of
chemlsLry. lf we ask ourselves whaL ls lLs exchange value compared wlLh oLher goods, we
concelve lL as an ob[ecL" of economlcs. lf we ask ourselves whaL ls Lhe relaLlon beLween LhaL
parLlcular model of waLch and Lhe personallLy of Lhe purchaser who chose Lo buy lL, we make lL ln
some way ob[ecL" of psychology. And Lhe llsL could go on for long. (Agazzl 1976, p. 11)
A same Lhlng", Lherefore, ls a bundle of ob[ecLs" poLenLlally lnflnlLe, slnce Lhe polnLs of vlew
from whlch one can choose Lo conslder lL are endlessly mulLlpllable.
kelly shows Lo have a slmllar vlew of sclence ln Lhe very deflnlLlon of Lhe lundamenLal
osLulaLe" of hls Lheory: a person's processes are psychologlcally channellzed by Lhe ways ln
whlch he anLlclpaLes evenLs (1933, p. 46). ln Lhe sclenLlflc reasonlng, kelly goes on, Lhe
posLulaLe ls an assumpLlon, a proposlLlon, whlch ls Lrue as long as lL ls noL quesLloned, lL ls as
Lhough we would say, leL us suppose, for Lhe sake of Lhe dlscusslon whlch ls Lo follow, LhaL a
person's processes are channellzed by Lhe ways ln whlch he anLlclpaLes evenLs (kelly 1933, p.
47), and leL us see whaL would ensue. 8uL whaL we are lnLeresLed ln underllnlng ln Lhls phase
of Lhe dlscusslon ls Lhe use of Lhe adverb psychologlcally. Why does noL kelly use Lhe
ad[ecLlve psychologlcal when referrlng Lo Lhe person's processes? 1he answer ls LhaL,
conslsLenLly wlLh Lhe phllosophlcal assumpLlon of consLrucLlve alLernaLlvlsm", kelly does noL
regard Lhe subsLance of psychology as psychologlcal, or physlologlcal, or soclologlcal ln lLself:
A person's processes are whaL Lhey are, and psychology, physlology, or whaL have you, are slmply
sysLems concocLed for Lrylng Lo anLlclpaLe Lhem. 1hus, when we use Lhe Lerm psycboloqlcolly, we
mean LhaL we are concepLuallzlng processes ln a psychologlcal manner, noL LhaL Lhe processes
are psychologlcal raLher Lhan someLhlng else (kelly 1933, p. 48)


88

lf hls LheoreLlcal sysLem ls psychologlcal, lL ls only because he conslders lL slmllar Lo oLher
sysLems havlng a slmllar domaln: because, we could say ln Lhe eplsLemologlcal language of
Agazzl, lLs unlverse of ob[ecLs" ls slmllar (even Lhough noL exacLly allke) Lo LhaL of oLher
psychologles whlch regard cerLaln Lhlngs" from a cerLaln polnL of vlew". 1he followlng quoLe
by 8annlsLer, one of Lhe mosL lmporLanL represenLaLlves of Lhe psychology of personal
consLrucLs, ls parLlcularly lllusLraLlve of Lhe conslsLency beLween kelly's consLrucLlve
alLernaLlvlsm and Agazzl's eplsLemologlcal poslLlon:
lf we conLemplaLe a young lady crosslng a brldge (a lay consLrucLlon) Lhen we may equally
consLrue her as a 'serles of momenLs of force abouL a polnL' (englneer's consLrulng), as 'a poor
credlL rlsk' (banker's consLrulng), as 'a mass of whlrllng elecLrons abouL nuclel' (physlclsL's
consLrulng), as 'a soul ln perll of morLal sln' (Lheologlcal consLrulng) or as 'a llkely dlsh' (young
man's consLrulng). We do noL have Lo assume LhaL she ls teolly any of Lhese. We can accepL LhaL
Lhey are all consLrucLlons whlch have some explanaLory value and predlcLlve uLlllLy, dependlng on
Lhe neLworks of consLrucLs from whlch Lhey sLem. (8annlsLer 1968, p. 229)
MaLurana's onLology of Lhe observer leads Lo slmllar concluslons on sclenLlflc dlsclpllnes meanL
as domalns of experlences:
All descrlpLlons consLlLuLe conflguraLlons of co-ordlnaLlons of acLlons ln some dlmenslons of Lhe
domalns of experlences of Lhe members of a communlLy of observers [.] hyslcs, blology,
maLhemaLlcs, phllosophy, cooklng, pollLlcs eLc., are all dlfferenL domalns of languaglng, and as
such are all dlfferenL domalns of recurslve consensual co-ordlnaLlons of consensual acLlons ln Lhe
praxls of happenlng of llvlng of Lhe members of a communlLy of observers. ln oLher words, lL ls
only as dlfferenL domalns of languaglng LhaL physlcs, blology, phllosophy, cooklng, pollLlcs, or any
cognlLlve domaln exlsLs. ?eL, Lhls does noL mean LhaL all cognlLlve domalns are Lhe same, lL only
means LhaL dlfferenL cognlLlve domalns exlsL only as Lhey are broughL forLh ln language, and LhaL
languaglng consLlLues Lhem. (MaLurana 1987, p. 372)
LeL us go back now, on Lhe basls of whaL above sald, Lo Lhe maln lssue of Lhls secLlon abouL Lhe
posslblllLy/advlsablllLy of a pro[ecL almed aL glvlng unlLy Lo tbe psychology. lf we accepL LhaL
every sclenLlflc dlsclpllne cuLs ouL lLs ob[ecLs by looklng aL Lhlngs from a cerLaln polnL of vlew
and lnvesLlgaLlng Lhem accordlng Lo cerLaln meLhods, we musL accepL Lhe exlsLence noL of ooe,
buL mooy psychologles. As a consequence, ln Lhe words of Agazzl,
1he behavlorlsL can no longer blame who uses Lhe lnsLrumenL of lnLrospecLlon for a defecL of
meLhodology [.], a supposed lncorrecLness or lack of sclenLlflc crlLlclsm: Lhls would be
accepLable lf Lhe problem were LhaL of confronLlng tbe some ob[ecL and of wanLlng Lo deal wlLh lL
by means of meLhods so dlameLrlcally opposlLe. Cn Lhe conLrary, Lhe quesLlon ls anoLher: Lhe use
of Lhe Lwo dlfferenL meLhods acLually cuLs ouL" Lwo dlfferenL klnds of ob[ecLs, Lherefore opLlng
for Lhls raLher Lhan LhaL meLhodologlcal cholce slmply means chooslng Lo deal wlLh someLhlng
more or less dlfferenL, or, lf you llke, pracLlclng anoLher psychology. (Agazzl 1976, p. 16)
AL Lhls polnL someone mlghL ask lf one or more psychologles are beLLer Lhan oLhers (perhaps ln
Lhe sense of more Lrue"), or lf one has Lo come Lo an eplsLemologlcal uadalsm a la
leyerabend (1976), agalnsL tbe meLhod and ln favour of lnvenLlveness and creaLlvlLy. 1he
quesLlon on Lhe absoluLe" LruLh of a slngle proposlLlon or a Lheory derlves from mlsLaklng
Lhlngs" for ob[ecLs". Agaln, should we admlL LhaL every sclenLlflc dlsclpllne cuLs ouL lLs
ob[ecLs, a proposlLlon wlll be Lrue or false wlLh regard Lo" Lhose ob[ecLs, and Lhe varlous
psychologles, deallng wlLh ob[ecLs aL leasL parLly dlfferenL, could be slmulLaneously Lrue. 1he
confllcL of meLhods, Lherefore, ls only apparenL when one undersLands LhaL lL expresses lLself

89

ln a dlfferenLlaLlon of ob[ecLs and ls noL a brawl abouL Lhe beLLer way Lo Lake possesslon of an
only and same ob[ecL (Agazzl 1976, p. 17, LranslaLlon mlne). lL would be lmporLanL, lnsLead,
LhaL each psychology makes expllclL lLs proLocol crlLerla", LhaL ls, LhaL seL of proposlLlons
acknowledged as lmmedlaLely Lrue" on Lhe basls of whlch Lo be able Lo declde abouL Lhe LruLh
or falslLy of Lhe proposlLlons. 1hese proLocol crlLerla have a hlgh level of expllclLness ln Lhe
case of physlcs, whereas Lhe psychologlcal dlsclpllnes operaLe aL a more lmpllclL level, due Lo
Lhe lack of a clear deflnlLlon of Lhe praxls" ln accordance wlLh cerLaln prearranged
operaLlons", praxls whlch, by lLself, can esLabllsh Lhe ground of lnLersub[ecLlvlLy, LhaL ls, of
ob[ecLlvlLy meanL as loJepeoJeoce ftom tbe sobject, as agreemenL wlLhln a communlLy, noL as
pettloeoce to tbe object.
Agazzl uses Lhe Lerm coosttoct Lo denoLe Lhe ob[ecL as an absLracL enLlLy, a booJle of
telotloos LhaL are exLracLed from Lhlngs" by means of lnsLrumenLal manlpulaLlons (p. 26,
lLallcs ln Lhe orlglnal, LranslaLlon mlne). 1he afflnlLles beLween Agazzl's eplsLemologlcal
reflecLlons and kelly's phllosophlcal and LheoreLlcal poslLlon go beyond Lhe use of Lhe same
Lerm. Also for kelly consLrucLs are noL Lo be confounded wlLh Lhe facLual maLerlal of whlch
Lhey are personallzed verslons, Lhey are lnLerpreLaLlons of Lhose facLs (1933, p. 136), and
neveLheless Lhey are real, as, wlLhln a sysLem of hlerarchlcal relaLlonshlps among consLrucLs,
Lhe subordlnaLe consLrucLs represenL a form of reallLy whlch ls consLrued Lhrough Lhe use of
Lhe superordlnaLe consLrucLs. lL ls lmporLanL noL Lo subsLanLlaLe Lhese ob[ecLs" by LreaLlng
Lhem as Lhlngs" or cognlLlve enLlLles, as someone who dld noL undersLand Lhe assumpLlons
from whlch kelly derlves hls Lheory mlghL do. 1he lnLroducLlon ln sclence of predlcaLes,
consLrucLs and LheoreLlcal enLlLles (Lhe elecLron or Lhe aLom ln physlcs, Lhe unconsclous, Lhe
superego, Lhe personallLy ln psychology, Lhe geneLlc code ln blology, Lhe afflnlLy ln chemlsLry,
and so on) allows, accordlng Lo Agazzl, Lo go beyond Lhe proposlLlons lmmedlaLely Lrue"
based on operaLlonal proLocol crlLerla, and Lo make use of Lheory".
1he lmporLance ls noL Lo subsLanLlaLe Lhese enLlLles, by concelvlng Lhem as Lhlngs" of common
sense, buL, Lo Lhe exLenL LhaL one reallzes LhaL Lhey are consLrucLs, any susplclon Lowards Lhem
has Lo fall because, afLer all, we saw LhaL also Lhe so-called emplrlcal ob[ecLs" are consLrucLs.
(Agazzl 1976, pp. 27-28)
Agaln, Lhe analogy wlLh whaL susLalned by kelly ls sLrlklng:
Cne of Lhe hazards of operaLlonallsm ls lLs Lendency Lo make researchers Lhlnk concreLlsLlcally. lL
encourages experlmenLers Lo see Lhlngs raLher Lhan prlnclples. ?eL, lL ls noL Lhlngs LhaL a sclenLlsL
accumulaLes and caLalogues, lL ls Lhe prlnclples or Lhe absLracLlons LhaL sLrlke Lhrough Lhe Lhlngs
wlLh whlch he ls concerned. [.] 1he prlnclple ls noL Lhe aggregaLe of all Lhe evenLs, lL ls raLher a
properLy, so absLracLed LhaL lL can be seen as perLlnenL Lo all of Lhem. (kelly 1933, p. 30)
S. 1nL CCNS1kUC1IVIS1 LkSLC1IVL WI1n kLILkLNCL 1C 1nL kLDUC1ICNIS1 1nLSIS
1he same conslderaLlons LhaL make Lhe pro[ecL of a unlflcaLlon of psychology unfeaslble
(meanlngless) can be used Lo malnLaln Lhe un[usLlflablllLy of Lhe reducLlonlsL Lhesls, whlch
upholds Lhe LranslaLablllLy of Lhe proposlLlons of a dlsclpllne ln Lhose of Lhe dlsclpllnes more
baslc ln a supposed hlerarchlcal order, wlLh Lhe advanLage of a more compleLe resoluLlon of
Lhe problems. Cn Lhe conLrary, Lhe anLl-reducLlonlsL approach demands LhaL every sclenLlflc
problem ls dlscussed and solved excluslvely ln Lhe Lerms ln whlch lL puLs lLself from Lhe
beglnnlng (Marhaba 1976, p. 33), ln Lhe Lerms of Lhe lnLerpreLlve consLrucLs LhaL cuL ouL and
glve properLles Lo Lhe ob[ecLs" of any speclflc dlsclpllne.


90

1he teJoctloolst bellef resLs on whaL l shall Lerm psycbopbyslcol bellef, whlch conslsLs ln
assumlng Lhe exlsLence of a relaLlonshlp beLween evenLs Lo whom an lnLrlnsecally dlfferenL
naLure ls recognlzed. ln such cases a greaLer value of reallLy" or sclenLlflclLy" ls someLlmes
aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe evenL LhaL, ln Lhe psychophyslcal relaLlonshlp, has a more baslc" placemenL
ln Lhe hlerarchlcal order of sclenLlflc dlsclpllnes.
WhaL Lhe assumpLlon of a consLrucLlvlsL perspecLlve denles ls noL [usL Lhe facL LhaL such
relaLlonshlps exlsL", buL Lhe onLologlcal characLer of such an exlsLence. WhaLever exlsLs, ln
facL, exlsLs as elemenL of a personal consLrucL (kelly), as a unlLy broughL forLh by an acL of
dlsLlncLlon (MaLurana). Mlnd and body are noL excepLlons: mlnd and body are consLrucLs,
maLLer, energy, ldeas, noLlons, mlnd, splrlL, god, ... are explanaLory proposlLlons of Lhe praxls
of llvlng of Lhe observer (MaLurana 1987, p. 376). Pow Lo explaln Lhen Lhe numerous
correlaLlons - Lo whlch ls ofLen aLLrlbuLed a causal value - beLween cerLaln physlcal
(physlologlcal) and menLal (psychologlcal) phenomena? Pow can we explaln Lhe relaLlonshlp,
LhaL many of us have personally experlenced, beLween an lmmoderaLe Laklng of alcohol and a
sense of exhllaraLlon? or Lhe relaLlonshlp, ofLen reporLed ln Lhe psychosomaLlc llLeraLure,
beLween a moLher's overproLecLlon and Lhe developmenL of bronchlal asLhma or pepLlc ulcer
ln Lhe chlld? or Lhe relaLlonshlp, sLudled ln Lhe pharmacologlcal research and used ln
psychlaLry, beLween Lhe effecL of cerLaln chemlcal subsLances on cerLaln neuroLransmlLLers,
and Lhe changes ln Lhe course of cerLaln menLal dlsorders? or Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe
acLlvaLlon of cerLaln cerebral areas and cerLaln menLal processes? A deLalled llsL of such
relaLlonshlps could occupy hundreds of pages.
ln personal consLrucL Lheory Lerms, such posslblllLles derlve from Lhe facL, wldely descrlbed
ln Lhe above secLlon, LhaL a same" evenL can be consLrued Lhrough dlfferenL consLrucLlon
sysLems:
Are Lhose facLs psychologlcal facLs" or are Lhey physlologlcal facLs"? Where do Lhey really
belong? Who geLs possesslon of Lhem, Lhe psychologlsL or Lhe physlologlsL? [.]
1he answer ls, of course, LhaL Lhe evenLs upon whlch facLs are based hold no lnsLlLuLlonal
loyalLles. 1hey are ln Lhe publlc domaln. 1he same evenL may be consLrued slmulLaneously and
proflLably wlLhln varlous dlsclpllnary sysLems - physlcs, physlology, pollLlcal sclence, or
psychology.
no one has yeL proved hlmself wlse enough Lo propound a unlversal sysLem of consLrucLs. (kelly
1933, p. 10)
1herefore, Lhe observaLlon of psychophyslcal relaLlonshlps derlves, from a consLrucLlvlsL
perspecLlve, from Lhe slmulLaneous use of proLocol crlLerla deflnlng dlfferenL unlverses of
ob[ecLs: namely, Lhose of physlology and psychology. As MaLurana (1978) remarks from Lhe
vlewpolnL of Lhe onLology of Lhe observer,
for Lhe observer who beholds slmulLaneously boLh phenomenal domalns [...] Lhe changes ln Lhe
relaLlons of Lhe componenLs appear as changes ln sLaLe ln Lhe llvlng sysLem LhaL modlfy lLs
properLles and, hence, lLs lnLeracLlons ln lLs envlronmenL - all of whlch he or she descrlbes by
saylng LhaL Lhe physlology of Lhe organlsm generaLes lLs behavlor. ?eL, slnce Lhese Lwo
phenomenal domalns do noL lnLersecL, Lhe relaLlons LhaL an observer may esLabllsh beLween Lhe
phenomena of one and Lhe phenomena of Lhe oLher do noL consLlLuLe a phenomenal reducLlon,
and Lhe generaLlve operaLlonal dependency of behavlor on physlology LhaL Lhe observer asserLs
ln Lhls manner does noL lmply a necessary correspondence beLween Lhem. Accordlngly, ln no
parLlcular case can Lhe phenomena of one domaln be deduced from Lhe phenomena of Lhe oLher
prlor Lo Lhe observaLlon of Lhelr acLual generaLlve dependency. (MaLurana 1978, pp. 37-38)

91

ln Lhe essay quoLed above, 8annlsLer (1968) regards physlologlcal psychology a sorL of
eplsLemologlcal hybrld slnce he argues LhaL from Lhe personal consLrucL perspecLlve a quesLlon
such as pbysloloqlcol eveots and psycboloqlcol eveots are relaLed? appears meanlngless. lL
would raLher be adequaLe Lo ask lf Lhe coosttocts belng parL of Lhe LheoreLlcal sysLems of
physlology and psychology can be usefully relaLed wlLh Lhe ob[ecL of a beLLer sclenLlflc
undersLandlng. Pls answer ls LhaL, conslderlng Lhe dlsLance beLween Lhe semanLlc neLworks
(Lhe languages) of psychology and physlology, a physlologlcal psychology does noL have
greaLer posslblllLles Lo develop as a sclence Lhan Lhere are Lo consLlLuLe a chemlcal soclology or
a blologlcal asLronomy.
neverLheless we musL acknowledge LhaL, whereas one does noL know aLLempLs Lo found a
chemlcal soclology or a blologlcal asLronomy, Lhere are numerous dlsclpllnes LhaL lnLend Lo
Lrace back Lhe psychologlcal phenomena Lo (neuro)physlologlcal processes (flrsLly,
physlologlcal psychology and psychophyslology), medlcal paLhologles Lo psychologlcal
varlables (psychosomaLlc medlclne), and even more numerous Lhe sLudles LhaL lnLend Lo
dlsclose Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween mlnd and braln. ln all Lhese cases, Lhose processes, whlch
from a consLrucLlvlsL polnL of vlew acqulre Lhelr psychologlcal" or physlologlcal" properLles
by Lhe llghL of a speclflc language, are consldered as lnLrlnslcally (onLologlcally) psychologlcal
or physlologlcal. 1hls vlew opens Lhe way Lo Lhe posslblllLy of an lnLeracLlonlsL duallsm (opper
& Lccles, 1977), or of a monlsm LhaL ln Lhe phllosophlcal debaLe ls decllned ln Lhe Lwo maln
vlews of reducLlve maLerlallsm and emergenLlsL maLerlallsm (expounded ln 8unge, 1980). 1he
reason of Lhe success of such psychophyslcal relaLlonshlp can be Lraced Lo Lhe facL LhaL some
of Lhe Lhlngs" whlch physlology and psychology are lnLeresLed ln are ob[ecLs" of boLh Lhe
unlverses, unlverses whlch - noL properly from a consLrucLlvlsL perspecLlve - come Lo an
undue lnLerpeneLraLlon.
ConslsLenLly wlLh Lhe assumpLlon of consLrucLlve alLernaLlvlsm, whlch lmplles Lhe posslblllLy
Lo consLrue Lhe same" seL of evenLs wlLhln dlfferenL sclenLlflc sysLems, kelly polnLs ouL Lhe
boundary of Lhe range of convenlence of hls psychologlcal Lheory (Lhe boundary of lLs unlverse
of ob[ecLs) wlLh Lhe noLlon of cote coosttocts, LhaL ls, tbose wblcb qoveto o petsoos
moloteoooce ptocesses - LhaL ls, tbose by wblcb be molotolos bls lJeotlty ooJ exlsteoce (1933,
p. 482, lLallcs ln Lhe orlglnal). A greaL many of Lhese malnLenance processes (such as dlgesLlon)
can be more adequaLely consLrued ln Lerms of a physlologlcal consLrucLlon sysLem. Moreover,
kelly re[ecLs as derlvlng from a duallsL vlew Lhe noLlon of emoLlon" so cenLral ln Lhe
LradlLlonal psychologles, ln favour of coosttocts telotlve to ttoosltloos meanL as ptofessloool
coosttocts, l.e., as consLrucLs LhaL Lhe psychologlsLs may proflLably use wlLh reference Lo
cerLaln changes relaLlve Lo Lhe person's core sLrucLures
11
. 1he only correcL way, from a
consLrucLlvlsL polnL of vlew, Lo glve a psychologlcal lnLerpreLaLlon Lo physlologlcal" processes
(or vlce versa) should conslsL ln exLendlng Lhe range of convenlence of Lhe psychologlcal
consLrucLlon sysLem, LhaL ls, ln lncludlng ln Lhe unlverse of ob[ecLs of psychology also some of
Lhe Lhlngs" aL presenL ob[ecLs of physlology (as we Lrled Lo argue ln nuzzo & Chlarl, 1992).
6. CCNCLUSICN
AL Lhls polnL, one mlghL Lhlnk LhaL Lhe psychologles based on a consLrucLlvlsL eplsLemology are
ln a prlvlleged poslLlon ln comparlson Lo oLher psychologles, because Lhey share Lhe
assumpLlons of Lhe eplsLemology of psychology. Powever, as l have repeaLedly underllned,
Lhese are Lhe assumpLlons of o cettolo eplsLemology of psychology. lndeed, foundaLlonallsL

11
See kelly's orlglnal work, or Chlarl and nuzzo, (1983, 1988, 2009), for an analysls of Lhese aspecLs of
Lhe Lheory.


92

(emplrlclsL, raLlonallsL) eplsLemologles, whlch are well-represenLed (noL Lo say domlnanL) also
ln psychology, do noL share Lhe deflnlLlon of sclence as a language whlch cuLs ouL a unlverse of
ob[ecLs, Lo be meanL as dlsLlncL from Lhlngs". 1he only prlvllege (lf one llkes Lo see lL ln Lhls
way) LhaL one mlghL recognlze Lo Lhe psychologles of consLrucLlvlsL maLrlx derlves from Lhelr
way Lo undersLand boLh sclence and Lhe crlLerla of LruLh for sclenLlflc proposlLlons, Lhls way
allows Lhe psychologles of consLrucLlvlsL maLrlx Lo confronL wlLh psychologles based on
dlfferenL eplsLemologles, vlewed as leglLlmaLely lnLeresLed ln dlfferenL ob[ecLs. 8uL Lhen, whaL
ls Lhe unlverse of Lhe ob[ecLs of consLrucLlvlsL psychologles made of?
Conslderlng consLrucLlvlsL psychologles as a whole, Lhelr unlverse of ob[ecLs mlghL conslsL ln
Lhe personal ways Lo organlze human experlence, Lhelr polnL of vlew concerns personal polnLs
of vlews. lor lnsLance, kelly's personal consLrucL Lheory can be properly vlewed as a
meLaLheory: a psychologlcal Lheory abouL personal Lheorles. 1herefore, consLrucLlvlsL
psychologles share a phenomenologlcal and lnLerpreLlve approach, slmllar Lo Lhe one of Lhe
varlegaLed humanlsLlc psychologles. Cn Lhe oLher hand, Lo Lhe exLenL LhaL Lhe sclenLlflclLy of a
dlsclpllne derlves from clear proLocol crlLerla, Lhe adheslon Lo a consLrucLlvlsL eplsLemology ls
noL ln lLself an elemenL of sLrengLh, on Lhe conLrary, ofLen Lhe proLocol crlLerla of many
foundaLlonallsL" psychologles are more clear and expllclL of Lhose of many lnLerpreLlve"
psychologles, someLlmes so vague ln Lhe operaLlonallzaLlon of Lhelr ob[ecLs as Lo appear
almosL splrlLual". ConsLrucLlvlsL psychologles can carry also ouL progresslve research
programs (LakaLos, 1978) ln Lhe same way as Lhe LradlLlonal naLural sclences, wlLhouL loslng
Lhelr psychologlcal speclflclLy, once Lhey saLlsfled Lhelr proLocol crlLerla.

8I8LICGkAn
Agazzl, L. (1976). CrlLerl eplsLemologlcl fondamenLall delle dlsclpllne pslcologlche [8aslc
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8unge, M. (1980). 1be mloJ-boJy ptoblem. A psycbobloloqlcol opptoocb. Cxford: ergamon
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leyerabend, . k. (1976). Aqolost metboJ. new ?ork: PumanlLles ress. (Lrad. lL. cootto ll
metoJo. Abbozzo Jl ooo teotlo oootcblco Jello cooosceozo. Mllano: lelLrlnelll, 1979)
Cergen, k. !. (1983). 1he soclal consLrucLlonlsL movemenL ln modern psychology. Ametlcoo
lsycboloqlst, 40, 266-273.
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Penrlques, C. 8. (2003). 1he Lree of knowledge sysLem and Lhe LheoreLlcal unlflcaLlon of
psychology. kevlew of Ceoetol lsycboloqy, 7, 130-182.
Penrlques, C. 8. (2003). A new vlslon for Lhe fleld: lnLroducLlon Lo Lhe second speclal lssue
on Lhe unlfled Lheory. Iootool of cllolcol lsycboloqy, 61, 3-6.
Penrlques, C. 8., & Cobb, P. C. (2004). lnLroducLlon Lo Lhe speclal lssues on Lhe unlfled
Lheory. Iootool of cllolcol lsycboloqy, 60, 1203-1203.
Pusserl, L. (1976). ule krlsls der europaelschen WlssenschafLen und dle 1raszendenLale
henomenologle. ln W. 8lemel (Ld.), nossetllooo (vol. vl). uen Paag: MarLlnus
nl[hoff. (Lrad. lL. lo ctlsl Jelle scleoze eotopee e lo feoomeooloqlo ttosceoJeotole.
lottoJozlooe ollo fllosoflo feoomeooloqlco. Mllano: ll SagglaLore, 1983)
kelly, C. A. (1933). 1be psycboloqy of petsoool coosttocts (vols 1 & 2). new ?ork: norLon.
(Lrad. lL. parz. del 1 vol. lo pslcoloqlo Jel costtottl petsoooll. 1eotlo e petsooollt.
Mllano: CorLlna, 2004)
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(Lrad. lL. lo sttottoto Jelle tlvolozlool scleotlflcbe (3
a
ed.). 1orlno: Llnaudl, 1969)


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kvale, S. (Ld.). (1992). lsycboloqy ooJ postmoJetolsm. London: Sage.
LakaLos, l. (1978). 1be metboJoloqy of scleotlflc teseotcb ptoqtommes. lbllosopblcol
popets, volome 1. Cambrldge: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.
Legrenzl, ., & umllLa, C. (2009). Neoto-moolo. ll cetvello ooo spleqo cbl slomo [Neoto-
moolo. 1be btolo Joes oot explolo wbo we ote]. 8ologna: ll Mullno.
Mahoney, M. !. (1988). ConsLrucLlve meLaLheory: l. 8aslc feaLures and hlsLorlcal
foundaLlons. lotetootloool Iootool of letsoool coosttoct lsycboloqy, 1, 1-33.
Marhaba, S. (1976). Aotloomle eplstemoloqlcbe oello pslcoloqlo cootempotooeo
[plstemoloqlcol ootloomles lo cootempototy psycboloqy]. llrenze: ClunLl 8arbera.
Marhaba, S. (1980). Lo sLruLLurallsmo e ll funzlonallsmo [SLrucLurallsm and funcLlonallsm].
ln . Legrenzl (Ld.), 5totlo Jello pslcoloqlo [nlstoty of psycboloqy] (pp. 67-89).
8ologna: ll Mullno.
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Lenneberg (Lds.), lsycboloqy ooJ bloloqy of looqooqe ooJ tbooqbt. ssoys lo booot of
tlc leooebetq (pp. 27-63). San ulego, CA: Academlc ress.
MaLurana, P. 8. (1987). 1he blologlcal foundaLlons of self-consclousness and Lhe physlcal
domaln of exlsLence. ln L. 8. Calanlello (Ld.), lbyslcs of coqoltlve ptocesses (pp. 324-
379). Slngapore: World SclenLlflc. (Lrad. lL. Aotocoscleozo e teolt. Mllano, CorLlna,
1993)
MaLurana, P. 8. (1988). 8eallLy: 1he search for ob[ecLlvlLy or Lhe quesL for a compelllng
argumenL. ltlsb Iootool of lsycboloqy, 9, 23-82.
MaLurana, P. 8., & varela, l. !. (1980). Aotopolesls ooJ coqoltloo. 1be teollzotloo of tbe
llvloq. uordrechL: 8eldel. (Lrad. lL. Aotopolesl e coqolzlooe. lo teollzzozlooe Jel
vlveote. venezla: Marslllo, 1983)
MaLurana, P. 8., & varela, l. !. (1987). 1be ttee of koowleJqe. 1be bloloqlcol toots of bomoo
ooJetstooJloq. 8osLon: Shambhala. (Lrad. lL. l'olbeto Jello cooosceozo. 1orlno:
CarzanLl, 1987)
nuzzo, M. L., & Chlarl, C. (1992). La cosLruzlone personale del cancro [1he personal
consLrucLlon of cancer]. ln C. Chlarl & M. L. nuzzo (Lds), lo tlcetco pslcoloqlco sol
coocto j1be psycboloqlcol teseotcb oo coocet] (pp. 179-192). Mllano: Angell.
lageL, !. (1937). lo coosttoctloo Jo tel cbez l'eofoot. neuchLel: uelachaux eL nlesLle.
(Lrad. lL. lo costtozlooe Jel teole oel bombloo. llrenze: La nuova lLalla, 1973)
opper, k. 8., & Lccles, !. C. (1977). 1be self ooJ lts btolo. Ao otqomeot fot lotetoctloolsm.
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Sarbln, 1. 8. (Ld.). (1986). Nottotlve psycboloqy. 1be stotleJ ootote of bomoo cooJoct. new
?ork: raeger.
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1987)
von Clasersfeld, L. (1980). vlablllLy and Lhe concepL of selecLlon. Ametlcoo lsycboloqlst, J5,
970-974.

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von Clasersfeld, L. (1984). An lnLroducLlon Lo radlcal consLrucLlvlsm. ln . WaLzlawlck (Ld.),
1be loveoteJ teollty. now Jo we koow wbot we belleve we koow? coottlbotloos to
coosttoctlvlsm (pp. 17-40). new ?ork: norLon.
WaLzlawlck, . (Ld.). (1984). 1be loveoteJ teollty. now Jo we koow wbot we belleve we
koow? (coottlbotloos to coosttoctlvlsm). new ?ork: norLon. (Lrad. lL. lo teolt
loveototo. coottlbotl ol costtottlvlsmo. Mllano: lelLrlnelll, 1988)


97

Knowing and tbe Unknown: An Existential Epistemology
in a Postmodern Context

lools noffmoo
*

Louls.Poffman[8ockles.edu

A8S1kAC1

LxlsLenLlal psychology and posLmodern LhoughL share skepLlclsm abouL Lhe ablllLy of human belngs Lo
grasp ob[ecLlve LruLh, lf lL even exlsLs. Powever, Lhere are also lmporLanL dlsLlncLlons beLween
posLmodern and exlsLenLlal ways of knowlng. 1hls arLlcle provldes a crlLlcal comparlson of posLmodern
and exlsLenLlal eplsLemologles, wlLh parLlcular focus on how a dlalogue beLween Lhese vlewpolnLs can
sLrengLhen boLh perspecLlves. arLlcular aLLenLlon ls glven Lo Lhe exlsLenLlal glvens, whlch represenL
unlversal sLruggles wlLhouL provldlng any clalms of unlversal answers, LhaL ls, ob[ecLlve LruLh. 1he paper
concludes dlscusslon how a posLmodern exlsLenLlal eplsLemology could provlde an ldeal framework for
psychoLherapy lnLegraLlon.

LxlsLenLlal psychology and posLmodern phllosophy share many slmllarlLles ln Lhelr
eplsLemology and general world vlew, however, Lhere are also some essenLlal dlfferences.
CfLen, Lhese dlfferences are Lendencles raLher Lhan absoluLe dlsLlncLlons. 1hls paper wlll
provlde a comparlson of Lhe Lwo eplsLemologles suggesLlng LhaL Lhrough dlalogue boLh
approaches can be sLrengLhened. lurLhermore, lL ls malnLalned LhaL an exlsLenLlal-lnLegraLlve
approach wlLh posLmodern senslLlvlLles provldes an ldeal foundaLlon for psychoLherapy
lnLegraLlon.

CCMAkISCN CI LIS1LMCLCGILS

Postmodern epistemo/oqy
A prlmary challenge of wrlLlng abouL posLmodern eplsLemology ls LhaL Lhere are noL one, buL
many, posLmodernlsms. lurLhermore, posLmodern eplsLemology ls besL undersLood ln a
hlsLorlcal conLexL. Larly posLmodern Lheorles were prlmarlly reacLlonary, focuslng on
deconsLrucLlng Lhe modernlsL paradlgm (Poffman & kurzenberger, 2008). 1hls led Lo many
mlscharacLerlzlng Lhe prlmary feaLure of posLmodernlsm as belng deconsLrucLlon. Powever,
conLemporary posLmodern Lheorles lncorporaLed more consLrucLlve Lendencles. Lven Lhese
more consLrucLlve movemenLs malnLaln LhaL ob[ecLlve LruLh ls noL someLhlng LhaL can be
known.
8osen (1996, as clLed ln Lrwln, 1999) provldes a summary of consLrucLlvlsL eplsLemologles
whlch applles Lo mosL, lf noL all, posLmodern eplsLemologles. Pe wroLe, Whlle Lhere are a
varleLy of consLrucLlvlsL models, Lhey all hold ln common Lhe eplsLemologlcal bellef LhaL a
LoLally ob[ecLlve reallLy, one LhaL sLands aparL from Lhe knowlng sub[ecL, can never be fully

*
School of rofesslonal sychology, unlverslLy of Lhe 8ockles. Correspondence concernlng Lhls arLlcle
should be addressed Lo Louls Poffman: unlverslLy of Lhe 8ockles, 333 L. lkes eak Avenue, Colorado
Sprlngs, CC, 80903
l would llke Lo Lhank uavld n. Llklns, hu, for hls suggesLlons and edlLorlal feedback.


98

known" (p. 334) 8osen ldenLlfles Lwo cornersLones of posLmodern eplsLemology: (a) calllng
lnLo quesLlon Lhe posslblllLy of a known ob[ecLlve LruLh and (b) shlfLlng Lhe prlmary focus Lo
Lhe lndlvldual's sub[ecLlve experlence. Lrwln (1999) Lakes a less anLagonlsLlc vlew Loward
ob[ecLlve LruLh Lhan many posLmodernlsLs. AlLhough he agrees wlLh Lhe ma[orlLy of
posLmodernlsLs LhaL ob[ecLlve LruLh ls noL aLLalnable ouLslde of mlnd and language" (p. 334),
he does noL go Lhe nexL sLep Lo sLaLe Lhere ls noL an ob[ecLlve reallLy.
1hls sLance agalnsL ob[ecLlve LruLh ls mosL sLrongly revealed ln posLmodernlsm's anlmoslLy
Loward meLanarraLlves. MeLanarraLlves are all-encompasslng lnLellecLual frameworks such as
sclence, loglc, phllosophy and rellglon, LhaL are supposed Lo seLLle argumenLs abouL whaL ls
Lrue" (Legg & SLagakl, 2002, p. 386). osLmodernlsLs ofLen use Lhe Lerm opptesslve Lo descrlbe
meLanarraLlves because Lhey are Lyplcally lmposed upon people. lor example, Lhose adherlng
Lo sclenLlsm, an ldeologlcal bellef ln Lhe superlorlLy and ob[ecLlvlLy of Lhe sclenLlflc way of
knowlng, ofLen aLLempL Lo converL" oLhers Lo Lhelr way of Lhlnklngand are condescendlng Lo
Lhose who allgn wlLh dlfferenL eplsLemologlcal poslLlons. ln facL, adherenLs of sclenLlsm remlnd
one of Lhe rellglous lndlvlduals who are so convlnced of Lhe superlorlLy of Lhelr poslLlon LhaL
Lhey spend much of Lhelr Llme Lrylng Lo converL oLhers. osLmodernlsLs, by conLrasL, are
crlLlcal of any slngular way of knowlng and opL for mulLlple ways of knowlng or whaL ls referred
Lo as eplsLemologlcal plurallsm" (Poffman & kurzenberger, 2008). ln oLher words,
posLmodernlsm prefers Lo draw on many dlfferenL approaches Lo knowledge lnsLead of relylng
excesslvely on any one approach. Pere, however, posLmodernlsLs are ofLen qulLe lnconslsLenL.
AlLhough Lhey expllclLly advocaLe for varled eplsLemologles, Lhey ofLen rely excluslvely upon
raLlonal ways of knowlng.
ln a wldely clLed arLlcle on Lhe dlfferences ln whaL he calls consLrucLlvlsms," 8askln (2002)
sLaLes LhaL alLhough Lhere are many Lypes of consLrucLlvlsms Lhe slmllarlLles among are
greaLer Lhan Lhe dlfferences. Common across Lhe consLrucLlvlsms ls Lhe bellef LhaL a maLerlal
reallLy cannoL be known,
1
wlLh a few excepLlons called llmlLed reallsm." 1hls ls conslsLenL wlLh
Lhe ldea LhaL an lndlvldual's worldvlew ls consLrucLed, noL slmply a sub[ecLlve mlrror of whaL ls
real." AlLhough mosL consLrucLlvlsLs allow for boLh soclal and personal lnfluences on Lhe
consLrucLlon of how one sees and experlences Lhe world, personal consLrucLlvlsLs for more on
personal consLrucLlons whlle soclal consLrucLlonlsLs
2
focus more on Lhe soclal lnfluences.
lL should be polnLed ouL LhaL posLmodernlsm's break from modernlsm ls noL abouL Lhe
cooteot of koowleJqe as much as bow loJlvlJools telote to ot bolJ koowleJqe. Anderson (1993)
sLaLes, [posLmodernlsm] has Lo do wlLh a change noL so much ln whaL we belleve as ln how
we belleve" (p. 2). ln oLher words, one can belleve Lhe same conLenL ln premodern, modern,
and posLmodern paradlgms, buL why and how Lhey belleve lL, as well as how Lhey supporL lL,
dlffers. lor example, ln Lhe WesL durlng Lhe premodern area Lhe prlmary eplsLemology was
revelaLlon, or revealed knowledge from Cod or an ulLlmaLe auLhorlLy (see Poffman &
kurzenberger, 2008). 8ellglous knowledge was vlewed as ob[ecLlve LruLh and, generally
speaklng, was unquesLlonable. ln Lhe posLmodern era, Lhe same knowledge would be vlewed
as consLrucLed and noL real" (of course, some posLmodern rellglonlsLs mlghL conslder Lhelr
bellefs a personal or soclal lnLerpreLaLlon of Lhe ob[ecLlve LruLh and Lherefore a close
approxlmaLlon of Lhe LruLh). 1hus, Lhe same bellef ls approached and supporLed ln dlfferenL
ways ln dlfferenL eplsLemologlcal paradlgms. Cne can see how Lhe posLmodern approach
challenges Lhe more rlgld adherence Lo speclflc rellglous bellefs and creaLes a greaLer
openness Lo oLher lnLerpreLaLlons.

1
MaLerlal reallLles are a speclal Lype of ob[ecLlve LruLh LhaL are ofLen referred Lo as reallsm."
2
8askln polnLs ouL LhaL soclal coosttoctlvlsts prefer Lhe language of coosttoctloolsm over coosttoctlvlsm.
Louis Boffman - Knowing anu the 0nknown

99

lor a second example of how one may hold Lo Lhe same bellef buL lnLerpreL and supporL lL
ln a dlfferenL way, conslder Lhe followlng: ln Lhe modern era, sclenLlflc knowledge, especlally
knowledge by uslng Lhe sclenLlflc meLhod, ls Lyplcally vlewed as ob[ecLlve LruLh. Powever, ln
Lhe posLmodern era, Lhe same knowledge or bellef ls undersLood more ln Lerms of one's
lnLerpreLaLlon and coosttoctloo of Lhe research flndlngs. Also posLmodernlsm and
consLrucLlonlsm emphaslze Lhe soclal and pollLlcal facLors whlch lmpacL Lhe lnLerpreLaLlon of
Lhe sclenLlflc research and ofLen deLermlne Lhe approach and meLhods of Lhe research lLself.
1hus ln Lhe posLmodern era sclence ls vlewed as a Lherapy or as slmply one eplsLemologlcal
sLance among oLhers. 8ellglous bellefs, Loo, are vlewed as Lheory. 1hls does noL mean Lhey are
noL Lrue, buL Lhe posLmodern perspecLlve emphaslzes our lnablllLy Lo know whaL ls ob[ecLlvely
Lrue. ln shorL, whaL was consldered ob[ecLlve facL ln Lhe premodern and modern eplsLemology
ls Lyplcally consldered Lheory ln posLmodern eplsLemologles.
llnally, alLhough all posLmodern eplsLemologles agree LhaL we do noL have Lhe ablllLy Lo
know ob[ecLlve LruLh, one of Lhe debaLes ln posLmodernlsm ls wheLher Lhere ls such a Lhlng as
ob[ecLlve LruLh. 8askln (2002) polnLs ouL LhaL Lhere are posLmodernlsLs who belleve Lhere ls
some klnd of ob[ecLlve LruLh and our knowledge, whlle sub[ecLlve, may approxlmaLe lL, aL leasL
aL Llmes. CLher posLmodernlsLs, however, malnLaln LhaL Lhe only LruLh" ls our lnLerpreLaLlon.
1hus, posLmodernlsLs dlsagree on wheLher or noL Lhere ls ob[ecLlve LruLh buL almosL all agree
LhaL wheLher Lhere ls or noL, lL can never be fully known.

4pp/icotions to psychotheropy
Pansen (2006) beglns hls appllcaLlon of posLmodern eplsLemology Lo psychoLherapy pracLlce
by asserLlng LhaL All LradlLlonal counsellng Lheorles, Lhen, were concelved ln a modernlsL
eplsLemlc conLexL . LhaL ls, Lhere was an assumed correspondence beLween Lhe LheoreLlcal
map and Lhe acLual psychologlcal LerrlLory" (p. 291). AlLhough oversLaLed, Pansen's
observaLlon ls lmporLanL ln conLexLuallzlng psychologlcal Lheorles ln Lhe hlsLory of psychology.
lf personallLy Lheory and psychoLherapy pracLlce do noL begln Lo Lake posLmodernlsm lnLo
conslderaLlon, Lhey wlll qulckly become ouLdaLed and lrrelevanL Lo many of Lhe cllenLs Lhey are
lnLended Lo serve. 1hls does noL requlre LhaL we dlsregard Lhe currenL Lheorles LhaL were
developed durlng Lhe modern perlod. lnsLead, we need Lo vlew Lhem ln a new, posLmodern
way and allow Lhe Lheorles Lo evolve. lor example, mosL early psychoanalyLlc and
psychodynamlc approaches, lncludlng lreudlan, neo-lreudlan, and ob[ecL relaLlons Lheory,
were prlmarlly modernlsLlc. Powever, Lhe newer conLemporary psychoanalyLlc Lheorles, such
as Lhose by SLephen MlLchell (1988) and MarLha SLark (2000), are clearly posLmodern. 1hus, ln
Lhe psychoanalyLlc movemenL Lhere ls a clear evoluLlon of Lheory from modern Lo posLmodern
perspecLlves.
1he mosL powerful posLmodern lnfluence on Lhe fleld of psychoLherapy ls Lhe changlng
paradlgms ln ouLcome research. sychology, Lhrough Lhe 1990s and early 2000s, sLlll relled
prlmarlly on a very modernlsLlc ouLcome research modallLy: Lhe emplrlcally supporLed
LreaLmenLs. 1hls ouLcome paradlgm malnLalned LhaL quanLlLaLlve research, undersLood as
ob[ecLlve sclence, could deLermlne whlch Lheraples were mosL effecLlve. 1he sLandards of
research and ouLcome measures used ln Lhls paradlgm were hlghly blased ln favor of whaL
Llklns (2009) refers Lo as shorL-Lerm, llnear Lheraples." Cradually, Lhere has been large scale
dlscredlLlng of Lhe emplrlcally supporLed LreaLmenL movemenL. lnLeresLlngly enough, lL ls noL a
posLmodern deconsLrucLlon, buL raLher whaL could be deemed as a hlghly sophlsLlcaLed
modernlsL analysls, LhaL has called Lhls movemenL lnLo quesLlon. 1hrough varlous lndependenL
meLa-analyses and revlews of Lhe llLeraLure, lL was deLermlned LhaL Lhe ouLcome sLudles used
Lo susLaln Lhe emplrlcally supporLed LreaLmenL movemenL dld noL, ln reallLy, provlde Lhe


100

evldence clalmed and were Lhus a farce, even from a modernlsL perspecLlve (Pubble, uuncan,
& Mlller, 1999, norcross, 2002, Wampold, 2001, see also Llklns, 2009, for a deLalled revlew).
1hus, modernlsL analyses and argumenLs deconsLrucLed Lhe modernlsL fallacy of Lhe
emplrlcally supporLed LreaLmenL (LS1) movemenL and paved Lhe way for Lhe poLenLlally
posLmodern movemenL of evlJeoce boseJ ptoctlce lo psycboloqy (8ll) LhaL ls now beglnnlng
Lo domlnaLe Lhe fleld. 1he deflnlLlon of L8, however, ls sLlll belng consLrucLed. Wampold,
CoodhearL, and LevanL (2007) noLe:

Lvldence ls noL an unamblguous Lerm and ls usually undeflned, buL Lhe Lerm exlsLs ln a conLexL
and has a parLlcular meanlng. Lvldence ls noL daLa, nor ls lL LruLh. Lvldence can be LhoughL of as
lnferences LhaL flow from daLa. (Wampold, CoodhearL, and LevanL 2007, pp. 616-617)

Compare Lhls Lo Pansen's (2006) poslLlon: lnvesLlgaLlve efforLs, even supposed ob[ecLlve
sclenLlflc ones, cannoL yleld LruLhs LhaL Lranscend Lhe assumpLlve mlnd-seLs of Lhe
lnvesLlgaLors" (p. 293). Clearly, posLmodernlsm ls lnfluence Lhe Lhlnklng ln psychology and Lhe
paradlgm ls shlfLlng. 1he modernlsLlc ttotb LhaL characLerlzed Lhe emplrlcally supporLed
LreaLmenL movemenL ls belng replaced by Lhe posLmodern approach of L8.
Lvldence has been lnLenLlonally deflned ln L8 much more broadly Lhan lL was ln Lhe
emplrlcally supporLed LreaLmenL movemenL, alLhough, as noLed, Lhls ls sLlll belng debaLed. A
broader vlew of evldence lncludes esLabllshed Lheory, quallLaLlve research, case sLudles, and
cllnlcal experlence as well as emplrlcal research. ln posLmodern sLyle, L8 does noL so much
change Lhe value of sclenLlflc research buL, raLher, lL changes Lhe way LhaL we undersLand
sclenLlflc research. lL ls now slmply one of many volces ln Lhe plurallsm of eplsLemologles
consldered Lo be useful.
L8 has lnLroduced ptloclples Lo replace Lhe narrowness of speclflc tecbolpoes of Lhe
LS1's. lor example, Lhose commlLLed Lo LS1's advocaLed for manuals LhaL were Lyplcally sLep-
by-sLep guldes for Lhe admlnlsLraLlon of Lechnlques. ln conLrasL, L8 recognlzes LhaL
conLexLual facLors are Lhe prlmary deLermlnanLs of change ln Lherapy. 1hese conLexLual facLors
lnclude such Lhlngs as Lhe LherapeuLlc relaLlonshlp, empaLhy, and a 8aLlonal LhaL explalns Lhe
cllenL's problems and how Lo allevlaLe Lhem (see Llklns, 2009). AlLhough lacklng Lhe speclflclLy
and concreLeness of Lechnlques, a conLexLual facLors approach Lo psychoLherapy allows one Lo
adapL Lhe LherapeuLlc approach Lo flL Lhe unlqueness of Lhe cllenL. 1hus, by undersLandlng
posLmodern ouLcomes we arrlved aL posLmodern Lherapy - a Lherapy LhaL ls adapLable Lo Lhe
personal and soclal parLlcularlLles of Lhe lndlvldual cllenL and ls noL rlgld and prescrlpLlve as
was Lhe case wlLh manuallzed procedures and so-called emplrlcally supporLed Lechnlques.
Pansen (2006) advocaLes LhaL posLmodern appllcaLlons Lo psychoLherapy should vlew
Lheorles as narraLlve sLrucLures wlLh pragmaLlc uLlllLy. Pe sLaLes, Lheorles are narraLlve
sLrucLures uLlllzed for rheLorlcal purposes, deslgned Lo persuade Lhe sufferer Lo conslder
experlence from a dlfferenL vanLage polnL" (p. 293). 1hese Lheorles, Lhen, are evaluaLed by
Lhelr pragmaLlc uLlllLy. 1he conLexLual facLors approach Lo L8 shows LhaL provldlng a
plauslble explanaLlon for Lhe cllenL's problems and uslng Lhls as a foundaLlon for Lhe
LherapeuLlc work ls more lmporLanL Lhan Lhe parLlcular Lechnlques used. ln oLher words,
posLmodern and L8 perspecLlves suggesL LhaL modallLles and Lechnlques are relaLlve and
LhaL one Lherapy ls as effecLlve as Lhe nexL as long as lL ls adapLed Lo Lhe cllenL and Lhe cllenL
embraces lL.
A modernlsL problem sLlll remalns ln L8, one LhaL may need an exlsLenLlal soluLlon. 1he
domlnanL perspecLlve wlLhln L8 ls sLlll one of hedonlsLlc lmpulse: Lo lncrease pleasure and
decrease paln. 1he good of happlness and Lhe bad of sufferlng remalns lnLacL as an oppresslve

101

meLanarraLlve for many who would look beyond Lhese shallow concepLlons of humanlLy and
whaL oughL Lo be soughL ln LherapeuLlc ouLcomes. A Lrue posLmodernlsL psychology noL only
allows for varled means of psychoLherapy, buL also remalns open Lo a varleLy of ouLcomes LhaL
can be deemed successful. lL ls necessary Lo keep Lhe posslblllLles open Lo good sufferlng,
beauLy ln sadness, and Lraglc happlness.

xistentio/ epistemo/oqy
LxlsLenLlal psychology from lLs orlglns can be undersLood parLlally as a rebelllon agalnsL
modernlsm. As modernlsm was dlspelllng wlLh emoLlons, human llmlLaLlon, and sub[ecLlve
ways of knowlng, klerkegaard led Lhe way lnLo deeper emerslon lnLo Lhese experlences. ln
psychology, whlle Lhe behavlorlsLs advocaLed for excesslvely raLlonallsLlc and maLerlallsLlc
vlews of psychology, 8ollo May and !ames l. 1. 8ugenLal agaln rebelled Lhrough lnLroduclng
exlsLenLlallsm Lo psychology. LxlsLenLlallsm, lL could be argued, paved Lhe way for
posLmodernlsm. A somewhaL dlfferenL poslLlon could also be held malnLalnlng LhaL
exlsLenLlallsm was an early form of posLmodernlsm.
AL lLs core, exlsLenLlal psychology ls onLologlcal and eplsLemologlcal. lL ls onLologlcal lnsofar
as lL ls concerned wlLh Lhe baslc sLudy of exlsLence: WhaL does lL mean Lo exlsL? Many
approaches Lo psychology, ln parLlcular Lhe psychoLherapeuLlc orlenLaLlons, seek Lo conLrol or
overcome one's exlsLence. LxlsLenLlallsLs, lnsLead, seek Lo be honesL abouL Lhe human
condlLlon and undersLand lL as lL ls (Poffman, 2009a). Puman naLure ls noL someLhlng Lo
overcome, buL raLher some wlLh whlch we all musL face. Successful ouLcomes ln exlsLenLlal
Lherapy are abouL learnlng how Lo embrace our humanlLy, noL overcome lL.
LxlsLenLlallsm ls eplsLemologlcal ln LhaL lL ls always asklng Lhe quesLlon of how we know"
abouL exlsLence. lL ls Lhe eplsLemology of exlsLenLlallsm LhaL really seLs lL aparL from mosL
oLher branches of psychology. Whlle much of Lhe fleld of psychology has focused on ob[ecLlve
LruLh, quanLlLaLlve research, and generallzablllLy, exlsLenLlallsm has focused on sub[ecLlve
LruLh, quallLaLlve research, and Lhe lndlvldual's unlque experlence. 1hls ls noL Lo say LhaL
ob[ecLlve LruLh or quanLlLaLlve research are noL consldered or accepLed, buL raLher LhaL lL was
noL glve Lhe same unquesLloned auLhorlLy LhaL lL en[oyed ln Lhe branches of psychology rooLed
ln modernlsm.

Myth os o primory unit of existentio/ epistemo/oqy
May (1991) advocaLed LhaL myLh ls a baslc unlL of meanlng and knowlng. MyLh also suggesLs a
cerLaln way of knowlng LhaL emphaslzes LhaL knowledge ls lnherenLly lncompleLe and musL
rely Lo some degree on falLh. May was deeply concerned abouL Lhe growlng degradaLlon of Lhe
ldea of myLh and Lhe gradually accepLed change ln Lhe popular undersLandlng of myLh as belng
false. lnsLead, May used Lhe very posLmodern undersLandlng LhaL myLh was someLhlng LhaL
could noL be proven Lrue. sychologlcal Lheory, mosL sclenLlflc facLs," rellglon, and pollLlcal
ldeology are all examples of myLhlcal sysLems. 1hey are ways of aLLempLlng Lo make sense ouL
of Lhe world, or an organlzaLlon sLrucLure for meanlng.
When myLhs become relfled, or when Lhey are belleved Lo be facL, Lhey ofLen lose Lhelr
susLalnlng power and become desLrucLlve. lundamenLallsL rellglon ls a prlme example of Lhls.
When rellglon ls relfled lnLo facL, lnsLead of bellef or falLh, Lhen lL ls ofLen used Lo [usLlfy a lack
of Lolerance for LhaL whlch ls dlfferenL. Slnce Lhe SepLember 11 LerrorlsL aLLacks on Lhe 1wln
1owers and enLagon, lslamlc fundamenLallsm has been used as a popular example of Lhls.
Powever, all ma[or world rellglons have Lhelr desLrucLlve fundamenLallsLs groups. MyLh, Lhen,
ls a more powerful form of meanlng, or of Lhe LruLh, Lhan Lhe known facLs."
Poffman (2009b) bullL upon Lhe ldeas of May sLaLlng LhaL myLhs represenL Lhe unlversallLy
of Lhe exlsLenLlal glvens and Lhe parLlcularlLy of Lhe culLural response" (p. 264). An lmporLanL


102

and, ln my vlew valld, crlLlclsm of much of Lhe exlsLenLlal wrlLlng ls LhaL lL Loo ofLen became an
excesslvely lndlvlduallsLlc approach LhaL does noL adequaLely Lake lnLo conslderaLlon sysLems
and culLure. ln 1be cty fot Mytb, May addresses Lhls very lmpllclLly, buL yeL dlrecLly. Pe uses
many lllusLraLlons of WesLern culLural myLhs as sources of meanlng, and even necessary ln
developlng personal meanlng sysLems. Pe vlewed Lhe decreaslng value of myLh as dlrecLly
connecLed Lo many problems ln Lhe WesL such as sulclde and subsLance abuse.
1hls use of myLh places meanlng and worldvlew aL Lhe lnLersecLlon of Lhe personal and Lhe
collecLlve. An lndlvldual ls responslble for Lhelr worldvlew and Lhelr meanlng sysLems, [usL as
Lhey are responslble for Lhelr behavlors. Powever, lL would be naive Lo belleve LhaL one can
have a worldvlew lndependenL of culLure. lor exlsLenLlallsLs, llmlLaLlons, or flnlLeness, ls a baslc
glven. ln all Lhlngs we are llmlLed.

xperience ond knowinq
LxlsLenLlal psychology, desplLe lLs absLracL appearance, ls focused on llved experlence and
embodled ways of knowlng. Slmllar Lo posLmodernlsm, Lhls generally means LhaL mulLlple
ways of knowlng are glven credence. Schnelder (1998) lllusLraLed LhaL exlsLenLlal LheraplsLs
ofLen use Lhe word experlenLlal" Lo mean dlfferenL Lhlngs. lor some, such as ?alom, lL refers
prlmarlly Lo Lhe here-and-now experlence. Schnelder, however, uses lL Lo refer prlmarlly Lo
klnesLheLlc experlence, whlch ls essenLlally bodlly ways of knowlng. 1he klnesLheLlc realm
ofLen ls preverbal and held aL Lhe unconsclous realm. lor lndlvlduals who lack Lhe more
consclous awareness, Lhe klnesLheLlc realm can be lnformaLlve aL Lhe unconsclous or
subconsclous levels of undersLandlng. 1he bodlly or klnesLheLlc realm ls also a hlghly sub[ecLlve
realm, lndlcaLlng LhaL lL ls heavlly based ln one's personal experlence.
pistemo/oqico/ 5imi/orities ond uifferences

AL Lhls polnL, lL should be falrly evldenL LhaL Lhere are many slmllarlLles beLween Lhe
posLmodern and exlsLenLlal approaches. ln facL, Lhe slmllarlLles sLrong enough LhaL lL would be
easy Lo malnLaln LhaL exlsLenLlal psychology ls a posLmodern psychology. l would argue,
however, LhaL Lhls depends upon wblcb postmoJetolsm and wblcb exlsteotlol psycboloqy ls
belng referred Lo. WlLh LhaL ln mlnd, l would malnLaln LhaL an open dlalogue could produce a
unlque posLmodern exlsLenLlal psychology LhaL bullds upon Lhe slmllarlLles of Lhese
approaches.
5imi/orities
1he llsL of slmllarlLles ls noL lnLended Lo be exhausLlve, buL raLher Lo focus on Lhe mosL
lmporLanL slmllarlLles, especlally perLalnlng Lo eplsLemologlcal lssues:

1. LxlsLenLlal and posLmodern psychologles boLh Lake serlously Lhe phllosophlcal and
eplsLemologlcal aspecLs of psychologlcal Lheory.
2. 8oLh approaches emerged early on as a rebelllon agalnsL modernlsm and, ln parLlcular,
modernlsm's lack of acknowledgemenL of lLs llmlLaLlons.
3. LxlsLenLlal psychology and posLmodernlsm are deeply concerned wlLh sub[ecLlve ways
of knowlng and place greaLer emphasls on Lhls Lhan whaL ls Lyplcal ln mosL
phllosophlcal and psychologlcal Lheorles.
4. 8oLh approaches emphaslze mulLlple ways of knowlng, lncludlng many non-LradlLlonal
ways of knowlng.

103

3. osLmodernlsm and exlsLenLlal psychology are skepLlcal of Lhe ablllLy Lo know
ob[ecLlve LruLh, lf lL does exlsL. When lL ls granLed LhaL some ob[ecLlve LruLh exlsLs,
Lhere ls recognlLlon of our lnablllLy Lo fully grasp lL.
6. LxlsLenLlal psychology and posLmodernlsm boLh recognlze Lhe personal and culLural
elemenLs lnvolved ln knowlng, wlLh varlaLlons on whlch ls emphaslzed more.

uifferences
MosL of Lhe dlfferences llsLed ln Lhls secLlon could be debaLed, whlch agaln focuses back Lo Lhe
dlscusslon LhaL Lhere are many posLmodernlsms and many exlsLenLlal psychologles. Among Lhe
key dlfferences are:

1. osLmodernlsm Lends Lo be less embodled ln lLs ways of knowlng Lhan exlsLenLlal
psychology.
2. osLmodernlsm ofLen Lles reallLy closely Lo language. Whlle exlsLenLlallsm would ofLen
agree wlLh Lhls, lL also allows for oLher ways of knowlng lncludlng Lhe posslblllLy of
preverbal experlence and knowledge.
3. osLmodernlsm ls lnLenLlonal abouL advocaLlng for mulLlple ways of knowlng, yeL llLLle
aLLenLlon ls really glven Lo Lhe non-raLlonal ways of knowlng, such as experlenLlal
knowlng, LhaL ls emphaslzed more ln exlsLenLlal psychology.
4. LxlsLenLlal psychology ls more open Lo cerLaln Lypes of unlversal LruLhs. lor example,
Lhe exlsLenLlal glvens, LhaL ls deaLh, freedom/responslblllLy, and Lhe human deslre for
meanlng, are lnLended Lo be unlversal sLruggles LhaL all people musL lnherenLly face.
Whlle posLmodernlsLs may noL deny exlsLenLlal glvens such as deaLh, Lhey ofLen
sLruggle wlLh uslng Lhe label of Lhls as unlversal.

IMLICA1ICNS CI 1nL LkIS1LN1IAL-CS1MCDLkN DIALCGUL

roducLlve dlalogues allow for someLhlng new Lo emerge ouL of Lhe exchange. lurLhermore, lf
dlalogues are Lruly open, Lhen lL requlres one Lo suspend [udgmenL Lo a degree on bellefs
whlch conLradlcL one's own whlle slmulLaneously holdlng on loosely Lo one's own
assumpLlons.

Lessons for xistentio/ Psycho/oqy
LxlsLenLlal psychology has LradlLlonally been underdeveloped on Lhe Loplcs of culLure and
dlverslLy, whlch are lmporLanL Lhemes ln posLmodernlsm. unLll recenLly, dlverslLy had been
vlrLually lgnored ln Lhe exlsLenLlal llLeraLure (see Poffman, ?ang, kaklauskas, & Chan, 2009,
Schnelder, 2008, Schnelder & krug, 2010). lor exlsLenLlallsm Lo have an lmpacL ln Lhe
posLmodern, globallzed word, lL wlll be necessary Lo develop more formallzed Lheory and
appllcaLlon ln cross-culLural and dlverse seLLlngs. AlLhough Lhls process has begun, exlsLenLlal
psychology ls sLlll behlnd on Lhls Loplc.
1he exlsLenLlal psychology llLeraLure ls largely devold of clear, comprehenslve
eplsLemologlcal sLaLemenLs. ln many ways, lL fell prey Lo Lhe same mlsLake of Lhe early
deconsLrucLlvlsLs ln posLmodernlsm, buL exlsLenLlal has been less successful aL movlng beyond
Lhls. AlLhough lL ls evldenL LhaL exlsLenLlallsLs use mulLlple eplsLemologles and favor sub[ecLlve
approaches, Lhese are noL sufflclenLly developed. Some of Lhls ls because exlsLenLlallsm has
been less concerned abouL absLracL Lheory for Lheory's sake. lLs aLLenLlon has been more on
Lhe llved appllcaLlons of eplsLemology. osLmodernlsm hlsLorlcally sLruggled wlLh Lhe slmllar
problems, however, lL began faclng Lhese challenges earller Lhan exlsLenLlal psychology. Clven
Lhe slmllarlLles beLween Lhe values and lnLeresLs beLween Lhese approaches, especlally relaLed


104

Lo ways of knowlng, exlsLenLlallsm may beneflL by lncorporaLlng many of posLmodernlsm's
language and Lheory relevanL Lo eplsLemology.

Lessons for Postmodernism
osLmodernlsm ofLen does noL llve ouL lLs advocacy for mulLlple eplsLemologles and ofLen
relles heavlly on an overly raLlonallsL way of knowlng. lurLhermore, posLmodernlsm Loo ofLen
remalns ln Lhe realm of absLracL LhoughL noL maklng lL Lo Lhe polnL of acLlon. LxlsLenLlallsm
could help ground posLmodernlsm Lhrough lnLegraLlng Lhe more embodled ways of knowlng
and connecLlng Lhe absLracL LhoughL Lo Lhe llved realms of acLlon.
Second, posLmodernlsm's lnslsLence LhaL Lhere are no ob[ecLlve LruLhs ofLen reaches Lhe
polnL of absurdlLy. lor lnsLance, lL could be debaLed as Lo wheLher Lhe exlsLenLlal glvens really
are a clalm Lo be unlversals. Cn Lhe surface, lL appears evldenL Lhey are unlversal clalms, or
meLanarraLlves, ln LhaL lL Lhe exlsLenLlal glvens expllclLly sLaLe Lhese are lssues LhaL all people
wlll face. Powever, l would malnLaln LhaL Lhe exlsLenLlal glvens do noL quallfy as
meLanarraLlves. AlLhough Lhe exlsLenLlal glvens are reallLles one much face, as l have noLed
elsewhere (Poffman, 2009b), Lhese glvens do noL necesslLaLe any parLlcular answer.
LxlsLenLlallsm has, ln facL, lnLenLlonally remalned neuLral on clalms aL unlversal, or correcL,"
answers Lo Lhe glvens, someLlmes quesLlonlng lf such answers exlsL. lf Lhe glvens also provlded
a clalmed unlversal answer, such as eLernal llfe Lhrough Cod, Lhen Lhey could rlghLly be
consldered a meLanarraLlve. lnsLead, exlsLenLlallsm purporLs LhaL Lhe answer ls culLurally and
personally deLermlned, whlch parallels Lhe personal and soclal consLrucLlvlsms.
osLmodernlsLs, lL seems, are ofLen so afrald of accldenLly advocaLlng for meLanarraLlves
LhaL Lhey someLlmes sLruggle Lo say anyLhlng meanlngful abouL shared reallLy. 8elevanL Lo Lhe
clalms of unlversals, lL ls hard Lo deny Lhe reallLy of some glvens - LhaL we wlll dle, Lhe
lnevlLable connecLlon beLween freedom and responslblllLy, LhaL we are relaLlonal belngs, LhaL
humans seek meanlng from Lhelr experlence, and LhaL emoLlons are parL of Lhe human
experlence.
3
Powever, alLhough all people are lmpacLed by Lhese Lhemes Lo exlsLence, lL ls
hard Lo flnd any unlversal agreemenL on Lhe rlghL" answers Lo Lhese sLruggles. MeLanarraLlves
are beLLer undersLood as unlversal narraLlves on how one should respond Lo Lhe exlsLenLlal
glvens, noL Lhe glvens Lhemselves.

LkIS1LN1IAL-IN1LGkA1IVL 1nLkA AS A 8ASIS ICk IN1LGkA1ICN

kotiono/ ond process of inteqrotion
8efore beglnnlng Lo lnLegraLe psychoLheraples, lL ls lmporLanL Lo begln Lhe quesLlons, why ls
lnLegraLlon deslrable?" and how ls lnLegraLlon done?" 1he why of lnLegraLlon ls Lo lncrease
Lhe effecLlveness and adapLablllLy of psychoLherapy. Powever, as l wlll dlscuss, Lhls may have
llLLle Lo do wlLh lnLegraLlng more effecLlve Lechnlques and approaches Lo Lherapy. lnsLead, Lhe
prlmary beneflL of lnLegraLlon may be ln Lhe flexlblllLy or adapLablllLy lL adds Lo Lhe
psychoLherapy approach agalnsL fundamenLallsm ln psychoLherapy.
lndeed, all psychoLherapy orlenLaLlons have Lhelr fundamenLallsLs, or LheraplsLs who
belleve Lhelr approach Lo Lherapy ls superlor Lo all oLhers and should be applled ln a raLher
speclflc manner. 1hls menLallLy ls sLrongly conLradlcLed by conLemporary ouLcome research
LhaL suggesLs mosL psychoLheraples are equal ln effecLlveness and lL ls Lhe common or

3
1here are many dlfferenL Lakes on how Lo label and classlfy Lhe exlsLenLlal glvens. lrequenLly, mosL
auLhors ldenLlfy four Lo flve glvens. lor a more deLalled overvlew of Lhe glvens, see ?alom (1980),
Poffman (2009a), Peery (2009), or Schnelder and krug (2010).

103

conLexLual facLors LhaL exLend across Lherapy orlenLaLlons LhaL really accounL for change
(Llklns, 2009). 1he challenge Lo psychoLherapy fundamenLallsms ls LhaL Lhey are noL able Lo
adapL Lo parLlcular cllenL needs and sLyles, whlch should become more evldenL shorLly.
AddlLlonally, lL seems Lhere ls someLhlng lnherenL ln Lhe approach of lndlvlduals LhaL adhere Lo
rlgld fundamenLallsms ln LherapeuLlc appllcaLlon LhaL negaLlvely lmpacLs Lherapy relaLlonshlps.
Cenerally, fundamenLallsm Lends Lo have a narclsslsLlc and condescendlng Lone assoclaLed
wlLh lL.
Pow lnLegraLlon occurs ls maybe Lhe more lmporLanL quesLlon. 1hls can be answered by
comparlng eclectlc and loteqtotlve approaches. LclecLlc approaches Lo Lherapy drawn on a
hlghly pragmaLlc frame of lf lt wotks, ose lt. 1hey allow Lhe LheraplsL Lo raLher randomly draw
from dlfferenL psychoLherapy orlenLaLlons uLlllzlng whaLever appears Lo flL besL ln Lhe
momenL. lnLegraLlve psychoLherapy also lnLends Lo allow LheraplsLs Lo draw on Lechnlques
from dlfferenL Lherapy orlenLaLlons, buL does so ln a more LhoughLful way. lrom an lnLegraLlve
perspecLlve, Lhere sLlll needs Lo be a foundaLlon Lo one's approach Lo Lherapy whlch serves as
a gulde Lo whaL should be lnLegraLed when (Poffman, 2009a). lor example, Wolfe (2008) and
8unLlng and Payes (2008) provlde Lwo examples of lnLegraLlng cognlLlve-behavloral Lherapy
wlLh exlsLenLlal Lherapy. 1hese Lwo approaches Lo Lherapy are hlghly dlfferenL and an eclecLlc
approach drawlng on Lhese Lwo approaches ls llkely Lo fall. 1o lllusLraLe, exlsLenLlal Lherapy
ofLen Lrles Lo uLlllze or harness anxleLy for moLlvaLlon and as a gulde Lo Lhe Lherapy process.
Conversely, many cognlLlve-behavloral approaches seek Lo reduce or ellmlnaLe anxleLy, whlch
would Lhen decrease Lhe effecLlveness of anxleLy as a gulde. urawlng from boLh Lhese
approaches eclecLlcally could easlly lead Lo LheraplsLs worklng agalnsL Lhemselves.
1he lnLegraLlve approaches by Wolfe (2008) and 8unLlng and Payes (2008) demonsLraLe a
greaLer awareness of Lhls poLenLlal problem. 1hese models suggesL LhaL cognlLlve-behavlor
Lherapy can be used ln aL leasL Lwo dlsLlncLlve ways when lnLegraLed wlLh an exlsLenLlal
approach. llrsL, Lhe cognlLlve-behavloral sLraLegles can be used Lo help allevlaLe Lhe lnlLlal
crlsls, Lhen allowlng for cllenLs Lo move on Lo worklng on Lhe more subsLanLlve, exlsLenLlal
lssues. Second, Lhe cognlLlve-behavlor sLraLegles can be used Lo provlde coplng resources for
when cllenLs move lnLo worklng on dlfflculL exlsLenLlal lssues, whlch ofLen brlng up some
palnful experlences. ln uslng cognlLlve sLraLegles ln Lhls manner, Lhe producLlve slde of anxleLy
can sLlll be uLlllzed when dolng Lhe depLh work whlle managlng more lnLense or exLreme
emoLlonal sLaLes LhaL may lnLerfere wlLh producLlve depLh work.
1he basls for effecLlve lnLegraLlon can be elucldaLed Lhrough a dlscusslon of Lhe conLexLual
facLors of psychoLherapy effecLlveness. Llklns (2009) provldes one of Lhe mosL useful and
Lhorough revlews of Lhese conLexLual facLors drawlng from Lhe varlous meLa-analyses and
crlLlcal revlews of Lhe research. Many of Lhese facLors perLaln Lo relaLlonal elemenLs of
psychoLherapy. Powever, some of Lhe mosL lnLeresLlng conLexLual facLors for Lhe purpose of
Lhls arLlcle focus on Lhe LheraplsL's and cllenL's bellef plauslble explanaLlon for Lhe cllenL's
problems and heallng or growLh. Accordlng Lo Llklns, Lhe research llLeraLure suggesLs LhaL
Lechnlques do make a dlfference, however, lL ls noL Lhe speclflc Lechnlque, buL raLher LhaL
Lechnlque ls one ln whlch Lhe LheraplsL and cllenL can belleve. lrom an effecLlveness
perspecLlve, bellevloq lo wbot yoo Jo os o tbetoplst ls qeoetolly mote lmpottoot tboo wbot yoo
octoolly Jo!
4
1hls baslc undersLandlng ls beglnnlng Lo change Lhe face of psychoLherapy. 1he
prlor debaLe of whlch approach Lo psychoLherapy ls besL ls qulckly becomlng nonsenslcal.

4
1here are llmlLaLlons Lo Lhls. Some Lypes of Lherapy, such as 8eblrLhlng 1herapy and 8eparaLlve or
Converslon 1herapy, have been shown Lo be dangerous and ofLen do cause harm. 1hls sLaLemenLs
should noL be lnLerpreLed ln Lhe relaLlvlsLlc exLreme LhaL lf you can explaln and [usLlfy lL, lL should
beneflL Lhe cllenL.


106

lnsLead, whaL ls lmporLanL for Lherapy Lo be effecLlve ls Lo belleve ln whaL you are dolng. lrom
Lhe cllenL's vlew, lL ls lmporLanL LhaL Lhey, Loo, are able Lo belleve ln whaL ls belng done by Lhe
LheraplsL. lrom Lhls perspecLlve, lL ls less lmporLanL Lo deLermlne whlch approach Lo Lherapy
Lhe research suggesLs ls besL for a cllenL who checks Lhe parLlcular demographlc boxes and
more lmporLanL Lo glve conslderaLlon as Lo whlch approach Lo Lherapy flLs wlLh Lhe cllenL's
values, bellef sysLem, and relaLlonal sLyle.
ln reLurnlng Lo Lhe dlscusslon abouL Lherapy orlenLaLlon fundamenLallsm, aL flrsL glance lL
would appear LhaL Lhls may be good for Lherapy. AfLer all, Lhese LheraplsLs ofLen sLrongly
belleve ln whaL Lhey do. Powever, Lhey also are noL as able Lo adapL Lo Lhe speclflc needs of
Lhe cllenL and Lend Lo lmpose Lhelr bellefs on Lhelr cllenL. lundamenLallsL LheraplsLs focus on
Lhe LheraplsL's bellefs abouL Lherapy wlLhouL adequaLe conslderaLlon Lo Lhe cllenL's needs,
deslres, and preferences. 1hls dlsconnecL lmpacLs Lhe cllenL's bellef ln Lherapy as well as Lhe
relaLlonal facLors. 1heraplsLs, Lherefore, need Lo be able Lo adapL Lo Lhelr cllenL's speclflc
needs and sLyle ln order Lo be effecLlve. lrom posLmodern and exlsLenLlal perspecLlves, Lhls
should noL be a surprlse.
lrom Lhe posLmodern perspecLlve, earller l referred Lo Lhe Pansen (2006) quoLe, Lheorles
are narraLlve sLrucLures uLlllzed for rheLorlcal purposes, deslgned Lo persuade Lhe sufferer Lo
conslder experlence from a dlfferenL vanLage polnL" (p. 293). 1hls perspecLlve lf hlghly
conslsLenL wlLh May's (1991) vlew on myLh and Poffman's (2009b) appllcaLlon of Lhls.
sychoLherapy orlenLaLlons are dlfferenL myLhs or narraLlves. CllenLs ofLen enLer Lherapy
because Lhey have losL falLh ln Lhelr myLhs or Lhelr myLhs are no longer worklng for Lhem.
1heraplsLs, Lhen, help cllenLs explore Lhelr myLhology whlle offerlng some alLernaLlve
perspecLlves. 1he obvlous danger, here, ls LhaL lL can become qulLe easy Lo lmpose a
myLhology upon a cllenL, parLlcularly lf Lhe LheraplsL ls persuaslve enough. 1he [ob of Lhe
LheraplsL ls Lo help Lhe cllenL reconslder, adapL, and change Lhelr myLhs, noL Lo change Lhem
for Lhem. arL of Lhls may, aL Llme, lnclude sharlng a new myLhology, one rooLed ln Lhe
psychoLherapy orlenLaLlon of Lhe LheraplsL. Powever, Lhe LheraplsL should remaln vlgllanL ln
assesslng when Lherapy ls movlng agalnsL Lhe cllenL's values and deslres.
lL ls my hope LhaL Lhe new paradlgms ln psychology - Lvldence-8ased racLlce ln
sychology, conLexLual facLors, and posLmodernlsm - brlng a new approach Lo assesslng whlch
Lherapy ls Lhe besL flL for whlch cllenLs. 1heraplsL-cllenL maLchlng should noL be an ob[ecLlve
process, buL raLher ls hlghly sub[ecLlve. CllenLs should be encouraged Lo conslder whlch
LheraplsL ls Lhe besL flL for Lhem and noL [usL be compllanL wlLh whomever Lhey geL asslgned Lo
or randomly choose from a LheraplsL llsL. Slmllarly, Lhe eLhlcal LheraplsL should begln Lhe
Lherapy process noL Lrylng Lo convlnce Lhe cllenL LhaL Lhey are Lhe besL LheraplsL for Lhem, buL
raLher Lrylng Lo ldenLlfy lf Lhe cllenL ls Lhe rlghL flL for Lhelr approach Lo Lherapy. 1he professlon
of psychology should look susplclously on Lhe LheraplsL who Lhlnks every cllenL ls a good flL for
hlm or her, and should develop beLLer recourses Lo help cllenLs become lnformed consumers. l
wlll close Lhls secLlon wlLh a dlscusslon of cllenL-LheraplsL maLchlng ln posLmodern Llmes.

Postmodern c/ient-theropist motchinq
ln Lhe pracLlce ln whlch l see cllenLs, we adhere Lo a pollcy of provldlng free lnlLlal consulLaLlon
ln order Lo help cllenLs flnd Lhe besL LheraplsL. When a cllenL schedules a consulLaLlon, we
work Lo help Lhem undersLand Lhe varleLy of LheraplsLs LhaL we have avallable aL our cllnlc as
well as undersLandlng whaL opLlons are avallable elsewhere ln Lhe communlLy. We clearly
sLaLe Lo Lhe poLenLlal cllenL LhaL we are lnvesLed ln helplng Lhem flnd Lhe rlghL LheraplsLs for
Lhem. As our pracLlce provldes exlsLenLlal and oLher relaLed depLh psychoLheraples, Lhls means
LhaL many cllenLs are noL Lhe rlghL flL for our pracLlce. lor example, when a cllenL comes Lo an

107

lnlLlal consulLaLlon and makes lL clear LhaL Lhelr prlorlLy ls expedlency and sklll developmenL, lL
ls evldenL LhaL Lhey are noL Lhe rlghL flL for our pracLlce and we refer Lhem elsewhere. CLher
Llmes, a cllenL may reporL LhaL Lhey are overwhelmed currenLly, and ln need of some qulck
rellef, buL also wanL Lo explore Lhe deeper facLors LhaL helped conLrlbuLe Lo Lhls slLuaLlon. ln
Lhls case, our pracLlce can be a good flL Lhrough employlng an exlsLenLlal-lnLegraLlve approach,
such as LhaL dlscussed by Wolfe (2008) or 8unLlng and Payes (2008) prevlously.
unforLunaLely, mosL LheraplsLs are noL LaughL how Lo lead a cllenL Lhrough a process of
cllenL-LheraplsL maLchlng ln Lhls manner. AddlLlonally, economlc pressures and compeLlLlon for
cllenLs ofLen LalnLs Lhe LheraplsL's moLlvaLlon when conslderlng lf a cllenL ls Lhe rlghL flL. Many
LheraplsLs, Loo, provlde Lhe Lype of Lherapy LhaL keeps Lhem ln Lhe good graces of Lhlrd parLy
provlders lnsLead of provldlng Lhe besL and mosL approprlaLe Lherapy for cllenLs. ln many
counLrles Loday, Lherapy cannoL be separaLed from Lhe economlc and pollLlcal power
sLrucLures. When Lhls occurs, lL ls Lhe cllenL who ls negaLlvely lmpacLed more Lhan Lhe
LheraplsL.
1he conLexLual facLors revoluLlon does have Lhe poLenLlal Lo change Lhe fleld of
psychoLherapy and brlng a revlLallzed eLhlcal approach Lo LherapeuLlc pracLlce. 1he blggesL
barrler Lo Lhls revoluLlon may be Lhese pollLlcal and economlc forces. lf Lhe conLexLual facLors
movemenL ls Lo succeed ln a broad way, changes wlll be requlred beglnnlng aL Lhe Lralnlng
level. SLudenLs wlll need Lo be Lralned on how Lo maLch cllenLs wlLh Lhe approprlaLe Lype of
Lherapy based upon Lhe cllenL's values, noL Lhe ob[ecLlve research. 1hls means LheraplsLs wlll
need Lo be famlllar wlLh a wlde array of LherapeuLlc approaches and Lhelr values, noL [usL Lhelr
own, ln order Lo make effecLlve referrals. 1heraplsLs ln Lralnlng wlll also need Lo be Lralned on
how Lo work eLhlcally wlLhln Lhe pollLlcal and economlc pressures LhaL lmplnge upon Lhe fleld
of psychoLherapy. 1hls wlll noL be an easy shlfL ln a fleld, buL lL ls one LhaL ls desperaLely
needed.

4 postmodern existentio/ism for inteqrotion
Several facLors make a posLmodern exlsLenLlal approach a falrly ldeal framework for
lnLegraLlon. llrsL, boLh posLmodern and exlsLenLlal values advocaLe for recognlLlon of
llmlLaLlons. no one approach, even an lnLegraLlve approach, can be adapLed Lo work wlLh all
cllenLs. AddlLlonally, no LheraplsL, no maLLer how adapLable, can work successfully wlLh all
cllenLs. 1he besL Lheraples, and Lhe besL LheraplsLs, are ones whlch begln by clearly
acknowledglng Lhelr llmlLaLlons.
Second, Lhe emergenL Lrend for Lhe conLexLual facLors ls hlghly posLmodern and exlsLenLlal.
1hls should noL be lnLended Lo clalm LhaL elLher posLmodern psychology or exlsLenLlal
psychology ls Lhe basls for Lhe common facLors. lndeed, Lhe common facLors lle beyond Lhe
Lherapy orlenLaLlons as a model for how Lo undersLand Lhe way varlous orlenLaLlons work.
Powever, Lhese approaches very naLurally advocaLe for a value sysLem conslsLenL wlLh Lhe
common facLors approach. An exlsLenLlal-lnLegraLlve approach also ls one LhaL has long
advocaLed for many of Lhe relaLlonal common facLors as essenLlal ln Lhe cllenL change process.
1hlrd, posLmodern and exlsLenLlal approaches are anLl-dogmaLlc. 1here could be noLhlng
less posLmodern Lhan a fundamenLallsL approach Lo posLmodernlsm, and noLhlng less
exlsLenLlal Lhan a fundamenLallsL approach Lo exlsLenLlallsm. Cf course, Lhere are people who
could rlghLly flL Lhese labels, however, Lhelr approach ls necessarlly lnLernally lnconslsLenL.
lourLh, exlsLenLlallsm ls a very fluld approach Lo Lherapy LhaL ls noL rooLed ln Lechnlques.
1hls allows for greaL adapLablllLy when used as a foundaLlon for lnLegraLlng oLher approaches.
Some exlsLenLlal LheraplsLs, such as ?alom (1980), even go as far as sLaLlng LhaL exlsLenLlal
psychoLherapy ls noL an orlenLaLlon aL all. AlLhough l would dlsagree wlLh Lhls appralsal, l
would agree LhaL exlsLenLlal Lheraples lack of sLrucLure, whlch makes lL look very dlfferenL


108

from oLher Lherapy orlenLaLlons, also allows lL Lo be more adapLable when lnLegraLlng
psychoLherapy approaches.

CCNCLUSICN
LxlsLenLlallsm and posLmodernlsm, ln Lhe phllosophlcal and Lhe psychologlcal realms, share a
greaL deal of commonallLy. Powever, Lhere are also polnLs of dlvergence LhaL provlde a basls
for dlalogue. ln Lhls paper, l have examlned some of Lhe key slmllarlLles and dlfferences,
prlmarlly as Lhey relaLed Lo eplsLemology and psychoLherapy. 1hls was noL lnLended Lo be a
comprehenslve comparlson, and lndeed Lhere are oLher challenglng dlfferences lf one moves
beyond Lhe dellmlLlng facLors or psychoLherapy and eplsLemology. Powever, Lhere ls greaL
poLenLlal for an lnLegraLlon of posLmodern and exlsLenLlal ldeas lnLo a foundaLlon for broader
psychoLherapeuLlc lnLegraLlon.

8I8LICGkAn

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111

Epistemologia dello studio del caso clinico:
note sul metodo della psicoanalisi

Nlcol 1etmlolo

nlcoloLermlnlo[gmall.com

5e ooo cl fosse scelto, petcb oototlzzote oo
soqqetto o tlmettete lo qloco oellespetleozo
ooolltlco lo soo ptoptlo poslzlooe? A mlo ovvlso,
looollsto ooo tlceve cosl cllolcl. slomo ool o
ttosfotmotll, pet le oostte elobotozlool Jl sopete, lo
cosl cllolcl. lo pslcoooollsto, se tlceve Jel cosl, tlceve
cosl etlcl. j.] letlco coocetoe lex-slsteozo, clo lo
Jlmeoslooe lmpeosoblle lo col sl JeclJe lo poslzlooe
soqqettlvo, lo scelto.
!.-A. Mlller, Noo c cllolco seozo etlco
1

A8S1kAC1

1he experlence LhaL a sub[ecL makes of hls own unconsclous ls aL Lhe hearL of cllnlcal psychoanalysls:
psychoanalysls places Lhe sub[ecL aL Lhe cenLre of Lhe LherapeuLlc process, followlng Lhe pecullarlLy of
Lhe slngular exlsLence. ln Lhls paper, Lhe eplsLemologlcal basls of a cllnlcal case sLudy and Lhe process of
psychoanalyLlc cure are clarlfled by referrlng malnly Lo lreud's and Lacan's LheoreLlc and cllnlcal
perspecLlves. arLlcular aLLenLlon ls pald Lo Lhe meLhodologlcal basls of Lhe psychoanalyLlc model and Lo
Lhe fundamenLal crlLerla for Lhe sLudy of a cllnlcal case so as Lo provlde a wlder and more sysLemaLlc
knowledge of Lhe psychoanalyLlc experlence.

1. CLINICA L kICLkCA

nel plu amplo panorama della rlcerca pslcodlnamlca e relazlonale sl parla molLo dl valuLazlone
e sl dlce che blsogna dlmosLrare con l faLLl quello che succede ln una cura. Clanluca Lo Coco e
Clrolamo Lo verso (2007) lnLerrogandosl sul presupposLl eLlcl e sclenLlflcl della pslcoLerapla, sl
fanno promoLorl della necesslLa dl uno sLudlo sempre plu aLLenLo al modo ln cul la praLlca
cllnlca vlene conceplLa, pensaLa, progeLLaLa, messa ln aLLo, e su cl che ln essa avvlene
Lenendo conLo delle varlablll sLruLLurall e dl processo che la cosLlLulscono e che possono essere
osservaLe. A Lal proposlLo Lo Coco e Lo verso sl pronunclano cosl:

garanLlre Lrasparenza ed 'oggeLLlvlLa' alle praLlche pslcoLerapeuLlche rappresenLa oggl un valore
eLlco non solo nel confronLl della comunlLa sclenLlflca e professlonale, ma anche verso l pazlenLl
che necesslLano dl pslcoLeraple meno caraLLerlzzaLe da una rlglda auLoreferenzlallLa e plu
cenLraLe sul blsognl LerapeuLlcl della persona. (Lo Coco & Lo verso 2007, p. 194)

slcoLerapeuLa, h.u. ln '8lcerche e meLodologle avanzaLe ln slcoLerapla'. CenLro !onas dl 1orlno

(CenLro dl cllnlca pslcoanallLlca per l nuovl slnLoml) e lsLlLuLo dl 8lcerca dl slcoanallsl AppllcaLa dl
Mllano.
1
Mlller !.-A. (1983), Noo c cllolco seozo etlco, clL., p. 273.


112

La rlcerca rappresenLa un amblLo fondamenLale per la rlflesslone eplsLemologlca sulle
caraLLerlsLlche e sul funzlonamenLo della pslcoLerapla, ln quanLo sl propone dl garanLlre l
requlslLl dl base dl una professlone sclenLlflca.
La sLorla e ll progresso della rlcerca ln pslcoLerapla
2
sl sono svlluppaLl manLenendo ln
Lenslone Lre veLLorl prlnclpall: 1) lo sLudlo dell'eslLo del LraLLamenLo (ootcome teseotcb), 2) lo
sLudlo dell'efflcacla della pslcoLerapla (efflcocy ooJ effectlveoess), e 3) lo sLudlo del processo dl
camblamenLo (psycbotbetopy cbooqe ptocess teseotcb). nell'amblLo della rlcerca ln
pslcoLerapla sl e andaLa deflnendo una sorLa dl gerarchla delle prove sclenLlflche mosLraLe
nelle dlfferenLl Llpologle dl sLudl: quelle che sono rlsulLaLe plu sollde fanno rlferlmenLo al
tooJomlzeJ coottolleJ ttlols, dove ll llvello dl efflcacla delle pslcoLeraple pu pogglare sul
rlgore degll sLudl sperlmenLall (efflcocy). 1uLLavla ll fotot mlsotooJl che ha caraLLerlzzaLo una
cerLa fase della rlcerca ln pslcoLerapla sl e rlvelaLo pluLLosLo lnefflcace nel Lradurre l rlsulLaLl
degll sLudl sperlmenLall ln conLrlbuLl che poLessero essere davvero uLlll per la complesslLa della
realLa cllnlca. 8ecenLemenLe sl e prlvlleglaLa una soluzlone dl compromesso che poLesse
conglungere ll cootesto Jello vetlflco (la rlcerca) con ll cootesto Jello scopetto (cllnlca),
cercando dl ragglungere un llvello dl efflcacla (effectlveoess) sempre plu vlclno alle
problemaLlche reall della praLlca cllnlca rouLlnarla.
negll sLudl sull'efflcacla cllnlca (effectlveoess) e soLLollneaLa la dlfferenza e la dlsLanza da
quelle prospeLLlve che conslderano ll paradlgma sperlmenLale come ll qolJ stooJotJ della
rlcerca. Cl non vuol dlre che venga resplnLa l'eslgenza dl verlflca e conLrollo emplrlco che
dovrebbe caraLLerlzzare ognl sLudlo serlo sul processo e sull'eslLo delle pslcoLeraple. La rlcerca
sl conflgura lnfaLLl come una forma dl rlgore nell'lndaglne dl quel faLLorl che effeLLlvamenLe
lnLervengono ln una cura, ossla come un campo meLodologlco che permeLLe dl aggregare
valldamenLe le osservazlonl e le lnferenze del cllnlcl.
La cllnlca, LuLLavla, sembra conservare la posslblllLa dl aLLlngere a quel campo dl fenomenl
(conLesLo della scoperLa") che la rlcerca dl laboraLorlo sembra Lagllare fuorl nel momenLo
sLesso ln cul sl cosLlLulsce come conLesLo della verlflca. L ln Lal senso che sl pu assumere un
aLLegglamenLo crlLlco nel confronLl del Lermlne spetlmeotole, manLenendo lnvece ben chlara la
necesslLa dl un ancoragglo empltlco per ognl rlflesslone sclenLlflca sulla dlmenslone cllnlca.
L'esperlenza cllnlca fornlsce lnfaLLl una base emplrlca che sl soLLrae alla repllcablllLa
sperlmenLale. Cll evenLl dl una pslcoLerapla non rlescono a soddlsfare le rlchlesLe dl
conLrollablllLa delle meLodlche dl rlcerca delle coslddeLLe sclenze dure". L'oggeLLo dl sLudlo
della rlcerca ln pslcoLerapla e pluLLosLo un vlagglo",
3
ll percorso dl un soggeLLo nell'amblLo dl
una relazlone LerapeuLlca. ln amblLo pslcoanallLlco lacanlano Lale quesLlone vlene espllclLaLa
soLLollneando che sl LraLLa dl una cllnlca-soLLo-LransferL (Mlller 1987, p. 93). Cl condlzlona e
deflnlsce le sLesse posslblllLa dl conoscenza del processo LerapeuLlco da parLe dl ognl

2
Cfr. Mlgone 2006.
3
nell'lottoJozlooe al volume lo tlcetco lo pslcotetoplo. MoJelll e sttomeotl l curaLorl descrlvono con la
meLafora del vlagglo ll percorso che pazlenLe e pslcoLerapeuLa complono nell'arco plu o meno lungo dl
una serle dl seduLe: uno degll scopl della rlcerca ln pslcoLerapla e sLudlare se e quando l nosLrl
vlagglaLorl arrlveranno alla meLa. L quesLa la rlcerca sull'ouLcome, che vuole rlspondere alla domanda se
la pslcoLerapla foozlooo. er la verlLa conosclamo gla la rlsposLa, la pslcoLerapla e un vlagglo che
ragglunge ll suo scopo. Ma quesLa conoscenza non arresLa le nosLre domande e plu che un Lraguardo
rappresenLa ormal una parLenza. Come sl mlsura la rlusclLa dl un vlagglo? Cosa condlzlona la scelLa del
meLodo che adoLLeremo? Cual e ll mezzo mlgllore per vlagglare? Cuale ll prezzo? L quall varlablll
dovremo conslderare? [.] L se la 'rlusclLa' del vlagglo dlpendesse plu dalla quallLa della relazlone Lra l
due vlagglaLorl che dal mezzl lmplegaLl (faLLorl aspeclflcl vs speclflcl)? ll vlagglo e un'esperlenza 'unlca' o
pu essere scomposLo nelle sue componenLl? (uazzl eL al. 2006, pp. xxvll-xxvlll).
Nicolo Teiminio - Epistemologia uello stuuio uel caso clinico

113

rlcercaLore, anche del plu dlscreLo, che magarl non enLra mal nella sLanza d'anallsl se non
aLLraverso un plccolo reglsLraLore ln grado dl afferrare lndlsLlnLamenLe LuLLl l slgnlflcanLl
emessl dal pazlenLe duranLe la seduLa.
La funzlone dell'anallsLa non conslsLe solLanLo nel conoscere e sLudlare cl che avvlene ln
una cura: l'lnLervenLo cllnlco mlra sopraLLuLLo a produrre nel Lempo una Lrasformazlone
soggeLLlva. Sl LraLLa dl una quesLlone che pone del llmlLl e del vlncoll eLlcl per ognl procedura
conosclLlva che vlene appllcaLa ln pslcoLerapla. 1uLLavla, l'orlzzonLe del meLodo sclenLlflco e
sempre necessarlo afflnche ll cllnlco possa segulre e condlvldere ll rlgore rlchlesLo dalla
sLruLLura e dalla conLlngenza dell'lnconsclo.

2. LA SICCANALISI 1kA CLINICA L SCILN2A

La pslcoanallsl e un'aLLlvlLa emplrlca dl Llpo cllnlco-LerapeuLlco che sl confronLa eleLLlvamenLe
con casl lndlvlduall o con gruppl e, allo sLesso Lempo, e una dlsclpllna a caraLLere sclenLlflco
che nell'amblLo delle malaLLle menLall va alla rlcerca dl regole, conceLLl generall e sLruLLure
lnvarlanLl dell'esperlenza.
La quesLlone con cul l'esperlenza cllnlca lnLerroga ll Llpo dl conoscenza messa ln gloco dalla
sLessa praLlca pslcoanallLlca rlguarda dunque la necesslLa dl lndlvlduare del prlnclpl generall
che permeLLano dl ascolLare e leggere le manlfesLazlonl della soggeLLlvlLa del pazlenLe e ln Lal
modo dl orlenLare ll cllnlco nella conduzlone della cura. A Lal flne e lnnanzlLuLLo necessarlo
lndlvlduare quegll elemenLl - l coslddeLLl slgnlflcanLl moitte" - che concorrono a sLruLLurare
l'esperlenza soggeLLlva del pazlenLe. Sl pu cosl oLLenere quell'lnsleme dl elemenLl che
consenLono un'analogla Lra deLermlnaLe sLruLLure cllnlche e gll svolglmenLl parLlcolarl del
progeLLo dl mondo del soggeLLo. 1ale rl-conosclmenLo non e per asslmllablle a un
procedlmenLo conosclLlvo che sl pu appllcare ln modo sLandard, polche - come rlcorda 8lon -
c'e sempre uno scarLo Lra ll modello e l'asLrazlone.
nel venLuneslmo caplLolo dl AppteoJete Jollespetleozo 8lon soLLollnea la dlfferenza Lra
modello e asLrazlone, rlservando

l'lmplego del Lermlne modello" per lndlcare una cosLruzlone nella quale lmmaglnl concreLe
vengono comblnaLe fra loro, ll legame Lra le varle lmmaglnl da spesso l'lmpresslone dl un
racconLo Lra l cul elemenLl susslsLe un rapporLo causale. ln alLrl Lermlnl, ll modello e cosLlLulLo dl
elemenLl LraLLl dal passaLo dl una persona, menLre l'asLrazlone e, per cosl dlre, LuLLa lmpregnaLa
dl presupposLl (ptecooceptloo) relaLlvl al suo fuLuro. (8lon 1962, p. 118)

L'asLrazlone, pur somlgllando al modello, ne dlfferlsce

ln raglone della sua magglore flesslblllLa ed appllcablllLa oLLenuLe grazle alla scomparsa dl
qualslasl parLlcolare lmmaglne concreLa: gll elemenLl dl un'asLrazlone non sono comblnaLl come
ln un racconLo, ma sono LenuLl assleme da un meLodo che vuole evldenzlare l rapporLl anzlche gll
oggeLLl ln rapporLo. (8lon 1962, p. 118)

Culndl ll modello cl permeLLe dl lndlvlduare degll oggeLLl concreLl e dl raccordarll secondo leggl
noLe. L'asLrazlone subenLra quando ll modello lascla qualcosa dl lnsaLuro", rlmane lnfaLLl
sempre qualcosa dl lnsaLuro che rlchlede le lnferenze del cllnlco o del rlcercaLore. CuesLo e un
llmlLe che vlncola ll raglonamenLo cllnlco, ossla ll modo dl organlzzare l daLl a dlsposlzlone: ll
raglonamenLo LenLa dl lsLlLulre un legame Lra le formulazlonl Leorlche del cllnlco e la
soggeLLlvlLa sLorlco-eslsLenLlva dl clascun pazlenLe ln anallsl.


114

3. LA CCNCSCLN2A L IL SUC USC CLINICC

Cgnl dlsclpllna che lnLende enLrare nel campo della sclenza e confronLaLa con due LemaLlche
cardlne che assumono una valenza fllosoflca: che cos'e la conoscenza e che cos'e la realLa. La
prlma LemaLlca vlene affronLaLa dalla Leorla della conoscenza (o gnoseologla o eplsLemologla),
la seconda dalla meLaflslca o dall'onLologla (vassallo 2003, p. 4).
Lo sLlle dl conoscenza che vlene prlvlleglaLo dal loqos sclenLlflco fa rlferlmenLo a un sapere
predlLLlvo e calcolanLe, ma allo sLesso Lempo rlchlede una raglone sLraLeglca che e
congeLLurale e quallLaLlva. Le generallzzazlonl e le argomenLazlonl del loqos sclenLlflco sono
caraLLerlzzaLe dall'lnduzlone e dalla deduzlone. La sclenza per sl muove a parLlre da una base
lnsLablle che lmpllca un'operazlone loglca deflnlLa da elrce con ll conceLLo dl abduzlone.
4

L'abduzlone non sl confronLa solo con sLlme del fenomenl dl Llpo quanLlLaLlvo, polche
lnLerpreLa lndlzl e Lracce. Sl LraLLa dl un Llpo dl lnferenza che conslsLe nella decodlflca dl un
evenLo ln rlferlmenLo a conLesLl o clrcosLanze non codlflcaLe. Lssa serve anche per lndlvlduare
ll codlce (o ll soLLocodlce) correLLo per un messagglo lmpreclso (Lco 2008, p. 186).
nella sclenza la loglca dell'abduzlone e operaLlva non solo nel camblamenLl dl paradlgma,
polche conLlnua a essere necessarla ognl qualvolLa ll paradlgma Leorlco prescelLo vlene
appllcaLo nella prassl. Cl sl rlvela dl esLremo lnLeresse per comprendere ll Llpo dl
raglonamenLo che vlene lmplegaLo dallo pslcoanallsLa nella conduzlone della cura. L'abduzlone
lnfaLLl conLempla uno laLo che sl frappone Lra le conoscenze gla acqulslLe e la loro appllcazlone
al caso parLlcolare. ll procedlmenLo dlagnosLlco - ma anche l'lnLerpreLazlone - chlama ln gloco
non solo un conoscere LeorlcamenLe ma anche un rl-conoscere praLlcamenLe.

CuesLo e punLo cenLrale per l'eplsLemologla della dlagnosl: la dlagnosl e un rl-conosclmenLo, un
rl-conosclmenLo della sltoozlooe che ha porLaLo allo sLaLo morboso, e ll rl-conosclmenLo della
sltoozlooe, o del moJo (spesso complesslsslmo) ln cul elemenLl svarlaLl possono essersl lnLrecclaLl
ed aver aglLo gll unl sugll alLrl flno a condurre a quell'eslLo che e la malaLLla. ulagnosLlcare
slgnlflca rl-conoscere. tl-coooscete ooo posslblle se ql ooo sl cooosce, se non sl conoscono le
leggl (chlmlche, flslologlche, flslche o, per esemplo, blologlche) che presledono al motevole
conflgurarsl ed lnLrecclarsl dl condlzlonl slngole che conducono a sLaLl paLologlcl. L esaLLamenLe
quesLo muLevole lnLrecclarsl dl condlzlonl che ll cllnlco lpotlzzo e che, ln accordo con leggl
generall, dovrebbe splegare lo sLaLo paLologlco. Ld e qul, nell'lmmoqloote quesLl posslblll lnLreccl
dl condlzlonl, che sl eserclLa sopraLLuLLo la genlallLa e la creaLlvlLa del cllnlco (e, ovvlamenLe,
quesLe sue rlcosLruzlonl dovranno essere passaLe, come vedremo, al vagllo delle prove plu
severe).
[.] uunque: dlagnosLlcare vuol dlre rl-conoscere: per rl-conoscere occorre prlma conoscere. Mo
coooscete ooo slqolflco posseJete oo meccoolsmo ootomotlco Jl tl-cooosclmeoto. losslomo
coooscete eJ essete, slmoltooeomeote, locopocl Jl tlcoooscete. (AnLlserl 2001, p. 78)

ll passagglo dalla conoscenza al suo uso nella cllnlca" lmpllca un'lnLerpreLazlone
(un'lnferenza) che vlene rlvolLa a un messagglo non codlflcaLo. lnolLre nel campo
dell'esperlenza pslcoanallLlca le varlablll che domlnano la sLruLLura del soggeLLo scarLano la

4
L'abduzlone e un raglonamenLo comune sla nella vlLa quoLldlana sla nell'amblLo sclenLlflco con cul sl
va alla rlcerca delle cause dl un fenomeno o dl un faLLo sperlmenLale. Ad esemplo, 'L'assasslno ha
lasclaLo Lracce dl fango sul LappeLo. Chlunque fosse enLraLo dal glardlno avrebbe lasclaLo Lracce dl fango
sul LappeLo. Culndl l'assasslno e enLraLo dal glardlno'. ua un punLo dl vlsLa loglco l'lnferenza non e
correLLa (l'assasslno avrebbe poLuLo lasclare le Lracce dl fango senza essere passaLo dal glardlno per
svlare le lndaglnl). ln generale, se sl verlflca 8 ed e noLo che 'Se A, allora 8', sl assume A come causa dl 8,
almeno flno a prova conLrarla (alladlno & alladlno 2003, p. 100).

113

posslblllLa dl una mlsurazlone rlpeLlblle, sl LraLLa pluLLosLo dl sfumaLure parLlcolarl che possono
essere colLe nella loro perLlnenza cllnlca solo dopo un'opporLuna formazlone. La formazlone e
l'esperlenza cllnlca sono necessarle afflnche l'anallsLa sla ln grado dl decodlflcare non solo ll
messagglo, ma anche ll conLesLo e le clrcosLanze ln cul esso sl reallzza. nel Lermlnl della
pslcologla della CesLalL, poLremmo dlre che la sLessa forma pu rappresenLare flgure dlverse e
che la sLessa flgura pu avere a sua volLa una funzlone e un slgnlflcaLo dlverso a seconda dello
sfondo che ha.

4. A8DU2ICNL L SCGGL11IVA2ICNL

La formazlone anallLlca conslsLe non solo nella Lrasmlsslone e acqulslzlone dl una conoscenza
Leorlca ma anche, e sopraLLuLLo, nella posslblllLa dl soggeLLlvare cl che sl conosce a llvello
Leorlco: la soggeLLlvazlone e lnLlmamenLe collegaLa al legame che sl sLablllsce Lra l noml e le
cose, Lra la slnLassl del conceLLl e le smagllaLure del reale. ln amblLo cllnlco la soggeLLlvazlone e
necessarla ln quanLo e un presupposLo, non la garanzla, della posslblllLa dl rl-conoscere. ll
cllnlco comple delle scelLe sullo sfondo dl un'assenza dl garanzla, dl una garanzla ln grado dl
cerLlflcare ln anLlclpo l'efflcacla e la perLlnenza dl una dlagnosl, dl un'lnLerpreLazlone o dl un
aLLo anallLlco. ln alLrl Lermlnl, non c'e un modello per appllcare l modelll e dunque nessun
modello pu deLermlnare quall slano le sue appllcazlonl correLLe. non c'e un meLamodello, un
meLallnguagglo: non c'e una regola che cl dlca come appllcare le regole, per dlrla con
WlLLgensLeln.
3
L ln quesLo momenLo dl sollLudlne che le quesLlonl meLodologlche posLe dalla
cllnlca Lrovano ll loro punLo dl glunzlone con la quesLlone eLlca dell'lnLerpreLazlone anallLlca.

S. UNIVLkSALL L CCN1INGLN1L

Cll oggeLLl dl sLudlo della conoscenza sclenLlflca sono degll oggeLLl che per quanLo possano
essere moblll non lmpedlscono la rlcerca dl cosLanLl e dl leggl esprlmlblll medlanLe relazlonl
maLemaLlche. Sebbene la conoscenza pslcoanallLlca sl muova pogglandosl sul raglonamenLo
abduLLlvo, e caraLLerlzzaLa dal faLLo che deve affronLare slLuazlonl ln blllco, dove basLa una
plccola varlazlone per evlLare o deLermlnare la caLasLrofe (8oLLlroll 1987, p. 133). Se un
esperlmenLo e gludlcaLo sclenLlflcamenLe lnLeressanLe quando permeLLe dl ragglungere un
rlsulLaLo oolvetsole (ualla Chlara & 1oraldo dl lrancla 1999, p. 3), un lnLervenLo cllnlco rlsulLa
lnvece valldo quando non smarrlsce ll suo lnLeresse per l'evenLo cootloqeote. ua quesLa
angolaLura la pslcoanallsl, ln quanLo prassl cllnlca, e plu vlclna al paradlgma delle sclenze
sLorlche e appllcaLe pluLLosLo che a quello delle sclenze Leorlche.
6

Cra, posslamo osservare che ll cllnlco che fa Leorla a parLlre dalla sua esperlenza con l
pazlenLl sl muove appunLo su un llvello dl lnferenza che chlama ln causa da un laLo ll versanLe

3
una regola non pu deLermlnare alcun modo dl aglre, polche qualslasl modo d'aglre pu essere
messo d'accordo con la regola (WlLLgensLeln 1933, klcetcbe fllosoflcbe, l, p. 201).
6
ualla prospeLLlva meLodologlca le sclenze sl dlvldono, come sl sa, ln Lre grandl gruppl: scleoze pote,
scleoze stotlcbe, scleoze tecooloqlcbe o oppllcote. nel prlmo caso, nel caso delle scleoze teotlcbe (o
LeoreLlche o generallzzanLl o pure), nol slamo lnLeressaLl all'lnvenzlone e alla prova dl lpoLesl unlversall o
leggl (come quelle della sLaLlca, dell'eleLLrologla, dell'oLLlca, della geneLlca, e cosl vla). nel secondo caso,
quello delle scleoze stotlcbe, le leggl (lnsleme a condlzlonl lnlzlall) sono usaLe per splegare (cloe dedurre)
un asserLo descrlvenLe un faLLo gla accaduLo (sla quesLo un faLLo soclale, un evenLo geologlco come ll
corrugamenLo erclnlco, la scomparsa dl una specle, un comporLamenLo aggresslvo, ecc.). nel Lerzo caso,
quello delle scleoze tecooloqlcbe, le leggl (lnsleme a condlzlonl lnlzlall da porre ln base al comandl delle
leggl) sono usaLe per fare predlzlonl (AnLlserl 2001, p. 73).


116

lpoLeLlco delle formulazlonl sul slngoll casl osservaLl e dall'alLro la rlcerca dl una serle dl prlnclpl
che possano generallzzare ll funzlonamenLo lndlvlduaLo.
er lo pslcoanallsLa ll rapporLo Lra unlversale e slngolare e un luogo dl Lenslone sla sul plano
delle generallzzazlonl della sclenza (lnduzlone) sla sul plano dl appllcazlone nella prassl cllnlca
(abduzlone): c'e un'lnquleLudlne meLodologlca che vlene generaLa da quesLa Lenslone. nella
sclenza l'lnconLro con le ooomolle che meLLono ln crlsl l precedenLl paradlgml apre la
posslblllLa per ll camblamenLo e ll progresso sclenLlflco.
7
La praLlca pslcoanallLlca rlmane
vlncolaLa alle poestlool del slngolo caso cllnlco e lo sLudlo delle sLruLLure soggeLLlve (teotlo)
vlene sempre manLenuLo ln Lenslone con ll suo complemenLo necessarlo: l'anallsl del meLodo
nella fase della sua appllcazlone (ctltlco). un'appllcazlone che vlene permeaLa dallo sLlle e dalla
creaLlvlLa del cllnlco.
La creaLlvlLa dell'anallsLa e una necesslLa dl sLruLLura prescrlLLa dal meLodo cllnlco. La
comblnazlone dl leggl e la conseguenLe appllcazlone al slngolo caso rlchlede una Llpologla dl
lnferenze che possono osclllare dall'abduzlone auLomaLlca o dlzlonarlsLlca" flno a un Llpo dl
abduzlone deflnlLa sLraLeglca":

A colul che sl serve dl un'abduzlone sLraLeglca - al soggeLLo deflnlLo dalla metls - non sl pu
chledere quella pazlenza, nelle verlflche, che presupporrebbe l'lmmoblllLa o la quasl-lmmoblllLa
del Caso e del 8lsulLaLo. Lo sLraLega sl Lrova ad aglre ln slLuazlonl che la sua lnLerpreLazlone
lnfluenza o modlflca. [.] ll suo falllblllsmo poLrebbe apparlre come una proprleLa deprecablle
anche se necessarla, un llmlLe dl fronLe a cul rassegnarsl e non un caraLLere poslLlvo nella proprla
speclflclLa. L quesLo caraLLere che blsogna lnvece rlvendlcare: nell'abduzlone sLraLeglca sl mosLra
ll laLo ootetlote del Lempo, l'anLlclpazlone lncerLa, fasclnosa, legaLa a scelLe lrreverslblll. (8oLLlroll
1987, p. 133)

Sl pu lnolLre lndlvlduare una preclsazlone ulLerlore sulle flnallLa dell'lnLervenLo dell'anallsLa:
l'lnLerpreLazlone muove da un Lempo loglco anLerlore e mlra a rlprodurre per ll pazlenLe sLesso
ll medeslmo laLo che separa ll prlma e ll dopo che caraLLerlzza l'anLlclpazlone lncerLa dl ognl
scelLa, compresa quella cllnlca. La seduLa pslcoanallLlca vlene cosl conceplLa come un
dlsposlLlvo slmbollco ln grado dl far fote pteso olloleototlet Jelllocootto (8ecalcaLl 2002, p.
243). ln Lale prospeLLlva sl pu comprendere quanLo l'approcclo cllnlco della pslcoanallsl sl
prenda cura delle quesLlonl del soggeLLo allmenLando ll rapporLo che clascuno lnLraLLlene con
la dlmenslone creaLlva dell'eslsLere.

6. S1CkIA L INCCNSCIC IN SICCANALISI

La pslcoanallsl sl Lrova dl fronLe a del fenomenl cllnlcl che non possono presclndere dal
conLesLo e dalla sLorla del soggeLLo che ll manlfesLa.

nel slnLomo, e medlanLe un codlce prlvaLo che sl sLablllsce un nesso Lra espresslone e conLenuLo.
L'lnLerpreLazlone dovra muovere al rlconosclmenLo dl assoclazlonl sLreLLamenLe soggeLLlve,
rlporLando alla cosclenza la regola che e sLaLa soLLoposLa a rlmozlone. (8oLLlroll 1987, p. 133)

La pslcoanallsl e una cura dove ll racconLo che un soggeLLo fa della sua sLorla e flnallzzaLo alla
scoperLa della pecullarlLa slngolare del suo deslderlo lnconsclo. La pslcoanallsl sl avvlclna al
pazlenLl prlvlleglando cl che essl dlcono ln seduLa. La premlnenza daLa all'esperlenza dl parola
conduce al dl la della sempllce conslderazlone - purLroppo LanLo dlffusa ln alcunl amblLl della

7
Cfr. kuhn 1970, pp. 73-89.

117

pslchlaLrla e della pslcologla - per cul l slnLoml pslcopaLologlcl vengono asslmllaLl a del deflclL
da rlparare o ad eplfenomenl del blologlco. La pslcoanallsl e lnvece LuLL'alLro che la rlduzlone
dell'uomo al solo plano blologlco: l slnLoml acqulsLano un slgnlflcaLo e non sono
sempllcemenLe delle secrezlonl blzzarre del cervello.

ln pslcoanallsl l slnLoml sl conflgurano
qulndl olLre che come un evenLo dl corpo anche come un avvenLo dl slgnlflcazlone.
8

ln una seduLa pslcoanallLlca la comprenslone del fenomenl cllnlcl rlmanda necessarlamenLe
alla loro arLlcolazlone. L la sLruLLura che soLLende ll manlfesLarsl del fenomenl non e alLro che
un'lpoLesl che vlene formulaLa rlspeLLo al rapporLl che ne regolano l'lnsorgere. L'lnconsclo e
appunLo l'lpoLesl freudlana rlspeLLo alla sofferenza del slnLomo e sl conflgura come ll prlnclplo
della praLlca anallLlca.
L'lnconsclo, ln quanLo sLruLLura slgnlflcanLe, cl consenLe dl cosLrulre una Lrama nelle sLorle
che ascolLlamo. L'anamnesl e la sLorla dl un soggeLLo possono essere lnLese come ll
dlsplegamenLo del slgnlflcanLl": sl LraLLa dl lndlvlduare quegll eveotl, quel Jettl ln cul
rlconosclamo (per lnferenza) una Lrama narraLlva che rlLorna con una cerLa rlpeLlLlvlLa nella
sLorla del soggeLLo. L'occhlo cllnlco deve essere qulndl rlvolLo verso cl che sl rlpeLe con
analoga sLruLLura dl rapporLl.
9
l slgnlflcanLl che sl rlpeLono cl segnalano ll marchlo dell'lnconLro
del soggeLLo con cerLl evenLl e deLLl dell'AlLro.
La pslcoanallsl e dunque un'esperlenza dove vengono moblllzzaLl l slgnlflcanLl e dove sl
producono degll effeLLl dl slgnlflcazlone che rlcevono un ascolLo ll cul obleLLlvo e dl lsolare l
slgnlflcanLl moitte" che hanno LracclaLo la flgura del desLlno del soggeLLo. La serle delle seduLe
sl conflgura come una scanslone che lnLende far produrre al pazlenLe una nuova elaborazlone
della sua sLorla, con ll flne dl modlflcare l rapporLl del soggeLLo con ll reale.

6. S1CkIA L SCkI11UkA DLLL'LSLkILN2A CLINICA

La necesslLa dell'elaborazlone dl una forma loglca degll evenLl permeLLe dl accosLare le
procedure dl conoscenza della pslcoanallsl a quelle della sLorlografla. slcoanallsl e sLorlografla
sl sLruLLurano lnfaLLl sulla base dl quesLlonl analoghe:

rlcercare del prlnclpl e del crlLerl ln nome del quall comprendere le dlfferenze o asslcurare forme
dl conLlnulLa Lra l'organlzzazlone dell'aLLuallLa e le conflgurazlonl passaLe, aLLrlbulre valore
espllcaLlvo al passaLo e/o rendere ll presenLe capace dl splegare ll passaLo, rlcondurre le
rappresenLazlonl dl lerl e dl oggl alle loro condlzlonl dl produzlone, elaborare - a parLlre da dove
e ln che modo? - modl dl pensare e dunque dl olLrepassare la vlolenza (l confllLLl e gll azzardl
della sLorla), lvl compresa quella forma dl vlolenza che sl svlluppa all'lnLerno del penslero sLesso,
deflnlre e cosLrulre quella narrazlone che cosLlLulsce, per enLrambe le dlsclpllne, la forma
prlvlleglaLa che Lende ad assumere ll dlscorso espllcaLlvo. (ue CerLeau 1978, p. 80)

La sLorla lmpllca una marcaLura del Lempo e ll gesLo, che meLLe a dlsLanza ll Lempo vlssuLo per
farne oggeLLo dl un sapere Lrasmlsslblle, e lndlssoclablle dalla prospeLLlva che vlene assunLa
nella scrlLLura della sLorla sLessa. ln amblLo pslcoanallLlco scrlvere una sLorla cllnlca vuol dlre
generare un passaLo, clrcoscrlverlo, organlzzare ll maLerlale eLerogeneo del faLLl per cosLrulre
nel presenLe una raglone, un fllo loglco. ln alLre parole, scrlvere una sLorla cllnlca e un modo

8
Cfr. Mlller 1999.
9
lnLervlene ln quesLo punLo l'lmporLanza della Leorla delle sLruLLure cllnlche a cul sl fa rlferlmenLo: e ll
paradlgma dl osservazlone dl una cura che orlenLa gll elemenLl da lsolare e la reLe dl rapporLl da
lndlvlduare. Al dl la della Lermlnologla speclflca per ognl paradlgma, cl che rlsulLa deLermlnanLe e la
sLruLLurazlone del campo fenomenlco che sl opera.


118

per esorclzzare ll mallnLeso dell'orallLa e per evlLare un dlscorso auLoreferenzlale, dove la
parola e l'lneslsLenza manlfesLa dl cl che deslgna.

L'esposlzlone dl casl cllnlcl rappresenLa la modallLa eleLLlva LramlLe cul lo pslcoanallsLa da una
LesLlmonlanza concreLa della sua praLlca. Lssa e un eserclzlo lnagglrablle dl dlmosLrazlone e dl
Lrasmlsslone dl un'esperlenza e, glusLamenLe, occupa un posLo dl prlmarla lmporLanza
nell'avanzamenLo del lavoro della Scuola. (MazzoLLl 2002, p. 7)

La comunlcazlone sclenLlflca del caso cllnlco lmpllca un Lagllo che separa mondo" e scena".
La comunlcazlone sclenLlflca sl reallzza dopo l'lsLlLuzlone dl una scena, dl un'alLra scena che e
dlfferenLe dal mondo che rappresenLa. ll resoconLo dl un fenomeno cllnlco sl cosLrulsce
lnLroducendo un cllvagglo Lra la maLerla (l faLLl, ll mondo-della-vlLa) e la presenLazlone,
l' (la messa ln scena del mondo). La sLorlografla del casl cllnlcl - cloe la sLorla e la
sua scrlLLura - porLa nella sua sLessa deflnlzlone ll paradosso della messa ln relazlone dl due
Lermlnl anLlnomlcl: la realLa e ll dlscorso.
ll resoconLo cllnlco non colnclde con l faLLl della seduLa, la selezlone del daLl emplrlcl e gla
un'operazlone dl Lagllo Lra la realLa e ll dlscorso. ll dlscorso non e la realLa cosl come la flslca
non e la naLura. La scrlLLura dl una sLorla cllnlca prende gll evenLl e ll arLlcola e, laddove quesLo
legame non e pensablle, cerca dl lpoLlzzarne delle posslblll forme dl arLlcolazlone. lu che dl
una operazlone dl leLLura o dl lnLerpreLazlone sl LraLLa dl un modo per produrre una relazlone
Lra l'opaclLa sllenzlosa della realLa fenomenlca e ll dlscorso con cul la sLorla cerca dl cusLodlre ll
suo oggeLLo. La sLorla suppone e cosLrulsce l'eslsLenza dl un rapporLo Lra l'lmmenslLa
sconoscluLa che mlnaccla e seduce ll sapere e ll luogo dove la scrlLLura lnsLaura l'lnLelleglblllLa
del mondo osservaLo.

7. CIC CnL L'CSSLkVA1CkL NCN UC VLkIIICAkL

nell'esperlenza pslcoanallLlca ll presenLe e ll passaLo sl Lrovano sovrapposLl da una Lrama dl
slgnlflcanLl che rlpropone del frammenLl dl verlLa che osano dlrsl solo nella sLorla racconLaLa
dal slnLomo. un osservaLore esLerno poLra rlconoscere quesLa sLorla perche leggera ll slnLomo
come la LesLlmonlanza dl una sLruLLura soggeLLlva. ln pslcoanallsl lo sLudlo dell'esperlenza
cllnlca lmpllca la scanslone dl quegll evenLl che arLlcolano la conflgurazlone pslcopaLologlca e la
Lrama narraLlva
10
: la semlologla fondaLa sulle sLruLLure paLologlche sl comblna nello sLesso
LesLo con la sLorla della sofferenza del soggeLLo.
ln seduLa c'e per una dlmenslone della parola del pazlenLe che non pu essere reglsLraLa
aLLraverso la scrlLLura del caso cllnlco, c'e un resLo semanLlco dell'esperlenza che rlmane non
Lrasmlsslblle e che vlene vlssuLo solo dal pazlenLe, lnfaLLl e lnevlLabllmenLe preclusa, all'AlLro
che ascolLa, la posslblllLa dl verlflcare ll legame Lra la parola e ll corpo dl chl sl pronuncla. ln un
cerLo senso l'AlLro deve e pu solo fldarsl, e ll soggeLLo non pu affldarsl alla garanzla del
consenso dell'AlLro. Culndl la parola che l'anallzzanLe esprlme nell'esperlenza pslcoanallLlca
non pu essere verlflcaLa come se fosse una formulazlone sclenLlflca sul reale, una
formulazlone cloe sganclaLa dal soggeLLo che la enuncla. La formulazlone sclenLlflca lnfaLLl pu
essere verlflcaLa solo perche c'e una dlsLlnzlone Lra ll soggeLLo che enuncla una formula e ll
reale messo ln forma: nella sclenza c'e una dlsLlnzlone Lra ll soggeLLo e ll reale, Lra la parola
soggeLLlva e ll reale. nella sclenza la parola pu essere messa alla prova dl un reale verlflcablle
per LuLLl o almeno per LuLLl coloro che dlspongono delle sLesse posslblllLa dl sperlmenLazlone.

10
Cfr. Cgden 2003.

119

nella sclenza la parola ha ll suo referenLe ln un oggeLLo che sl pu vedere e oggeLLlvare,
nell'esperlenza pslcoanallLlca lnvece la parola Lrova ll proprlo referenLe ln un reale che
apparLlene al vlssuLo parLlcolare del soggeLLo. ln quesLo secondo caso, ll soggeLLo e l'unlco
LesLlmone posslblle del reale.

8. LA CUkA SICCANALI1ICA: DALLA DCMANDA DI 1kA11AMLN1C AL 1kA11AMLN1C DLLLA DCMANDA

La quesLlone che anlma ll percorso anallLlco dl un soggeLLo rlguarda ll non sapere" che cosa
LesLlmonla aLLraverso ll suo slnLomo. ll slnLomo e un messagglo aLLraverso cul ll soggeLLo sl
pronuncla, sebbene non abbla ll codlce per declfrare ll slgnlflcaLo dl cl che gll e plu lnLlmo.
L'ascolLo dell'anallsLa mlra a consenLlre al soggeLLo dl rlapproprlarsl della sua sLorla e della sua
verlLa.
ln amblLo pslcoanallLlco nel colloqul prellmlnarl l'obleLLlvo verso cul sl vuole condurre ll
pazlenLe e ll ragglunglmenLo dl un modo dlverso dl lnLerrogare ll slnLomo e dl lnLendere la
cura. Sl LraLLa dl un passagglo che va dal lamenLo sul slnLomo alla verlLa lnslLa nel slnLomo: ll
slnLomo-dlsLurbo" dlvenLa un slnLomo-quesLlone" ln cul ll soggeLLo e colnvolLo e
rappresenLaLo, sebbene non ne sappla ll moLlvo.
La dlmenslone della domanda e cenLrale nella concezlone pslcoanallLlca del colloqulo
cllnlco: la domanda dl cura e una domanda dl aluLo che rlchlede una sua soggeLLlvazlone",
ossla che ll soggeLLo sofferenLe declda dl voler conoscere la causa della proprla sofferenza. La
soggeLLlvazlone lndlca quel processo ln cul la domanda dl cura sl Lrasforma ln una domanda dl
sapere.
Se ll soggeLLo che chlede una cura pu essere dlagnosLlcaLo come un nevroLlco, allora ll
focos del colloqul prellmlnarl vlene cenLraLo sul passagglo da un prlmo Lempo, quello della
domanda spurla (ad es.: bo oo Jlstotbo, me lo tolqo), ad un secondo Lempo ln cul cambla
l'aLLegglamenLo del pazlenLe nel confronLl del suo slnLomo. l colloqul prellmlnarl vengono
qulndl lnLesl come un percorso che va dalla domanda dl LraLLamenLo al LraLLamenLo della
domanda
11
: L'obleLLlvo e che la domanda lnlzlale del pazlenLe sl rlvolga alla quesLlone
enlgmaLlca (lnconscla) che afflora Lra le maglle del slnLomo.

9. IL A2ILN1L L ANALI22AN1L L NCN ANALI22ANDC

ll complLo del colloqul prellmlnarl e quello dl condurre ll pazlenLe verso una dlmenslone
anallzzanLe. ll pazlenLe e aLLlvamenLe lmpegnaLo nell'anallsl e per quesLo vlene chlamaLo
ooollzzoote e non anallzzaLo. Sl LraLLa dl un rovesclamenLo semanLlco che lmpllca anche un
camblamenLo della prospeLLlva eplsLemologlca della cura: ll pazlenLe non e oggeLLo della cura
ma soggeLLo della cura. ll soggeLLo e anallzzanLe sla perche e aLLlvamenLe colnvolLo nella
declfrazlone del LesLo del colloqulo sla perche nel colloqulo cllnlco dlvenLa cenLrale ll sapere
che l'anallzzanLe scopre nel suo sLesso dlre. La dlsclpllna dl ascolLo del LesLo dell'anallzzanLe
llmlLa la splnLa lnLerpreLaLlva dell'anallsLa: ll LesLo cosclenLe del pazlenLe non vlene rlcondoLLo
a slgnlflcaLl o conLenuLl che apparLengono al vlssuLl o alle Leorle dl rlferlmenLo dell'operaLore.
ll LesLo dell'anallzzanLe vlene lnfaLLl valorlzzaLo come ll luogo dl un senso soggeLLlvo. Lcco
perche cl che conLa e lnnanzlLuLLo quello che ll pazlenLe dlce.

11
Cfr. lreda 2001, p.73.


120

10. LA AkCLA DLL A2ILN1L 1kA LNUNCIA1C LD LNUNCIA2ICNL

Cll enunclaLl sono lnfaLLl delle espresslonl llngulsLlche che velcolano del conLenuLl (le
proposlzlonl). La sLessa proposlzlone pu venlr espressa da enunclaLl dlversl: l'enunclaLo
lLallano la neve e blanca" e l'enunclaLo lnglese snow ls whlLe" sono lnfaLLl due enunclaLl
lnequlvocabllmenLe dlversl che esprlmono la sLessa proposlzlone. er conLro, lo sLesso
enunclaLo pu anche esprlmere due (o plu) proposlzlonl dlverse, sl possono qulndl osservare
degll enunclaLl amblgul. La dlsLlnzlone Lra enunclaLl e proposlzlonl sl offre dunque come
paradlgma per la leLLura del LesLo del colloqulo: c'e lnfaLLl una non colncldenza Lra ll plano
dell'enunclaLo e quello del slgnlflcaLo che gll pu essere aLLrlbulLo. ll plano dell'enunclazlone sl
deflnlsce appunLo a parLlre da quesLa dlsLlnzlone: c'e una sclsslone Lra cl che ll pazlenLe dlce e
ll slgnlflcaLo che pu assumere quel che dlce.
nella pslcoanallsl sl cenLra molLo l'aLLenzlone sul faLLo che la dlmenslone della parola
produce una separazlone Lra enunclaLo ed enunclazlone. ln amblLo pslcoanallLlco Lale
dlscrepanza vlene espressa dalla dlvlslone lnLerna alla sLessa parola: lnfaLLl anche quando un
slgnlflcanLe Lrova un suo slgnlflcaLo producendo un enunclaLo, la frase non rlesce comunque
ad assorblre ll plano dell'enunclazlone: e appunLo ll faLLo che un LesLo e sempre ln qualche
modo reLlcenLe (Lco 2002, p. 23). l slgnlflcanLl - lnLesl come segnl llngulsLlcl", anche se non
rlduclblll a essl - dlfferlscono dunque dal segnall" e non corrlspondono mal ln modo unlvoco a
un slgnlflcaLo speclflco (pollsemla del slgnlflcanLe).
nel corso delle seduLe da parLe del pazlenLe sl reglsLra ablLualmenLe la presenza dl un
resLo" che rlmane lnsaLuro rlspeLLo al poLere rappresenLaLlvo della parola. ln amblLo
lacanlano Lale fenomeno vlene osservaLo non come un deflclL cognlLlvo ma come lndlce della
dlscrepanza sLruLLurale (e non accldenLale) Lra slgnlflcanLe e slgnlflcaLo.
ll llvello dell'enunclazlone compare appunLo nel marglne dl non colncldenza Lra slgnlflcanLe
e slgnlflcaLo, la sua manlfesLazlone dlpende dal faLLo che sebbene ll slgnlflcaLo sla effeLLo
dell'arLlcolazlone slgnlflcanLe, non cessa dl soLLrarsl alla presa del slgnlflcanLe: c'e sempre uno
sllLLamenLo del senso che consenLe a ognl enunclaLo dl carlcarsl dl una slgnlflcazlone"
pecullare. osslamo cosl osservare la slgnlflcazlone" parLlcolare che rlcevono cerLe frasl o
evenLl relazlonall. Lo sLesso evenLo, lnfaLLl, pu avere effeLLl e rlsonanze opposLe ln soggeLLl
dlversl. ClLre al deLLl, osservlamo dunque ll dlre" del soggeLLo, l'"enunclazlone" a cul
rlmandano l suol enunclaLl".
L lmporLanLe soLLollneare che ll plano dell'enunclazlone sovverLe la padronanza dell'lo
cosclenLe, ll soggeLLo dell'enunclazlone non e ll soggeLLo (classlco) della conoscenza. ll llvello
dell'enunclazlone rlmanda ad un lo () che non colnclde con l'lo narranLe (). Ad esemplo
chl e ll soggeLLo del lapsus? Cl che ll pazlenLe dlce e cl che pu comprendere dl quel che dlce
non sono sullo sLesso plano: la parola del soggeLLo dlce sempre dl plu dl quanLo ll soggeLLo
possa comprendere. ll plano dell'enunclazlone mosLra un soggeLLo che non sa cl che vuole
dlre, c'e un'lnLenzlone a dlre (enunclazlone) che sl slLua al dl la del campo dl glurlsdlzlone del
soggeLLo padrone del senso. La pslcoanallsl rlLlene che l'enunclazlone sla l'lndlce dl una
dlvlslone soggeLLlva che separa ll sapere che un soggeLLo ha su dl se dalla sua verlLa. ll plano
dell'enunclazlone sl conflgura lnfaLLl come l'lndlcaLore semanLlco della presenza dell'lnconsclo
nelle parole del pazlenLe e duranLe una cura blsognera saper leggere" nella sequenza degll
enunclaLl la Lrama slgnlflcanLe che sovradeLermlna le manlfesLazlonl dell'lnconsclo.


121

11. IL kISCnIC LkMLNLU1ICC L LA CLN1kALI1 DLL 1LS1C DLL A2ILN1L

La leLLura degll enunclaLl del soggeLLo e un aspeLLo fondamenLale per la praLlca lnLerpreLaLlva
ln pslcoanallsl. Se conslderlamo ll funzlonamenLo della caLena slgnlflcanLe l'lnLerpreLazlone e
aperLa a LuLLl l sensl, ll senso soggeLLlvo delle parole del pazlenLe e susceLLlblle a una conLlnua
lndeLermlnazlone, dal momenLo che, ln quanLo effeLLo della caLena slgnlflcanLe, e sempre
predlsposLo al rlmando verso un alLro slgnlflcanLe. un sogno ad esemplo pu essere anallzzaLo
ln modo lnLermlnablle, con l'agglunLa dl un slgnlflcanLe dopo l'alLro, nell'osclllazlone Lra le
dlverse slgnlflcazlonl posslblll. Cl per poLrebbe condurre a un'lnflnlLlzzazlone del slgnlflcaLl
aLLrlbulblll ad ognl slngolo slnLomo e al LesLo del colloqulo nel suo complesso: ll LesLo dl un
pazlenLe rlmanda ad un secondo LesLo, non evldenLe ma soLLosLanLe, flno ad una
prollferazlone poLenzlalmenLe lnflnlLa dl ulLerlorl ampllflcazlonl dl senso.
L'ermeneuLlclLa lnLrlnsenca alla pslcoanallsl pu lnolLre rldursl alla concezlone lngenua
secondo cul ll LesLo dell'lo cosclenLe non esaurlsce mal ll senso dell'esperlenza soggeLLlva, per
cul ll LesLo del pazlenLe ha sempre un laLo soLLosLanLe che pu chlarlre l'apparenza del LesLo
manlfesLo. ln Lal modo la seduLa anallLlca pu assomlgllare alla codlflca del LesLo ln un secondo
LesLo che rlvelerebbe ll senso auLenLlco del prlmo.
La dlsLlnzlone Lra manlfesLo e laLenLe pu alLresl enLrare ln gloco nell'uso lllaLlvo
dell'lnLerpreLazlone: ll LesLo del pazlenLe pu venlr LradoLLo dal sapere dell'operaLore ln un
alLro LesLo. Le parole del pazlenLe, cosl come l suol slnLoml, vengono ascolLaLe a parLlre dal
sapere dell'operaLore: sl pu verlflcare una sorLa dl Lraduzlone da un codlce all'alLro, cosl come
pu avvenlre nel caso della dlagnosl descrlLLlva dove alla flne ll LesLo del pazlenLe pu rldursl a
mero oggeLLo dell'lndaglne del sapere psl".
Le lllazlonl semanLlche possono lnolLre verlflcarsl con un uso lndlscrlmlnaLo del
conLroLransferL, dove la codlflca del LesLo del pazlenLe avvlene ln base al penslerl e al vlssuLl
che apparLengono escluslvamenLe al campo lnconsclo del LerapeuLa. L per Lal moLlvo che la
leLLura del colloqulo cllnlco deve essere lnLesa pluLLosLo come

la praLlca dl un LesLo slgnlflcanLe [.]. non sl LraLLa, cloe, dl conceplre l'aLLlvlLa dell'anallsLa come
un'aLLlvlLa dl smascheramenLo, perche la verlLa non ablLa dleLro le parole ma sl manlfesLa
aLLraverso le parole. La leLLera manlfesLa, e non nasconde, l'enunclazlone del soggeLLo. (8ecalcaLl
2001, p. 17)

Cll elemenLl da lndlvlduare nel LesLo del colloqulo sono gla nelle parole del pazlenLe, ll LesLo
del colloqulo rlvela lnfaLLl una sua organlzzazlone che mosLra la funzlone del slngoll elemenLl.
ln amblLo pslcoanallLlco lacanlano l'lnconsclo sLruLLuraLo come un llnguagglo non e un
conLenuLo soLLosLanLe ll dlscorso cosclenLe, ma pluLLosLo colnclde con la Lrama del LesLo, con
le sue lncrlnaLure e l suol lnclampl.
La pslcoanallsl e dunque un'esperlenza dove vengono moblllzzaLl l slgnlflcanLl e dove sl
producono degll effeLLl dl slgnlflcazlone che rlcevono un ascolLo ll cul obleLLlvo e dl lsolare l
slgnlflcanLl " che hanno LracclaLo la flgura del desLlno del soggeLLo:

dl fronLe a una serle slgnlflcanLe prodoLLa dal pazlenLe, l'lnLervenLo dell'anallsLa offre come
rlsposLa un'lnLerpunzlone che meLLe ll soggeLLo ln condlzlone dl cogllere cl che dlce
effeLLlvamenLe. ln quesLo senso la rlsposLa dell'anallsLa e, lnnanzlLuLLo, quella dl fare rlLornare al
soggeLLo ll suo messagglo ln forma lnverLlLa. L un modo per Lradurre l'lmmaglne freudlana
dell'anallsLa come specchlo opaco, la cul funzlone non e agglungere slgnlflcanLl assenLl nel
dlscorso del pazlenLe, ma permeLLere al pazlenLe dl cogllere le slgnlflcazlonl che sl sono prodoLLe
dalla messa ln serle dl cerLl slgnlflcanLl. (8ecalcaLl 2001, p. 21)


122

12. CCNCLUSICNI

ln quesLo lavoro e sLaLo presenLaLo un percorso argomenLaLlvo volLo a chlarlre l conceLLl che
caraLLerlzzano la prospeLLlva eplsLemologlca della pslcoanallsl. ll rapporLo Lra Jlmeoslooe
cllolco e tlcetco e dl cruclale lmporLanza per comprendere ln che modo sla posslblle sLudlare e
verlflcare l'efflcacla LerapeuLlca della pslcoanallsl. L'accenLo posLo sul Lema della verlflca
emplrlca ln pslcoanallsl ha permesso dl evldenzlare quanLo la cllnlca conservl la posslblllLa dl
aLLlngere a quel campo dl fenomenl (conLesLo della scoperLa") che la rlcerca dl laboraLorlo
sembra Lagllare fuorl nel momenLo sLesso ln cul sl cosLlLulsce come conLesLo della verlflca". L
ln Lal senso che sl pu assumere un aLLegglamenLo crlLlco nel confronLl del Lermlne
spetlmeotole, manLenendo lnvece ben chlara la necesslLa dl un ancoragglo empltlco per ognl
rlflesslone sclenLlflca sulla dlmenslone cllnlca. L'esperlenza cllnlca fornlsce lnfaLLl una base
emplrlca che sl soLLrae alla repllcablllLa sperlmenLale. Cll evenLl dl una pslcoLerapla non
rlescono a soddlsfare le rlchlesLe dl conLrollablllLa delle meLodlche dl rlcerca delle coslddeLLe
sclenze dure".
ll confronLo Lra pslcoooollsl e scleozo ha permesso lnolLre dl approfondlre ll rapporLo Lra
Leorla e prassl: l'appllcazlone cllnlca del modello Leorlco rlchlede un uso delle conoscenze che
chlama ln causa l'lnferenza abduLLlva: ll passagglo dalla conoscenza al suo uso nella cllnlca"
lmpllca lnfaLLl un'lnLerpreLazlone (un'lnferenza) che vlene rlvolLa a un messagglo non
codlflcaLo. ll cllnlco comple delle scelLe sullo sfondo dl un'assenza dl garanzla, dl una garanzla
ln grado dl cerLlflcare ln anLlclpo l'efflcacla e la perLlnenza dl una dlagnosl, dl
un'lnLerpreLazlone o dl un aLLo anallLlco. ln alLrl Lermlnl, non c'e un modello per appllcare l
modelll e dunque nessun modello pu deLermlnare quall slano le sue appllcazlonl correLLe.
Le argomenLazlonl successlve hanno soLLollneaLo quanLo la quesLlone dell'appllcazlone del
modello sla sLreLLamenLe legaLa alla quesLlone della fotmozlooe Jellooollsto. La formazlone
anallLlca sl conflgura lnfaLLl come un addesLramenLo parLlcolare che da un laLo lmpllca
l'apprendlmenLo Leorlco e dall'alLro rlchlede un percorso dl soggeLLlvazlone ln grado dl
consenLlre al cllnlco dl appllcare l prlnclpl pslcoanallLlcl caso per caso".
L'aLLenzlone alla slngolarlLa del coso cllolco sl Lraduce ln un lavoro LerapeuLlco che mlra
lnnanzlLuLLo a rlcomporre la Lrama sLorlca del percorso eslsLenLlvo del pazlenLe. L'lnconsclo e
appunLo la Lrama narraLlva che ll pazlenLe rlcosLrulsce dl seduLa ln seduLa e aLLraverso cul
vlene rlleLLo ll slgnlflcaLo del slnLomo. un alLro vlncolo fondamenLale che caraLLerlzza la
pslcoanallsl rlguarda la concezlone del slotomo. ll slnLomo non vlene conslderaLo come una
dlsregolazlone neuroflslologlca o come un deflclL da rlparare, ma pluLLosLo come un messagglo
da declfrare, come un slgnlflcanLe dl cul ll pazlenLe lgnora ll slgnlflcaLo. L sLaLa lnolLre
approfondlLa la concezlone del lloqooqqlo lo pslcoooollsl. ln parLlcolare, sono sLaLe evldenzlaLe
le raglonl per cul loscolto cllolco debba essere rlvolLo alla connesslone del slgnlflcanLl: ln Lal
modo sara posslblle favorlre l'elaborazlone del pazlenLe sul slgnlflcaLo che lnslsLe nella
rlpeLlzlone slnLomaLlca.
Sln dalla prlma fase della cura ll pazlenLe vlene orlenLaLo verso l'assunzlone dl una
responsablllLa soggeLLlva nella causa della sofferenza del slnLomo. ll faLLo che la pslcoanallsl
soLLollnel la valenza eLlca della sofferenza menLale dlsLlngue ln modo neLLo la cornlce
eplsLemologlca dello sLudlo del caso cllnlco. L proprlo per Lal moLlvo che nell'eplgrafe dl
quesLo lavoro venlva rlporLaLa una frase dl Mlller a proposlLo del legame Lra cllnlca ed eLlca, un
legame che condlzlona da un laLo le scelLe del cllnlco e dall'alLro ll lavoro anallzzanLe del
pazlenLe.


123

8I8LICGkAIIA
AnLlserl, u. (2001). 1eotlo oolflcoto Jel metoJo. 1orlno: uLeL.
8lon, W. 8. (1962). AppteoJete Jollespetleozo. (Lrad. lL. dl A. Armando, . 8lon-1alamo, e
S. 8ordl). 8oma: Armando, 1972.
8oLLlroll, C. (1987). MeLls e lnLerpreLazlone. Aot Aot, 220-221, 127-139.
ualla Chlara, M. L., & 1oraldo dl lrancla, C. (1999). lottoJozlooe ollo fllosoflo Jello scleozo.
8oma-8arl: LaLerza.
uazzl, n., Llnglardl, v., & Colll, A. (a cura dl) (2006). lo tlcetco lo pslcotetoplo. MoJelll e
sttomeotl. Mllano: 8affaello CorLlna LdlLore.
ue CerLeau, M. (1978). slcoanallsl e sLorla. ln 5totlo e pslcoooollsl. 1to scleozo e flozlooe
(pp. 78-97). (Lrad. lL. dl C. 8rlvlo, pref. ed. lL. dl M. 8ancheLLl) 1orlno: 8ollaLl
8orlnghlerl, 2006.
Lco, u. (2002). lectot lo fobolo. lo coopetozlooe lotetptetotlvo oel testl oottotlvl (8 ed.).
Mllano: 8omplanl. (rlma edlzlone: 1979).
Lco, u. (2008). 1tottoto Jl semlotlco qeoetole (19 ed.). Mllano: 8omplanl. (rlma edlzlone:
1973).
lreda, P. (2001). lslcoooollsl e tosslcomoolo. Mllano: 8runo Mondadorl.
kuhn, 1. S. (1970). lo sttottoto Jelle tlvolozlool scleotlflcbe. (Lrad. lL. dl A. Carugo). 1orlno:
Llnaudl, 1999.
Lo Coco, C., & Lo verso, C. (2007). L'eLlca della valuLazlone nello speclflco pslcoLerapeuLlco.
1etoplo fomlllote, 8J, 191-203.
MazzoLLl, M. (2002). lnLroduzlone. ln !. A. Mlller (a cura dl), 1o pool sopete. come sl
ptotlco. lo coovetsozlooe Jl 8oloqoo (pp. 7-8). 8oma: AsLrolablo.
Mlgone, . (2006). 8reve sLorla della rlcerca ln pslcoLerapla. Con una noLa sul conLrlbuLl
lLallanl. ln n. uazzl, v. Llnglardl, & A. Colll (a cura dl), lo tlcetco lo pslcotetoplo.
MoJelll e sttomeotl (pp. 31-48). Mllano: CorLlna.
Mlller, !.-A. (1983). non c'e cllnlca senza eLlca. ln M. 1. Malocchl (a cura dl), ll lovoto Jl
opettoto. let ooo sttoteqlo Jel ptellmlootl (pp. 267-276). Mllano: Angell, 1999.
Mlller, !.-A. (1987). C.S.1. ln M. 1. Malocchl (a cura dl), ll lovoto Jl opettoto. let ooo
sttoteqlo Jel ptellmlootl (pp. 93-99). Mllano: Angell, 1999.
Mlller, !.-A. (1999). 8lologla lacanlana ed evenLl dl corpo. lo lslcoooollsl, 28, (2000), 14-100.
Cgden, 1. P. (2003). Cn sychoanalyLlc WrlLlng. lotetootloool Iootool of lsycboooolysls, 86,
13-29.
alladlno, u., & alladlno, C. (2003). 8teve Jlzloootlo Jl loqlco. 8oma: Caroccl.
8ecalcaLl, M. (2002). cllolco Jel vooto. Aootessle, JlpeoJeoze, pslcosl. Mllano: Angell.
vassallo, n. (2003). 1eotlo Jello cooosceozo. 8oma-8arl: LaLerza.
WlLLgensLeln, L. (1933). klcetcbe fllosoflcbe. (Lrad. lL. dl 8. lovesan e M. 1rlnchero). 1orlno:
Llnaudl, 1983.


123

Psicologie, etnopsicbiatria, sistemi di cura

lleto coppo

plerocoppo[gmall.com

5tefoolo cooslqllete

sLefanla.conslgllere[unlge.lL

A8S1kAC1

Lxcludlng unlversallsm poslLs LhaL ooy weltooscbooooq dlfferenL from ours ls a bulk of more or
less folklorlsLlc bellefs. Powever, boLh Lhe eplsLemologlcal advenLure of WesLern sclences (especlally llfe
sclences and psy" sclences) and Lhe anLhropologlcal daLa collecLed durlng Lhe 20Lh cenLury converge
lnLo lndlcaLlng LhaL Lhls klnd of unlversallsm ls lnadequaLe and unLenable. 1oday, remalnlng loyal Lo Lhe
orlglnal purpose of sclence means granLlng equal eplsLemologlcal dlgnlLy Lo all sysLems of knowledge
and know-how, whlch sprung, llke ours, from speclflc hlsLorlcal condlLlons. Also, lL means belng able Lo
read Lhe coherence of Lhese sysLems noL accordlng Lo our parameLers, buL accordlng Lo Lhe loglc and Lhe
consLralnLs LhaL Lhey lnherlLed from Lhe culLures Lhey belong Lo. Accordlng Lo Lhls analysls, we can flnd
psychologles" ln Lhe plural form wlLhln Lhe boundarles of WesLern sclence. Moreover, mulLlple mlnd
models and LherapeuLlc sysLems are presenL boLh wlLhln and ouLslde Lhe WesLern world. 8ecognlslng
such a plurallLy does noL mean anyLhlng goes", and requlres an eplsLemology worLh Lhe Llmes and
complexlLy we llve ln.

1. LA CkISI DLLL'UNIVLkSALISMC

lmpresa dl un deLermlnaLo gruppo umano ln un deLermlnaLo perlodo della sua sLorla, la
sclenza - fondaLa, come l'lnLera kolo occldenLale, sulla conLrapposlzlone dl naLura e culLura -
mlra a descrlvere la oototo. Lssa sl vuole e sl assume, perLanLo, come sLruLLuralmenLe
unlversale, descrlLLlva dl cl che, del mondo, e lnvarlanLe, lndlpendenLe dall'lnLerpreLazlone,
sganclaLo dal valorl e dalla loro muLevolezza. CuesLa e ancora, ln larga mlsura, l'lmmaglne che
l'CccldenLe sl da della proprla forma dl conoscenza: ma basLa rlpercorrere, anche
dlsLraLLamenLe, le vlclsslLudlnl dell'eplsLemologla novecenLesca per rendersl conLo che sl LraLLa
al megllo dl una pla llluslone, al pegglo dl una manovra ldeologlca.
nlenLe, nella sclenza, ha superaLo lndenne la crlsl del fondamenLl: non la maLemaLlca (vedl
ll Leorema dl Cdel), non la flslca (vedl la sLorla dello laLo fra flslca quanLlsLlca e Leorla della
relaLlvlLa, e l LenLaLlvl dl rlcomporlo), non la blologla (vedl le dlscusslonl sull'evoluzlone e sulla
deflnlzlone sLessa dl bos), non la medlclna (vedl ad esemplo l lavorl dl Ceorges Cangullhem), e
neanche la pslcologla. Ma menLre alcune dlsclpllne sclenLlflche hanno sapuLo meLLere a fruLLo
la crlsl fln da sublLo, assumendo dlreLLamenLe l'onere dell'lncompleLezza e della dlsconLlnulLa,
alLre, plu legaLe alle vlcende alLerne della socleLa e del valorl, sl sono aggrappaLe alla
presunzlone dl unlversallLa come a una carLa dl nobllLa - nobllLa che LuLLavla, nel fraLLempo,

C8lSS Crganlzzazlone lnLerdlsclpllnare Svlluppo e SaluLe
ulparLlmenLo dl Sclenze AnLropologlche, unlverslLa degll SLudl dl Cenova


126

aveva assunLo ln alLre sclenze LuLL'alLre forme, plu lnLeressaLe alle obbllgazlonl lnLerne e alla
produLLlvlLa conceLLuale che non alle rlvendlcazlonl ln merlLo a verlLa unlversall".
1

nel fraLLempo, ma sempre nel xx secolo, sl e asslsLlLo ln CccldenLe al passagglo da sLorle dl
gruppl umanl evolvenLl ln amblenLl motqloolmeote arLefaLLl a sLorle dl gruppl LendenzlalmenLe
omogenelzzaLl dalla domesLlcazlone ad opera dl un amblenLe ptevoleotemeote arLefaLLo e
ablLaLo da mercl. La forma-merce non rlguarda qul solo oggeLLl maLerlall prodoLLl
LecnlcamenLe, ma anche oggeLLl lmmaLerlall e ldeologlcl, e l soggeLLl sLessl.
2
Le llnee
fondamenLall dl quesLo passagglo sono gla sLaLe descrlLLe a meLa novecenLo: negll annl '40 e
'30 Adorno, Anders e Mumford, dall'Amerlca, vedono quello che ln Luropa sl sarebbe vlsLo cosl
chlaramenLe solo un po' plu Lardl, e alle dlagnosl dl uebord e Cesarano sulla macchlna
caplLallsLa c'e ancora poco da agglungere
3
.
Cra, nel nosLro secolo, cl a cul sl asslsLe e lo sLrarlpare lnconLenlblle, ln ognl punLo del
globo, della dlnamlca orlglnaLasl e sperlmenLaLa ln CccldenLe. non sl LraLLa solo
dell'lmposlzlone dl un modello economlco, come nelle anallsl classlche marxlane, ma
dell'lmposlzlone dl una forma dl umanlLa, dl un modo parLlcolare dl sLare al mondo,
caraLLerlzzaLo dal dlvenlre-merce dl ognl oggeLLo e ognl relazlone. CuesLo processo modlflca ln
profondlLa l rapporLl fra umanl e amblenLe, quelll fra sessl e generazlonl, e, ovvlamenLe,
lnconLra reslsLenze che l'ldeologla occldenLale ha buon gloco a descrlvere come sacche dl
arreLraLezza. Ma se alLrove ll woy of llfe occldenLale sl presenLa come lrreslsLlblle lucclcare
delle mercl, e all'lnLerno dell'CccldenLe che l suol effeLLl perversl sono plu evldenLl - almeno a
chl ll voglla vedere. ln quesLo senso, gll svlluppl ereLlcl" nelle sclenze sono alleaLl faLLuall dl
LuLLe le reslsLenze che, ln glro per ll mondo, la macchlna caplLallsLa sl Lrova a lnconLrare.

2. DIALCGC kADICALL

CuesLl faLLorl, Lra gll alLrl, hanno obbllgaLo le sclenze umane appllcaLe a una profonda
revlslone del proprl assunLl eplsLemologlcl, e ln parLlcolare all'auLocrlLlca della loro
presunzlone dl verlLa. Se l'aLLegglamenLo generale davanLl all'lmpegno e al lavoro necessarlo
al dlalogo radlcale con alLrl saperl e alLre dlsclpllne e sollLamenLe dl dlsmlsslone, l'lnLera
perlpezla delle sclenze umane del novecenLo LesLlmonla dl una lunga e pazlenLe rlcerca,
spesso dellcaLa e sLuplLa, presso le culLure e l saper-fare alLrul, orlenLaLa a comprendere la
coerenza e l'lnLelllgenza dl alLrl modl dl vlLa. nella prlma meLa del novecenLo Lale lndaglne era
decllnaLa ln Lermlnl prevalenLemenLe llngulsLlcl: la Leorla dl Saplr-Whorf formallzzava
l'lrrlduclblllLa delle dlverse llngue e la corrlspondenLe eslsLenza dl alLreLLanLl mondl
conceLLuall", clascuno doLaLo della sLessa complesslLa e profondlLa che aLLrlbulamo al nosLro.
CuesLo relaLlvlsmo valorlzzanLe e sLaLo pol accanLonaLo verso meLa secolo, quando
l'oLLlmlsmo della volonLa posL-belllca proponeva - ln modo benlnLenzlonaLo ma un po'
lngenuo - l'accesso dl tottl a un'oolco forma dl benessere, quella dell'CccldenLe
lndusLrlallzzaLo.
Alla flne del novecenLo, ln condlzlonl pollLlche e geopollLlche nuovamenLe crlLlche,
l'lnLeresse per alLrl modl dl essercl nel mondo sl e rlaperLo, e dall'anLropologla della saluLe e
dall'eLnopslchlaLrla sono arrlvaLe nell'amblLo delle dlsclpllne della pslche descrlzlonl accuraLe
dl alLrl modl dl pensare saluLe e malaLLla, dl alLre modallLa dl curare. Sono sLaLe descrlLLe alLre

1
uue auLorl ln parLlcolare possono essere uLlll per la comprenslone dl quesLl svlluppl e delle lmpllcazlonl
proprlamenLe sclenLlflche che essl porLano: 8runo LaLour (1991, 1999) e lsabelle SLengers (1994, 1997).
2
klossowskl 1970, 1lqqun 1999.
3
Adorno 1931, Anders 1936, 1980, Mumford 1936, uebord 1967-1988, Cesarano 1974.
Pieio Coppo, Stefania Consiglieie - Psicologie, etnopsichiatiia, sistemi ui cuia

127

nosologle, rlsalendo pol, a parLlre dal modelll dl malaLLla, al nessl causall e amblenLall che
fanno, ovunque, da sfondo. Al cenLro del slsLeml dl cura" (beoltb systems) messl a punLo dal
varl gruppl, sono sLaLe per esemplo ldenLlflcaLe delle sLrlnghe": lnsleml coesl e coerenLl
deposlLaLl nel cuore delle culLure ln segulLo alla sLorla dl speclflcl gruppl umanl e alla loro
dlaleLLlca con parLlcolarl amblenLl, come quella che lega a una coerenza lnLerna la vlslone del
mondo, gll ldeall dl saluLe, le forme delle malaLLle e le modallLa dl cura. Sono apparse cosl ln
leLLeraLura descrlzlonl accuraLe e profonde dl alLrl modl dl pensare pslche" e prendere ln
carlco l suol dlsLurbl.
4
una volLa lavoraLo, come raccomandava uevereux
3
, ll proprlo
conLroLransferL culLurale, quesLl maLerlall rlvelano al rlcercaLore occldenLale sLraLlflcazlonl
saplenLl e coerenLl, la cul efflcacla pu essere mlsuraLa solo nel conLesLo enLro cul aglscono. Le
lnLerrogazlonl porLaLe qul da alLrl slsLeml e ll lavoro crlLlco da essl messo ln moLo hanno scosso
ln parLlcolare la presunzlone dl verlLa delle dlsclpllne che, per la sLessa caraLLerlsLlca del loro
oggeLLo lmmaLerlale, rlsulLano, nell'amblLo della Sclenza edlflcaLa sul mlsurablle, quanLlflcablle
e rlproduclblle, parLlcolarmenLe esposLe alla rlduzlone, alla vaghezza e al culLure-boundage.
Coloro che hanno preferlLo non sprofondare nelle melme del penslero debole, come l
rappresenLanLl della mlgllore eLnopslchlaLrla, hanno poLuLo cosl meLLersl a lavorare,
flnalmenLe fuorl dalla dlcoLomla obbllgaLa unlversallsmo naLurallzzanLe/relaLlvlsmo
culLurallzzanLe, a un approcclo all'alLerlLa lnsleme aperLo e crlLlco che d'alLro canLo fa capo alla
Lradlzlone del penslero crlLlco occldenLale. L ll dlalogo socraLlco dl Clanglorglo asqualoLLo
(2003) o ll dlalogo dlaloglco dl annlkar (1988). Cuello ln cul:

clascuno degll lnLerlocuLorl e capace dl meLLersl ln gloco radlcalmenLe, ossla rlnunclando alla
preLesa dl verlLa delle proprle oplnlonl, e sl rende ln Lal modo dlsposLo a essere LrasformaLo dalla
praLlca dlaloglca. Con dlalogo" lnLendlamo ovvlamenLe non un sempllce e superflclale confronLo
dl oplnlonl, ma un lnconLro radlcale" dove proprlo le oplnlonl - e l'lnLera gamma dl preconceLLl,
presunzlonl e presupposLl dl cul esse sl allmenLano - vengono lmplacabllmenLe messe ln
dlscusslone, e, spesso, demollLe. (asqualoLLo 2003)
6

L ovvlo che quesLo Llpo dl dlalogo (dlalogo radlcale") non sl avvla nel chluso dl uno scamblo
rlsLreLLo nel Lempo (come 43 mlnuLl dl lezlone) e nello spazlo (per esemplo, un'aula
accademlca), ma passa necessarlamenLe aLLraverso un fare comune, un confronLo che meLLa ln
luce compaLlblllLa e lncompaLlblllLa spesso mascheraLe dalla convenlenza o dalla Lraduzlone
llngulsLlca.
7
La praLlca del dlalogo radlcale" porLaLo denLro le sclenze della pslche obbllga a un
lungo e ferLlle lavorlo, un andare a frugare nell'area a cavallo fra fllosofla, eplsLemologla e
soclologla per afferrare le nosLre caLegorle profonde, quelle che cl fondano culLuralmenLe e
fleLLono ll nosLro penslero e ll nosLro modo dl sLare nel mondo nella manlera speclflca che cl
caraLLerlzza.
8
L la dlnamlca che raccomandava LrnesLo de MarLlno a proposlLo dell'eLnologla:

4
vedl per esemplo, uevereux 1969, Zemplenl 1968, Coppo 1990.
3
uevereux 1967.
6
Sl veda anche, sulla comparazlone con la Lradlzlone zen, asqualoLLo 1990.
7
Come nell'esperlenza dl aLLlvlLa LerapeuLlche lnLegraLe, dove un rappresenLanLe della pslcologla o
pslchlaLrla vlslLa lnsleme a un LerapeuLa dl alLra Lradlzlone ll pazlenLe (Mall, rogeLLo Medlclna
1radlzlonale Mall Senegal, www.medLrad.orlss.org).
8
ln parLlcolare, valgono qul l rlferlmenLl a uescola (2003), monumenLale anallsl delle dlverse manlere
culLurall dl rlparLlre ll mondo, che evldenzla la speclflclLa dl quella, per nol sollLamenLe lndlscuLlblle, che
separa naLura e culLura, agll scavl conceLLuall e al "lavoro dl specchlo" dl speclallsLl doLLl dl alLre culLure
(vedl ad esemplo l'opera dl lranols !ulllen (1989, 1990) sul dlverso modo d'lnLendere ll movlmenLo che
sogglace al dlvenlre fra orlenLe e occldenLe), e al lavorl dl loucaulL, e pol del foucaulLlanl, sulla sLorlclLa
della verlLa e del modl della soggeLLlvazlone (8uLler 1997, loucaulL 2001, 2009).


128

L'eLnologo e chlamaLo [.] a eserclLare una epoche eLnograflca che conslsLe nell'lnaugurare, soLLo
lo sLlmolo dl deLermlnaLl comporLamenLl culLurall allenl, un confronLo slsLemaLlco ed espllclLo Lra
la sLorla dl cul quesLl documenLl sono documenLo e la sLorla culLurale occldenLale che e
sedlmenLaLa nelle caLegorle dell'eLnografo lmplegaLo per osservarll, descrlverll e lnLerpreLarll:
quesLa dupllce LemaLlzzazlone della sLorla proprla e della sLorla allena e condoLLa nel proposlLo dl
ragglungere quel fondo unlversalmenLe umano ln cul ll proprlo" e l'"alleno" sono sorpresl come
due posslblllLa sLorlche dl essere uomo, quel fondo, dunque, a parLlre dal quale anche nol"
avremmo poLuLo lmboccare la sLrada che conduce all'umanlLa allena che cl sLa davanLl nello
scandalo lnlzlale dell'lnconLro eLnograflco. ln quesLo senso l'lnconLro eLnograflco cosLlLulsce
l'occaslone per ll plu radlcale esame dl cosclenza che sla posslblle all'uomo occldenLale. (ue
MarLlno 1977, p. 391)

nelle dlsclpllne della pslche ll lavoro crlLlco, plu soLLerraneo e, per cosl dlre, meno speLLacolare
rlspeLLo a quello delle sclenze flslche, glunge solo oggl a plena maLurazlone - ma l suol fruLLl
Lardlvl poLrebbero essere prezlosl nell'lnverno che sl preflgura. Alcunl faLLorl generall hanno
lncrlnaLo anche qul, Lra '900 e 2000, la presunzlone unlversallsLlca. ua un laLo, c'e sLaLo un
lavoro crlLlco condoLLo da speclallsLl all'lnLerno delle dlverse dlsclpllne della pslche, lavoro
sosLenuLo e allmenLaLo dall'esLerno dalla "genLe comune" soLLo aLLacco nelle loro eslsLenze da
parLe della razlonallLa economlca, del razlonallsmo sclenLlsLa, del domlnlo delle proLesl
Lecnologlche e delle loro appllcazlonl LerapeuLlche" al dolore morale" e alla sofferenza
menLale". uall'alLro, la cascaLa dl fenomenl relaLlvl alla coslddeLLa globallzzazlone" ha
permesso l'lncroclo sLruLLurale, lneludlblle, con alLrl e dlversl slsLeml culLurall, largamenLe
lrrlduclblll al nosLro. 1ale lncroclo e sLaLo spesso Lraglco, funzlonale all'esLenslone del domlnlo
delle nazlonl occldenLall sul planeLa, ma anche, ha faLLo sl che porLaLorl dl modl dlfferenLl dl
sLare al mondo lnconLrassero coloro che, all'lnLerno dell'CccldenLe sLesso, rappresenLano
lsLanze dlfferenLl da quelle domlnanLl. Le vocl alLre" rlspeLLo all'CccldenLe porLano con loro
modl e poLenze speclflche che non e plu posslblle, oggl, sopprlmere o lgnorare: non per un
asLraLLo rlspeLLo del dlverso" o adeslone a un lnsulso relaLlvlsmo culLurale, ma perche hanno
conqulsLaLo, anche sul Lerreno delle dlsclpllne, ll dlrlLLo a farsl ascolLare e perche solo l'lncroclo
delle plurallLa serba ln se la posslblllLa non uLoplca dl un alLro mondo posslblle (lgnarre &
SLengers 2003).

3. SICCLCGIA C SICCLCGIL?

er sagglare la porLaLa dl quesLa domanda, comlnclamo con una quesLlone lnLerna, dl
eplsLemologla ln senso classlco. nell'area delle sclenze umane appllcaLe sono presenLl non
una, ma molLe pslcologle, clascuna lnLesa come un coerenLe apparaLo Leorlco e operaLlvo: dal
cognlLlvlsmo alla pslcanallsl, dalla pslcologla della CesLalL a quella umanlsLlca, dalla
bloenergeLlca al comporLamenLlsmo. CuesLa molLepllclLa sl pu gla conflgurare come un prlmo
puzzle composlLo dl leLLure dlverse relaLlve a parLl dlverse dl un medeslmo oggeLLo.
1endenzlalmenLe, l'lnsleme delle leLLure poLrebbe andare a rlcosLlLulre l'unlLa dell'oggeLLo -
non fosse che, ln quesLo caso, l dlversl approccl uLlllzzano LuLLl un medeslmo background
meLodologlco, un medeslmo llnguagglo dl base comune. Lsse Lrovano la loro slnLesl, la loro
clfra, nella genealogla delle ldeologle (nelle Leorle) degll osservaLorl, varlanLl dl un'ldenLlca
modallLa conosclLlva: quella, ln senso amplo, dell'CccldenLe sclenLlflco. er quesLa raglone,
esse rlescono a orlglnare solo delle rappresenLazlonl dl paesaggl dlversl, LuLLl vlsLl, per,
aLLraverso la medeslma lenLe. ln ognl caso, quesLa plurallLa - pur flglla dl un unlco padre - apre
gla a un plurallsmo anLagonlsLa all'unlversallsmo precedenLe, aperLo alla negozlazlone fra

129

slsLeml e alla loro compresenza, e LendenLe, ln deflnlLlva, a demollre la naLurallzzazlone
dell'oggeLLo pslche" e la sua onLologlzzazlone.
CuesLa compresenza dl dlversl sguardl lmpone, gla all'lnLerno della sclenza, dl Lrovare una
deflnlzlone del Lermlne pslche" che sla ln grado dl comprendere ll processo sLorlco che lo ha
prodoLLo, la lunghlsslma evoluzlone culLurale che fa sl che qul, da nol, sl raglonl ln Lermlnl dl
naLura vs. culLura, dl pslche vs. soma. una volLa comprese le raglonl sLorlche dl quesLo
pecullare moJos peosooJl, sl LraLLa dl fare una scelLa - scelLa che solo per paura o per
lnLeresse pu essere conslderaLa come exLrasclenLlflca, glacche meLLe a Lema gll assunLl sLessl,
fondaLlvl, dell'lmpresa conosclLlva naLa ln CccldenLe e noLa come sclenza". La scelLa sl comple
fra una poslzlone escloslvo, che acceLLa una sola deflnlzlone dl clascun enLe, ovvero quella
proprla al mondo della sclenza cosmopollLa e unlversallsLa, e una poslzlone lmpllcotlvo, che
consenLe dl meLLere sullo sLesso plano dl dlgnlLa eplsLemologlca le dlverse pslcologle ma anche
gll alLrl slsLeml conceLLuall e operaLlvl. La prlma scelLa, nel suo unlversallsmo rlvendlcaLo,
prospeLLa l'orlzzonLe della guerra o, quanLomeno, dell'Aoscbloss: sl LraLLera qulndl dl coopLare
l poverelll che ancora credono agll splrlLl a una vlslone flnalmenLe moderna che, con grande
dlslncanLo, crede all'lnconsclo e all'Ldlpo. La seconda scelLa, lnvece, fedele alla pslche" come
dlmenslone lmmaLerlale degll umanl, apre alla posslblllLa del confllLLo e della negozlazlone,
ovvero alla posslblllLa del dlalogo radlcale, e colnvolge ll rlcercaLore, lo lmpllco - sla come
rappresenLanLe dl una culLura che come soggeLLo - nel processo dl Lrasformazlone.
Sla deLLo ancora una volLa, e a chlare leLLere, a scanso dl equlvocl: acceLLare l slsLeml degll
alLrl non slgnlflca, come nel relaLlvlsmo da saloLLo, smeLLere dl farsl e fare domande e lasclare
che ll mondo vada a roLoll come megllo crede. Al conLrarlo, ll Jloloqo toJlcole slgnlflca andare
a vedere come funzlonano l slsLeml alLrul, ln quall clrcosLanze, aLLraverso quall dlsposlLlvl, da
quale vlslone dell'uomo dlpendono e quale conLrlbulscono a cosLrulre, quall zone esplorano e
con quall eslLl.
L'eLnopslchlaLrla ha preso quesLa seconda sLrada, e sl Lrova oggl a operare ln una zona dove
la sempllce conceLLuallzzazlone della pslcbe e problemaLlca. ln molLe culLure non eslsLe
Lraduzlone posslblle, a volLe, l'area semanLlca dl pslche" pu essere LradoLLa aLLraverso ll
rlcorso a una molLepllclLa dl vocaboll, alLre volLe, rlspeLLo a dlverse conceLLuallzzazlonl,
pslche" rlsulLa vocabolo Lroppo rlduLLlvo. Lo sforzo dl Lraduzlone, LuLLavla, non conduce a un
ooo sepoltot e permeLLe, semmal, un guadagno dl conoscenza, obbllgando a scavare LanLo le
alLrul quanLo le nosLre caLegorle. ln generale, dunque, l'eLnopslchlaLrla uLlllzza oggl la parola
pslche" dandole un senso plu vlclno a quello preomerlco (dove e sofflo vlLale, resplro che
accompagna e sosLlene ll vlvenLe)
9
che all'"anlma" lndagaLa della Leologla, e lndlca con essa
l'lnLero speLLro semanLlco che sl rlferlsce alle componenLl lmmaLerlall e lnvlslblll delle persone.
Alla molLlpllcazlone delle pslcologle" sl e qulndl agglunLa, negll ulLlml decennl, l'emerslone
dl slsLeml alLrl dl concezlone del laLo lmmaLerlale degll umanl e dl lavoro su dl esso,
provenlenLl da aree esLerne alla Sclenza e all'CccldenLe. CuesLl slsLeml sl nomlnano e
dellmlLano ln modo dlfferenLe rlspeLLo al nosLrl, e LalvolLa non sl nomlnano affaLLo, polche non
sl dellmlLano polche non sl dellmlLano come saper-fare separaLl.
10

9
er ll percorso che dalla psycb omerlca ha porLaLo alla pslche della pslcologla e pslchlaLrla, sl veda per
esemplo vernanL 1963, vegeLLl 1983, Coppo 1998.
10
vedlamo un esemplo. AlLrove le praLlche che nol conceLLuallzzlamo come "medlclna" somlgllano a
volLe a un mlsLo fra dlvlnazlone, Lerapla e pollLlca soclale. er quesLo campo semanLlco non dlsponlamo
dl nessuna parola unlvoca e conLlnulamo, foote Je mleox, a usare ll vocabolo "medlclna", che LuLLavla
rlschla dl oscurare deflnlLlvamenLe quello che gla nell'osservazlone rlsulLava poco chlaro. SlngleLon
(2007) fa noLare, ad esemplo, che ln alcune aree culLurall afrlcane cl che nol chlamlamo "guarlLore"
sarebbe megllo deflnlLo come "chlaroveggenLe", nel senso eLlmologlco dl "colul che deve vedercl


130

L'lnsleme dl LuLLe quesLe conslderazlonl fa cenno a una Leorla dell'umano che e bene, a
quesLo punLo, rendere espllclLa, e che sLa a fondamenLo dl LuLLo quanLo segue. Lssa fa capo
all'anLropologla fllosoflca della prlma meLa del novecenLo, ma l Leml che conneLLe
aLLraversano, soLLo dlverse forme, LuLLo lo svlluppo del penslero occldenLale. ln slnLesl
esLrema, la Lesl dl fondo pu essere espressa cosl: omool sl Jlveoto. L la quesLlone, scoLLanLe,
della naLura umana, dl cl che fa dl un esemplare dl nomo sopleos un lndlvlduo umano.

4. DIVLN1AkL UMANI

Secondo alcunl (e ln parLlcolare, secondo un cerLo modello sclenLlflco) la conflgurazlone della
specle, la blologla umana, sarebbe sosLanzlalmenLe unlversale per forme e conLenuLl,
necessarla e sufflclenLe alla produzlone dl un umano adulLo doLaLo dl uso del llnguagglo,
razlonallLa, sLruLLurazlone emoLlva eLc. La culLura, ln quesLo scenarlo, non farebbe alLro che
colorare dlversamenLe un medeslmo quadro, e le medeslme forme che s'lnconLrano ln un
posLo dovranno necessarlamenLe rlLrovarsl anche da ognl alLra parLe.
11
ln quesL'lpoLesl e
posslblle lmmaglnare una sorLa dl oJolto ossoloto, eslLo del mlgllor processo dl cresclLa
lmmaglnablle: quello che produce ll mlnor numero dl lnflesslonl culLurall e che lascla emergere
al masslmo grado le caraLLerlsLlche naLurall degll esserl umanl (nell'lpoLesl oLLlmlsLa, lo
8ousseau, oppure, nell'lpoLesl pesslmlsLa hobbeslana o freudlana, quello che plu abllmenLe e
con mlnore sofferenza Llene soLLo conLrollo le pulslonl naLurall).
l daLl dell'anLropologla blologlca e dl quella culLurale, LuLLavla, lndlcano alLro e l'lpoLesl che
qul sl sosLlene e che essere umanl, far parLe dell'umanlLa, non slgnlflca solo essere membro
della specle nomo sopleos. non c'e conLlnulLa fra l'apparLenenza blologlca alla specle e cl che
conslderlamo come generlcamenLe umano: per arrlvare a essere umanl blsogna aLLraversare
un lungo processo dl umanlzzazlone. laLLe salve alcune caraLLerlsLlche fln Lroppo banall
relaLlve alla forma e al funzlonamenLo generlco degll umanl, forse ll plu lmporLanLe unlversale
blologlco della specle e una oototole losofflcleozo del corredo blo-geneLlco a produrre un
umano adulLo: cl che sl pu conslderare unlversale a llvello dl specle ooo bosto a produrre un
umano adulLo. C'e uno scarLo fra la nosLra blologla e ll nosLro essere umanl, come se la forma
blologlca dl nomo sopleos comporLasse una paradossale sospenslone delle sLesse
deLermlnazlonl blologlche, un'aperLura al mondo che rlchlede, per poLer prosegulre col
processo dl lndlvlduazlone, l'lmmerslone del vlvenLe blologlco ln una culLura.
12
1ale aperLura e
sLaLa lnLerpreLaLa per lungo Lempo come deflclL (l'uomo anlmale mancaLo, blpede lmplume
eLc.), l cul vuoLl sarebbero colmaLl per vla culLurale. 8ecenLemenLe, sono sLaLe proprlo le
rlcerche ln campo neurologlco a permeLLere dl superare ll modello deflclLarlo" e dl elaborare
un modello, plu consono al daLl e alle osservazlonl provenlenLl dalle sclenze umane, dl
aperLura e dl permanenLe lncompleLezza, ln cul la culLura, lungl dal rlemplre, sfronda una
prlmlLlva sovrabbondanza, plasma per poLaLura anzlche per agglunLa.
13

nell'aperLura blologlca che cl caraLLerlzza a llvello dl specle, e la dlmenslone colleLLlva a fare
dl nol degll lndlvldul aLLraverso un lungo lavoro che non pu non essercl, pena la non

chlaro". ll suo complLo non e quello dl curare una malaLLla, ma dl rlmeLLere ordlne nel dlsordlne del
mondo, dlscernendone le cause.
11
vedl ad esemplo, ln amblLo pslcologlco, LuLLa la dlscusslone sulla presunLa unlversallLa del complesso
dl Ldlpo, e le rlelaborazlonl che essa ha reso posslblll.
12
Cehlen 1978, vlrno 2003.
13
8emoLLl 2003, lavole & Allovlo 2003.

131

sopravvlvenza del plccolo o quanLomeno ll suo svlluppo dlmldlaLo.
14
ln Lermlnl dl anLropologla
fllosoflca, ll neonaLo umano arrlva sulla Lerra ln una slLuazlone dl LoLale lneLLlLudlne e qulndl ln
condlzlonl onLologlche dl perlcolo esLremo: se non vlene lmmedlaLamenLe accolLo da una
comunlLa, non solo non svlluppa le facolLa proprle dell'umanlLa ma, plu radlcalmenLe, non
sopravvlve.
13
La necesslLa lneludlblle dell'anLropopolesl e uno del pochlsslml daLl davvero
unlversall rlcavablll dall'anLropologla: l dlversl modl dell'umanlLa non sono accomunaLl da
nessun parLlcolare conLenuLo culLurale, da nessuna naLura umana speclflca che ne
predeLermlnl le forme, da nessuna cosLanLe culLurale, da nlenLe che non sla la necesslLa dl
dlvenLare umanl lungo forme sLorlche speclflche. CuesLo slgnlflca che l'"uomo dl naLura",
l'"uomo ln generale", ll mero eslLo del programma blologlco, ooo eslste, che per produrre un
adulLo e sLreLLamenLe necessarlo che un plccolo dl nomo sopleos venga accolLo e plasmaLo da
una culLura, che l'aperLo che lo caraLLerlzza Lrovl conflnl, forma, conLenlmenLo. ln quesLa
lpoLesl, le dlverse culLure non sono rlvesLlmenLl esLrlnsecl dl una medeslma naLura, ma modl
dlfferenLl dl plasmare un vlvenLe alLamenLe poLenzlale, decllnazlonl dlverse dl una medeslma
opettoto eslsLenzlale, dl una blologla che resLa, per cosl dlre, ln sospeso e che, ln quanLo Lale,
espone conLlnuamenLe al rlschlo.
16

ll lavoro prlmarlo dl clascuna culLura e dunque quello dl garanLlre la presenza degll lndlvldul
che ne fanno parLe meLLendo ln forma le poLenzlallLa che ll nosLro programma blologlco lascla
aperLe. Cl e faLLo cosLruendo del rlparl (l legaml fondanLl" dl 8runo LaLour o la conLlnulLa
culLurale" dl Chandler e Lalonde
17
) che permeLLono al soggeLLl dl non sperlmenLare plu come
angosclose o parallzzanLl slLuazlonl che poLrebbero alLrlmenLl essere morLall. Sl LraLLa qulndl dl
qualcosa ben dlverso da una colorlLura agglunLa sopra una naLura maLerlale vera e
lmmodlflcablle: nel processo che ognl culLura meLLe ln aLLo per umanlzzare l proprl membrl ne
va non solo delle ldee e delle credenze, ma degll sLessl parameLrl blologlcl. non solo le LesLe
vengono plasmaLe, la culLura enLra nel corpl: modlflca le reazlonl flslologlche, sLruLLura l
senLlmenLl, ablLua a un reglme parLlcolare rendendo lmpervl LuLLl gll alLrl reglml posslblll, plega
a deLermlnaLl lavorl e a deLermlnaLl sforzl, deLermlna le vle e l modl del dolore e del placere,
aLLlva alcune plsLe lasclandone sllenLl alLre.
ln quesLo quadro, ln cul neppure la blologla reslsLe lmmuLaLa al lavoro dl plasmazlone, e
evldenLe che le forme della pslche non possono, neanche per lpoLesl, essere conslderaLe come
unlversall. Cgnl culLura produce umanl che le sono compaLlblll secondo llnee speclflche che
possono essere lnLegralmenLe noLe solo a chl le condlvlde, le esplora, lavora alla loro
permanenza o al loro camblamenLo. er quesLo, come propone l'eLnopslchlaLrla a cul qul sl fa
rlferlmenLo, l LerapeuLl locall, lnlzlaLl alla culLura del gruppo ln cul operano, devono essere
conslderaLl dal professlonlsLl della pslche come alLreLLanLl colleghl, esperLl dl un modo
speclflco dl cosLrulre l'umano, alleaLl nell'lmpresa rlschlosa dl farsl carlco dl una sofferenza che,
sa ha una comune radlce fllo-onLogeneLlca, sl decllna pol anche ln una mlrlade dl raml
onLogeneLlco-sLorlcl, clascuno col suo orlenLamenLo, le sue fraglllLa, le sue curvaLure.

14
noLlamo, dl passagglo, che quesLa caraLLerlsLlca non e escluslva della specle nomo sopleos, che la
condlvlde con le specle facenLl parLe del coslddeLLl "mammlferl superlorl" (prlmaLl, elefanLl, mammlferl
marlnl eLc.): LuLLe quesLe forme vlvenLl hanno blsogno dl accudlre l plccoll per un perlodo plu o meno
prolungaLo, dl farne degll adulLl LramlLe un processo dl acculLurazlone. Cl che e eccezlonale nella nosLra
specle e la duraLa delle cure parenLall, la loro lnLenslLa, ll grado della loro necesslLa per lo svlluppo del
plccolo e la noLevole "premaLurlLa onLogeneLlca" del bamblnl alla nasclLa.
13
lmpresslonanLl, a quesLo proposlLo, l daLl sulla morLallLa del neonaLl lsLlLuzlonallzzaLl e sulla slndrome
del nanlsmo da deprlvazlone affeLLlva (Cardner 1972).
16
ue MarLlno 1977.
17
Chandler & Lalonde 1998.


132

er caplre gll alLrl", de MarLlno (vedl sopra) conslgllava dl rlsallre al fondo ln cul nol e gll
alLrl fosslmo sorpresl come due posslblllLa sLorlche dl essere uomo. luLLosLo che verso una
sbrlgaLlva omologazlone/lbrldazlone, con perdlLa dl dlverslLa culLurale e qulndl anche dl
posslblllLa dl conoscenza e lnLervenLo, le alLerlLa, le lmposslblllLa dl Lraduzlone lmmedlaLa e le
dlverslLa delle praLlche prevenLlve e LerapeuLlche dovrebbero essere rlspeLLaLe, osservaLe e
sLudlaLe nella loro coerenza lnLerna, emlca". C'e una dlaleLLlca sempre complessa, spesso
rafflnaLlsslma, che lega le sLrlnghe" conceLLuall, le sLorle e gll amblenLl. Saperl e saper-fare sl
deposlLano ovunque, e ovunque sono oggeLLo dl lavoro conLlnuo, dl rlmanegglamenLo, dl
negozlazlonl. nessuno sLa fuorl dalla sLorla - e non perche l'espanslone dell'CccldenLe abbla
lnflne LlraLo denLro al Lempo sLorlco anche l plu recalclLranLl, ma perche l'essere sLesso degll
lndlvldul umanl e sLorlco: esposLo a, e plasmaLo da, oo Lempo, oo luogo, oo modo dl sLare al
mondo.
Le pslcologle" che sl rlferlscono alla Sclenza e quelle che sl rlferlscono a saperl e saper-fare
alLrl dovrebbero perLanLo essere conslderaLe allo sLesso plano dl dlgnlLa eplsLemologlca e
messe nello sLesso modo alla prova. La prova sLessa, pol, non dovrebbe conslsLere nello
squallflcare gll alLrl saperl, ma nella capaclLa dl rlspeLLare l vlncoll che clascun sapere,
auLonomamenLe, sl e daLo
18
: non sl possono lmporre ad alLrl le proprle scelLe e l proprl vlncoll
plu dl quanLo sl possano lmporre loro l nosLrl anLenaLl.
19
L rlchledere ad alLrl le sLesse fedelLa a
cul abblamo scelLo dl sogglacere nol equlvale, a llvello loglco, a chledere a LuLLl lndlsLlnLamenLe
dl essere fedele al proprlo conluge, quello che ool abblamo sposaLo.

S. kCSL11IVL

una slmlle lnLenzlone e un slmlle lavoro poLrebbero, ln prospeLLlva, produrre qualcosa dl
dlverso da lbrldl o potcbwotk, ed essere ben alLrlmenLl efflcacl. nel potcbwotk ln cul a volLe sl
rlsolvono l LenLaLlvl lnLerdlsclpllnarl e lnLerculLurall, gll elemenLl glusLapposLl, malamenLe cuclLl
fra loro, sono assal spesso fruLLo dl sbrlgaLlve Lraduzlonl/LradlmenLl: la nosLra medlclna
accanLo alla medlclna degll ?anomamo, la nosLra pslcologla accanLo alla pslcologla del
8ambara, e cosl vla, ma, come abblamo vlsLo, le nosLre caLegorle etlcbe (dl osservaLorl esLernl
a una culLura) non corrlspondono affaLLo a quelle emlcbe (dl coloro che Lale culLura
rappresenLano e fanno). 8lsogna allora LenLare per davvero ll salLo raccomandaLo da ue
MarLlno e rlconoscere lnflne che l'lnsleme delle culLure e un reperLorlo dl speclflche posslblllLa
orlglnall, generaLe ln epoche, amblenLl e sLorle speclflcl, e che clascuna dl esse ha ln comune
con le alLre la Lenslone verso la coerenza lnLerna, e la necesslLa e l'lnLenzlone, generlcamenLe
umane, dalla quale e naLa.
1uLLe le culLure hanno blsogno dl meLLere ln forma" l proprl membrl LramlLe ll processo dl
anLropopolesl, LuLLe hanno blsogno dl gesLlre ll dlsordlne (dlsordlne menLale, soclale, del clcll
naLurall, del clcll dl vlLa eLc.) e dl rlsLablllre l'ordlne, LuLLe sono sempre, lnevlLabllmenLe,

18
SLengers 1997.
19
un esemplo, naLo nell'amblenLe del ceotte ueveteox dl arlgl. CaLherlne Crandsard ha sLudlaLo le
loglche dl apparLenenza dl ebrel e crlsLlanl, per comprendere l probleml speclflcl del dlscendenLl dl
maLrlmonl mlsLl. ln slnLesl esLrema: menLre sl e ebrel per nasclLa (per blologla, sl poLrebbe dlre anche), e
la cosa non ha granche a che fare con la fede, sl e lnvece crlsLlanl solo per scelLa: una scelLa che
dev'essere rlconfermaLa dl volLa ln volLa e che e sempre ln quesLlone. ueLLo alLrlmenLl, menLre sl pu
scegllere dl non essere plu crlsLlanl, scegllere dl non essere plu ebrel equlvarrebbe, nella loglca ebralca, a
scegllere dl non conoscere plu la proprla llngua madre. La cosa plu sLrana, per l'CccldenLe crlsLlano, e
rendersl conLo che, dl LuLLe, e la nosLra loglca quella sLrana, mlnorlLarla: la gran parLe degll umanl adoLLa
lnfaLLl una loglca dl apparLenenza analoga a quella ebralca.

133

esposLe alla Lrasformazlone e quesLa pu essere, come la sLorla dlmosLra amplamenLe, LanLo
evoluLlva quanLo lnvoluLlva.
20
ln quesLe necesslLa generall e generlcamenLe umane sLa l'unlco
unlversallsmo posslblle, come clascuna culLura faccla fronLe a quesLl complLl, pol, dlpende dalla
sua sLorla, dalle condlzlonl ln cul sl e svlluppaLa, dalle plsLe che ha scelLo dl esplorare e da
quelle che sono rlmasLe ln sordlna.
non c'e posLo, ln quesLo quadro, per scomunlche legaLe a presupposLl monoLelsLlcl (ovvero,
all'ldea secondo cul la nosLra culLura e la sola leglLLlma e deslderablle), ma solo per vlncoll eLlcl.
8lconoscere le necesslLa generlcamenLe umane" alla base dl LuLLe le culLure permeLLe dl
caplre l'lnLelllgenza delle Leorle e del dlsposlLlvl speclflcl, e quesLa comprenslone, a sua volLa,
permeLLe dl sosLenere e dare forza al processl LrasformaLlvl delle Leorle e del dlsposlLlvl sLessl,
rendendoll senslblll al processl ln corso, al nuovl eslsLenLl ln Lrasformazlone e alle posslblllLa
reall - confllLLuall anzlche guerresche - che sl aprono.
Sl LraLLa qulndl dl favorlre e accelerare ll passagglo da una globallzzazlone omologanLe e
rlduLLlva, prodoLLa dalla loglca delle cose, a una plurallLa seLacclaLa, dlverslflcanLe e generaLlva,
eslLo del lavoro e dell'lnLenzlone umana.

8I8LICGkAIIA
Adorno, 1. W. (1931). Mlolmo motollo. MeJltozlool Jello vlto offeso. (Lrad. lL. dl 8. Solml).
1orlno: Llnaudl, 1994.
Anders, C. (1936). l'oomo ootlpooLo. 1. cooslJetozlool soll'oolmo oell'epoco Jello secooJo
tlvolozlooe loJosttlole. (Lrad. lL. dl L. uallaplccola). 1orlno: 8ollaLl 8orlnghlerl, 2003.
Anders, C. (1980). l'oomo ootlpooto. 2. 5ollo Jlsttozlooe Jello vlto oell'epoco Jello tetzo
tlvolozlooe loJosttlole. (Lrad. lL. dl A. M. Morl). 1orlno: 8ollaLl 8orlnghlerl, 2007.
8uLler, !. (1997). lo vlto pslcblco Jel potete. 1eotle Jello soqqettlvozlooe e
Jell'ossoqqettomeoto. (Lrad. lL. dl L. 8onlnl e C Scaramuzzl). 8oma: MelLeml, 2003.
Cesarano, C. (1974). Moooole Jl soptovvlveozo. 8arl: uedalo.
Chandler, M., & Lalonde, C. (1998). CulLural ConLlnulLy as a Pedge AgalnsL Sulclde ln
Canada's llrsL naLlons. 1tooscoltotol lsycblotty, J5(2), 191-219.
Coppo, . (1998). lossoqql. lemeotl Jl ctltlco Jell'oottopoloqlo occlJeotole. Mllano: Collbrl.
Coppo, . (a cura dl) (1990). ssol Je lsycbopotboloqle uoqoo. erugla: C8M1/SM1M.
ue MarLlno, L. (1977). lo floe Jel mooJo. coottlboto oll'ooollsl Jelle opocollssl coltotoll.
1orlno: Llnaudl.
uebord, C. (1967). lo soclet Jello spettocolo. commeototl sollo soclet Jello spettocolo.
(Lrad. lL dl C. lreccero e u. SLrumla). Mllano: 8aldlnl & CasLoldl, 1997.
uescola, . (2003). lot-Jel ootote et coltote. arlgl: Calllmard.
uevereux, C. (1967). ue l'ooqolsse lo metboJe Joos les scleoces Jo compottemeot. arlgl :
Aubler, 1998.

20
Slronl (1999) noLa, ad esemplo, che la dlffuslone della LorLura e connessa, almeno nell'ulLlmo secolo,
al dlsfarsl del legaml soclall e all'lnsLablllLa delle forme dl vlLa assoclaLlva (o anche, usando ll vocabolarlo
demarLlnlano, all'lnfraglllrsl della presenza nel mondo degll lndlvldul).


134

uevereux, C. (1969). tboopsycblottle Jes loJleos Mobove. arlgl: Les Lmpcheurs de
enser en 8ond, 1996.
lavole, A., & Allovlo, S. (2002). lasLlclLa e lncompleLezza Lra eLnografle e neurosclenze. ln
l. 8emoLLl (a cura dl), lotme Jl omoolt (pp. 167-206). Mllano: 8runo Mondadorl.
loucaulL, M. (2001). l'etmeoeotlco Jel soqqetto. cotso ol collqe Je ltooce (1981-1982).
(Lrad. lL. dl M. 8erLanl). Mllano: lelLrlnelll, 2003.
loucaulL, M. (2009). le cootoqe Je lo vtlt. le qoovetoemeot Je sol et Jes oottes ll. coots
oo collqe Je ltooce, 1984. arlgl: Calllmard-Seull.
Cardner, L. l. (1972). nanlsmo da deprlvazlone. le 5cleoze, 50, 72-78.
Cehlen, A. (1978). l'oomo. lo soo oototo e ll soo posto oel mooJo. (Lrad. lL. dl C. Malnoldl).
Mllano: lelLrlnelll, 1983.
!ulllen, l. (1989). ltocesso o cteozlooe. lottoJozlooe ol peosleto Jel lettetotl cloesl. (Lrad. lL.
dl L. aslnl). arma: raLlche, 1991.
!ulllen, l. (1990). LecLure ou pro[ecLlon: CommenL llre (auLremenL) Wang luzhl?. toJes
cbloolses, 9(2), 131-149.
klossowskl, . (1970). lo moooole vlvoote. arlgl: ayoL & 8lvages, 1997.
LaLour, 8. (1991). Noo slomo mol stotl moJetol. 5oqqlo Jl oottopoloqlo slmmettlco. (Lrad. lL.
dl C. Lagomarslno). Mllano: LleuLhera, 1993.
LaLour, 8. (1999). lolltlcbe Jello oototo. let ooo Jemoctozlo Jelle scleoze. (Lrad. lL dl M.
Cregorlo). Mllano: 8affaello CorLlna, 2000.
LaLour, 8. (2001). laLLure/fraLLure: dalla nozlone dl reLe a quella dl aLLaccamenLo. l loqll Jl
Okl55, 25, 11-31.
Mumford, L. (1936) les 1toosfotmotloos Je lbomme. arlgl: Lncyclopedle des nulsances,
2008
annlkar, 8. (1988). wbot ls compototlve lbllosopby compotloq. ln C. !. Larson & L.
ueuLsch (Lds.), lotetptetloq Actoss 8oooJotles. New ssoys lo compototlve
lbylosopby. rlnceLon: rlnceLon unlverslLy ress.
asqualoLLo, C. (1990). ulalogo socraLlco e dlalogo zen. lotomlto, J6, 22-24.
asqualoLLo, C. (2003). ualla prospeLLlva della fllosofla comparaLa all'orlzzonLe della
fllosofla lnLerculLurale. 5lmpleqoJl, 10(26), 3-27.
lgnarre, ., & SLengers, l. (2003). lo sotcelletle copltollste. ltotlpoes Je Jseovotemeot.
arlgl: La uecouverLe.
8emoLLl, l. (2002). lnLroduzlone. ln l. 8emoLLl (a cura dl), lotme Jl omoolt (pp. 1-31).
Mllano: 8runo Mondadorl.
SlngleLon, M. (2007). ualla slchlaLrla (nosLra) aLLraverso l'eLno-pslchlaLrla (loro) alle eLno-
pslchlaLrle (per LuLLl). per flnlre al dl la dl ognl pslchlaLrla!. l loqll Jl Okl55, 27/28, 93-
122.
Slronl, l. (1999) letsecototl e vlttlme. 5ttoteqle Jl vloleozo. (Lrad. lL. dl L. dal ra). Mllano:
lelLrlnelll, 2001.

133

SLengers, l. (1994). La Crande parLlzlone. l loqll Jl Okl55, 29/J0, (2008), 47-61.
SLengers, l. (1997). cosmopolltlpoes, vol. vll, loot eo flolt ovec lo toltooce. arlgl: La
uecouverLe - Les Lmpcheurs de enser en 8ond.
1lqqun (a cura dl) (1999). lemeotl pet ooo teotlo Jello Ieooe-lllle. 1orlno: 8ollaLl
8orlnghlerl, 2003.
vegeLLl, M. (a cura dl) (1983). lottoJozlooe olle coltote ootlcbe. 2. ll sopete Jeqll ootlcbl.
1orlno: 8ollaLl 8orlnghlerl.
vernanL, !. . (1963). Mlto e peosleto ptesso l Ctecl. 5toJl Jl pslcoloqlo stotlco. (Lrad. lL dl M.
8omano e 8. 8ravo). 1orlno: Llnaudl, 1978.
vlrno, . (2003). OoooJo ll vetbo sl fo cotoe. lloqooqqlo e oototo omooo. 1orlno: 8ollaLl
8orlnghlerl.
Zemplenl A. (1968). llotetpttotloo et lo tbtople ttoJltloooelle Jo JsotJte meotol cbez les
wolof et les leboo (5oqol). (daLLlloscrlLLo). 1esl dl doLLoraLo del Lerzo clclo. arlgl:
lsLlLuLo dl eLnologla.


137

Book Review
Unity in Psycbology: Possibility or Pipedream?
LdlLed by 8oberL !. SLernberg
Amerlcan sychologlcal AssoclaLlon, WashlngLon uC, 2003

Motteo 8ottl
maLLeo.borrl[humana-menLe.lL

ll Lema LraLLaLo nel volume edlLo dalla Ametlcoo lsycboloqlcol
Assoclotloo rlsulLa assoluLamenLe concreLo ed aLLuale, non solo
per la pslcologla amerlcana ma anche per quella dl alLrl paesl,
anche se ln dlmenslonl e dlnamlche dlverse. L'lmporLanza
dell'opera e pol rlconduclblle all'amplezza degll aspeLLl LraLLaLl da
un nuLrlLo numero dl auLorl che vengono qul dl segulLo
presenLaLl.
nel breve spazlo dl una recenslone non e posslblle slnLeLlzzare
ognl speclflco conLrlbuLo. 8lsulLa comunque lndlcaLlva l'anallsl
svolLa dal curaLore e dagll auLorl del caplLoll quarLo e nono.
nel conLrlbuLo uolfyloq tbe llelJ of lsycboloqy, ll curaLore
8oberL !. SLernberg, segue ln modo appasslonaLo l'lpoLesl della
unlLa" della pslcologla. Lgll anallzza l moLlvl dl preoccupazlone
per una eccesslva frammenLazlone della dlsclpllna e dellnea un
percorso dl penslero che sara approfondlLo e svlluppaLo dal varl coauLorl del volume.
SLernberg glusLamenLe rlleva come lo svlluppo della pslcologla nel venLeslmo secolo abbla
segulLo una speclflca sLrada che e sLaLa quella della frammenLazlone ln aree dl lnLeressl dlversl,
flno a ragglungere oggl una dlvlslone ln molLl soLLo seLLorl dlsclpllnarl. SLernberg rlcorda come
esempl dl quesLl la pslcologla cognlLlvlsLa, quella dello svlluppo, quella blologlca. Anche se pu
apparlre che la dlsLlnzlone ln seLLorl dlversl - olLre ad essere ll rlsulLaLo dl uno svlluppo sLorlco
- sla anche una necesslLa lnLrlnseca legaLa agll oggeLLl dl sLudlo, ll curaLore rlleva ln quesLo
probleml e perlcoll legaLl appunLo alla aLLuale sLruLLura per scuole" della pslcologla. Lmerge
cosl una lpoLesl dl unlflcazlone, dl 'unlLa' della pslcologla. Lgll fa un espllclLo rlferlmenLo a
quella vlslone lnLegraLa, unlLarla che fu proprla dl Wllllam !ames, unanlmemenLe rlLenuLo uno
del fondaLorl della pslcologla amerlcana.

Wllllam !ames era uno pslcologo che adoLLava un'oLLlca unlLarla. La cosa LrlsLe e che la slcologla
ha mosLraLo una grande lenLezza ad adoLLare Lale ldea e sl e mossa nella dlrezlone della
frammenLazlone pluLLosLo che dell'unlLa. (p. 13)

un prlmo moLlvo dl preoccupazlone e rlnLracclablle ln una dlnamlca dl svaluLazlone": percorsl
operaLlvl e formaLlvl dl esLrema speclallzzazlone porLano a svaluLare approccl dlversl. un alLro
faLLore dl crlsl e lndlcaLo come non conoscenza": l'lmpegno cogenLe dl sLudl all'lnLerno dl un
campo speclallsLlco porLa una lgnoranza" nel confronLl dl alLrl approccl. lnflne, la
seLLorlallzzazlone porLa con se un alLo grado dl compeLlLlvlLa Lra approccl dlversl e quesLo sl
rlsolve nell'acceLLare solo la proprla poslzlone, rlfluLando alLre ldee.
CuesLl aspeLLl crlLlcl hanno deLermlnaLo effeLLl quall loLLe lnLerne e dlvlslonl che hanno
rldoLLo la credlblllLa verso l'esLerno, verso la socleLa. Cosl, SLernberg non solo dlchlara la sua
adeslone ad una ldea dl unlflcazlone della pslcologla ma lancla quesLa proposLa alla comunlLa
sclenLlflca.


138

l moLlvl per un processo unlflcanLe sono rlconduclblll a due macro-faLLorl. un prlmo faLLore
rlmanda alle prassl dl rlcerca: aprlre alle conoscenze dl alLre scuole", a percorsl dl rlcerca
dlversl da quelll della proprla apparLenenza sclenLlflca, pu permeLLere dl fare le glusLe
domande", dl usare lmposLazlonl nuove che possono generare ulLerlorl progressl. ll
rlconoscere un grado dl lnLerdlpendenza fra scuole dl penslero pu permeLLere dl lavorare
lnsleme", dl cosLrulre percorsl lnLeraLLlvl, dl Lrarre proflLLo l'un l'alLro". un secondo faLLore e
quello che rlguarda gll aspeLLl gesLlonall e dl lmmaglne. ll poLer produrre progeLLl lnLerrelaLl
permeLLerebbe la conservazlone delle rlsorse", menLre, presenLare la pslcologla come un
corpus unlLarlo, permeLLerebbe dl recuperare e poLenzlare gll aspeLLl dl credlblllLa" nel
confronLl della socleLa e degll uLenLl. er SLernberg la cura" per ll problema della
segmenLazlone eccesslva nel meLodl e nel percorsl dl rlcerca conslsLe nel dellneare un
approcclo che acceLLl dl sLudlare l fenomenl pslcologlcl veramenLe secondo prospeLLlve
dlverse.
ll conLrlbuLo dell'Ametlcoo lsycboloqlcol Assoclotloo (AA) nel volume rlsulLa
parLlcolarmenLe slgnlflcaLlvo ln quanLo essa e la plu lmporLanLe assoclazlone dl pslcologl negll
SLaLl unlLl. La dlsLrlbuzlone professlonale degll pslcologl rlsulLa cosl arLlcolaLa: ll 23 e lnserlLo
nel seLLore accademlco, ll 60 nell'area del servlzl e la resLanLe percenLuale ln seLLorl varl del
governo e degll affarl. L'assoclazlone qulndl conLlene al suo lnLerno un gran numero dl
professlonallLa che coprono molLe declne dl aree dlverse dl lnLervenLo come quelle relaLlve al
lavoro, alla saluLe, all'educazlone. L'AA pu cosl conLrlbulre, sla nella rlcerca dl base che ln
quella appllcaLa, a deflnlre llnee gulda a llvello nazlonale ed anche, con ll presLlglo ragglunLo e
consolldaLo, a llvello lnLernazlonale. 8lsulLa chlaro che una assoclazlone cosl sLruLLuraLa pu
promuovere anche la prospeLLlva dell'unlLa nella pslcologla, offrendo la posslblllLa dl un
confronLo uLlle per lnLegrare conoscenze e praLlche aLLualmenLe ben dlfferenzlaLe. CuesLa
funzlone unlflcaLrlce e sempre sLaLa svolLa dall'AA flno dalla sua fondazlone, anche se la
pslcologla ln Amerlca e naLa non come corpo dl un sapere unlLarlo ma aLLraverso gll apporLl dl
rlcercaLorl provenlenLl da seLLorl dl sLudl dlversl.
ln slnLesl gll auLorl affermano che aLLraverso l'AA rlsulLa effeLLlvamenLe posslblle
svlluppare nuovl Llpl dl collaborazlone lnLerdlsclpllnare che permeLLono alle speclallzzazlonl ln
aree rlsLreLLe dl lnLeraglre e lnLegrare le proprle compeLenze.
nell'lnsleme delle rlflesslonl sul Lema del posslblll percorsl per cosLrulre una slgnlflcaLlva
unlLa nella pslcologla, quella svolLa da l. 8ychlak affronLa ll problema ln relazlone alla sLruLLura
sclenLlflca ln Lermlnl dl 1eorla e MeLodo. L'auLore rlcorda come ll Lema dell'unlflcazlone sla gla
presenLe all'lnlzlo della pslcologla moderna, dove lo svlluppo degll sLudl sl e caraLLerlzzaLo
verso una dlfferenzlazlone sla nel campo della Leorla che del meLodo. SLrade dlverse per l
paradlgml Leorlcl: eLlcheLLe conceLLuall o basaLe sulla percezlone della scelLa - l paradlgml dl
Llpo reallsLlco - o cosLrulLe su assunLl dl ldee - paradlgma ldeallsLlco.
L'auLore rlcorda che anche a llvello dl meLodo l percorsl sono dlfferenzlaLl. ln relazlone al
Lema dl base che rlguarda la verlLa e la falslLa dl una Leorla, l percorsl meLodologlcl non sono
unlLarl. LslsLono due grandl sLruLLure conceLLuall: ll percorso cognlLlvo e ll percorso dl rlcerca dl
prove oggeLLlve. ll percorso cognlLlvo" meLLe l'accenLo su aspeLLl procedurall che permeLLono
dl rendere evldenLl le esperlenze all'lnLerno della rlchlesLa Leorlca. L'auLore usa come
esempllflcazlone l'lnsleme dl lsLruzlonl che uno sklpper pu dare per condurre una barca. ll
percorso della prova" rlchlede lnvece una rlcerca sperlmenLale, e qulndl dl una osservazlone
reallzzaLa ln modo affldablle, per lndlvlduare la prova valldanLe" che permeLLa dl rendere
evldenLe e vera una Leorla.
ercorsl sclenLlflcl dlversl, menLallLa dl fondo dlverse, paradlgml dlversl fra l quall ognl
slngolo operaLore, ognl pslcologo" sceglle ll suo speclflco percorso. 8lprendendo SLernberg,
Book Review - 0nity in Psychology

139

anche l'auLore dl quesLo conLrlbuLo rlconosce che ll chludersl" ln un slngolo paradlgma
lmpedlsce dl ampllare le conoscenze. ll percorso verso l'unlLa lnlzla proprlo dall'aLLlLudlne a
rlnunclare" ad un paradlgma slngolo: l'uso dl paradlgml mulLlpll poLra cosl conLrlbulre a
comprendere ognl slngolo fenomeno pslcologlco (p. 149).
er cogllere la fllosofla dl fondo dl quesLo volume posslamo rlferlrcl alla dedlca lnlzlale:
CuesLo llbro e dedlcaLo alla memorla dl Wllllam !ames, ll prlmo grande amerlcano che ha
lavoraLo per una vlslone unlLarla della pslcologla. !ames, lnfaLLl, svlluppando prlma gll sLudl
pslcologlcl nell'oLLlca flslologlca e successlvamenLe lavorando nel campo della fllosofla, seppe
cogllere l'lmporLanza dl avere una vlslone ampla delle rlcerche pslcologlche: quella vlslone che
gll auLorl dl quesLo volume ausplcano come momenLo eplsLemologlco per la pslcologla
conLemporanea.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S
ChapLer 1. unlfylng Lhe lleld of sychology - 8oberL !. SLernberg,
ChapLer 2. unlflcaLlon 1hrough ulverslLy - llorence L. uenmark and PerberL P. krauss,
ChapLer 3. Case-8ased SLudles as a Source of unlLy ln Applled sychology - uanlel 8.
llshman and SLardey 8. Messer,
ChapLer 4. 1he Amerlcan sychologlcal AssoclaLlon and Lhe Search for unlLy ln
sychology - 8aymond u. lowler and Merry 8ullock,
ChapLer 3. SclenLlflc sychology: Should We 8ury lL or ralse lL? - Poward Cardner,
ChapLer 6. aradlgm LosL, aradlgm 8egalned: 1oward unlLy ln sychology - Cregory
A. klmble,
ChapLer 7. unlflcaLlon of rofesslonal sychology 1hrough Soclal 8elevance - 8onald l.
LevanL,
ChapLer 8. aradlgms, narraLlves, and lurallsm ln undergraduaLe sychology -
1homas v. McCovem and Charles L. 8rewer,
ChapLer 9. unlflcaLlon ln 1heory and MeLhod: osslblllLles and lmposslblllLles - !oseph
l. 8ychlak,
ChapLer 10. A 8oad Lo, and hllosophy of, unlflcaLlon - ArLhur W. SLoaLs.


141

Book Review
Introduzione alla storia della psicologia
Carmela MorablLo
LaLerza, 8oma-8arl, 2007

Albetto 8loozzl
alberLo.blnazzl[humana-menLe.lL

ll LesLo dl Carmela MorablLo rlpercorre le Lappe prlnclpall che hanno
condoLLo la pslcologla dalle sue orlglnl fllosoflche flno al recenLl
svlluppl delle sclenze cognlLlve. L'auLrlce muove da una
conslderazlone sLlmolanLe: secondo MorablLo, e lnadeguaLo e
sLorlcamenLe scorreLLo assumere che la pslcologla sclenLlflca sla
ooto, cosl come vlene LradlzlonalmenLe scrlLLo nel manuall, con
l'aperLura del LaboraLorlo dl slcologla SperlmenLale dl Llpsla nel
1879 per opera dl Wllhelm WundL. l recenLl svlluppl eplsLemologlcl,
come le aLLuall anallsl sLorlograflche della sclenza, hanno rlbadlLo la
necesslLa dl collocare opporLunamenLe ll sapere sclenLlflco nel
conLesLo sLorlco, soclale e culLurale. ln parLlcolare, l punLl dl vlsLa
sLorlograflco e geneLlco possono offrlre un'angolazlone prlvlleglaLa
proprlo per dlsclpllne conLroverse come la pslcologla, per quanLo
rlguarda l presupposLl, l meLodl e l rlsulLaLl sperlmenLall. L'assunzlone dl un preclso momenLo
dl demarcazlone Lra un lungo passaLo" e la breve sLorla" della dlsclpllna rappresenLaLo da
WundL, e, secondo MorablLo, fruLLo dl una modallLa (erronea) dl conceplre la rlcerca
pslcologlca Llplca dl una cerLa eplsLemologla del novecenLo e pecullare della scuola
comporLamenLlsLlca che ne ha deflnlLo l parameLrl e l meLodl dl lndaglne sclenLlflca. ln quesLa
nuova luce, occorre recuperare l conLrlbuLl delle eplsLemologle posL-popperlane e delle
lmposLazlonl recenLl della sLorlografla della sclenza per una correLLa anallsl della dlsclpllna.
ll LesLo non presenLa parLlcolarl dlfferenze rlspeLLo ad alLrl manuall unlverslLarl nella scelLa
degll argomenLl del caplLoll (l'eredlLa fllosoflca, la pslcologla sclenLlflca wundLlana, la
prospeLLlva sLorlco-culLurale, la Lradlzlone nord-amerlcana e quella europea, le neurosclenze
cognlLlve) quanLo, appunLo, sl caraLLerlzza per un'arLlcolaLa rlcognlzlone delle prlnclpall
lnnovazlonl fllosoflche e meLodologlche che hanno lnLeressaLo ll progresslvo svlluppo dello
sLudlo sclenLlflco della menLe umana. vengono perLanLo anallzzaLl ll penslero greco e romano,
proseguendo con CarLeslo, Pobbes, 8acone, Mlll, La MeLLrle, Spencer, solLanLo per rlcordare
alcunl degll auLorl presenLaLl, flno alle rlvoluzlonarle concezlonl darwlnlane e, qulndl, a quella
che e conslderaLa 'la breve sLorla' della dlsclpllna, lnlzlaLa con l fondamenLall conLrlbuLl dl
WundL, PelmoLz, 1lLchener, lechner, !ames, slno all'aLLuale e consolldaLo rapporLo con le
neurosclenze cognlLlve.
Seppur conLraddlsLlnLa da un'evldenLe frammenLazlone, la sLorla della pslcologla ha vlsLo
alLernarsl cosLanLemenLe una plurallLa dl lndlrlzzl programmaLlcl e meLodologle: l'eslgenza dl
un'anallsl fenomenologlca sl e accompagnaLa a una rlgorosa maLemaLlzzazlone, cosl come la
necesslLa dl oggeLLlvlLa del 'soggeLLo unlversale' sl e sconLraLa, e ancora oggl sl sconLra, con
l'lrrlduclblllLa della componenLe lndlvlduale e sLorlca. ll quadro complesslvo che emerge dalla
rassegna dell'auLrlce e quello dl una pslcologla assal dlverslflcaLa lnLernamenLe fln dalla sua
genesl, se dl effeLLlva nasclLa appare ancora oggl leglLLlmo parlare. 1ale frammenLazlone,
lnolLre, ha promosso ll florlre dl una molLlLudlne dl llnee dl rlcerca lndlpendenLl e, ln alcunl


142

casl, conLrasLanLl, che lnducono gll pslcologl a una serla rlflesslone sullo sLaLuLo eplsLemologlco
della loro dlsclpllna.
MorablLo cl rlcorda, lnflne, la noLa enlgmaLlclLa della pslcologla, che, come una flgura
reverslblle, ora sl osserva dal dl denLro e alLreLLanLo facllmenLe LenLa dl farlo dall'esLerno,
lncarnando ln manlera plu complessa dl alLrl campl del sapere, l'amblgulLa Llplca della
soggeLLlvlLa umana. 1ale rlcca e lnLrlcaLa naLura non e solLanLo slnonlmo dl oscurlLa
conceLLuale o confuslone meLodologlca, ma e anche ll rlsulLaLo dl un glorloso passaLo ancora ln
evoluzlone che lmpone alla pslcologla ll confronLo con dlsclpllne conLraddlsLlnLe da una
magglore maLurlLa (fllosofla, maLemaLlca, blologla, flslca) senza per quesLo perdere la proprla
ldenLlLa o speclflclLa programmaLlca.

lnLroduzlone

arLe prlma. ll lungo passaLo:

1. ual penslero greco alla flne dell'eLa medlevale -
2. La sclenza moderna e l'approcclo sclenLlflco al vlvenLe

- arLe seconda. La breve sLorla:

3. WundL: la pslcologla sclenLlflca come slnLesl lnLerdlsclpllnare dl flslca e fllosofla, blologla
e neuroflslologla -
4. Lo sLruLLurallsmo LlLchenerlano -
3. Wllllam !ames e ll movlmenLo funzlonallsLlco -
6. La nasclLa della pslcologla cllnlca sLaLunlLense nell'opera dl LlghLner WlLmer -
7. slcopaLologla e pslchlaLrla dlnamlca. lreud e la nasclLa della pslcoanallsl -
8. La pslcologla della CesLalL -
9. kurL Lewln e la nasclLa della pslcologla soclale -
10. La rlflessologla dl 8echLerev e avlov e gll svlluppl della flslologla dell'azlone ln unlone
SovleLlca -
11. ll comporLamenLlsmo -
12. La Scuola sLorlco-culLurale: vygoLskl[ e Lurl[a -
13. L'eplsLemologla geneLlca dl lageL -
14. ll cognlLlvlsmo -
13. rospeLLlva ecologlca e sclenza cognlLlva -
16. ClLre la sLorla: svlluppl e prospeLLlve aLLuall, le neurosclenze cognlLlve -
17. Concluslonl - 8lbllografla - lndlce del noml

143

Book Review
Mind. A Historical and Pbilosopbical Introduction to tbe
Ma|or Tbeories
Andre kukla and !oel Walmsley
PackeLL ubllshlng Company, lndlanapolls-Cambrldge, 2006

cbloto tbosl
chlara.erbosl[humana-menLe.lL

MloJ. A blstotlcol ooJ lbllosopblcol lottoJoctloo to tbe Mojot

1beotles by Andre kukla e !oel Welmsley ls an lnLroducLlon Lo Lhe
mayor modern Lheorles of mlnd. ln Lhe reface, Lhe auLhors explaln
LhaL Lhe book ls lnLended Lo be an lnLroducLlon Lo Lhe sclence of
psychology for Lhe nonspeclallsL who lsn'L afrald Lo do a llLLle
Lhlnklng (p. vll). 1hey clalm LhaL Lhelr book ls fundamenLally
dlfferenL from Lhe oLher lnLroducLlons Lo Lhe sub[ecL. lndeed, whlle
Lhe laLLer focuses on Lhe daLa from experlmenLal sLudles and on
Lhelr emplrlcal assessmenL, MloJ, focuses on Lheorles. ln facL, Lhe
auLhors conLend LhaL Lhe besL lnLroducLlon Lo psychology ls by
reporLlng Lheorles raLher Lhan mere summarles of daLa, and crlLlclze
Lhose who conslder Lheorles Lo be superfluous and flll books wlLh
experlmenLs. lndeed, daLa gaLherlng acLlvlLles LhaL have no bearlng
on any LheoreLlcal lssues are of llLLle or no sclenLlflc value (p.
vlll).1hls ls lmporLanL also because Lhe book ls for nonspeclallsLs, and lf Lhere's one Lhlng Lhe
non speclallsL should know abouL psychology lL's Lhe answers, however LenLaLlve Lhey mlghL
be, Lo Lhe deepesL LheoreLlcal quesLlons LhaL have been asked (p. vlll).
kukla e Welmsley sLarL Lhelr book by presenLlng uescarLes' duallsm, accordlng Lo whlch Lhe
body and Lhe mlnd are Lwo fundamenLally dlfferenL klnds of subsLances:

lor uescarLes Lhe mlnd ls an lmmaLerlal enLlLy LhaL funcLlons as Lhe reposlLory of a person's
consclous experlences. [.] 1he mlnd's lmmaLerlallLy enLalls LhaL lL can'L be ldenLlfled wlLh Lhe
physlcal body or any porLlon Lhereof. CarLeslans regard persons as amalgams of Lwo
subsLances: maLerlal body and lmmaLerlal mlnd. lor Lhls reason, Lhelr vlew ls sald Lo be a Lype
of duallsm. (p. 1)

1he auLhors Lhen dlscuss Lhree sLandard argumenLs showlng LhaL duallsm ls false. 1he flrsL ls
LhaL Lhe duallsm confllcLs wlLh Lhe mosL fundamenLal laws of sclence, Lhe second ls based on
Lhe ldea LhaL Lhere cannoL be a causal connecLlon beLween maLerlal and lmmaLerlal evenLs,
flnally, Lhe Lhlrd ls LhaL maLerlallsm ls slmpler Lhan duallsm, and lL ls a baslc prlnclple of
sclenLlflc meLhod LhaL when chooslng beLween Lwo rlval Lheorles LhaL are oLherwlse equally
good, we should prefer Lhe slmpler one (p. 13). 1he lasL paragraph of Lhls flrsL chapLer ls
abouL deLermlnlsm and volunLarlsm - Lhe oLher ma[or llmb of CarLeslanlsm (p. 13) -,
volunLarlsm LhaL seems lncompaLlble wlLh some of our mosL baslc deLermlnlsLlc bellefs abouL
morallLy and raLlonallLy.
1he second chapLer ls abouL Wllhelm WundL's lnLrospecLlonlsm. lnLrospecLlve psychology
adopLed Lhe CarLeslan assumpLlon of duallsm: Lhe world ls a comblnaLlon of physlcal ob[ecLs
and lmmaLerlal mlnd. 1he physlcal porLlon ls sLudled by naLural sclences, whlle Lhe menLal ls
sLudled by psychology. 1he auLhors deLecL Lhe mosL lmporLanL re[ecLlon of lnLrospecLlonlsm:


144

Lhe behavlorlsL crlLlque, Lhe psychoanalyLlc crlLlque by Slgmund lreud and Lhe
phenomenologlcal crlLlque.
1hen Lhey analyze Lhe Lheory of psychoanalysls LhaL sLudles Lhe unconsclous and lrraLlonal
wellsprlngs of acLlon. lreud showed a loL of examples abouL phenomena LhaL dldn'L flL lnLo Lhe
raLlonallsLlc framework and Lhe mosL lmporLanL concluslon from hls observaLlons ls LhaL Lhere
are unconsclous causes of behavlor. AfLer Lwo chapLers dedlcaLed Lo Lhls Lheory Lhe auLhors
descrlbe Lhe 8ehavloral revoluLlon and Lhen Lhe CognlLlve revoluLlon.
8ehavlorlsLs Lhlnk LhaL Lhere can'L be a sclence of mlnd. 8ehavlorlsm geLs lLs name from Lhe
docLrlne LhaL Lhe only Lhlng LhaL can be sLudled from Lhe sclence of psychology ls Lhe behavlor
of organlsms, LhaL ls Lo say, Lhe purely physlcal movemenLs exhlblLed by llvlng belngs.
Accordlng Lo Lhe behavlorlsLs, psychology ls Lhe sclence LhaL Lrles Lo explaln and predlcL
behavlor. 1he research meLhod of behavlorlsm ls compleLely dlfferenL Lhan lnLrospecLlonlsm.
lor behavlorlsLs Lhe experlmenLer puLs oLhers persons lnLo a cerLaln slLuaLlon and observes
and records how Lhey behave ln LhaL slLuaLlon. WundL's meLhodology ls drasLlcally dlfferenL.
lor example Lhere ls no dlsLlncLlon beLween Lhe experlmenLer and Lhe people observed
because Lhe experlmenLer puLs hlmself ln varlous slLuaLlon and, mosL of all, whaL's observed
and recorded lsn'L behavlor buL sensaLlons, LhoughLs, feellngs and so on.
AfLer Lhe downfall of behavlorlsm Lhere was a new Lheory of mlnd: Lhe cognlLlve sclence.
lL's a sclenLlflc approach Lo sLudylng Lhe mlnd LhaL permlLs Lhe menLallsL language of lnner
sLaLes, llke bellefs and deslres. 1he cognlLlve sclence dlffers from Lhe prevlously dlscussed
LradlLlons for lLs lnLerdlsclpllnary. lL's noL only psychologlsLs who are cognlLlve sclenLlsL buL Lhls
Lheory lncludes conLrlbuLlons from phllosophers, compuLer sclenLlsLs, llngulsLlcs and
anLhropologlsLs. CognlLlve sclence ls an aLLempL Lo comblne all Lhe lnslghLs from dlfferenL
flelds lnLo a slngle approach.
1he book lllusLraLes very well Lhe dlspuLes lnLernal Lo each LheoreLlcal framework ln
psychology by dlscusslng Lhe ma[or flaws and lnconslsLency of each of Lhem. Moreover, Lhey
hlghllghL Lhe connecLlons beLween Lhe Lheorles, and how each Lheory ls a reacLlon Lo Lhe flaws
of Lhelr predecessors. 1he auLhors Lhlnk LhaL earller Lheorles noL only lnsplred Lhe currenL ones
buL also anLlclpaLed Lhelr dlfflculLles. An lmage of psychology as an ongolng pro[ecL ls Lhe flnal
ouLcome of Lhe book.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S

reface
1) CarLeslanlsm
2) 1he 8lse and lall of lnLrospecLlve sychology
3) 1he 8ackground of sychoanalysls
4) 1he 1heory of sychoanalysls
3) sychology Loses lLs Mlnd: 1he 8ehavloral 8evoluLlon
6) 1he 1ranslLlon from 8ehavlorlsm Lo CognlLlve Sclence
7) Mlnd 8egalned: 1he CognlLlve 8evoluLlon
8) Mlnd LxLended: ConnecLlonlsL, uynamlcal, and SlLuaLed CognlLlve Sclence
SuggesLlons for lurLher 8eadlng
8lbllography
lndex

143

Book Review
Psicbiatria, psicoanalisi e nuova biologia della mente
Lrlc 8. kandel
8affaello CorLlna LdlLore, Mllano, 2007

Noeml uello kotto

noemlrawls[llbero.lL

ln lslcblottlo, pslcoooollsl e ooovo bloloqlo Jello meote sono sLaLl
raccolLl oLLo saggl del premlo nobel Lrlc kandel, scrlLLl nel LrenL'annl
ln cul era membro del colleqe of lbyslcloos ooJ 5otqeoos dl new
?ork e pubbllcaLl ln dlverse rlvlsLe sclenLlflche. vengono affronLaLl
dlversl Leml che spazlano dal campo della neuroblologla, a quelll
della pslchlaLrla e della pslcoanallsl.
CuesL'opera rlcosLrulsce LemaLlcamenLe ll percorso che ha
porLaLo kandel a fondare un'eplsLemologla sclenLlflca a parLlre dalle
sue prlme rlcerche per ll Notloool lostltote of Meotol neoltb. L
convlnzlone dl kandel che per progredlre nelle rlcerche dl blologla
della menLe, la prlnclpale area dl rlcerca del venLuneslmo secolo
(p. xvll) necessarla una convergenza Lra aree dl rlcerca eLerogenee.
Alla base dl quesL'ldea vl e la proprla esperlenza accademlca, dopo
aver consegulLo ll Llroclnlo ln pslchlaLrla, lnfaLLl, kandel sl e dedlcaLo alle rlcerche nel campo
della blologla, poLendo affermare successlvamenLe:

Sono convlnLo che ll mlo Llroclnlo ln pslchlaLrla e ll mlo lnLeresse per la pslcoanallsl svolgano un
ruolo cenLrale nel mlo penslero e ml abblano fornlLo una prospeLLlva sul comporLamenLo che ha
lnfluenzaLo ognl aspeLLo del mlo lavoro. (p. xxvl)

La pslchlaLrla deve, da un laLo, cercare dl rlspondere alle domande che le sono perLlnenLl,
dall'alLro porre domande sul comporLamenLo a cul la blologla deve cercare dl dare una
rlsposLa: solo cosl e posslblle arrlvare ad una vlslone complesslva del processl menLall superlorl
dell'uomo, come afferma nel sagglo uo ooovo cootesto lotellettoole pet lo pslcblottlo (1998):

ll fuLuro della pslchlaLrla e profondamenLe radlcaLo nel suo passaLo e nel suo rapporLo con la
blologla, e l programml dl lnLernaLo ln pslchlaLrla e neurologla dovrebbero parLlre da una base
comune. (p. xxvl)

L sLaLa proprlo quesLa doppla formazlone che ha consenLlLo al neurosclenzlaLo dl lncenLrare le
proprle rlcerche sulle basl molecolarl della plasLlclLa slnapLlca, ossla sulla capaclLa che l neuronl
hanno dl modlflcare le proprle slnapsl ln relazlone all'apprendlmenLo e alla memorla. Cll sLudl
condoLLl sulla lumaca dl mare Aplyslo collfotolco, hanno permesso a kandel dl ragglungere
rlsulLaLl lmporLanLl: ln prlmo luogo, anallzzando gll aspeLLl flslologlcl, blochlmlcl e molecolarl
dell'apprendlmenLo sl e poLuLo dlmosLrare come quesLo possa lnfluenzare l'ecclLablllLa del
neuronl olLre alla Lrasmlsslone slnapLlca. lnolLre, sl e daLo prova dl come l camblamenLl
rlguardanLl la memorla promuovono Lrasformazlonl sLruLLurall del conLaLLl slnapLlcl, a

unlverslLa degll SLudl dl llrenze


146

dlmosLrazlone dl come ll comporLamenLo possa essere modlflcaLo ognl volLa che sl
acqulslscono nuove lnformazlonl sul mondo.
Cuall sono sLaLl l moLlvl che hanno splnLo kandel a condurre le proprle lndaglnl emplrlche
su un anlmale cosl sempllce e cosl flslologlcamenLe lonLano dall'uomo? L quale meLodo
d'lndaglne e sLaLo preferlLo? La dlfflcolLa del Lema con cul cl sl andava ad lmbaLLere rlchledeva
dl parLlre da un slsLema sempllce ma deflnlblle, che poLesse pol far acqulslre nuove
lnformazlonl sul processl plu complessl. La grande lnLulzlone dl kandel e sLaLa quella dl vedere
un punLo dl conLaLLo evoluzlonlsLlco Lra gll anlmall e l'uomo: Sl LraLLava [Aplyslo] dl un
organlsmo abbasLanza complesso da mosLrare sempllcl forme dl apprendlmenLo, ma con un
slsLema nervoso abbasLanza sempllce da poLer essere sLudlaLo a fondo (p. 244), secondo
SLeven Pyman, lo mlqllote Jelle toqlool pet oo tlJozloolsto. Le scoperLe lnLorno alla memorla a
breve e a lungo Lermlne rllevaLe nell'Aplyslo, sono sLaLe pol rlcondoLLe su mammlferl.
lasLlclLa slnapLlca, apprendlmenLo e memorla: quesLl l grandl Leml LraLLaLl nel volume. Ma
cl che l saggl soLLollneano dl parl passo alle grandl scoperLe e lnLulzlonl dl kandel - afflancaLo
da lllusLrl colleghl nel corso delle rlcerche - e la sLrada aperLa dall'auLore e l conslgll per
conLlnuare su quesLa promeLLenLe llnea dl rlcerca. La nuova nasclLa della sclenza della menLe,
lnfaLLl, necesslLa dl un'unlflcazlone complesslva del slsLema conceLLuale delle varle dlsclpllne,
quall neurosclenze, blologla molecolare e pslcologla cognlLlva. L'obleLLlvo e quello dl fondare
su basl sclenLlflche la pslcoLerapla, e dl esplorare le sue lmpllcazlonl sul plano blologlco. er far
quesLo e necessarlo usufrulre dl lndaglnl emplrlche che sl servano dl nuovl sLrumenLl e nuove
Lecnlche, su LuLLe quella dl btolo lmoqloq.
venendo a un'anallsl del slngoll caplLoll, ll prlmo sagglo, lslcotetoplo e sloopsl. llofloeozo
Jelle teotle pslcblottlcbe sollo tlcetco lo oeotobloloqlo, lllusLra l'lmporLanza del ruolo svolLo
dall'esperlenza duranLe lo svlluppo del prlmaLl, specle umana lnclusa. Anallzzando deprlvazlonl
lnfanLlll sl sono rese manlfesLe le lmpllcazlonl negaLlve sull'apprendlmenLo e la memorla
derlvaLe dalla mancanza dl vlvete lespetleozo qlosto lo momeotl qlostl.
nel secondo sagglo, uo ooovo cootesto lotellettoole pet lo pslcblottlo, kandel dellnea
lpoLeLlcl ruoll che ln fuLuro verranno svolLl dalla pslcoanallsl all'lnLerno della rlcerca sclenLlflca,
ausplcandosl una cooperazlone Lra gll amblLl dl lndaglne della blologla e quello della
pslcoanallsl.
nel Lerzo sagglo, lo bloloqlo e ll fototo Jello pslcoooollsl. ooo tllettoto Jl uo ooovo cootesto
lotellettoole pet lo pslcblottlo, kandel esorLa la pslcoanallsl ad lnLegrarsl con le sclenze
sperlmenLall afflnche sl possa reallzzare un slsLema sclenLlflco compleLo. ln Lal modo, da un
laLo la pslcoanallsl pu apporLare slgnlflcaLlvl conLrlbuLl Leorlcl, dall'alLro la neuroblologla deve
cercare dl confermare sperlmenLalmenLe quesLe lnLulzlonl.
uollo metopslcoloqlo ollo bloloqlo molecolote. ooo stoJlo sol meccoolsml Jellooslo meLLe ln
luce l'lmporLanza del modelll anlmall nello sLudlo del dlsLurbl pslchlaLrlcl. ual momenLo che
vlge una cerLa conLlnulLa evoluzlonlsLlca gll sLudl sul comporLamenLo anlmale possono essere
appllcaLl successlvamenLe all'lndlvlduo.
nel qulnLo sagglo, Neotobloloqlo e bloloqlo molecolote. oo secooJo locootto, kandel sl
pronuncla ln modo deflnlLlvo sull'lnLegrazlone della blologla molecolare con le neurosclenze,
dlmosLrando come gla lmporLanLl sLudlosl dl blologla molecolare all'lnlzlo degll annl '80 -
lrancls Crlck, Seymour 8enzer, Sldney 8renner e !ames WaLson - fossero passaLl a sLudl
neuroblologlcl.
ll sesLo sagglo Neotoscleoze. oo secolo Jl ptoqtessl e l mlstetl oocoto lttlsoltl rlassume a
parLlre dalle orlglnl l progressl delle neurosclenze, lndlcando quall prospeLLlve sl sono aperLe
all'lndaglne nel corso degll annl e quall probleml ancora non hanno LrovaLo una soluzlone
compluLa.
Book Review - Psichiatiia, psicoanalisi e nuova biologia uella mente

147

lo bloloqlo molecolote Jello memotlo. oo Jloloqo tto qeol e sloopsl rlpropone la lezlone
maglsLrale LenuLasl nel 2000 ln occaslone del conferlmenLo del premlo nobel. vlene qul
rlassunLo ll percorso dl rlcerca segulLo da kandel e dal suol collaboraLorl, presenLando le
scoperLe fondamenLall derlvaLe dallo sLudlo sulla lumaca dl mare Aplyslo collfotolco.
nell'ulLlmo sagglo Ceol, cetvello e compteoslooe JellloJlvlJoo. lospltozlooe Jello bloloqlo o
oo ooovo omooeslmo vengono dellneaLe le lmpllcazlonl medlche e soclall derlvaLe dalle nuove
conoscenze sul genoma umano.
nella posLfazlone, kandel dellnea l rlsulLaLl plu lmporLanLl che, con probablllLa, verranno
consegulLl negll sLudl fuLurl e le prlorlLa dl rlcerca sulle quall e necessarlo lnvesLlre, affermando
ln concluslone:

La blologla svolgera ll ruolo, che le e proprlo, dl ponLe naLurale Lra le sclenze dell'uomo,
lnLeressaLe al Leml dell'eslsLenza umana, e le sclenze della naLura, che sl occupano del mondo
flslco. [.] osslamo augurarcl che la pslchlaLrla e la pslcoanallsl slano proLagonlsLe ln
quesL'lmpresa sLorlca dl comprendere la menLe ln Lermlnl blologlcl, cosl da caLLurare
nuovamenLe l'lnLeresse del membrl plu valldl e promeLLenLl delle nuove generazlonl. (p. 436)


149

Book Review
Unified Social Cognition
norman P. Anderson
sychology ress, new ?ork, 2008

tleooe Mollet
*

eLlenne.mulleL[wanadoo.fr

1hls book ls Lhe flfLh one of a serles dedlcaLed Lo lnformaLlon
lnLegraLlon 1heory (ll1), a Lheory abouL Lhe way llvlng organlsms
and humans ln parLlcular, lnLegraLe Lhe lnformaLlon from Lhe
envlronmenL for Lhe purpose of adapLlng Lo lLs changlng
characLer. ln 1981, norman Anderson publlshed loooJotloos of
lofotmotloo loteqtotloo 1beoty ln whlch he esLabllshed Lhe basls
of ll1, and synLheslzed Lhe emplrlcal flndlngs gaLhered slnce Lhe
early 60s LhaL led hlm Lo suggesL LhaL lnformaLlon lnLegraLlon ln
Lhe human mlnd (buL noL only ln Lhe human mlnd) obeys Lhree
fundamenLal laws: averaglng, addlng, and mulLlpllcaLlon. Pe
consldered Lhese laws as a foundaLlon for a funcLlonal Lheory of
purposlve percepLlon, LhoughL, and acLlon. ln 1982, Anderson
publlshed MetboJs of lofotmotloo loteqtotloo 1beoty ln whlch he
offered a seL of well-deslgned Lools allowlng for Lhe characLerlzaLlon of lnformaLlon lnLegraLlon
ln any seLLlng. ln coottlbotloos to lofotmotloo loteqtotloo 1beoty, publlshed ln 1991, Anderson
dlscussed and synLheslzed Lhe many conLrlbuLlons by members of hls Leam ln Lhe flelds of
cognlLlve, developmenLal and soclal psychology. llnally, ln A looctloool 1beoty of coqoltloo,
publlshed ln 1996, Anderson sLrongly resLaLed Lhe everyday llfe characLer of hls Lheory.
ln Lhe presenL book, Anderson presenLs an ulLlmaLe synLhesls of hls Lheory, and offers hls
personal vlews on whaL he belleves should be Lhe sclenLlflc psychology of Lhe currenL cenLury.
sychologlcal sclence resLs on Lwo axloms: Lhe Axlom of urposlveness and Lhe Axlom of
lnLegraLlon. 1he Axlom of urposlveness sLaLes LhaL any percepLlon, LhoughL or acLlon ls goal-
orlenLed, Llfe ls purpose, purpose ls llfe (p. 399). lL follows LhaL psychologlcal Lheorles LhaL
don'L conslder purposlveness as a cenLral concepL are bound Lo mlss Lhe essence of Lhe
phenomena Lhey alm Lo descrlbe and explaln. 1he Axlom of lnLegraLlon sLaLes LhaL percepLlon,
LhoughL, and acLlon depend on Lhe lnLegraLed acLlon of mulLlple lnformers. lL follows LhaL
psychologlcal Lheorles LhaL don'L conslder lnLegraLlon as a cenLral concepL or LhaL don'L have
adequaLe Lools for characLerlzlng lnLegraLlon processes are bound noL Lo undersLand LhoughL
and acLlon, because undersLandlng Lhem prlmarlly supposes undersLandlng how lnformers
have been comblned. MosL psychologlcal Lheorles have, unLll now, noL fully recognlzed Lhe
cenLrallLy of purposlveness and lnLegraLlon ln human conducL. As a resulL, presenL day
psychologlcal sclence appears as a very fragmenLed fleld, a fleld LhaL ls populaLed by mlnl
Lheorles, each one explalnlng a very narrow segmenL of Lhe psychologlcal reallLy, each one
havlng ofLen been developed ln compleLe lgnorance of Lhe oLhers. unlflcaLlon appears largely
eluslve, and as a consequence, progress ls (aL besL) very slow: Mlnl Lheorles relgn for a Llme ln
Lhelr respecLlve flelds unLll Lhey are replaced by more fashlonable oLhers.

*
ulrecLor of research aL Lhe lnsLlLuLe of Advanced SLudles (LPL), arls


130

1he book ls almed aL demonsLraLlng how cumulaLlve progress has been made wlLhln ll1
owlng Lo Lhe efforLs of many lnvesLlgaLors whose work has esLabllshed Lhe Lhree lnLegraLlon
laws on sLrong emplrlcal ground ln many areas of everyday llfe psychology. 1hls lncludes
person cognlLlon, funcLlonal Lheory of aLLlLudes, moral algebra, group dynamlcs,
developmenLal lnLegraLlon Lheory, consclousness analysls, person sclence, lnLegraLlon learnlng
Lheory, funcLlonal memory, cognlLlve [udgmenL-declslon, language lnLegraLlon, lnLegraLlon
psychophyslcs, psychologlcal measuremenL, and analyLlc gesLalL Lheory.
ChapLer l (unlfled 1heory of CognlLlon) fully develops Lhe Lwo axloms. lL presenLs whaL ls
called Lhe lnformaLlon dlagram", a chaln of Lhree operaLors: valuaLlon, lnLegraLlon, and
AcLlon. hyslcal sLlmull LhaL lmplnge on Lhe organlsm are LransmuLed lnLo psychologlcal
represenLaLlons by Lhe valuaLlon operaLor. 1he valuaLlon operaLlon depends on Lhe conLenL of
Lhe sLlmull and on Lhe goal LhaL ls pursed aL Lhe Llme of Lhe operaLlon. ln oLher words, physlcal
sLlmull don'L have any flxed psychologlcal value. 1hen, Lhe psychologlcal represenLaLlons (noL
Lhe physlcal sLlmull) are lnLegraLed by Lhe lnLegraLlon operaLor Lo produce an lnLernal
response. 1he lnLegraLlon process depends on Lhe psychologlcal represenLaLlons, and also on
Lhe goal LhaL ls pursed aL Lhe Llme of Lhe operaLlon. 1he Lhree lnLegraLlon laws menLloned
before refer Lo Lhe lnLegraLlon process. 1wo ldenLlcal psychologlcal represenLaLlons may be
lnLegraLed ln an addlLlve way under some clrcumsLances and ln a mulLlpllcaLlve way under
oLher clrcumsLances. llnally, Lhe lnLernal response ls exLernallzed by Lhe acLlon operaLor Lo
become Lhe observable response. 1hls exLernallzaLlon also depends on Lhe goal asslgned aL Lhe
Llme of Lhe operaLlon. sychologlcal represenLaLlons, lnLernal responses and acLlons are
consLrucLed durlng Lhe process, Lhey are ln no way predeLermlned. ll1 ls, unamblguously, a
consLrucLlonlsL Lheory.
ChapLer ll (sychologlcal Laws) shows Lhe way Lo solve Lhe problem of esLlmaLlng, from Lhe
physlcal values of Lhe sLlmull lmplnglng on Lhe organlsm (lnpuLs) and Lhe observed responses
of Lhls organlsm (ouLpuLs), Lhe Lhree unknowns ln Lhe lnLegraLlon dlagram. ln oLher words, Lhls
chapLer demonsLraLes Lhe way for measurlng Lhe psychologlcal represenLaLlons, deLermlnlng
Lhe lnLernal responses, and characLerlzlng Lhe lnLegraLlon rule. 1he baslc ldea conslsLs ln
relylng on facLorlal deslgns, observlng paLLerns of exLernal responses (noL [usL slngle
responses), and derlvlng from Lhem Lhe Lhree seLs of unknowns. 1hls ls made posslble owlng Lo
Lhe exlsLence and ublqulLy of Lhe psychologlcal laws of lnformaLlon lnLegraLlon. 1hese
maLhemaLlcal laws predlcL dlfferenL paLLerns of responses. lrom Lhe paLLerns observed, lL ls
posslble Lo deLermlne whlch law has been lmplemenLed and, as a resulL, esLlmaLlng all Lhe
psychologlcal values lnvolved becomes posslble. 1hls ls why Lhese laws are consldered as Lhe
foundaLlon of unlfled psychologlcal sclence. 1hey are naLure's soluLlon Lo Lhe Axloms of
urposlveness and lnLegraLlon (p. 48). uemonsLraLlons of Lhe arallellsm 1heorem (Lhe
paLLern predlcLed by Lhe addlng law), and of Lhe Llnear lan 1heorem (Lhe paLLern predlcLed by
Lhe mulLlpllcaLlon law), are also presenLed, and Lhe averaglng law ls dlscussed aL lengLh.
ChapLer lll (loundaLlons of person cognlLlon) concreLely lllusLraLes Lhe way ln whlch Lhe
prlnclples developed ln ChapLer ll can help dlsenLangle mosL of Lhe unresolved lssues ln person
cognlLlon. lL argues LhaL person cognlLlon ls Lhe baslc area of soclal-personallLy psychology,
alLhough lL ls fragmenLed across many sub-domalns: aLLlLudes, close relaLlonshlps, moral
cognlLlon, emoLlon, and personallLy, Lo name a few. Cnce unlfled, Lhe area of personal
cognlLlon should be Lhe basls of soclal-personallLy psychology.
ChapLer lv (luncLlonal 1heory of ALLlLudes), v (ALLlLude lnLegraLlon Lheory), and vl
(Comparlson of aLLlLudes Lheorles) lllusLraLe how Lhe same prlnclples can allow for a radlcal
shlfL ln aLLlLude research. AlLhough mosL soclal aLLlLudes are sLrongly endorsed (aLLlLudes
Lowards rellglon, governmenL, gender roles), Lhe aLLlLude fleld has been largely focused on
Book Review - 0nifieu Social Cognition

131

nonaLLlLudes", LhaL ls, on aLLlLudes Lowards lssues on whlch people have no sLrong
lnvolvemenL. 1hls ls because Lhe fleld was cenLered on persuaslon, and only weakly endorsed
aLLlLudes" can be changed durlng a laboraLory sesslon. 1hls excluslve focus on nonaLLlLudes"
has been responslble for Lhe exLreme fragmenLaLlon of Lhe aLLlLude fleld (no less Lhan elghL
dlfferenL Lheorles are compared ln chapLer v). Pow well long Lerm aLLlLudes work ln everyday
cognlLlon - LhaL ls, how Lhey regulaLe Lhe valuaLlon operaLor - how Lhey are lnLegraLed wlLh
currenL, shorL Lerm lnformaLlon, and how Lhey lmpacL on Lhe acLlon operaLor should be
lnLeresLlng fuLure research ob[ecLlves.
ChapLer vll (Moral Algebra) shows LhaL moral cognlLlon obeys algebralc laws (e.g.,
Pommers' Culpa Lheory). 1hls flndlng may appear as puzzllng (or slmpllsLlc) Lo modern moral
psychologlsLs' eyes, buL lL would noL have been a surprlse Lo anclenL phllosophers (e.g.,
ArlsLoLle's unfalrness model). 1he psychology of morallLy has for a long Llme been conflned Lo
perlpheral lssues owlng Lo lnapproprlaLe meLhodology (e.g., Coldberg's dllemma Lechnlque).
1he chapLer shows how ll1 can enrlch Lhe fleld by drlvlng Lhe researcher's aLLenLlon Lo Lhe
wealLh of moral phenomena ln everyday llfe:

helplng and noL helplng, klndness and unklndness, falrness and unfalrness, deservlng, pralse and
blame, obllgaLlon and duLy, resenLmenL, geLLlng even, envy, lylng, cheaLlng, honesLy,
exLenuaLlon, apology, mlLlgaLlon, aLonemenL, and forglveness. (p. 199)

ChapLer vlll (Croup uynamlcs) focuses on marrlage and spouse relaLlonshlps, group dlscusslon,
group afflllaLlon, and group declslon. ln parLlcular, Lhe Soclal Averaglng 1heorem, and Lhe
evldence LhaL supporLs lL ls dlscussed aL lengLh.
ChapLer lx (CognlLlve Lheory of [udgmenL-declslon) synLheslzes sLudles on [udgmenL and
declslon LhaL LoLally devlaLe from Lhe normaLlve framework of opLlmal declslon LhaL has
relgned ln Lhe fleld slnce Lhe mld-70s. 1he crlLlclsms LhaL address sLudles conducLed ln Lhe
normaLlve framework are especlally lnLeresLlng. llrsL, mosL [udgmenLs of everyday llfe lack
normaLlve sLandards. As a resulL, conflnlng psychologlcal research Lo slLuaLlons ln whlch
sLandards exlsL amounLs Lo Lurnlng our backs on mosL everyday llfe slLuaLlons. Second,
psychologlcal values are essenLlal Lo really undersLand people's [udgmenLs and declslons.
Powever, values are, unforLunaLely, ouLslde normaLlve frameworks. 1hlrd, whaL ls examlned
and explalned" ln Lhese sLudles are noL Lhe persons' responses buL Lhe devlaLlons beLween
Lhese responses and Lhe sLandard response. 1hese devlaLlons are called blas. 8lases are
unllkely Lo reveal Lrue cognlLlve processes. ln addlLlon, Lhe lnvalldlLy of Lhese prescrlpLlve
models for Lhe descrlpLlon of cognlLlve processes ls evldenL on a prlorl grounds for Lhe slmple
reason LhaL Lhese models (e.g., 8ayes' Lheorem), as wlLh any human-made maLerlal or
lnLellecLual Lool (e.g., Lhe fllnL blface, Lhe compuLer), have been creaLed LhroughouL human
hlsLory for complemenLlng Lhe human lnnaLe capaclLles ln areas ln whlch Lhey have already
been shown Lo be lnsufflclenL for solvlng speclflc problems (e.g., cuLLlng meaL, comblnlng
uncerLalnLles, runnlng slmulaLlons).
ChapLer x (Ceneral 1heory) lnslsLs on Lhe duallLy of Lhe Lwo worlds: Lhe exLernal, physlcal
world and Lhe lnLernal, psychologlcal world. 1he Lhree laws of lnformaLlon lnLegraLlon are laws
descrlblng Lhe funcLlonlng of Lhe lnLernal world. ln oLher Lerms, Lhls world exhlblLs
maLhemaLlcal laws, whlch allows sLudy lL on lLs own Lerms, wlLhouL appeallng Lo Lhe sLrucLure
of Lhe physlcal world. Lxamples Laken from sLudles on language, hedonlc Lheory, lnLulLlve
physlcs, soclal sLereoLypes, Lo name a few, show how Lhese laws allow for Lhe measuremenL of
non-consclous sensaLlons. 1hese laws are probably aL Lhe orlgln of Lhe developmenL of
maLhemaLlcs.


132

ChapLer xl (LxperlmenLal MeLhods) shows how Lhe developmenL of meLhodology has gone
hand ln hand wlLh Lhe uncoverlng of Lhe baslc psychologlcal laws. Speclal lmporLance ls glven
ln Lhls chapLer Lo slngle person deslgns and Lo personal deslgns (slngle person deslgn
embedded lnLo Lhe person's envlronmenL): as cognlLlon occurs ln lndlvldual organlsms, LhaL ls
where lL can be mosL effecLlvely sLudled (p. 374). llnally ChapLer xll, Lhe concludlng chapLer,
suggesLs new avenues for lnLrepld researchers.
norman Anderson's book ls noL sulLable for Lhe falnL of hearL and Llmld researchers. lL ls full
of orlglnal (someLlmes exLreme) vlews on pracLlcally every fleld ln psychology. Moreover, Lhe
book ls unlque ln LhaL lLs maln ob[ecLlve ls noL Lo merely crlLlclze exlsLlng Lheorles and
meLhods, buL raLher Lo presenL Lhe reader wlLh a unlfled framework (ll1) LhaL ls able Lo
respond Lo all Lhe crlLlclsms LhaL have been ralsed. ln parLlcular, Lhls framework, whlch has
already been applled ln vlrLually every domaln LhaL deals wlLh human [udgmenL, provldes an
alLernaLlve for mlcro-Lheorles. 1hls ls whaL makes Lhls book a good recommendaLlon for
psychologlsLs who are noL lrreslsLlbly aLLracLed Lo currenL fashlons and relgnlng consensus.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S

1. unlfled 1heory of CognlLlon.
2. sychologlcal Laws.
3. loundaLlon of erson CognlLlon.
4. luncLlonal 1heory of ALLlLudes.
3. ALLlLude lnLegraLlon 1heorles.
6. Comparlsons of ALLlLude 1heorles.
7. Moral Algebra.
8. Croup uynamlcs.
9. CognlLlve 1heory of !udgmenL - ueclslon.
10. Ceneral 1heory.
11. LxperlmenLal MeLhods.
12. unlfled Sclence of sychology.

133

Book Review
Psycbiatry as a Cognitive Neuroscience
LdlLed by MaLLhew 8. 8roome and Llsa 8orLoloLLl
Cxford unlverslLy ress, Cxford, 2009

llsobetto 5ltqlovoool
*

ellslrglovannl[hoLmall.com

1he flrsL Lhlng one mlghL Lhlnk abouL a book bearlng Lhe LlLle
lsycblotty os coqoltlve oeotoscleoce ls LhaL lL looks unbellevably
promlslng. AuLhors of Lhls collecLlon of papers, whlch ls ln Lhe new
serles for Lhe Cu devoLed Lo Lhe analyLlcal phllosophy of
psychlaLry, agree Lo Lhe recenL suggesLlon ln Lhe psychlaLrlc
debaLe: re-concelvlng psychlaLry ln cognlLlve Lerms (see Marshall
and Palllgan 1996, Murphy 2006). 1he book ls wrlLLen by ma[or
experLs of Lhls new fleld buL could hardly acL as an lnLroducLlon for
beglnners: all papers presuppose a cerLaln level of knowledge.
AcLually Lhe LlLle could somewhaL decelve fuLure lnexperL
readers. AL presenL psychlaLry ls nelLher a cognlLlve nor a sclenLlflc
dlsclpllne. Compared Lo eLlology-based medlcal dlsclpllnes,
psychlaLry has a purely descrlpLlve nosography. namely, lL ls sLuck
aL a sclenLlflcally prlmlLlve sLage. 1hus, as belng eLlologlcally pte-
paradlgmaLlc ln kuhn's (1962) sense (see Aragona 2006), psychlaLry ls roughly equlvalenL Lo
Lhe pre-sevenLeenLh cenLury general medlclne. 8esldes, Lhe fleld explored (psychlaLry as a
cognlLlve dlsclpllne) ls much more aL dawn Lhan well-developed, and lL ls noL founded on some
shared LheoreLlcal manlfesL. As a maLLer of facL, cognlLlve neuropsychlaLry ls no more Lhan a
hybrld label comlng from cognlLlve neuropsychology, whlch provlded models and Lools for new
research on psychlaLrlc sympLoms (ln parLlcular deluslons). llrsLly, Lhe Jeflclt paradlgm comes
from cognlLlve neuropsychology for psychopaLhology, as an alLernaLlve Lo Lhe coofllct
paradlgm from psychoanalysls and Lo lLs assumpLlon of sobttoctlvlty from Lhe normal cognlLlve
funcLlonlng. Secondly, Lhe reducLlonlsL vlew suggesLed by Lhe 'neuro' preflx, whlch llnks
psychlaLry Lo neural subsLraLes granLed by Lhe new Lechnlques of funcLlonal neurolmaglng.
neverLheless even cognlLlve sclence, excepL for some background consLralnLs, ls sLlll heslLanL
abouL Lhe paradlgm Lo embrace and conflned by Lwo dlfferenL concepLlons of mlnd, namely
Lhe classlcal (l.e., funcLlonallsm) and posL-classlcal cognlLlvlsm (l.e., connecLlonlsm, dynamlclsm
and slLuaLed cognlLlon). Cne could wonder whlch klnd of cognlLlvlsm psychlaLry should look aL.
Sure, cognlLlve neurosclence ls noL cognlLlve sclence ln Lhe broad generlc sense (p. 201, fL.
1). 8uL LhaL ls Lhe flrsL remarkable omlLLed quesLlon ln Lhls phllosophlcal book: whaL ls
cognlLlve neurosclence?
AparL from a shorL lnLroducLlon, Lhe 17 chapLers of Lhe book are dlvlded lnLo 7 maln
secLlons, Lo whlch Lhe edlLors' paper (ChapLer 18) follows as an epllogue. 1he flrsL Lhree
secLlons show a broader phllosophlcal purpose: dlscusslng psychlaLry as a sclence (SecLlon 1),
as deallng wlLh naLural klnds (SecLlon 2), and as elLher a personal or sub-personal level
dlsclpllne (SecLlon 3). SecLlon 4 lnLroduces Lo Lhe lssue of neurosclence and llnks Lo Lhe
followlng more speclflc secLlons on phenomenology (SecLlon 3), deluslons as cognlLlon (SecLlon

*
unlverslLy of Slena


134

6), and moral psychology. Lach conLrlbuLlon ls concluslve ln lLs own purpose and can be read
aparL from oLhers.
Concernlng Lhe quesLlon of Lhe sclenLlflc naLure of psychlaLry (SecLlon 1), Lhree
conLrlbuLlons are glven. 8achel Cooper's ChapLer 1 clalms LhaL Lhe quesLlon lLself ls a non-
sense referred Lo any dlsclpllne, as Lhe hlsLory of phllosophy of sclence (from opper Lo
leyerabend) shows LhaL Lhe search for a demarcaLlon crlLerlon for sclence falled. 1he soluLlon
defended concelves sclence as a famlly resemblance Lerm"' ln Lhe WlLLgensLelnlan sense, and
lL replaces Lhe core quesLlon abouL Lhe sclenLlflc naLure wlLh Lhe quesLlon on Lhe rellablllLy of
meLhods employed. ChapLer 2, wrlLLen by 8lll lulford and norman SarLorlus, reveals a secreL
deLall abouL Lhe hlsLorlcal genesls of Lhe currenL descrlpLlve classlflcaLlons (CCu and uSM) of
menLal dlsorders. AgalnsL Lhe recelved hlsLory, auLhors deny Lhe recurrlng sLaLemenL of C. C.
Pempel and L. SLengel's conLrlbuLlon Lowards less menLloned psychlaLrlsL Slr. Aubrey Lewls'
faLherhood. 8lchard Samuel's ChapLer 3 faces Lhe quesLlon wheLher menLal lllnesses can be or
noL ob[ecL of sclenLlflc enqulry ln Lhe shape of a phllosophlcal defense of Lhe nk (l.e., naLural
klnd) 1hesls for deluslons from common ob[ecLlons.
ChapLer 2 and 3 arouse more lnLeresL Lhan Cooper's one. lL's Lrue LhaL phllosophy of
sclence debaLe sLranded on Lhe concepLlon of lrraLlonallLy of sclenLlflc dlscovery ln
leyerabend's sLyle. neverLheless sclence, even lf noL lnfalllble and ob[ecLlve, can be concelved
noL as compleLely arblLrary. Sclence ls ln facL concelvable as an enqulry beneflLlng from Lhe
lnLer-sub[ecLlve conLrollablllLy of ob[ecLlve Lheorles (see 8rown 1977). So Lhe quesLlon of Lhe
sclenLlflc sLaLus of a dlsclpllne ls sLlll slgnlflcanLly relevanL ln Lhe debaLe. Moreover, Lhe
suggesLed meanlng shlfL could hardly sLop calllng lnLo quesLlon psychlaLry. CurrenL psychlaLry
meLhods are sLlll noL rellable lf Lhe here undeflned rellablllLy ls somehow relaLed Lo Lhe
capablllLy of provldlng explanaLlons and LreaLmenLs for menLal lllnesses. 1he ldea of meLhod
cenLrallLy sLands noL because Lhe quesLlon on psychlaLry as a sclence ls lnapproprlaLe, as lL ls
noL, buL because Lhe quesLlon on a deflnlLe cholce on meLhods ls more lmpellenL.
lulford and SarLorlus's conLrlbuLlon ls orlglnal ln Lhe debaLe. 1hey brlng up ln dlscusslon
sLandard hlsLorlcal reconsLrucLlon on Carl Pempel's LheoreLlcal responslblllLy for currenL
psychlaLrlc Laxonomy. !usL a llLLle negllgence ls LhaL auLhors, alLhough recognlzlng Pempel as
assoclaLed Lo Lhe vlenna Clrcle (p. 30), ldenLlfy hlm as an Amerlcan phllosopher (Lwlce ln p.
29). Powever, even Lhough emlgraLed Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes afLer anLl-SemlLlc represslon and
lnvolved ln Lhe Amerlcan debaLe, Pempel was Cerman-born.
ln llne wlLh oLher Samuels' works, ChapLer 3 ls brllllanL and well-arLlculaLed. ueluslons are
concelved as naLural klnds even lf posslbly mulLlply reallzed. 8esponses Lo ob[ecLlons appear
moLlvaLed buL, compared Lo Lhe debaLe exposlLlon, Lhey are shorLer, Lhus furLher developable.
ueluslon ls a fundamenLal psychlaLrlc sympLom and became recenLly maLLer of debaLe for
normaLlvlLy ln psychlaLry. neverLheless ConsLrucLlvlsL ob[ecLlons agalnsL naLural klnds are
dedlcaLed Lo menLal lllness ln general and Samuel's dlscusslon could have worked for lL Loo.
1he expllclL reference Lo deluslons ln Lhe LlLle of Lhe paper conLrasLs Lhe generallLy of Lhe
secLlon as well as Lhe Loplc LhaL seems much more perLalnlng Lo Lhe nexL secLlon.
SecLlon 2 ln facL ls dedlcaLed Lo Lhe naLure of menLal lllness and lncludes Panna lckard's
ChapLer 4 and uomlnlc Murphy's ChapLer 3. ConLrary Lo Samuels' oplnlon, lckard sLands for a
defender of Lhe old-fashloned 1homas Szasz' Lhesls of Lhe myLh of menLal lllness, ln parLlcular
for schlzophrenla (hence psychoses and agaln deluslons) and personallLy dlsorders, whlle she
sLaLes LhaL Lhelr sympLoms can be sclenLlflcally explalned and Lhus psychlaLrlc sympLoms are
noL a myLh. 1he paper ls rlghL ln concluslons buL mlsleadlng. AL presenL mosL of psychlaLrlsLs,
perhaps all of Lhem, agree upon Lhe lnvalld sclenLlflc sLaLus of Lhese Lwo dlagnosLlc caLegorles.
neverLheless l have doubLs LhaL Lhls means sharlng generally Lhe Szasz' vlew, whlch lnsplred
Book Review - Psychiatiy as a Cognitive Neuioscience

133

anLl-psychlaLrlsL movemenL ln Lhe 70s and appears much more meLaphyslcally radlcal Lhan
lckard Lhlnks.
More accuraLe ls uomlnlc Murphy's chapLer on Lhe medlcal model ln psychlaLrlc
classlflcaLlon. Pe reporLs new references and conslderaLlons, buL hls paper colncldes
essenLlally wlLh hls recenL book, where sLaLed concepLlon of mulLllevel cognlLlve reducLlonlsm
ls well-developed. 1haL ls, a sLrong (eLlologlcal) verslon of Lhe medlcal model for psychlaLry
does noL enLall necessary Lhe new-fangled mlcro-reducLlonlsL approach from molecular
psychlaLry. Lven ln Lhls case, Lhough, Lhe Loplc (classlflcaLlon) seem noL compleLely relevanL Lo
Lhe secLlon purpose and Lhe paper mlghL have been beLLer lncluded ln Lhe prevlous secLlon,
lnsLead of Samuels' one LhaL mlghL have appeared here.
SecLlon 3 proposes Lo reconclle paradlgms, namely personal narraLlves wlLh sub-personal
sclenLlflc explanaLlons. 1lm 1hornLon's ChapLer 6 deals wlLh paradlgms expllclLly ln Lhese
phllosophlcal Lerms, !ohn Campbell's ChapLer 7 Lalks of raLlonal aLLlLudes and neurosclenLlflc
explanaLlon, and hlllp Cerrans' ChapLer 8 compares lnferenLlal accounLs Lo neuroblologlcal
explanaLlons for deluslon. Samuel's quesLlon of Lhe normaLlvlLy of deluslons reLurns here as
Lhe phllosophlcal macro-Lenslon of Lhe meLaphyslcal lnLerface beLween realms of speech.
AdmlLLedly, paradlgms are all buL reconclled by 1hornLon and Campbell. 1hornLon's
negaLlve answer glves llLLle hope Lo Lhe naLurallsL. no place for nelLher reducLlonlsm nor
supervenlence anLlreducLlonlsm nor sLance sLraLegles mlddle way. And Lhe pragmaLlc
suggesLlon ls Lo pursue local accommodaLlons neglecLlng Lhe ldea of a phllosophlcal global
resoluLlon. Campbell's soluLlon on proposlLlonal aLLlLudes ls LhaL Lhey express causal relaLlons
noL raLlonal ones, ln splLe of Lhe well-known uavldson-uenneLL LradlLlon LhaL sLaLes Lhe llnk
beLween raLlonallLy and menLal sLaLe ascrlpLlon. Agaln examples come up from deluslons.
Campbell appears agnosLlc, Lhough, abouL Lhe dlscovery of a blologlcal mechanlsm llnklng
cause and effecL and Lhen malnLalns personal level descrlpLlons.
Cn Lhe conLrary, Cerrans' neurocompuLaLlonal Lheory on Lhe role of prefronLal corLex for
deluslon ls Lhe only reconclllng. Pe brllllanLly llnks Lhe Lwo apparenLly lncommensurable
paradlgms on deluslon as elLher a bellef or a neuroLransmlLLer problem. Pe orlglnally provldes
a brldge among Lhree level hypoLheses: dopamlne from neuroblology, menLal Llme Lravel
process from cognlLlve psychology and auLoblographlcal narraLlves from phenomenology. 1hus
he challenges Lhe sLandard conflrmaLlon blas concepLlon (SLone and ?oung 1997) ln favor of a
narraLlve blas accounL and flnds evldence of lL from cognlLlve behavloral Lherapy. ln all LhaL,
Lhe paper ls of greaL sclenLlflc lnLeresL.
SecLlon 4 orlglnally deals wlLh psychlaLry and Lhe neurosclences. All over Lhe secLlon,
neurosclenLlflc flndlngs are lnLegraLed by concluslons comlng from phllosophy. Whlle ChapLer
9 looks aL hlgher braln slze levels (cognlLlve funcLlon and braln areas), ChapLer 10 ls aL a lower
(neurogeneLlcs). uan Loyd's ChapLer 9 lnLegraLes cognlLlve accounLs on schlzophrenla wlLh Lhe
phenomenologlcal concepL of LemporallLy. Pe Lhen reporLs recenL flndlngs ln fM8l on
schlzophrenla sympLoms lnvolvlng mulLlple braln areas, and he proposes Lo use fM8l for a
unlfylng accounL of schlzophrenla as a dlsrupLlon ln Lemporal domaln. uan !. SLeln's ChapLer 10
conslders gene polymorphlsm conLrlbuLlon Lo menLal lllness and lLs lmpllcaLlons for some
phllosophlcal quesLlons. Pe concludes wlLh lrreduclblllLy of psychologlcal phenomena Lo a
parLlcular gene varlanL. 1he chapLer ls, Lhough, a blL rushed and shallow ln argumenLaLlons.
llnally, SLephens and Craham's ChapLer 11 expllclLly sLaLes Lhe lmposslblllLy Lo Lrace a
neurosclenLlflc accounL for compulslon ln addlcLlons wlLhouL referrlng Lo norms comlng from
phllosophlcal analysls. 1haL ls Lo say, Lhe onlooker (phllosophy) geLs Lhe besL of Lhe flghL.
SecLlon 3, on phenomenology and sclenLlflc explanaLlon, concludes agaln ln favor of
phllosophy. MaLLhew 8aLcllffe's ChapLer 12 defends phenomenologlcal sub[ecLlve explanaLlon
as ob[ecL of enqulry. ln shorL, no neurosclence research wlLhouL phenomenology, ln parLlcular


136

for depresslon. Shaun Callagher's ChapLer 13 on Lhe phenomenology of deluslon shows Lhe
same purpose. Pe revlews deluslon debaLe, namely Lhe mosL recenL verslons of Lop-down and
boLLom-up accounLs. Pe Lhen shows an alLernaLlve model, noL predlcaLed as Lhe formers on
Lhe sLandard vlew of deluslon as dysfuncLlon ln Lhe braln. 1hls model ls based on Lhe
relaLlvlsLlc phenomenologlcal hypoLhesls of mulLlple reallLles. lL ls however concelved as an
essenLlal descrlpLlve lnLegraLlon Lo Lhe sclenLlflc explanaLory accounL (see p. 260).
SecLlon 6 ls expllclLly devoLed Lo deluslon and cognlLlon. lL conslsLs of kelLh lranklsh's
ChapLer 14 on a Lwo-level framework for deluslon, and Lhe remarkable Anne and MarLln
uavles' ChapLer 13 on how Lo explaln paLhologles of bellef. lranklsh's efforL Lo lnLerpreL Lhe
doxasLlc concepLlon of deluslon by Lhe recenL dual-sysLem Lheory on bellef ls appreclable. Pe
argues LhaL bellefs can be locaLed aL Lwo dlfferenL levels (one unconsclous and dlsposlLlonal,
Lhe oLher consclous and funcLlonal), and LhaL deluslons, whaLever doxasLlc or non-doxasLlc,
belong Lo Lhe second as accepLances. Pls argumenLs, alLhough supporLed by experlmenLal daLa
on reasonlng, are sLrlcLly folk psychologlcal, buL Lhey suggesL an aLLracLlve paLh LhaL Mr. and
Mrs. uavles Lread beLLer. 1helr exLended and palnsLaklng conLrlbuLlon ls Lop-grade. 1hey
suggesL dlfferenL explanaLlons of deluslon can be parameLrlc varlaLlon wlLhln Lhe Lwo-facLor
framework. Powever, Lhe greaL merlL of Lhe paper ls connecLlng for Lhe flrsL Llme ln Lhe debaLe
bellef evaluaLlon Lo cognlLlve and braln funcLlons Lhrough experlmenLal neurolmaglng sLudles
on reasonlng. 1haL makes Lhe paper an lndlspensable readlng and an exLraordlnary advance ln
Lhe debaLe on deluslon, where Lhe naLurallzaLlon of reasonlng processes ls usually denled (see
8ermudez 2001, Murphy 2006).
LasL secLlon, SecLlon 7, ls on moral psychology. lL lncludes !eaneLLe kenneLL and SLeve
MaLLhews' ChapLer 16 on fronLal lobe damages and lack of agenL responslblllLy, and laln Law's
ChapLer 17 on Lhe lnLerference of depresslon wlLh normal moral moLlvaLlon. Whlle Lhe former
relaLes normaLlve concepLs as auLonomous agency Lo Lhe neural basls of cognlLlve funcLlon
(menLal Llme Lravel), Lhe laLLer deals wlLh depresslon and concepLs as moLlvaLlon and vlrLue aL
Lhe personal level of phllosophy and folk psychology.
Concluslve chapLer, by edlLors Llsa 8orLoloLLl and MaLLhew 8roome, keeps ln llne wlLh many
oLher papers. AuLhors agaln Lry Lo show why neurosclences cannoL do all Lhe explanaLory work
ln psychlaLry by Lhe Lwo examples of normaLlvlLy ln Lhe deflnlLlon of devlancy (ln parLlcular Lhe
normaLlve concepL of 'auLhorshlp' for deluslon) and envlronmenLal eLlology or exLernallsm ln
schlzophrenla. Agaln Lhey Llp Lhe scales Loo much ln favor of phllosophy and folk psychology.
Pere auLhors seem Lo forgeL, however, Lwo lmporLanL Lhlngs. Cn Lhe one hand, cognlLlve
neurosclence does noL correspond necessarlly Lo ellmlnaLlvlsm. 8uL sLaLlng Lhe lmporLance of
psychology or oLher hlgher-level sclence does noL need Lo Lake Lhe form of denylng Lhe
posslblllLy of reducLlon of hlgher levels (see, for example, 8echLel 2007). Cn Lhe oLher hand,
assumlng Lhe lnLernallsL vlew accordlng Lo whlch Lhe locos of coottol ls Lhe mlnd-braln does
noL mean LhaL Lhe quesL Lo undersLand how a cognlLlve agenL ls slLuaLed ln lLs envlronmenL ls
noL well moLlvaLed (see 8echLel 2009).
ln concluslon, such a long book hardly calls for a concluslve verdlcL. As we have seen, each
paper has a dlfferenL degree of sclenLlflc value compared Lo oLhers: some are very lnLeresLlng,
oLhers are less wlnnlng. 8y Lhe way, Lhe book as a whole ls affecLed by a llsL of problems.
llrsLly, Lhe book ls noL well-organlzed. SecLlon LlLles are ofLen mlsleadlng and lncluded papers
are someLlmes off Lhe Loplc (see whaL sald abouL SecLlons 1-2-3-4). Lven Lhe book LlLle ls
lnapproprlaLe. As a maLLer of facL, Lhe subLlLle lbllosopblcol letspectlves LranslaLes much more
Lhe book purposes. 1hls ls noL a LexL of reference for Lhe new cognlLlve neuropsychlaLry, as Lhe
LlLle seems Lo suggesL. 1hls ls much more a phllosophlcal LexL LhaL crlLlcally explores Lhe real
posslblllLy of such a research. 1he book Lhus appears much more desLrucLlve Lhan consLrucLlve.
Book Review - Psychiatiy as a Cognitive Neuioscience

137

1he general vlew arlslng from many papers ls ln facL LhaL Lhls dlsclpllne lnevlLably reslsLs Lo
naLurallzaLlon. 1herefore, why Lalklng abouL psychlaLry as a cognlLlve oeotoscleoce" lf ln many
cases Lhe neurosclenLlflc approach encounLers lnsuperable llmlLs (personal explanaLlon,
phenomenology, normaLlvlLy, and so on)? Pere fuLure psychlaLry seems raLher malnly
concelved as an anLl-reducLlonlsL dlsclpllne. namely, each eplsLemologlcal level malnLalns
compleLe auLonomy and has no hope Lo be llnked Lo Lhe lower. 1o Lell Lhe LruLh, Lhe book
remalns amblguous on Lhe sub[ecL (perhaps because noL all auLhors would have shared Lhe
same oplnlon - see, as examples, ChapLer 8, 13 and 16 for a conLrary approach).
Secondly, a problem recurrlng ln Lhe phllosophlcal debaLe on psychlaLry affecLs Lhls book as
well. 1he book glves Loo much welghL Lo deluslon. CerLalnly deluslon ls a core psychlaLrlc
sympLom, buL lL ls noL all Lhe sLory. ConLemporary phllosophy of mlnd have cenLered Lhe
debaLe on deluslon slnce hypoLheses on deluslon (ln parLlcular, Lhe Capgras deluslon) became
paradlgmaLlc of Lhe new research ln cognlLlve neuropsychlaLry. ln due Llme Lhls resLrlcLed
phllosophlcal lnLeresL mlghL appear a carlcaLure of Lhe dlsclpllne. WhaL abouL oLher psychlaLrlc
phenomena? A feeble lnLeresL for Lhem ls showed ln Lhe book (only 3 of 18 chapLers menLlon
one of Lhe oLher psychlaLrlc condlLlons).
1hlrdly, Lhe book ofLen seems Lo come Lo a sLandsLlll. Accordlng Lo phllosophers' wlsh, Lhe
flrsL concern doesn'L seem Lo be how Lo beLLer consLrucL a cognlLlve neuropsychlaLry Lo
resolve Lhe puzzllng problem of menLal lllness, buL reservlng a secure place for phllosophy ln
Lhls new fleld of research. 1he book nearly lgnores Lhe llLeraLure on MechanlsL accounL for
general cognlLlve neurosclence (see 8echLel 2008, Craver 2007), whlch would have overcome
Lhe fear of Lhe deaLh of phllosophy and psychology because of reducLlon. And ln worrylng Loo
much abouL phllosophlcal lssues, lL someLlmes appears Lo mlss Lhe polnL of psychlaLry. 1haL ls,
Lhe polnL of a medlcal pracLlce wlLh concreLe needs. 8educLlon of hlgher levels would be Lhe
way Lo puL phllosophlcal ldeas ln Lhe concreLe form of cllnlcal lnLervenLlon.
ln concluslon, Lhls LexL ls a good gulde Lo keep experL scholars abreasL of phllosophlcal
developmenLs on psychlaLry. neverLheless, because of few conslderable papers, lL ls only a
parLlal Lool lf lL alms Lo clarlfy Lo psychlaLrlsLs whaL espouslng a cognlLlve neurosclenLlflc
dlrecLlon mlghL really mean for Lhemselves. So, aparL from some remarkable conLrlbuLlon, Lhe
book as a whole does noL come up Lo expecLaLlons. unforLunaLely, we are sLlll a long way from
a Langlble cognlLlve revoluLlon ln psychlaLry.

8I8LICGkAn
Aragona, M. (2006). AspettooJo lo tlvolozlooe, Oltte ll u5M-v. le ooove lJee sollo Jloqoosl
tto fllosoflo Jello scleozo e pslcopotoloqlo. 8oma: LdlLorl 8lunlLl.
8echLel, W. (2007). 8educlng sychology whlle MalnLalnlng lLs AuLonomy vla MechanlsLlc
LxplanaLlon. ln M. SchouLen & P. Looren de !ong (Lds.), 1be Mottet of tbe MloJ.
lbllosopblcol ssoys oo lsycboloqy, Neotoscleoce ooJ keJoctloo. Cxford: 8asll
8lackwell.
8echLel, W. (2008). Meotol Mecboolsms. lbllosopblcol letspectlves oo coqoltlve
Neotoscleoce. London: 8ouLledge.
8echLel, W. (2009). LxplanaLlon: Mechanlsm, ModularlLy, and SlLuaLed CognlLlon. ln .
8obblns & M. Aydede (Lds.), combtlJqe nooJbook of 5ltooteJ coqoltloo. Cambrldge:
Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.


138

8rown, P. l. (1977). letceptloo, 1beoty ooJ commltmeot. 1be New lbllosopby of
5cleoce. Chlcago: unlverslLy of Chlcago ress.
Craver, C. l. (2007). xplololoq tbe 8tolo. Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress.
kuhn, 1. S. (1962).1be 5ttoctote of 5cleotlflc kevolotloos. Chlcago: unlverslLy of Chlcago
ress.
Marshall, !. C., & Palllgan, . W. (Lds.) (1996). MetboJ lo MoJoess. cose 5toJles lo
coqoltlve Neotopsycblotty. Pove, LasL Sussex: sychology ress.
Murphy, u. (2006). lsycblotty lo tbe 5cleotlflc lmoqe. Cambrldge: Ml1 ress.
SLone, 1., & ?oung, A. (1997). ueluslons and 8raln ln[ury: 1he hllosophy and sychology
of 8ellef. MloJ ooJ looqooqe, 12: 327-364.

139

Book Review
Tbe Cambridge Handbook of Sociocultural Psycbology
LdlLed by !aan valslner and AlberLo 8osa
Cambrldge unlverslLy ress, new ?ork, 2007

loco 1oteo
*

lLaLeo[unlsa.lL

lL ls a very dlfflculL and exclLlng Lask Lo accounL for Lhe conLenL of
a book such as Lhe combtlJqe nooJbook of 5oclocoltotol
lsycboloqy. lndeed, Lhe challenge of a handbook ls generally LhaL
of addresslng scholars and sLudenLs by represenLlng Lhe sLaLe-of-
Lhe-arL of a research fleld. Powever, Lhls nooJbook seems Lo have
a hlgher LargeL. lL conLalns 33 chapLers by 39 dlfferenL auLhors,
coverlng almosL all Lhe Loplcs of conLemporary psychology - such
as language, cognlLlon, Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lheory and
meLhodology, Lhe concepLs of ldenLlLy, culLure, represenLaLlon,
and Self, only Lo menLlon some - by Lhe llghL of socloculLural
psychology, whose maln concern ls Lo undersLand Lhe relaLlonshlp
beLween mlnd and culLure, beLween lndlvldual psychology and
soclal funcLlonlng.
8eyond all dlfferenL verslons of soclal, psychologlcal or physlologlcal reducLlonlsm,
socloculLural psychology, as drawn by Lhe edlLors and Lhe auLhors of Lhe nooJbook, ls argulng
Loday LhaL soclal and culLural llfe are lndlssoclable from Lhe Lhreads whlch make up Lhe fabrlc
of Lhe human syche (p. lx). 1hls sounds llke an old-fashloned sLaLemenL, and from some
polnL of vlew lL re-proposes Lhe way ln whlch Lhe very forefaLhers of sychology (p. lx)
concelved Lhe baslc lnLerLwlne beLween soclal and psychologlcal phenomena agalnsL
reducLlonlsm. 1hus, Lo undersLand Lhe edlLors' clalm we can easlly go back Lo 1860 Lo flnd an
example ln Carlo CaLLaneo's sLaLemenL LhaL Lhe mosL soclal acL of human belngs ls Lhlnklng
(CaLLaneo 2000, p. 89, my ttooslotloo). LaLer on, WundL recognlzed LhaL Lhe maLerlal aspecLs
of Lhe world culLure exerLed an lnfluence upon Lhe menLal aspecLs, whose dlrecL expresslons
are speech and wrlLlng (WundL 1916, p. 486). 8educLlonlsm was a sworn enemy also for Lur[a,
clalmlng for a romanLlc sclence able Lo grasp Lhe rlchness and Lhe complexlLy of Lhe llvlng
LoLallLy (Lur[a 1979).
Powever, Lhe fallure of soclal sclences ln pursulng Lhe very knowledge of human naLure was
already clear durlng Lhe flrsL half of Lhe 20
Lh
CenLury (!ahoda 2007). As Murchlnson
complalned:

1he soclal sclences aL Lhe presenL momenL sLand naked and feeble ln Lhe mldsL of Lhe pollLlcal
uncerLalnLy ln Lhe world [.] And aL Lhe end of all Lhese cenLurles, no one knows whaL ls wrong wlLh
Lhe world or whaL ls llkely Lo happen ln Lhe world. (Murchlnson 1933, p. lx)

1he answer Lo Lhls malalse, passed Lhrough Lhe decades, ls Lhe resulL of varlous hlsLorlcal
dlalogues wlLhln psychology, soclology, and anLhropology (p. 3).
1he common feaLures of Lhe sclenLlflc Lhreads converglng Lowards a socloculLural vlew of
human syche are Lhe focus on lnLeracLlon, language and semlosls, Lhe hollsLlc concepL of

*
uepL. of Lconomy, lnsLlLuLlons and SocleLy, unlverslLy of Sassarl (lLaly)


160

human belngs, Lhe role of human acLlvlLy ln shaplng boLh soclal and lndlvldual world, and Lhe
aLLenLlon Lo hlsLorlcal and processual naLure of human facLs.
1he nooJbook ls sLrucLured ln seven maln secLlons provldlng Lhe polnL of vlew of
socloculLural psychology on Lhe above menLloned dlmenslons. 1he auLhors draw a neLwork of
paLhways crosslng Lhe psychologlcal landmark of human belngs. 1he flrsL secLlon (1beotetlcol
ooJ metboJoloqlcol lssoe) presenLs some ma[or LheoreLlcal and meLhodologlcal lssues, such as
explanaLlon, Llme and causallLy dlrecLlon ln soclal sclences and how lL affecLs Lhe dellmlLaLlon
of phenomena, and Lhe llnk beLween Lheory formulaLlon and emplrlcal research. 1he second
secLlon (ltom ootote to coltote) presenLs several reflecLlons on Lhe blologlcal and phylogeneLlc
rooLs of human syche wlLh respecL Lo Lhe culLure. 1he Lhlrd secLlon (ltom otleototloo to
meooloq) moves Lowards Lhe speclflclLy of human naLure, LhaL ls, Lhe ablllLy Lo use slgns Lo
bulld Lhe culLural world from percepLlon, moLor exploraLlon and acLlon. 1hls ablllLy Lo manage
symbollc resources Lo bulld Lhe Self and Lhe ldenLlLy wlLhln a glven soclal conLexLs ls Lhe focus
of Lhe forLh secLlon (ltom otleototloo to meooloq). 1he flfLh (ltom soclety to tbe petsoo
tbtooqb coltote) and slxLh (ltom soclol coltote to petsoool coltote) secLlons wlden Lhe
perspecLlve by Laklng lnLo accounL Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe lndlvldual and Lhe socleLy: a
movemenL golng backwards and forwards from socleLy Lo Lhe person and from soclal culLure
Lo personal culLure. llnally, Lhe sevenLh secLlon (Mokloq seose of tbe post fot tbe fotote.
memoty ooJ 5elf-teflectloo) deals wlLh Lhe dlachronlc dlmenslon of mlnd and culLure
descrlblng how collecLlve and personal memory funcLlons are lnLrlcaLely llnked (p. 16).
1he overall lmpresslon provlded by Lhe nooJbook ls a rlch and lnLeresLlng endeavour Lo
reread Lhe whole of psychologlcal knowledge by challenglng some assumpLlons LhaL Lhe
malnsLream psychology has Loo qulckly Laken for granLed. As Lhe edlLors clalm: researchers
are explorers, noL caravaneers (p. x).

8I8LICGkAn
CaLLaneo, C. (2000). lslcoloqlo Jelle meotl ossoclote. 8oma: LdlLorl 8lunlLl.
!ahoda, C. (2007). A nlstoty of 5oclol lsycboloqy. ltom tbe lqbteeotb-ceototy
ollqbteomeot to tbe 5ecooJ wotlJ wot. new ?ork: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.
Lurl[a, A., Cole, M., & Cole, S. (Lds.) (1979). 1be Mokloq of MloJ. A letsoool Accooot of
5ovlet lsycboloqy. Cambrldge: Parvard unlverslLy ress.
Murchlnson, C. (Ld.) (1933). nooJbook of 5oclol lsycboloqy. WorcesLer, MA: Clark
unlverslLy ress.
WundL, W. (1916). lemeots of lolk lsycboloqy. Ootlloes of o lsycboloqlcol nlstoty of tbe
uevelopmeot of MookloJ. (L. L. Schaub, Lrans.). new ?ork: 1he Macmlllan Company.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S

LdlLors' lnLroducLlon.
arL l. 1heoreLlcal and MeLhodologlcal lssues:
1. 1he myLh and beyond: onLology of psyche and eplsLemology of psychology,
2. Language, cognlLlon, sub[ecLlvlLy - a dynamlc consLlLuLlon,
3. sychology wlLhln Llme: Lheorlzlng abouL Lhe maklng of socloculLural psychology,
Book Review - The Cambiiuge hanubook

161

4. Sampllng reconsldered: ldlographlc sclence and analysls of personal llfe Lra[ecLorles,
arL ll. lrom naLure Lo CulLure:
3. 1he wlndowless room: 'medlaLlonlsm' and how Lo geL over lL,
6. luncLlonal sysLems of percepLlon-acLlon and re-medlaLlon,
7. ComparaLlve developmenL of communlcaLlon: an evoluLlonary perspecLlve,
8. 1he maLerlal pracLlces of ape language research,
9. 1he end of myLhs and legends abouL blologlcal and culLural evoluLlon: a new vlew ln
Lhe knowledge on homlnld paleo-eLhoecology,
arL lll. lrom CrlenLaLlon Lo Meanlng:
10. AcLs of psyche: acLuaLlons as synLhesls of semlosls and acLlon,
11. 1lme and movemenL ln symbol formaLlon,
12. Cb[ecL use, communlcaLlon and slgns: Lhe Lrladlc basls of early cognlLlve
developmenL,
13. neLwork of meanlngs: a LheoreLlcal-meLhodologlcal perspecLlve for Lhe
lnvesLlgaLlon of human developmenLal processes,
arL lv. Symbollc 8esources for Lhe ConsLlLuLlon of Lxperlence:
14. uramaLurglcal acLuaLlons and symbollc communlcaLlon, or how bellefs make up
reallLy,
13. Analysls of culLural emoLlon: undersLandlng of lndlgenous psychology for unlversal
lmpllcaLlons,
16. 1he role of symbollc resources ln human llves,
17. erpeLual uncerLalnLy of culLural llfe: becomlng reallLy,
18. rayer and Lhe klngdom of heavens: psychologlcal Lools for dlrecLlvlLy,
19. 'Myself, Lhe pro[ecL': socloculLural lnLerpreLaLlons of young adulLhood,
arL v. lrom SocleLy Lo Lhe erson Lhrough CulLure:
20. ApprenLlceshlp ln conversaLlon and culLure: emerglng soclablllLy ln preschool peer
Lalk,
21. 1he creaLlon of new culLures ln peer lnLeracLlon,
22. 'CulLure has no lnLernal LerrlLory': culLure as dlalogue,
23. CulLural-hlsLorlcal approaches Lo deslgnlng for developmenL,
24. Money as a culLural Lool medlaLlng personal relaLlonshlps: chlld developmenL of
exchange and possesslon,
23. 1he famlly: negoLlaLlng culLural values,
arL vl. lrom Soclal CulLure Lo ersonal CulLure:
26. CulLure and soclal represenLaLlons,
27. 1he lnsLlLuLlons lnslde: self, morallLy and culLure,
28. ldenLlLy, rlghLs and duLles: Lhe lllusLraLlve case of poslLlonlng by lran, Lhe unlLed
SLaLes and Lhe Luropean unlon,
29. Symbollc pollLlcs and culLural symbols: ldenLlLy formaLlon beLween and beyond
naLlons and sLaLes,
30. 1he dlaloglcal self: soclal, personal, and (un)consclous,
arL vll. Maklng Sense of Lhe asL for Lhe luLure: Memory and Self-8eflecLlon:
31. Soclal and cognlLlve deLermlnanLs of collecLlve memory for publlc evenLs,
32. CollecLlve memory,
33. lssues ln Lhe socloculLural sLudy of memory: maklng memory maLLer,
34. 1he soclal basls of self-reflecLlon, Ceneral concluslons.


163

Book Review
Psycbology's Interpretive Turn: Tbe Searcb for Trutb and
Agency in Tbeoretical and Pbilosopbical Psycbology
8arbara S. Peld
Amerlcan sychologlcal AssoclaLlon, WashlngLon uC, 2007

wllllom Meeboo
*

wmmeehan[sbcglobal.neL

Much of Lhe hlsLory of phllosophlcal psychology over Lhe pasL
Lhree quarLers of a cenLury has been occupled wlLh Lhe
posLmodern crlLlque of convenLlonal sclenLlflc psychology, whlch
Lhe crlLlcs have decrled as mechanlsLlc, reducLlonlsL, and unable Lo
accounL for Lhe essenLlal human experlence of agency. 8uL Lhe
fundamenLal eplsLemlc relaLlvlsm of posLmodernlsm, or soclal
consLrucLlonlsm, has lLself been crlLlclzed, even by Lhose
sympaLheLlc Lo lLs cenLral lnslghLs, and ln Lhe pasL few decades a
varleLy of LheorlsLs and emplrlcal researchers have Lrled Lo
preserve essenLlal elemenLs of boLh LradlLlons (for a broad
sampllng of such approaches, see Lrnellng & !ohnson 2003).
8arbara Peld's mosL recenL book, lsycboloqys lotetptetlve 1oto.
tbe 5eotcb fot 1totb ooJ Aqeocy lo 1beotetlcol ooJ lbllosopblcol
lsycboloqy ls a sLudy and crlLlque of one segmenL of Lhe llLeraLure LhaL has arlsen from Lhls
search for a vlo meJlo.
1hough unlLed by Lhls search for a more moderaLe crlLlque of convenLlonal psychology, Lhe
group of Lhlnkers, Lo whom Peld refers collecLlvely as mlJJle qtoooJ-tbeotlsts, do noL
consLlLuLe a unlfled school. Per sub[ecLs represenL a number of LradlLlons lncludlng
hermeneuLlcs, neo-poslLlvlsm, and dlscurslve consLrucLlonlsm. WhaL Lhey do have ln common,
however, ls a commlLmenL Lo modlfylng Lhe profound relaLlvlsm of Lhe radlcal posLmodernlsLs
and soclal consLrucLlonlsLs ln ways LhaL preserve Lhe posLmodern ldea LhaL, [o]ur
psychologlcal exlsLence ls consLlLuLed by, consLralned by, and Lhus dependenL on Lhe
hlsLorlcal/culLural/llngulsLlc conLexL of our locaLlon (p. 88).
1he plurallLy of LradlLlons Lo whlch Peld's sub[ecLs owe alleglance makes her Lask a dlfflculL
one. ln order Lo do [usLlce Lo Lhls dlverslLy, lL ls necessary for her Lo make mulLlple Lheory-
speclflc analyses, whlch Lend Lo break Lhe flow of her own dlscusslon and glve Lhe book a
mosalc quallLy. A reader who has pald close aLLenLlon Lo her lnLroducLory chapLer should noL
have Lrouble followlng Lhe Lhread of her argumenL, buL Lhe need for speclflclLy compllcaLes
whaL ls already a relaLlvely complex analysls of Lhe lnLerplay of onLologlcal and eplsLemologlcal
lssues dlscussed by all her sub[ecLs.
Peld's mosL fundamenLal crlLlque of Lhe mlddle-ground LheorlsLs ls LhaL Lhey fall Lo
dlfferenLlaLe Lhemselves from Lhe baslc posLmodern bellef LhaL human naLure ls self-
consLrucLed Lo such an exLenL LhaL Lhere can be no ob[ecLlve psychologlcal unlversals. Such an
onLology, she argues, lmplles LhaL reason lLself ls soclally consLrucLed, whlch, lf Lrue, would
necesslLaLe a fundamenLally relaLlvlsL eplsLemology. 1hls onLologlcal-eplsLemologlcal quesLlon
demands a sophlsLlcaLed phllosophlcal dlscusslon of boLh of lLs elemenLs, whlch ls reflecLed ln

*
naLlonal CoallLlon of lndependenL Scholars


164

Lhe book's organlzaLlon lnLo a serles of secLlons ln whlch Peld flrsL conslders Lhe onLologlcal
and eplsLemologlcal lssues separaLely, and Lhen comblnes Lhem ln a flnal secLlon where she
analyzes Lhe lnLerdependenL onLologlcal-eplsLemologlcal unlLy.
ln Lhe sphere of onLology, Peld sees Lhe mlddle-ground LheorlsLs as seeklng Lo carve ouL
poslLlons LhaL avold boLh relaLlvlsm and mechanlsm, comblnlng Lhe reallsm of convenLlonal
psychology wlLh Lhe agency LhaL posLmodernlsLs say ls mlsslng from 'malnsLream' approaches.
Peld emphaLlcally approves of Lhe general lnLenL of Lhls pro[ecL buL argues LhaL Lhese LheorlsLs
fall Lo achleve Lhelr goal, ln parL, because Lhey accepL Lhe posLmodernlsLs' mlsLaken deflnlLlon
of agency wlLh self-fashlonlng (cf. CreenblaLL 1980). Mlddle-ground LheorlsLs argue LhaL, ln
Lhelr models, Lhe consLralnLs on self-consLrucLlon lmposed by a glven socleLy, culLure and
language ground Lhe psychologlcal lndlvldual ln ways LhaL allow for onLologlcal sLaLus, wlLhouL
havlng Lo see human acLlon as Lhe resulL of a sLrlng of exLernal causes. olnLlng Lo passages ln
Lhe wrlLlngs of mlddle-ground LheorlsLs ln whlch Lhey asserL LhaL human belngs are slmply or
[usL whaL Lhey lnLerpreL Lhemselves as belng (p. 99), Peld argues LhaL lnLerpreLaLlon cannoL
confer such onLologlcal sLaLus, even when LhaL lnLerpreLaLlon ls consLralned by soclal and
culLural conLexL. WhaL ls needed, she proposes, ls a concepLlon of human agency as rooLed,
noL ln freedom of lnLerpreLaLlon, buL ln Lhe human ablllLy Lo raLlonally evaluaLe one's
clrcumsLances and acL accordlngly.
1he agency-as-self-fashlonlng poslLlon of Lhe mlddle-ground LheorlsLs also sLems, Peld
suggesLs, from Lhelr accepLance of Lhe posLmodern characLerlzaLlon of convenLlonal sclenLlflc
reallsm. Accordlng Lo her sub[ecLs, Lhe convenLlonal research program's focus on Lhe sLudy of
mlnd-lndependenL ob[ecLs carrles wlLh lL Lhe noLlon LhaL psychologlcal properLles and
behavlors are reduclble Lo Lhose of fundamenLal physlcal parLlcles. So deflned, an ob[ecLlve
approach could only lead Lo a reducLlonlsm LhaL ls unsulLable for human sclences, buL Peld
re[ecLs Lhls ldenLlflcaLlon of reallsm wlLh reducLlonlsm, clLlng Lhe work of Lhe reallsL
phllosopher, Amle 1homasson (2008), who argues LhaL human-scale ob[ecLs are as real as Lhe
fundamenLal parLlcles of whlch Lhey are composed. Such an onLology, Peld suggesLs, makes lL
posslble Lo conslder human behavlor and psychologlcal sLaLes wlLhouL reduclng Lhem elLher Lo
braln processes or Lo Lhe local culLural and llngulsLlc forces LhaL shape Lhe psychologlcal
sub[ecL's phenomenologlcal experlence. 1he mlddle-ground LheorlsLs' lnablllLy Lo envlslon such
non-reducLlve, ob[ecLlvlsL reallsm, Peld argues, resulLs ln an onLology LhaL, whaLever lLs clalms
abouL soclal and culLural consLralnLs, ls hardly less relaLlvlsL Lhan LhaL of Lhe expllclLly radlcal
posLmodernlsLs.
Such an onLology, ln Lurn, resLrlcLs Lhe range of eplsLemologlcal poslLlons open Lo Lhe
mlddle-ground LheorlsLs. Speclflcally, lL provldes no basls from whlch Lo crlLlclze Lhe
posLmodernlsL dlchoLomy LhaL llmlLs eplsLemologlcal opLlons Lo a cholce beLween preLenslons
Lo a vlew from nowhere" and slLuaLed knowlng" ln whlch boLh knower and known are so
relaLlvlzed LhaL Lhe sub[ecLlve and Lhe ob[ecLlve become lndlsLlngulshable. As an alLernaLlve Lo
such a dlchoLomy, Peld suggesLs Lhe more complex formulaLlon of Ldward ols (1992), who
undersLands human experlence as lncorporaLlng boLh slLuaLed and unlversal elemenLs.
1he confllcL beLween Lhe convenLlonal and Lhe lnLerpreLlve approaches are lndlcaLlve of
one of Lhe mosL serlous of Lhe problems LhaL conLemporary psychology needs Lo address.
Llsewhere (Meehan 2009), l have argued LhaL Lhe soluLlon cannoL be found ln compromlse
beLween Lhe Lwo, llmlLed and Lhus flawed approaches, and Peld's crlLlque makes lL clear LhaL
modlflcaLlon of Lhe posLmodern approach ls noL Lhe answer, elLher. WhaL ls also clear ls LhaL
boLh research LradlLlons embody cruclal lnslghLs. ConvenLlonal psychology has, wlLhouL
quesLlon, ofLen mlsLaken slLuaLed flndlngs for unlversal psychologlcal aLLrlbuLes, buL lL has also
produced some exLremely valuable work on human cognlLlon (e.g., Mlller, CalanLer & rlbram
Book Review - Psychology's Inteipietative Tuin

163

1960), soclal lnLeracLlon (e.g., Paney aL al. 1973), and psychoLherapeuLlc process (e.g., Welss aL
al. 1986). Llkewlse, Lhe essenLlal correcLlons Lo LradlLlonal narraLlves abouL Lhe hlsLory of
sclence LhaL have followed from 1homas kuhn's (1962) semlnal work ln Lhe soclology of
sclence have made lL qulLe clear LhaL, ln many of lLs aspecLs, sclence, lncludlng sclenLlflc
psychology, ls soclally consLrucLed. And Lhls lnslghL remalns lmporLanL even Lhough some have
used kuhn's work Lo advance phllosophlcal agendas LhaL are Loo far from reallsm Lo be
compaLlble wlLh sclenLlflc lnvesLlgaLlon.
1he essenLlal polnL, of course, ls LhaL any valld phllosophy of psychology would have Lo be
open boLh Lo Lhe leglLlmaLe flndlngs of convenLlonal research and Lo Lhe soclology of sclence.
1he developmenL of such a program lles beyond Lhe scope of lsycboloqys lotetptetlve toto,
whlch ls prlmarlly a crlLlcal work. 8uL no crlLlque can be advanced wlLhouL reference Lo
afflrmaLlve LeneLs, and Lhe consLrucLlve aspecL of Peld's crlLlque suggesLs some grounds upon
whlch such a Lask mlghL be aLLempLed. 1he consLrucLlve LhrusL of Peld's argumenL can be
found prlmarlly ln Lhe use she makes of Lhe phllosophlcal resources she marshals ln Lhe course
of her argumenL. Cne parLlcularly sallenL example ls her adapLaLlon of 1homasson's work,
whlch defends Lhe onLologlcal sLaLus of human-scale objects agalnsL asserLlons of Lhe prlorlLy
of fundamenLal physlcal parLlcles. ln belng used Lo asserL Lhe ob[ecLlvlLy of psycboloqlcol
sttoctotes, Lhese argumenLs do noL lose Lhelr lmporLance for Lhe phllosophy of physlcs, and
Peld, by adapLlng Lhem Lo Lhe phllosophy of psychology provldes a Lrue mlddle ground: one
from whlch boLh physlcallsm and culLural relaLlvlsm can be sub[ecLed Lo reasoned crlLlclsm.
ulLlmaLely, Lhe mosL lmporLanL aspecL of Lhe phllosophlcal poslLlon from whlch Peld
confronLs Lhe hermeneuLlc and neo-pragmaLlc assumpLlons of boLh posLmodern and mlddle-
ground LheorlsLs ls her asserLlon of Lhe valldlLy of reason. Pere agaln, her approach allows for a
crlLlque of boLh physlcallsLs, who mlsLrusL Lhe reasonlng LhaL connecLs observable phenomena
Lo unobservable poslLs, and posLmoderns, who belleve reason Lo be soclally consLrucLed:
clearly a more leglLlmaLe mlddle ground beLween Lhe Lwo exLremes Lhan could arlse from
elLher compromlslng beLween Lhe Lwo or from modlfylng elLher. And, once agaln, Lhe sLraLegy
LhaL allows her Lo esLabllsh Lhls ground ls Lhe appllcaLlon of phllosophlc approaches LhaL are
dlfferenL from Lhose of elLher Lhe poslLlvlsLs or of Lhe posLmoderns - ln Lhls case ols' lnslghL
LhaL human undersLandlng ls noL Lo be reduclble Lo elLher unlversals or purely exlsLenLlal
slLuaLed elemenLs.
As noLed above, Peld's book ls noL an easy read. no book LhaL poses a fundamenLal
challenge Lo such an lmporLanL an lnLellecLual pro[ecL as LhaL of her sub[ecLs could be easy and
Peld's Lask ls compllcaLed by Lhe varleLy of dlfferenL approaches Laken by her mlddle-ground
LheorlsLs. Per LreaLmenL of Lhls dlverslLy ls exLremely generous ln lLs aLLenLlon Lo speclflc
argumenLs of Lhe varlous auLhors and ln Lhe profuslon of exLended quoLaLlons whlch allow Lhe
reader Lo encounLer Lhe oplnlons she dlscusses ln Lhelr auLhor's own words. Peld's own
argumenL ls profound and rlchly suggesLlve of alLernaLlve soluLlons Lo a long-sLandlng problem
ln Lhe Lheory of psychology. 1hough complex, Lhe book ls well worLh Lhe efforL, as boLh Lhe
argumenLs she addresses, and Lhe poslLlon she develops, are lmporLanL ones.

8I8LICGkAn
Lrnellng, C. L., & !ohnson, u. M. (Lds.) (2003). 1be MloJ os o 5cleotlflc Object. 8etweeo
8tolo ooJ coltote. new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy ress.
CreenblaLL, S. (1980). keoolssooce 5elf-losblooloq. ltom Mote to 5bokespeote. Chlcago:
unlverslLy of Chlcago ress.


166

Paney, C., 8anks, C., & Zlmbardo, . (1973). lnLerpersonal uynamlcs ln a SlmulaLed rlson.
lotetootloool Iootool of ctlmlooloqy & leooloqy, 1(1): 69-97.
Meehan, W. (2009). arLem 1oLlus naLurae Lsse: Splnoza's AlLernaLlve Lo Lhe MuLual
lncomprehenslon of hyslcallsm and MenLallsm ln sychology. Iootool of 1beotetlcol
ooJ lbllosopblcol lsycboloqy, 29(1): 47- 39.
Mlller, C. A., CalanLer, L., & rlbram, k. P. (1960). lloos ooJ tbe 5ttoctote of 8ebovlot. new
?ork: Penry PolL & Co.
ols, L. (1992). koJlcol keollsm. ultect koowloq lo 5cleoce ooJ lbllosopby. lLhaca-London:
Cornell unlverslLy ress.
1homasson, A. L. (2007). OtJlooty Objects. Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress.
Welss, !., Sampson, P., & 1he MounL Zlon sychoLherapy 8esearch Croup (1986). 1be
lsycboooolytlc ltocess. 1beoty, cllolcol Obsetvotloo, ooJ mpltlcol keseotcb. new
?ork: Cullford ress.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S

l. lnLroducLlon and Crlglns
1. lnLroducLlon
2. 1he osLmodernlsL 8ooLs of Lhe Mlddle-Cround 1heorlsLs
ll. 1he lnLerpreLlve 1urn ln ModeraLlon: CnLology
3. An lnLroducLlon Lo Lhe Mlddle-Cround 1heorlsLs
4. CnLologlcal olnL 1: An CnLology of "8elng ln Lhe World," or, a SlLuaLed sychologlcal
LxlsLence
3. CnLologlcal olnL 2: A Mlddle-Cround 8eallsL CnLology?
6. CnLologlcal olnL 3: An CnLology of SlLuaLed Agency and 1ranscendence
7. CnLologlcal olnL 4: An CnLology of llux and llow
lll. 1he lnLerpreLlve 1urn ln ModeraLlon: LplsLemology
8. SlLuaLed knowlng: A Mlddle-Cround AnLlob[ecLlvlsL LplsLemology?
9. SlLuaLed WarranL: A Mlddle-Cround 8eallsL LplsLemology?
lv. 1ruLh and Agency
10. 8aLlonal Agency

167

Book Review
Pbenomenology and Psycbological Science.
Historical and Pbilosopbical Perspectives
LdlLed by eLer u. AshworLh and Man C. Chung
Sprlnger, Peldelberg, 2006

ColJo coolqllo
guldocanlglla[gmall.com

1he relaLlons beLween Lhe phenomenologlcal LradlLlon and Lhe
psychologlcal sclences have a long and arLlculaLed hlsLory. ln some
cases Lhe Lwo have been sald Lo represenL alLernaLlve and
lncompaLlble approaches Lo Lhe undersLandlng of human naLure. ln
oLhers Lhe lmpacL of phenomenologlcal Lhlnklng on psychology has
been fully acknowledged boLh from a LhemaLlc and from a
meLhodologlcal polnL of vlew. 1he conLrlbuLlons collecLed ln
lbeoomeooloqy ooJ lsycboloqlcol 5cleoce. nlstotlcol ooJ
lbllosopblcol letspectlves (edlLed by eLer u. AshworLh and Man C.
Chung for Sprlnger verlag) alm Lo shed llghL on such complex
relaLlons boLh from a hlsLorlcal and from a phllosophlcal polnL of
vlew.
1he quesLlons anlmaLlng Lhe volume are: WhaL should we conslder
Lo be Lhe lnlLlal conLacL beLween phenomenology and psychology? WhaL ls Lhe place of
phenomenologlcal Lheorles ln psychlaLry? ln whlch cases dld research ln psychology conslder
aL leasL some aspecLs of Lhe phenomenologlcal LradlLlon? WhaL ls Lhe value of phenomenology
for psychology? Pow ls phenomenologlcal psychology carrled ouL? Pow dld Pusserl's LhoughL
lnfluence psychology? WhaL are Lhe dlfferences beLween SarLre, Peldegger and Merleau-onLy
wlLh respecL Lo how phllosophy should LreaL psychologlcal sclences?
1he several conLrlbuLlons can be dlvlded up lnLo flve maln groups. 1he flrsL copes wlLh Lhe
lnlLlal conLacL beLween phenomenology and psychology, Lhe second focuses on
meLhodologlcal lssues of boLh phenomenology and psychologlcal sclences, Lhe Lhlrd addresses
Pusserl's ldea of LranscendenLal sub[ecLlvlLy, Lhe fourLh ls abouL Lhe crlLlques moved Lo Lhe
Pusserllan phenomenology by hls followers, flnally, Lhe flfLh group of essays Lackles concepLual
lssues comlng from Lhe conLemporary exlsLenLlal approaches Lo psychologlcal problems.
ln hls conLrlbuLlon (1be Meetloq betweeo lbeoomeooloqy ooJ lsycboloqy) AshworLh seLs
Lhe scene for Lhe analysls of Lhe lnlLlal conLacL beLween phenomenologlcal phllosophy and
psychologlcal sclences, Lhe common concepLual elemenL beLween Lhe Lwo belng Lhe focus on
whaL lL means Lo have experlence of someLhlng. uesplLe Lhelr maln dlfferences, regardlng
mosLly Lhe role of phenomenologlcal reducLlons as meLhodologlcal Lools and Lhe role of Lhe
world ln Lhe undersLandlng of human naLure, AshworLh descrlbes boLh Lhe Pusserllan and Lhe
Peldeggerlan approaches as belng LranscendenLal ln naLure. Pe flnally dlscusses Lhe
relaLlonshlps beLween phenomenology and some developmenLs ln psychology boLh ln
Amerlcan and ln Cerman conLexLs.
Amedeo Clorgl (1be voloe of lbeoomeooloqy fot lsycboloqy) draws a comparlson beLween
Pusserl's concepLuallzaLlon of consclousness as essenLlally lnLenLlonal and Lhe way early
psychologlsLs LreaLed Lhe same Loplc. Pe focuses ln parLlcular on sLrucLural psychologlsLs as
WundL and 1lLchener, on funcLlonallsm, and on !ames' psychology.


168

8arbro Clorgl (coo oo mpltlcol lsycboloqy be Jtowo ftom nossetl's lbeoomeooloqy?)
dlscusses how a phenomenologlcal psychology should be carrled ouL and addresses Lhe
meLhodologlcal problems of such an enLerprlse. 1he maln alm, she argues, should be maklng
expllclL Lhe parLlclpanL's llved psychologlcal meanlngs. 1hls should be accompllshed noL
Lhrough Lhe experlmenLal LesLlng of causal hypoLhesls buL raLher Lhrough Lhe elucldaLlon of
experlence. Clorgl flnally shows how Lhe maln concepLs of phenomenologlcal phllosophy (l.e.,
lnLersub[ecLlvlLy, lnLenLlonallLy, llfeworld) and Lhe pracLlcal research meLhods applled by
phenomenologlcal psychology can be dealL wlLh LogeLher ln a unlque analyLlcal framework.
uahlberg's conLrlbuLlon (ulJ nossetl cbooqe nls MloJ?) addresses one of Lhe mosL
conLroverslal Lhemes ln Lhe Pusserllan phenomenology, namely, Lhe way Pusserl concelved of
LranscendenLal sub[ecLlvlLy. 1he focus ls here on how we can have access Lo consclousness
Lhrough phenomenologlcal reducLlon. 1hls ls a fundamenLal Loplc for phenomenology because,
Lhrough phenomenologlcal reducLlon, consclousness esLabllshes a dlsLance boLh beLween lLself
and Lhe world and beLween lLself and Lhe naLural aLLlLude.
Macuonald (nossetl oqolost nelJeqqet oqolost nossetl) addresses some lnLeresLlng
crlLlclsms Peldegger moves Lo Pusserllan phenomenology. Peldegger, accordlng Lo
Macuonald, plnpolnLs Lhe followlng four flaws ln Pusserl's LhoughL: (l) lLs over-LheorlzaLlon, (ll)
lLs over-lnLellecLuallzaLlon, (lll) Lhe spllLLlng of Lhe ego beLween a LranscendenLal and an
emplrlcal ego, (lv) and Lhe separaLlon of consclousness and world by an abyss. Peldegger's
crlLlclsms, lL ls argued, conLrlbuLed Lo sLrengLhen Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween phenomenologlcal
phllosophy and psychologlcal sclences. ln oLher words, Lhey provlded Lhe phenomenologlcal
approach wlLh concepLual and analyLlcal Lools LhaL make lL avallable for psychologlcal use.
1he Lwo maln quesLlons LhaL CroLh addresses ln her arLlcle (1be lofloeoce of nelJeqqet oo
5ottte's xlsteotlol lsycboooolysls) are Lhe followlng: WhaL was SarLre's conLrlbuLlon Lo
psychology? WhaL ls Lhe lnfluence LhaL Peldegger exerclsed on SarLre's LhoughL? As Lo Lhe flrsL
one, CroLh focuses above all on Lhe facL LhaL, accordlng Lo SarLre, human belngs are noL a
clusLer of funcLlons and LhaL Lhey consLlLuLe raLher an enLlre whole, whlch we cannoL grasp
because of our golng Lhrough a conLlnuous change. As Lo Lhe second, noLwlLhsLandlng Lhe blg
lnfluence of Peldegger on SarLre, Lhere ls a raLher lmporLanL dlfference beLween Lhe Lwo
Lhlnkers. CroLh argues, ln facL, LhaL Lhe maln dlfference can be Lraced back Lo dlfferenL ways of
concelvlng Lhe hlsLorlclLy of human belngs. Whlle Lhe Peldeggerlan uoselo ls fully hlsLorlcal ln
naLure, Lhe same cannoL be sald abouL SarLre's humanlsLlc noLlon of human belng.
1he Lwo lasL conLrlbuLlons by !enner (MeJotJ 8oss lbeoomeooloqlcolly boseJ
lsycbopotboloqy) and Comb (cootempototy xlsteotlollst 1eoJeocles lo lsycboloqy) are
dedlcaLed Lo a dlscusslon of uoseloooolysls. 1he flrsL addresses Lhe developmenL of 8oss'
exlsLenLlal psychology. ln facL, 8oss nurLured a vlew of psychlaLry LhaL goes beyond slmpllsLlc
medlcal axloms. 1he second, lnsLead, focuses on pracLlcal lssues concernlng how boLh
exlsLenLlal psychology and psychlaLry clarlfy Lhe sLrucLure of personal experlence.

lbeoomeooloqy ooJ lsycboloqlcol 5cleoce. nlstotlcol ooJ lbllosopblcol letspectlves flnally
succeeds ln conveylng Lo Lhe reader boLh Lhe complexlLy and Lhe lnLrlcacy of Lhe relaLlons
beLween Lhe phenomenologlcal LradlLlon and psychologlcal sclences. ln facL, lL makes clear
LhaL, lf we wanL Lo grasp Lhe relevance of Lhe phenomenologlcal LradlLlon Lo psychology, we
have Lo work Lhrough carefully Lhe LexLs and debaLes anlmaLlng Lhe phenomenologlcal
movemenL. 1he general Lake of Lhe book, Lhough, does noL seem Lo encourage a consLrucLlve
dlalogue beLween phenomenologlcally orlenLed ways of lnvesLlgaLlng human naLure and Lhe
complex eplsLemlc landscape represenLlng Lhe currenL sLaLus of psychologlcal research. Cn Lhe
Book Review - Phenomenology anu Psychological Science

169

conLrary, Lhe edlLors Lend Lo sLress Lhe dlfferences beLween Lhe Lwo approaches and Lo
prevenL Lhe achlevemenL of a more comprehenslve and flne-gralned dlalogue among Lhem.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1

1. 1he MeeLlng 8eLween sychology And henomenology - Man Cheung Chung And eLer u
AshworLh
2. lnLroducLlon 1o 1he lace Cf henomenologlcal 1hlnklng ln 1he PlsLory Cf sychology eLer
u AshworLh
3. 1he value Cf henomenology lor sychology Amedeo Clorgl
4. Can An Lmplrlcal sychology 8e uerlved lrom Pusserl's hllosophy? 8arbro Clorgl 3. uld
Pusserl Change Pls Mlnd? An LplsLemologlcal Analysls 1haL ConnecLs Pusserl's hllosophy
WlLh Pls lollowers karln uahlberg
6. Pusserl AgalnsL Peldegger AgalnsL Pusserl aul S. Macdonald
7. 1he lnfluence Cf Peldegger Cn SarLre's LxlsLenLlal sychoanalysls Mlles CroLh
8. Medard 8oss' henomenologlcally-8ased sychopaLhology Alec !enner
9. ConLemporary LxlsLenLlallsL 1endencles ln sychology SLuarL Panscomb
10. Concluslon: henomenology And sychologlcal Sclence eLer u. AshworLh And Man
Cheung Chung


171
Book Review
Psycbodynamic Tberapy:
Conceptual and Empirical Foundations
SLeven k. Puprlch
8ouLledge, new ?ork, 2009

v. 8otty uoopblo

dauphlvb[udmercy.edu

1he cllmaLe ln Amerlcan unlverslLles ls very confllcLed wlLh respecL
Lo Lhe Leachlng of psychoanalyLlc prlnclples. Cver Lhe lasL several
decades Lhe lnfluence of psychoanalysls has shrunk ln psychology
deparLmenLs, psychlaLry Lralnlng programs and schools of soclal
work, and lL has been replaced wlLh cognlLlve behavloral Lherapy
prlnclples and blologlcal-medlcal models of paLhology. AL Lhe same
Llme psychoanalysls has flourlshed ln Lhe humanlLles (e.g., ln
ueparLmenLs of Lngllsh, PlsLory, CulLural SLudles, eLc.), and, as
such, lL ls vlewed wlLh susplclon by Lhe lnsurance lndusLry and by
emplrlcal researchers. lsycboJyoomlc 1betopy. cooceptool ooJ
mpltlcol loooJotloos by SLeven k. Puprlch, h.u. ls Lhus a needed
anLldoLe, Lo borrow a blologlcal meLaphor, Lo Lhe wanlng lnfluence
of psychoanalysls ln Lhe Leachlng of Lhe helplng professlons.
Puprlch's book ls a valuable LexL for lLs ablllLy Lo a) dlscuss and lnLegraLe a number of
LheoreLlcal dlfferences among varlous psychoanalyLlc Lheorles ln a conclse and clear way, b)
provlde a broad based revlew of emplrlcal llLeraLure LhaL noL only supporLs psychoanalyLlc
prlnclples buL shows LhaL psychoanalysls ls acLually more llkely Lo serve as a comprehenslve
Lheory Lo brldge baslc research ln Lhe neurosclences Lo Lheorles of personallLy, Lhe
unconsclous, and LherapeuLlc acLlon. 1hls LexL ls lnLended for beglnnlng LheraplsLs and ls an
exLremely useful LexL for Lhose sLudylng Lo become LheraplsLs because lL as well wrlLLen, does
noL assume prlor famlllarlLy wlLh psychoanalyLlc prlnclples, and noneLheless ls comprehenslve
wlLhouL belng pedanLlc.
1he book ls dlvlded lnLo Lhree maln secLlons: 1heoreLlcal underplnnlngs, 1reaLmenL
rlnclples and Lmplrlcal SupporL, 1herapeuLlc rocess, and lL beglns wlLh Lhe presenLaLlon of
Lwo cases from Puprlch's work. 1hese cllnlcal encounLers are used Lo lllusLraLe Lhe concepLs
dlscussed LhroughouL Lhe book. 1hey are lnLeresLlng cases because Lhey could easlly be vlewed
Lhrough an overly medlcallzed lens and be seen as llLLle more Lhan a collecLlon of sympLoms Lo
be eradlcaLed excepL LhaL Puprlch provldes Lhe reader wlLh Lhe sLorles of Lhelr llves as heard
by a psychoanalyLlc llsLener. 1haL whlch a medlcal-blologlcal polnL of vlew would undersLand
and LreaL as a passlve dlsease process, Puprlch makes lnLelllglble vla a psychoanalyLlc
undersLandlng of Lhe lrraLlonal.
lor example, one case lnvolves a 19 yr. old hlgh school dropouL who had developed severe
bouLs of panlc LhaL had come upon hlm abouL 8 monLhs earller for no apparenL reason (p. 3).

8arry uauphln, h.u ls assoclaLe professor of psychology and ulrecLor of Cllnlcal 1ralnlng aL Lhe
unlverslLy of ueLrolL Mercy, ueLrolL, Ml, uSA. Pe ls Lhe auLhor of 1ootollzloq 1lmes. xcltemeots,
ulscoooects, ooJ ulscooteots lo cootempototy Ametlcoo 5oclety. new ?ork-8ern: eLer Lang ubllshlng
Croup, 2006.


172

under many conLemporary LreaLmenL guldellnes ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes, Lhe assessmenL of Lhe
lndlvldual would largely lnvolve a comblnaLlon of Lhe hlsLory of sympLoms and use of
quesLlonnalres deslgned Lo measure quanLlLaLlvely Lhe anxleLy level of Lhe lndlvldual. lL would
be sLandard pracLlce Lo lnlLlaLe medlcal lnLervenLlon ln Lhe form of anLl-anxleLy medlcaLlon as
well as CognlLlve 8ehavloral 1herapy (C81) focused on dlspelllng hls lrraLlonal fears as qulckly
as posslble. 8apld sympLom reducLlon would be of paramounL concern. 1reaLmenL would llkely
be qulLe dldacLlc and dlrecLlve. lnsLead, Puprlch provldes a conLexL for llsLenlng Lo whaL mlghL
oLherwlse be LhoughL of as lrrelevanL background nolse. vla a llsLenlng process LhaL does noL
dlrecL Lhe paLlenL lnLo Lhe preferred, predeLermlned areas of lnLeresL Lo Lhe cllnlclan, we learn
LhaL Lhls young man has suppressed a greaL deal of anger aL hls parenLs who were pushlng hlm
Lo become more lndependenL and yeL he was slmulLaneously fearful of loslng Lhem (as hls
lnlLlal panlc aLLack was unconsclously assoclaLed wlLh Lhe deaLh of hls favorlLe uncle). A
dlsease of anxleLy lnsLead ls revealed Lo be a sLory of coverL rage and a sLruggle Lo become a
responslble adulL. Puprlch lllusLraLes LhaL hls sympLoms hold meanlng and LhaL undersLandlng
Lhe meanlngs of hls sympLoms could provlde lnslghL lnLo hls experlences and rellef for hlm.
Puprlch holds open Lhe posslblllLy LhaL Lhe young man could Lhlnk of hlmself as an agenL and
noL as a vlcLlm.
lollowlng Lhe presenLaLlon of cases, whlch lllusLraLes a psychoanalyLlc meLhod Lo
undersLandlng lndlvlduals, Puprlch dlscusses LheoreLlcal underplnnlngs of psychoanalyLlc work.
8eglnnlng wlLh lreud and conLlnulng Lhrough ego psychology, ob[ecL relaLlons, and self
psychology, ma[or concepLs ln psychoanalysls are dlscussed ln a way LhaL beglnnlng LheraplsLs
could undersLand. lor Lhose more famlllar wlLh psychoanalysls, Lhls brlef revlew of Lheory
reads ln a very progresslve manner over Lhe hlsLory of psychoanalyLlc Lhlnklng. SubsLanLlal
aLLenLlon ls glven Lo Pelnz ParLmann, !acob Arlow and Charles 8renner, MargareL Mahler,
LdlLh !acobsen, Melanle kleln, Mlchael 8allnL, uonald W. WlnnlcoLL, Wllllam 8. u. lalrbalrn,
Parry CunLrlp, Parry SLack Sulllvan, and Pelnz kohuL.
1he book provldes a sequence of dlscusslng lssues LhaL have Lhe poLenLlal Lo be undersLood
as parL of a whole, raLher Lhan as dlsconnecLed or merely conLradlcLory LheoreLlcal vlewpolnLs
ln psychoanalysls. 1he book makes areas of confllcL qulLe clear, buL Lhe effecL of readlng
Lhrough conclse descrlpLlons of Lhe Lheorles ls LhaL lL helps arLlculaLe commonallLles more
clearly. 8ecause Lhls LexL ls almed aL beglnnlng level LheraplsLs, Lhls approach ls effecLlve.
SLudenLs can and should delve lnLo more deLall ln subsequenL porLlons of Lhelr Lralnlng. ln facL
Lhose who well versed wlLh psychoanalysls would beneflL from Lhls refresher of hlsLorlcal
debaLes ln psychoanalysls.
Puprlch conLlnues Lo dlsplay Lhe evoluLlon of psychoanalysls Lhrough aLLempLs aL
lnLegraLlon, such as vla kernberg, and furLher exLenslons of psychoanalyLlc Lhlnklng wlLh
dlscusslon of analyLlc/lnLro[ecLlve conflguraLlons ln Lhe developmenL of paLhology,
sadomasochlsm, aLLachmenL Lheory, menLallzaLlon and reflecLlve funcLlonlng, lnLersub[ecLlvlLy
and co-consLrucLed reallLy ln psychoLherapy, and cognlLlve experlenLlal Lheory. 1hus, Lhe book
capLures Lhe lnfluence of relaLlonal work ln conLemporary Amerlcan psychoanalysls. As such, lL
ls besL Lo undersLand Lhls book as grounded on Lhe work of LheorlsLs who have been mosL
lnfluenLlal ln Amerlcan psychoanalysls. 1he book does noL cover Lacan, krlsLeva, MaLLe-8lanco
and oLhers who have been lnfluenLlal ouLslde of Amerlca. ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes many
conLemporary Luropean and SouLh Amerlcan Lhlnkers would be consldered parL of advanced
or speclallzed sLudles ln psychoanalysls. Lacan, for example, has been qulLe lnfluenLlal ln
Amerlcan humanlLles deparLmenLs compared Lo educaLlon dlrecLed aL Lralnlng menLal healLh
professlonals.
Book Review - Psychouynamic Theiapy

173

ln Lhe second secLlon Puprlch provldes an overvlew of baslc prlnclples lnvolved ln
psychodynamlc Lherapy. Pe addresses a varleLy of modallLles and vlews psychoanalyLlc work as
parL of a conLlnuum. Pe expllclLly dlscusses LhaL for purposes of Lhls lnLroducLory LexL he uses
Lhe Lerms psycboooolytlc and psycboJyoomlc lnLerchangeably, whlle noLlng Lhe naLure of
confllcLs ln Lhe fleld abouL Lhe usages of Lhese Lerms. Pe dlscusses Lhe goals of psychodynamlc
work and Lhe naLure of Lhe LherapeuLlc alllance, free assoclaLlon, Lransference/
counLerLransference, lnLerpreLaLlon and reslsLance. lollowlng Lhls he explores emplrlcal
sLudles ln psychoanalyLlc work, especlally focused on Lhe LherapeuLlc aspecLs he had [usL
dlscussed.
1hus, a beglnnlng sLudenL can see an organlzed presenLaLlon of baslc psychoanalyLlc
prlnclples followed by a dlscusslon of emplrlcal research relevanL Lo Lhose prlnclples. 8esearch
on varlous elemenLs ls descrlbed (e.g., on Lransference, counLerLransference, eLc.) followed by
a chapLer concernlng research lnLo Lhe global process and ouLcome of psychoanalyLlc work.
Puprlch concludes Lhe secLlon on LreaLmenL prlnclples and emplrlcal supporL wlLh a chapLer on
cognlLlve neurosclence, wlLh parLlcular aLLenLlon Lo research lnvolved ln unconsclous
processes.
ln order Lo make Lhls work lnLelllglble, he dlscusses some baslc concepLs of cognlLlve
neurosclence. AL flrsL blush a dlscusslon of a concepL such as aLLenLlon appears far removed
from Lhe work of psychoanalyLlc LheraplsLs, buL Puprlch ls able Lo expllcaLe Lhe relevance of
baslc research ln lnformaLlon processlng and neurosclence Lo psychoanalyLlc Lheory. Academlc
research lnLo lmpllclL and expllclL memory and connecLlonlsL models of memory mlghL provlde
emplrlcal groundlng for unconsclous menLal processes. ln facL lL ls noL posslble Lo undersLand
human lnformaLlon processlng wlLhouL models of unconsclous processlng. Puprlch
summarlzes research explorlng such llnks. lor example, Lhe work of WesLen and Cabbard
(2002) suggesLs a relaLlonshlp beLween Lransference and Lhe flndlngs of cognlLlve
neurosclence, especlally LhaL mosL represenLaLlons are mulLlmodal and exlsL as poLenLlals for
acLlvaLlon. 8epresenLaLlons exlsL ln mulLlple neLworks along wlLh dlfferenL affecLs and moLlves.
unconsclous procedures manage emoLlons, whlch could be LhoughL of as analogous Lo
defenses. Whlle consclous represenLaLlons are some of Lhe represenLaLlons LhaL are acLlvaLed,
oLher represenLaLlons are acLlvaLed, whlch are noL consclous. Consclousness operaLes vla serlal
processlng, whlle Lhe parallel processlng sysLem ls lmporLanL Lo undersLand behavlor does noL
operaLe aL a consclous level.
1he flnal secLlon expllcaLes Lhe LherapeuLlc process of psychoanalyLlc work and uses a
speclflc case ln depLh Lo address Lhe varlous prlnclples dlscussed ln Lhe book. 1hls secLlon
beglns wlLh some dlscusslon of Lhe sychodynamlc ulagnosLlc Manual (uM), whlch was
publlshed ln 2006. An alLernaLlve Lo Lhe uSM-lv-18, Lhe uM offers a more comprehenslve
formaL for assesslng lndlvlduals Lhan Lhe uSM-lv-18. 1he assessmenL process vla Lhe uM ls
rlch and grounded ln psychoanalyLlc prlnclples, lncludlng descrlpLlons of varlous dlsorders and
a far more exLenslve and nuanced assessmenL approach Lo undersLandlng Lhe problems of
chlldren Lhan Lhe uSM serles has ever offered. Puprlch lllusLraLes how Lhe uM can serve as a
sLarLlng polnL for assesslng lndlvlduals for psychoanalyLlc work and covers varlous aspecLs of
an assessmenL process, lncludlng blologlcal and LemperamenL facLors, llfe slLuaLlon,
personallLy organlzaLlon, defenses, ego funcLlonlng, ob[ecL relaLlons, self represenLaLlons,
esLeem & agency, lnslghL and reflecLlve funcLlonlng and socloculLural facLors. An
undersLandlng of personallLy ls consldered essenLlal ln any psychoanalyLlc assessmenL, whlch ls
dlvergenL from Lhe uSM approach of de-conLexLuallzlng sympLoms.
1he book concludes wlLh a rlch case lllusLraLlon from Puprlch's work. Puprlch dlscusses a
young man who presenLed wlLh depresslon and relaLlonshlp complalnLs. Pe weaves Lhls man's
llfe sLory LogeLher wlLh psychoanalyLlc prlnclples dlscussed LhroughouL Lhe book. Pe lllusLraLes


174

how a psychodynamlc undersLandlng provlded hlm wlLh coherence Lo Lhe case LhaL would noL
have been posslble when Lhlnklng ln a more medlcal framework.
1hls book provldes beglnnlng LheraplsLs and Lhose who Leach psychoLherapy a clear,
conclse and LhoughLful lnLroducLlon Lo psychoanalyLlc prlnclples. lL would be helpful readlng
for any who have llLLle famlllarlLy wlLh psychoanalysls Lo begln learnlng Lo become acqualnLed
wlLh psychoanalyLlc prlnclples. 1hls would also be a useful LexL for sLudenLs who are ln Lralnlng
programs LhaL are noL psychoanalyLlcally orlenLed as well, because of Lhe lnLegraLlon of
Lheory, research and pracLlce.

8I8LICGkAn
WesLen, u., & Cabbard, C. C. (2002). uevelopmenLs ln CognlLlve neurosclence: ll.
lmpllcaLlons for 1heorles of 1ransference. Iootool of tbe Ametlcoo lsycboooolytlc
Assoclotloo, 50: 99-143.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S
arL l: 1heoreLlcal underplnnlngs. 8aslc rlnclples of sychoanalyLlc and sychodynamlc
1heory. 1he LvoluLlon of 1heory l: urlve, Lgo, Cb[ecL, and Self. 1he LvoluLlon of 1heory
ll: lnLegraLlon and Lxpanslon.
arL ll: 1reaLmenL rlnclples and Lmplrlcal SupporL. 8aslc rlnclples of 1reaLmenL. Lmplrlcal
SLudles of sychoanalyLlc and sychodynamlc sychoLherapy. 1heorles and Lmplrlcal
SLudles of 1herapeuLlc AcLlon. CognlLlve neurosclence.
arL lll: 1herapeuLlc rocess. ulagnosls and AssessmenL. Case SLudy.

173

Book Review
Doing Witbout Concepts
Ldouard Machery
Cxford unlverslLy ress, Cxford, 2009

Motco leolcl
marco.fenlcl[humana-menLe.lL

Ldouard Machery's book ls a book-lengLh dlscusslon of Lhe Lhesls
LhaL Lhe noLlon of concepLs oughL Lo be ellmlnaLed from Lhe
LheoreLlcal vocabulary of psychology (p. 4). 1hls Lhesls ls Lhe
concluslon of a flve-sLep argumenL, whlch Machery calls Lhe
netetoqeoelty nypotbesls (PP). 1he book ls sLrucLured as follows:
Lhe cenLral chapLers (4-7) are a [usLlflcaLlon of Lhe four maln
assumpLlons made by PP, whlch are lnLroduced ln Lhe Lhlrd
chapLer, Lhe flrsL Lwo chapLers are lnLroducLory Lo concepLs, whlle
Lhe lasL one dlscusses Lhe ellmlnaLlvlsL concluslon.
1he flrsL Lwo chapLers explaln whaL Lhe noLlon of concepL
means respecLlvely ln psychology and phllosophy. ln ChapLer 1,
Machery flrsLly dlsLlngulshes beLween hlgher (caLegorlzaLlon,
deducLlon, lnducLlon, analogy-maklng, llngulsLlc undersLandlng,
plannlng) and lower (percepLlon, synLacLlc parslng moLor
plannlng) cognlLlve processes. 1hen, he provldes a (psychologlcally lnLeresLlng) noLlon of
knowledge as any conLenLful sLaLe LhaL can be used ln cognlLlve processes (p. 8). llnally, he
deflnes Lhe noLlon dlscussed Lhrough Lhe whole book:

A concepL of x ls a body of knowledge abouL x LhaL ls sLored ln long-Lerm memory and LhaL ls
used by defaulL ln processes underlylng mosL, lf noL all, hlgher cognlLlve compeLences when
Lhese processes resulL ln [udgemenLs abouL x.
1
(p. 12)

sychologlsLs usually assume LhaL Lhe processes underlylng dlfferenL cognlLlve compeLences
[.] use Lhe same bodles of knowledge (p. 16), and Lry Lo flnd ouL Lhe general properLles
common Lo every concepL. 1hese properLles concern: (l) Lhe klnd of knowledge sLored ln
concepLs (l.e., wheLher Lhey sLore knowledge for lndlvlduals, caLegorles or oLher klnds of
causal relaLlons), (ll) Lhe represenLaLlonal formaL of concepLs (l.e., wheLher Lhey are amodal
symbols, lmages or someLhlng else), (lll) Lhe cognlLlve processes ln whlch concepLs occur, (lv)
Lhe posslblllLy Lo acqulre Lhem, and (v) Lhelr neural locallzaLlon.
Machery concludes Lhe chapLer by challenglng Lwo dlfferenL deflnlLlons - l.e., concepLs as
Lemporary bodles of knowledge ln worklng memory (8arsalou 1993), and concepLs as
represenLaLlons under organlsmlc conLrol (rlnz 2004, uenneLL 1993, 1996). Pe also dlscusses
Lwo alLernaLlves conslsLenL wlLh hls proposal, buL less appeallng. namely, Lhe deflnlLlon of
concepLs as Lhe consLlLuenLs of LhoughL ls obscure and plays llLLle role ln Lhe experlmenLal
psychology of concepLs. lnsLead, Lhe deflnlLlon of concepLs as caLegorlzaLlon devlces ls Loo
narrow, and leaves ouLslde oLher lmporLanL cognlLlve compeLences.

1
8eference Lo Lhe Jefoolt condlLlons allows dlsLlngulshlng knowledge sLored ln concepLs from
background knowledge (p. 11) assoclaLed wlLh Lhose concepLs. Cradual facLors such as Lhe frequency
of Lhe assoclaLlon and expllclL Leachlng deLermlne Lhe dlfference beLween Lhe Lwo klnds of knowledge.


176

ln ChapLer 2, Machery dlsLlngulshes psychologlcal from phllosophlcal Lheorles of concepLs,
accordlng Lo whlch havlng a concepL of ls belng able Lo have proposlLlonal aLLlLudes abouL
as (p. 32). Pe noLes LhaL, glven Lhe dlverslLy of Lhe Lwo noLlons, psychologlcal and
phllosophlcal Lheorles of concepLs have enLlrely dlfferenL goals, and Lhere ls llLLle polnL ln
evaluaLlng psychologlcal Lheorles of concepLs accordlng Lo Lhe crlLerla used Lo evaluaLe
phllosophlcal Lheorles (p. 37), or vlce versa. hllosophlcal and psychologlcal Lheorles of
concepLs have llLLle ln common, and musL be evaluaLed lndependenLly one from each oLher.
1herefore, Machery challenges Lwo dlfferenL accounLs LhaL mlghL be advanced Lo flll Lhe
gap beLween phllosophlcal and psychologlcal Lheorles. Accordlng Lo Lhe flrsL proposal,
explored by eacocke (1992), phllosophers should deflne Lhe possesslon condlLlons for a
concepL whlle psychologlsLs should explaln how people can meeL Lhose condlLlons. Machery
noLes agalnsL lL LhaL eacocke does noL suggesL any clear meLhod Lo lnvesLlgaLe how Lo spell
ouL Lhe possesslng condlLlons of a concepL. 1he second proposal, Lhe loundaLlonallsL
AccounL", sLaLes LhaL phllosophers should ldenLlfy Lhe condlLlons (presupposed by
psychologlsLs) LhaL people musL meeL ln order Lo have proposlLlonal aLLlLudes abouL Lhe
ob[ecL of Lhelr aLLlLudes (p. 48). ln Lhls case, Machery noLes LhaL lL ls dublous wheLher Lhere
are consLanLs ln Lhe aLLrlbuLlon of proposlLlonal aLLlLudes. lndeed, a sLudy by Pewson (1994)
showed LhaL people dlsagree abouL Lhe bellefs Lo aLLrlbuLe ln fronL of Lhe same slLuaLlon.
ln ChapLer 3, Machery proposes Lhe PeLerogenelLy PypoLhesls (PP) agalnsL Lhe commonly
shared vlew LhaL concepLs share many sclenLlflcally relevanL properLles (p. 34). ln deLall, PP
afflrms LhaL:
1. for each caLegory an lndlvldual Lyplcally has several concepLs
2
,
2. coreferenLlal concepLs have very few properLles ln common,
3. proLoLypes, exemplars, and Lheorles are among Lhese heLerogeneous klnds of
concepLs,
4. proLoLypes, exemplars, and Lheorles are Lyplcally used ln dlsLlncL cognlLlve
processes,
3. Lhe noLlon of concepLs oughL Lo be ellmlnaLed from Lhe LheoreLlcal vocabulary
of psychology (p. 32).
1he chapLer ls Lhen devolved Lo pave Lhe way Lo Lhe flrsL Lwo LeneLs. Machery conLrasLs PP
agalnsL weaker proposals, namely Scope lurallsm, accordlng Lo whlch dlfferenL klnds of
concepLs (proLoLypes, exemplars, Lheorles) are assoclaLed wlLh dlfferenL Lypes of enLlLles, and
CompeLence lurallsm, accordlng Lo whlch dlfferenL klnds of concepLs are speclflc Lo dlfferenL
cognlLlve processes. AgalnsL Lhe former, PP clalms LhaL mosL caLegorles are represenLed aL Lhe
same Llme by dlfferenL klnds of concepLs whlle agalnsL Lhe laLLer lL clalms LhaL concepLs do noL
vary across cognlLlve compeLences. 1hen, Machery crlLlclzes hybrld Lheorles of concepLs,
accordlng Lo whlch concepLs are composed from dlfferenL parLs necessarlly llnked LogeLher ln
a non-conLradlcLory way. Pe conLends LhaL hybrld Lheorles have a hard work ln explalnlng
whaL ls meanL by clalmlng LhaL several bodles of knowledge are Lhe parLs of a slngle concepL,
ln conLrasL Lo belng dlsLlncL concepLs (p. 64). Moreover, Lhey make Lhe emplrlcally
dlsconflrmed assumpLlon LhaL dlfferenL parLs of concepLs cannoL lead Lo lnconslsLenL
caLegorlzaLlon [udgemenLs. PP, lnsLead, does noL negaLe LhaL bodles of knowledge can be
connecLed, buL afflrms LhaL Lhls can happen only as a conLlngenL maLLer of facL. Moreover, lL

2
1haL ls, several bodles of knowledge sLored ln long-Lerm memory and used by defaulL ln hlgher-level
cognlLlve processes.
Book Review - Boing Without Concepts

177

predlcLs Lhe emplrlcally LesLed hypoLhesls LhaL Lhese dlfferenL parLs wlll lead someLlmes Lo
confllcLlng ouLcomes.
ln ChapLer 4, Machery descrlbes ln depLh well-known paradlgms of concepLs, LhaL ls, Lhe
proLoLype, Lhe exemplar and Lhe Lheory paradlgm. Pe also crlLlcally assesses Lhe neo-
LmplrlclsL vlew of concepLs (8arsalou 1999, rlnz 2002). Accordlng Lo lL, Lhe knowledge sLored
ln a concepL ls encoded ln several percepLual - Lherefore, modally deLermlned -
represenLaLlonal formaLs, moreover, concepLual processlng lnvolves re-enacLlng and
manlpulaLlng some percepLual sLaLes (p. 109). AgalnsL Lhe former assumpLlon, Machery polnLs
ouL LhaL emplrlcal resulLs ofLen provlded by neo-emplrlclsL LheorlsLs are lnconslsLenL wlLh
some, buL noL all, amodal models of cognlLlve processes. 1herefore, Lhose resulLs do noL deny
Lhe general clalm LhaL concepLs are amodal symbols. WlLh respecL Lo Lhe laLLer clalm, Machery
noLes LhaL evldence LhaL percepLual slmulaLlon ls used Lo solve cognlLlve Lasks does noL
supporL neo-emplrlclsL Lheorles over amodal Lheorles, because even amodal Lheorles
recognlze Lhe lmporLance of modal lmagery. 1herefore, Lhere ls no sLrong evldence LhaL
concepLs (or some concepLs) are ln facL slmllar Lo percepLual represenLaLlons (p. 116). neo-
emplrlclsL Lheorles of concepLs are consequenLly seL aslde.
1hen, Machery argues LhaL proLoLypes, exemplars and Lheorles sLore dlfferenL klnds of
knowledge so LhaL, conslsLenL wlLh Lhe PeLerogenelLy PypoLhesls, mosL caLegorles could be
represenLed by a proLoLype, a Lheory and a seL of exemplars (p. 119). Slnce Lhe processes
lnvolvlng proLoLypes and exemplars rely on Lhe compuLaLlon of slmllarlLy beLween bodles of
knowledge, whlle Lhe processes lnvolvlng Lheorles rely on lnference Lo Lhe besL explanaLlon,
hls concluslon ls LhaL when we reason, caLegorlze, and draw analogles, we use Lhree dlfferenL
klnds of cognlLlve processes (p. 119).
ln ChapLer 3,Machery paves Lhe way Lo hls explanaLlon of why proLoLypes, exemplars, and
Lheorles are Lyplcally used ln dlsLlncL cognlLlve processes by conLrasLlng whaL he calls Lhe
unlfled vlew of CognlLlon wlLh mulLl-process Lheorles. Accordlng Lo Lhe former, each cognlLlve
compeLence (e.g., caLegorlsaLlon) ls Lhe ouLcome of a slngle cognlLlve process, whlle mulLl-
process Lheorles assume LhaL a cognlLlve compeLence ls underwrlLLen by several cognlLlve
processes, each of whlch accesses a speclflc klnd of concepL (p. 121). Whlle Lhe unlfled vlew
of CognlLlon focuses on cognlLlve compeLences, mulLl-process Lheorles conslder also Lhe
cognlLlve processes underlylng a compeLence. ConsequenLly, Lhey are more lnLeresLlng ln
order Lo undersLand Lhe compuLaLlonal properLles of Lhe mlnd. MulLl-process Lheorles may be
dlfferenLlaLed accordlng Lo (l) wheLher Lhe processes LhaL Lhey presuppose always run
slmulLaneously as opposed Lo ln parLlcular slLuaLlons, and Lo (ll) wheLher Lhe ouLpuLs of
dlfferenL processes ln Lhe case of parallel runnlng are merged or noL. 1hey can call on Lhree
klnds of evldence. 1he flrsL klnd ls based on speclflc performance proflles ln dlfferenL
experlmenLal Lasks. 1he second klnd of evldence relnforces such resulLs by showlng LhaL
dlfferenL processes produce ouLpuLs LhaL relnforce each oLher ln some slLuaLlons and confllcL
ln oLhers. llnally, funcLlonal dlssoclaLlons of cognlLlve processes mlghL provlde a Lhlrd klnd of
evldence for mulLl-process Lheorles. 1he chapLer ends wlLh a presenLaLlon of some examples
of mulLl-process Lheorles: Lhe model of expllclL and lmpllclL cognlLlon of Ashby eL al. (1998),
Lhe dual-process Lheorles of cognlLlon (e.g., SLanovlch and WesL 2000), and Lhe fasL and frugal
heurlsLlcs research program (Clgerenzer eL al. 1999).
ln ChapLer 6, Machery provldes emplrlcal resulLs Lo show LhaL caLegorlzaLlon and concepL
learnlng are underwrlLLen by dlsLlncL cognlLlve processes, each of whlch lnvolves lLs own klnd
of concepLs. Pe flrsLly deflnes caLegorlzaLlon and concepL learnlng, and dlscusses crlLlcally Lhe
meLhodology of experlmenLs ln psychology abouL Lhese Lwo dlfferenL compeLences. 1hen, he
revlews Lhe emplrlcal evldence LhaL supporLs Lhe proLoLype, Lhe exemplar and Lhe Lheory
paradlgms of concepLs. Showed LhaL we have dlfferenL mechanlsms for caLegorlzlng ob[ecLs,


178

evenLs, and subsLances LhaL rely on dlfferenL klnds of concepLs, he surveys Lhe emplrlcal
llLeraLure and founds LhaL Lhere ls llLLle evldence LhaL Lhese Lhree processes are organlzed
LogeLher. lndeed, ln experlmenLal condlLlons, Lhe Lhree caLegorlzaLlons processes can be
Lrlggered selecLlvely (p. 194), dependlng on dlfferences ln Lhe presenLaLlon of Lhe lnpuL
sLlmull, and ln Lhe klnd of ouLpuL requesLed. Moreover, emplrlcal sLudles (Allen & 8rooks 1991)
suggesL LhaL caLegorlzaLlon Lasks someLlmes lead Lo confllcLlng caLegorlzaLlon [udgmenLs.
1herefore, noL only we possess several klnds of concepLs, buL Lhese klnds also lnvolve dlsLlncL
processes for learnlng and for caLegorlzlng.
ChapLer 7 dlscusses oLher Lwo lmporLanL cognlLlve ablllLles, namely, lnducLlon and concepL
comblnaLlon, and suggesLs LhaL emplrlcal research supporLs Lhe concluslon LhaL dlsLlncL
cognlLlve processes underwrlLe also Lhese cognlLlve compeLences. WlLh respecL Lo lnducLlon,
Lhere ls emerglng consensus beLween psychologlsLs LhaL people rely on several non-lnLegraLed
lnducLlon processes. ln Lhe case of concepL comblnaLlon, Machery refers Lo PampLon's (1987)
model Lo clalm LhaL proLoLypes, exemplars, and Lheorles are reLrleved from long-Lerm
memory Lo creaLe complex concepLs (p. 212). Pe also noLes LhaL PampLon's (1987) model
does noL assume a mulLl-process Lheory, buL conslders lnsLead a slngle process Lo be
responslble for Lhe comblnaLlon of dlfferenL klnds of concepLs. llnally, Machery scans
neuropsychologlcal daLa ln search of dlssoclaLlons aLLesLlng dlsLlncL processes for lnducLlon
and concepL comblnaLlon. Powever, he does noL flnd declslve resulLs supporLlng hls Lhesls.
rovlded LhaL Lhe processes responslble for caLegorlzaLlon, lnducLlon, concepL learnlng and
concepL comblnaLlon rely on dlfferenL klnds of concepLs, Machery dedlcaLes ChapLer 8 Lo Lhe
ellmlnaLlvlsL concluslon of PP. Pe flrsLly challenges Lwo klnds of ellmlnaLlvlsL argumenLs for
concepLs: Lhe anLl-represenLaLlonallsL argumenL comlng from Lhe dynamlcal-sysLems approach
(1helen & SmlLh 1994) and slLuaLed roboLlc (8rooks 1999), and Lhe argumenL from conLexL-
senslLlvlLy (SmlLh & Samuelson 1997). 1hese Lwo argumenLs share Lhe same sLrucLure: Lhey
flrsLly provlde a LheoreLlcal deflnlLlon for concepLs, Lhen Lhey clalm LhaL as a maLLer of facL Lhe
besL emplrlcal evldence suggesLs LhaL noLhlng saLlsfles Lhe prevlously proposed deflnlLlon.
1herefore, Lhey conclude LhaL concepLs do noL exlsL. Machery noLes LhaL such a concluslon
depends on a descrlpLlvlsL Lheory of reference, accordlng Lo whlch, lf a Lerm sLands for a
deflnlLlon LhaL ls noL referrlng Lo anyLhlng real, Lhe Lerm ls empLy and Lhe generallzaLlons
made wlLh lL are false. Powever, lf one supporLs a dlfferenL Lheory of reference (e.g., a
hlsLorlcal causal Lheory) Lhe ellmlnaLlvlsL argumenL loses much of lLs appeal.
Clven LhaL concepL ellmlnaLlvlsm should noL be hosLage Lo Lhe debaLe abouL reference
(p. 230), Machery hence lnLroduces a klnd of sclenLlflc" ellmlnaLlvlsm, whlch does noL dlspuLe
wheLher concepLs refer Lo an empLy class of enLlLles, buL wheLher Lhey possess Lhe properLles
LhaL characLerlze Lhe classes LhaL maLLer for Lhe emplrlcal research (p. 230). WlLh Lhls respecL,
Machery clalms Lo have showed LhaL very few generallzaLlons are Lrue of all (or mosL)
concepLs besldes Lhe properLles LhaL are used Lo ldenLlfy Lhem, whlle many generallzaLlons are
Lrue of some subseL of concepLs (p. 241), namely proLoLypes, exemplars and Lheorles. Pls
concluslon, Lhen, ls LhaL Lhe class of concepLs ls noL a naLural klnd, whlle Lhese subseLs are
naLural klnds (p. 241). Machery argues LhaL ellmlnaLlng concepLs from Lhe vocabulary of
cognlLlve sclence wlll poslLlvely affecL emplrlcal research by ellmlnaLlng Lhe conLroversles
beLween LheorlsLs of dlfferenL paradlgms. Moreover, lL wlll drlve researcher Lo focus on open
quesLlons such as Lhe besL models for proLoLypes, exemplars, and Lheorles, how mulLl-
processes run ln dlfferenL cognlLlve compeLences, and how Lhelr speclflc ouLpuLs are
evenLually processed.
Machery's book shows a remarkable masLerlng of Lhe huge llLeraLure abouL concepLs
coupled wlLh Lhe capaclLy Lo summarlze lL ln a reasonable number of pages. Much efforL ls puL

179

ln explalnlng dlfferenL Lheorles, Lherefore ln developlng a common framework where Lhe
sLrengLhs and flaws of each of Lhem can be compared. Moreover, slnce Machery does noL alm
Lo supporL some Lheorles over Lhe oLhers, hls analysls ls aL Lhe same Llme crlLlc and lmparLlal.
lor all Lhese reasons, Machery's book ls a very good lnLroducLlon Lo Lhe Loplc.
lurLhermore, Machery conveys a parLlcular ellmlnaLlvlsL concluslon abouL concepLs, whlch
denoLes a genulne phllosophlcal aLLlLude away from armchalr phllosophy. Pe never forgeLs Lo
remlnd Lhe reader Lhe emplrlcal naLure of hls argumenL. ConcepLs should be ellmlnaLed from
Lhe vocabulary of psychology noL because Lhey refer Lo an empLy caLegory buL because Lhe
very Lerm ls mlsleadlng wlLh respecL Lo lLs use ln Lhe emplrlcal llLeraLure. Machery ls able Lo
selecL and Lo reporL Lhe resulLs relevanL Lo hls dlscusslon, always showlng Lhe speclflc
conLrlbuLlon of each Lo hls maln Lhesls. 1herefore, even Lhough hls concluslon mlghL be
re[ecLed by Lhe developmenL of our knowledge abouL cognlLlon (he recognlses, for example,
LhaL Lhe developmenL of neo-emplrlclsL vlews of concepLs mlghL provlde good reasons why Lo
revlse hls concluslon), hls argumenLaLlon remalns a succeeded example of how phllosophy
should apply Lo Lhe sclenLlflc pracLlce. 1haL ls, Machery's book ls a brlghL example of clear
analysls applled Lo emplrlcal lnvesLlgaLlon, and lL ls sLrongly recommended Lo every one -
phllosopher or psychologlsL - lnLeresLed ln cognlLlve sclence.

8I8LICGkAn
Allen, S. W., & 8rooks, L. 8. (1991). Speclallzlng Lhe CperaLlon of an LxpllclL 8ule. Iootool of
xpetlmeotol lsycboloqy. Ceoetol, 120: 3-19.
Ashby, l. C., Alfonso-8eese, L. A., 1urken, A. u., & Waldron L. M. (1998). A
neuropsychologlcal 1heory of MulLlple SysLems ln CaLegory Learnlng. lsycboloqlcol
kevlew, 105: 42-481.
8arsalou, L. W. (1993). llexlblllLy, SLrucLure, and LlngulsLlc vagary ln ConcepLs:
ManlfesLaLlons of a ComposlLlonal SysLem of ercepLual Symbols. ln A. C. Colllns, S. L.
CaLhercole, & M. A. Conway (Lds.), 1beotles of Memoty (pp. 29-101). London:
Lawrence Lrlbaum AssoclaLes.
8arsalou, L. W. (1999). ercepLual Symbol SysLems. 8ebovlotol ooJ 8tolo 5cleoces, 22: 377-
609.
8rooks, 8. A. (1991). lnLelllgence WlLhouL 8epresenLaLlon. Attlflclol lotelllqeoce, 47: 139-
139.
uenneLL, u. C. (1993). Learnlng and Labelllng. MloJ ooJ looqooqe, 8(4): 340-348.
uenneLL, u. C. (1996). kloJs of MloJs. 1owotJs oo uoJetstooJloq of cooscloosoess. London:
Weldenfeld & nlcolson.
Clgerenzer, C., 1odd, . M., & 1he A8C 8esearch Croup (1999). 5lmple neotlstlcs tbot Moke
os 5mott. new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy ress.
PampLon, !. A. (1987). lnherlLance of aLLrlbuLes ln naLural concepL con[uncLlons. Memoty &
coqoltloo, 15: 33-71.
Pewson, C. (1994). 'Lmplrlcal Lvldence 8egardlng Lhe lolk sychologlcal ConcepL of 8ellef',
ltoceeJloqs of tbe coqoltlve 5cleoce 5oclety.
eacocke, C. (1992). A 5toJy of coocepts. Cambrldge, MA: Ml1 ress.


180

rlnz, !. (2002). lotolsbloq tbe MloJ. coocepts ooJ 1belt letceptool 8osls. Cambrldge, MA:
Ml1 ress.
rlnz, !. (2004). Cot keoctloos. A letceptool 1beoty of motloo. new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy
ress.
SmlLh, L. 8., & Samuelson, L. k. (1997). ercelvlng and 8ememberlng: CaLegory SLablllLy,
varlablllLy, and uevelopmenL. ln k. LamberLs & u. Shanks (Lds.) koowleJqe, coocepts,
ooJ coteqotles (pp. 161-193). Cambrldge: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.
SLanovlch, k. L. & WesL 8. l. (2000). lndlvldual ulfferences ln 8easonlng: lmpllcaLlons for Lhe
8aLlonallLy uebaLe?. 8ebovlotol ooJ 8tolo 5cleoces, 2J(3): 643-663.
1helen, L., & SmlLh, L. (1994). A uyoomlc 5ystems Apptoocb to tbe uevelopmeot of
coqoltloo ooJ Actloo. London-Cambrldge, MA: Ml1 ress.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S

ChapLer 1 ConcepLs ln sychology
1. "ConcepL" ln sychology
2. Lvldence for Lhe LxlsLence of ConcepLs
3. WhaL ls a sychologlcal 1heory of ConcepLs?
4. AlLernaLlve CharacLerlzaLlons of Lhe noLlon of ConcepL
ChapLer 2 ConcepLs ln hllosophy
1. "ConcepL" ln hllosophy
2. ConcepLs ln hllosophy versus ConcepLs ln sychology
3. Pow are Lhe sychologlcal and Lhe hllosophlcal 1heorles of ConcepLs ConnecLed?
eacocke's Slmple AccounL
4. Pow are Lhe sychologlcal and Lhe hllosophlcal 1heorles of ConcepLs ConnecLed?
1he loundaLlonallsL AccounL
ChapLer 3 1he PeLerogenelLy PypoLhesls
1. 1he 8ecelved vlew
2. 1he PeLerogenelLy PypoLhesls
3. Pybrld 1heorles of ConcepLs
ChapLer 4 1hree lundamenLal klnds of ConcepLs: roLoLypes, Lxemplars, 1heorles
1. 1he Classlcal 1heory of concepLs
2. 1he roLoLype aradlgm of ConcepLs
3. 1he Lxemplar aradlgm of ConcepLs
4. 1he 1heory aradlgm of ConcepLs

181

3. AlLernaLlve vlews of ConcepLs
6. 1hree 1heoreLlcal LnLlLles LhaL Pave LlLLle ln Common
ChapLer 3 MulLl-rocess 1heorles
1. MulLl-rocess 1heorles
2. Lxamples of MulLl-rocess 1heorles
ChapLer 6 CaLegorlzaLlon and ConcepL Learnlng
1. CaLegorlzaLlon and ConcepL Learnlng
2. SLudylng CaLegorlzaLlon and ConcepL Learnlng
3. Lvldence for Lhe LxlsLence of roLoLypes
4. Lvldence for Lhe LxlsLence of Lxemplars
3. Lvldence for Lhe LxlsLence of 1heorles
6. CrganlzaLlon of Lhe CaLegorlzaLlon rocesses and of Lhe ConcepL Learnlng rocesses
ChapLer 7 lnducLlon, ConcepL ComblnaLlon, neuropsychology:
1. lnducLlon
2. ConcepL ComblnaLlon
3. neuropsychology
ChapLer 8 ConcepL LllmlnaLlvlsm
1. 1wo lnconcluslve ArgumenLs agalnsL Lhe noLlon of ConcepL
2. naLural klnds and SclenLlflc LllmlnaLlvlsm
3. 1he ArgumenL for Lhe LllmlnaLlon of "ConcepL"
4. Cb[ecLlons and 8eplles
Concluslon


183
Commentaiy
Modelli epistemologici in psicologia
a cura dl Marco CasLl gl l onl e AnLonel l a Corradl nl
Caroccl , 8oma, 2008

umbett o Mol oocbl
umberL o. mal onchl [humana- menL e. l L

ll sagglo da rlleggere, MoJelll eplstemoloqlcl lo pslcoloqlo. uollo
pslcoooollsl ol costtozloolsmo dl Marco CasLlgllonl e AnLonella
Corradlnl, Caroccl edlLore, del 2003, e ln realLa un manuale
unlverslLarlo con flnallLa essenzlalmenLe dldaLLlche, qulndl
pensaLo ed organlzzaLo per offrlre allo sLudenLe un quadro
esaurlenLe dello sLaLo dell'arLe del fondamenLl eplsLemologlcl
della pslcologla. Cpera dl due esperLl del seLLore, uno pslcologo
cllnlco ed una fllosofa delle sclenze umane, sl presenLa come un
aglle llbrlcclno dl poche paglne. Ma l'aspeLLo non deve
lngannare: sl LraLLa dl un sagglo denso ed esaurlenLe, scrlLLo ln
uno sLlle llmpldo ed esLremamenLe scorrevole, sempllce e
preclso allo sLesso Lempo. La sLruLLura del clnque brevl caplLoll
ln cul vengono esposLl l prlnclpall modelll generall sl arLlcola ln
due parLl dlsLlnLe: una prlma parLe dedlcaLa ad una breve
esposlzlone della Leorla" e una seconda parLe dove gll auLorl presenLano le loro
conslderazlonl eplsLemologlche". ll LesLo sl chlude con un sesLo caplLolo con le concluslonl ed
e arrlcchlLo da una blbllografla agglornaLa e da due lndlcl, uno anallLlco e l'alLro del noml,
ambedue molLo uLlll.
La chlarezza e la slnLesl, come gla deLLo, sono le caraLLerlsLlche plu apparlscenLl dell'opera
ma non e da soLLovaluLare neppure la noLevole amplezza del panorama offerLo al leLLore: ln
clrca 130 paglne LuLL'alLro che pesanLl vedlamo scorrere un secolo abbondanLe dl sLorla della
rlcerca pslcologlca e LuLLe le sue prlnclpall connesslonl con la fllosofla, l'anLropologla, la
soclologla, la rlcerca medlco-neurologlca flno alle recenLl neurosclenze.
l clnque caplLoll suddeLLl sono dedlcaLl rlspeLLlvamenLe al grandl paradlgml che hanno
domlnaLo la scena della culLura mondlale e che ancora sl conLendono, alcunl ln parLlcolare, un
ruolo egemone nella rlcerca conLemporanea. Lssl sono, nell'ordlne, ll compottomeotlsmo, ll
coqoltlvlsmo, ll costtozloolsmo soclole, l'approcclo slstemlco telozlooole e la pslcoooollsl. l prlml
Lre vengono presenLaLl ln un ordlne che poLremmo conslderare anche generlcamenLe sLorlco,
negll ulLlml due l'aspeLLo che vlene plu evldenzlaLo e quello cllnlco-appllcaLlvo. non posslamo
cerLo qul enLrare nel deLLagll e segulre crlLlcamenLe l'esposlzlone che l due auLorl fanno degll
aspeLLl Leorlcl e delle problemaLlche connesse con clascun paradlgma, quello che posslamo
dlre e che, a parLe qualche plccola lmpreclslone, ll LesLo e ln genere esaurlenLe per lo scopo
per cul e sLaLo pensaLo ed e sufflclenLe ad lllusLrare gll aspeLLl su cul gll auLorl sl soffermano
pol nelle conslderazlonl eplsLemologlche.
ll faLLo che quesLa ampla panoramlca colnvolga un gran numero dl alLre dlsclpllne e le loro
muLue relazlonl, non fa che agglungere pregevolezza al sagglo e ne LesLlmonla l'lmporLanza
come base dl parLenza per una rlcognlzlone dello sLaLo aLLuale dell'arLe. Cll aspeLLl fllosoflcl,
anLropologlcl, sclenLlflcl e sLorlco-soclall delle problemaLlche affronLaLe sl lnLrecclano sla sul
versanLe Leorlco che su quello cllnlco-praLlco, offrendo un quadro davvero compleLo della


184

slLuazlone al momenLo della pubbllcazlone A dlsLanza dl sel annl, quesLo volume e comunque
ancora merlLevole dl essere rlleLLo, al dl la del suol pregl lnLrlnsecl, come appena deLLo.
Comlnclamo col noLare che dal 2003 ad oggl la slLuazlone generale della rlcerca pslcologlca
ln LuLLe le sue arLlcolazlonl e noLevolmenLe camblaLa. 8lcerche che gla allora avevano
ragglunLo lmporLanLl rlsulLaLl sperlmenLall (ma che non poLevano, ovvlamenLe, comparlre ln
un manuale unlverslLarlo dl orlenLamenLo generale) sono sLaLe confermaLe e alLre hanno
aperLo sLrade ancor plu nuove ed lnLeressanLl. Le neurosclenze ln parLlcolare e, ancor plu ln
parLlcolare, le Lecnlche dl lndaglne sLrumenLale dell'aLLlvlLa cerebrale a llvello sla macro che
mlcro, sLanno offrendo un'lmmaglne compleLamenLe nuova dl fenomenl che flno a solo pochl
annl fa sembravano o LoLalmenLe mlsLerlosl o comunque fuorl della porLaLa del nosLrl
laboraLorl. vogllo qul rlcordare, per dare solo qualche esemplo, le rlcerche dl kandel sul
processl della memorla, quelle dl LlbeL sullo scarLo Lemporale nel processl declslonall, quelle
del gruppo dl arma dl 8lzzolaLLl sul neuronl specchlo, quelle dl 8aron-Cohen sull'auLlsmo,
quelle lnflne sempre plu numerose e profonde sullo sLaLuLo onLologlco e sulla genesl della
cosclenza.
CuesLl ulLlml annl hanno vlsLo rlnascere ed esLendersl, per raglonl molLepllcl e non solo dl
caraLLere sclenLlflco, ll dlbaLLlLo (e le conseguenLl polemlche) sulla Leorla dell'evoluzlone, sul
suo slgnlflcaLo, sulla sua appllcazlone ad alLrl campl della rlcerca e sulle conseguenze che ne
derlvano, sla dal punLo dl vlsLa sclenLlflco che da quello plu squlslLamenLe fllosoflco e generale.
ln un cllma culLurale sempre plu lncandescenLe per le vlvacl dlscusslonl, sopraLLuLLo pollLlco-
ldeologlche, cl slamo resl conLo che l'lnlzlo del Lerzo mlllennlo sara, con molLa probablllLa,
caraLLerlzzaLo dalla doverosa presa dl cosclenza che molLe Leorle, conceLLl e nozlonl a cul
eravamo un po' affezlonaLl, dovranno essere rlvlsLe se non del LuLLo abbandonaLe.
Cualcuno comlncla anche a suggerlre che sla necessarlo rlmedlare al perlcoloso rlLardo con
cul cerLe conqulsLe del penslero novecenLesco ancora non sono paLrlmonlo della culLura
comune, neppure a llvello scolasLlco: la relaLlvlLa elnsLelnlana, la meccanlca quanLlsLlca, la
rlcerca maLemaLlca conLemporanea, la llngulsLlca formale o la blologla molecolare, LanLo per
fare solo qualche esemplo Lra l plu rllevanLl.
SosLlene C. !ervls ln uno del suol ulLlml saggl:

ln quesLl annl la pslcologla e esplosa ln una mlrlade dl probleml, dl Leml, dl speclallzzazlonl e non
cl fornlsce daLl unlvocl. Le carLe sono sLaLe rlmescolaLe, al punLo che molLe acqulslzlonl recenLl
non sono merlLo dl pslcologl ma dl zoologl, blologl e geneLlsLl, sLudlosl del cervello, llngulsLl,
soclologl, economlsLl. La deflnlzlone sLessa della dlsclpllna pslcologla" e sLaLa messa ln
dlscusslone. (!ervls 2007, p. 73)

L prosegue:

ln praLlca, ll molLlpllcarsl delle rlcerche e l'evoluzlone delle ldee sono LalmenLe lnLensl e rapldl
che nessuna scuola dl penslero fa ln Lempo a consolldarsl. Le acqulslzlonl degll ulLlml decennl
sono noLevoll. (!ervls 2007, p. 73)

L ancora:

ua qualche Lempo LuLLo e camblaLo: la rlcerca dl laboraLorlo sl e lmpadronlLa dl campl che ln
precedenza non sembravano dl sua compeLenza, e ne sono emersl daLl sorprendenLl. (!ervls
2007, p. 73)

!ervls, da sLudloso rafflnaLo e senslblle qual era, aperLo alle novlLa e alle conLamlnazlonl che sl
vanno molLlpllcando nel panorama della rlcerca lnLernazlonale, aveva colLo, ln quesLl annl a
Commentaiy -Nouelli epistemologici in psicologia

183
cavallo Lra l due mlllennl, ll senso profondo dl un modo nuovo dl fare sclenza e culLura: LenLare
dl caplre megllo aLLlngendo a LuLLe le fonLl dlsponlblll e usando ognl meLodo o sLrumenLo
senza precluslonl o pregludlzl.

Abblamo flnalmenLe lmparaLo ad essere meno schemaLlcl - prosegue !ervls - [.] abbandonando
l'alLernaLlva rlglda ootote vetsos coltote, oggl slamo meno lnLeressaLl a chledercl quale sla ll peso
rlspeLLlvo del condlzlonamenLl blologlcl ln conLrapposlzlone alle lnfluenze sLorlco-amblenLall,
slamo lnvece plu lnLeressaLl ad esamlnare le loro lnLerazlonl, cloe la slnLesl dl naLura e culLura.
(!ervls 2007, pp. 73-74)

Come molLe alLre dlsclpllne, la pslcologla sLa dunque rlfacendo l conLl con se sLessa" e ln
quesLo nuovo cllma generale non solo l meLodl, non solo le appllcazlonl, non solo la cllnlca
hanno blsogno dl essere agglornaLe o LoLalmenLe rlpensaLe ma anche le basl conceLLuall, l
prlnclpl lsplraLorl e l modelll dl rlferlmenLo debbono essere rlesamlnaLl crlLlcamenLe. La rlcerca
sclenLlflca, la rlcerca ln generale, anche quella arLlsLlca, per esemplo, vlvono momenLl dl
passagglo a volLe rapldl e caoLlcl, slLuazlonl dl crlsl profonda che sembrano sommergere o
dlsLruggere gran parLe dell'eslsLenLe, sono l famosl perlodl dl sclenza sLraordlnarla" dl khun.
La pslcologla lnsleme a molLe dlsclpllne afferenLl, ln quesLo momenLo, sLa vlvendo
probabllmenLe una dl quesLe slLuazlonl dl crlsl. Ma lo sarel oLLlmlsLa, dlscuLere e dublLare fa
bene alla rlcerca, evlLa lrrlgldlmenLl e lncrosLazlonl, produce sempre qualcosa dl nuovo, rlduce
dl molLo la presunzlone del dogmaLlcl.
CurlosamenLe, sembrerebbe quasl dl rlLornare lndleLro nel Lempo e rlvlvere ll sollLo
dramma delle orlglnl: una dlsclpllna alla rlcerca della sua ldenLlLa, ll blsogno dl una rlnnovaLa
leglLLlmazlone sclenLlflca", la scelLa dl un rlferlmenLo slcuro, l'lndlvlduazlone dl nuovl meLodl,
un nuovo approcclo al vecchl" probleml, eLc. ln breve, una sLorla gla vlsLa.
Ml sembra per che quesLa sensazlone dl de[a-vu possa essere superaLa dalla
consLaLazlone, per alLro evldenLe, che molLe proposLe sono sLaLe abbandonaLe proprlo perche
sl sono dlmosLraLe lnadeguaLe o lncapacl dl produrre l rlsulLaLl aLLesl, o hanno falllLo rlspeLLo
alle loro sLesse prevlslonl. Come caso esemplare vorrel clLare solLanLo ll grande progeLLo della
lnLelllgenza ArLlflclale, quella coslddeLLa forLe", che sl preflggeva, nel sognl del suol
enLuslasLlcl sosLenlLorl, non solo dl slmulare ma dl rlprodurre comporLamenLl" umanl rlLenuLl
lnLelllgenLl". 8lcordo, ln parLlcolare, ll progeLLo glapponese del compuLer dl 3 generazlone",
che avrebbero dovuLo elaborare, Lraducendolo auLomaLlcamenLe, ll llnguagglo umano e
funzlonare con comandl Lrasmessl dlreLLamenLe con la voce umana: gla nel 1983 fu dlchlaraLo
essere lrreallzzablle.
uunque non e vero che non c'e nlenLe dl nuovo soLLo ll sole, che la sLorla sl rlpeLe", come a
qualcuno place rlpeLere! 8lLengo lnvece, se e vero che la rlcerca sclenLlflca conslsLe nella
esplorazlone del vlcoll per vedere se sono clechl", che la slLuazlone aLLuale sl presenLa molLo
sLlmolanLe. ln effeLLl molLl vlcoll sl sono dlmosLraLl clechl e dl quesLo dobblamo far Lesoro,
senza lpocrlsle o pleLosl auLolngannl. L quesLo e avvenuLo ln LanLl seLLorl della conoscenza, ln
LanLe dlsclpllne, flno al punLo dl suggerlre l'ldea che forse e LramonLaLa per sempre la preLesa
dl scoprlre un plccolo numero dl leggl e prlnclpl generall che cl permeLLano una
rappresenLazlone unlflcaLa del mondo: la realLa e la naLura sono maledeLLamenLe complesse e
rlfluLano" dl adaLLarsl al nosLrl comodl conLenlLorl conceLLuall. Cl non slgnlflca per che non
sla posslblle rldurre al mlnlmo e sempllflcare quesLo armamenLarlo Leorlco: una delle sLrade
posslblll pu essere proprlo quella della slnLesl Lra proposLe dlverse, lncroclando conoscenze e
meLodl.
nel campo della rlcerca pslcologlca le ulLlme acqulslzlonl delle neurosclenze hanno ormal
reso evldenLe che sl pu parlare sensaLamenLe dl una sorLa dl naLura umana", cloe dl un
lnsleme dl caraLLerlsLlche blo-geneLlche speclflche, sLablllzzaLesl nel corso dell'evoluzlone, dl


186

caraLLere unlversale, cloe Llplche dl ognl essere umano ln quanLo Lale, al dl la delle dlfferenze,
molLo meno marcaLe, dovuLe all'amblenLe soclale e alla culLura.
Ma allora, se e sLaLo posslblle rldeflnlre quesLa cerLa ldea dl unlversallLa naLurale, posslamo
anche chledercl quall slano le condlzlonl dell'amblenLe flslco effeLLlvamenLe necessarle e
sufflclenLl perche quesLo sl sla poLuLo verlflcare. uobblamo cloe comlnclare a guardare al
mondo naLurale" con occhl dlversl, rafflnando l nosLrl sLrumenLl dl lndaglne per vedere se,
soLLo ll dlsordlne apparenLe degll evenLl, non sl nasconda lnvece una sorLa dl LesslLura, magarl
anche flnemenLe sLruLLuraLa. L quesLa, lnfaLLl, e un'alLra grande acqulslzlone recenLe: la realLa
del mondo naLurale non e amorfa, caoLlca o lnflnlLamenLe malleablle ma sl presenLa
rlcchlsslma dl lnformazlone e dl sLruLLura, non e un daLo lmmuLablle e lndlpendenLe ma
lnLeraglsce col soggeLLo conoscenLe ln modo dlnamlco secondo regole e parameLrl vlncolaLl
solo da leggl naLurall unlversall.
er sLudlare a fondo quesLa nuova lmmaglne, quella che emerge dalle nosLre esplorazlonl,
servono allora sLrumenLl conceLLuall dlversl, sLrumenLl plu adaLLl dl quelll dlsponlblll a un
domlnlo cosl varlegaLo e moblle com'e quello del mondo della vlLa, quello ln cul slsLeml
alLamenLe complessl e parzlalmenLe sLablll lnLeraglscono conLlnuamenLe Lra loro ln modo
Lalora caoLlco. Allora, cosl come l'lnvenzlone della maLemaLlca degll lnflnlLeslml (l'anallsl)
consenLl la cresclLa e lo svlluppo della flslca newLonlana, cosl oggl e glunLo forse ll momenLo dl
provare ad lnvenLare" un llnguagglo nuovo per la dlnamlca delle sLruLLure vlvenLl e auLo-
organlzzaLe ln conLlnua Lrasformazlone. Al momenLo, ll candldaLo plu promeLLenLe sembra
rappresenLaLo dalla coslddeLLa Leorla della complesslLa" che ha come oggeLLo lo sLudlo del
comporLamenLo del slsLeml dlnamlcl, llnearl e non-llnearl, ln parLlcolare quelll deflnlLl caoLlcl"
o alLamenLe lnsLablll. ln effeLLl, come gla accennaLo, una delle caraLLerlsLlche sallenLl del
vlvenLe e proprlo quella dl presenLarsl come slsLeml complessl auLo-organlzzaLl, emergenLl da
un amblenLe flslco caoLlco ad alLo Lasso dl lnsLablllLa.
*

Se pol dal generlco mondo del vlvenLe passlamo a conslderare l'uomo e ll suo
comporLamenLo, cl Lrovlamo sublLo davanLl un osLacolo formldablle: splegare
sclenLlflcamenLe" l'lnLenzlonallLa, la cosclenza e ll llbero volere, ll famoso llbero arblLrlo" del
mlllenarlo dlbaLLlLo del fllosofl. Credo dl poLer dlre che sono sLaLe avanzaLe ln merlLo a quesLo
problema delle proposLe lnLeressanLl proprlo ln quesLl ulLlml annl. Sl va da conslderazlonl che
sl lsplrano dl volLa ln volLa alla meccanlca quanLlsLlca, al fenomeno dell'lncompleLezza della
flslca e della maLemaLlca, al rlsulLaLl loglcl sulla non descrlvlblllLa unlvoca delle enLlLa asLraLLe,
al vlncoll cosmologlcl sulla dlnamlca del movlmenLo e sulla corporelLa, eLc.
1

Ma sono proposLe, ovvlamenLe, molLo complesse che fanno uso dl sLrumenLl conceLLuall
dlversl, generalmenLe lnusuall e, per molLl aspeLLl, rafflnaLl, cerLamenLe assenLl nel bagagllo
culLurale e professlonale della gran parLe degll pslcologl ln aLLlvlLa. L un problema quesLo che
per ora sl presenLa a llvello dl rlcerca ma che ben presLo sl Lradurra ln un problema dl
formazlone professlonale e culLurale generale, come caplLa sempre plu spesso. MolLl Leml
lnfaLLl appalono plu problemaLlcl dl quanLo non slano ln realLa proprlo perche l'lnformazlone e
sopraLLuLLo, la formazlone sclenLlflca sono lnsufflclenLl o non agglornaLe (ln cerLl casl ll rlLardo

*
er una prlma lnLroduzlone poLremmo suggerlre la nuova edlzlone (2007) presso 8runo Mondadorl del
volume dl Clanluca 8occhl e Mauro CeruLl, lo sflJo Jello complesslt, oppure ll recenLe 5olle Otme Jel
coos dl Clan-lLalo 8lschl, 8osa Carlnl, Laura Cardlnl e aolo 1enLl sempre dello sLesso edlLore (2004), per
magglorl deLLagll va ancora bene ll vecchlo Cregolre nlcolls e llya rlgoglne, lo complesslt, Llnaudl,
1orlno, 1991.
1
er LuLLa la problemaLlca ml permeLLo dl suggerlre lrancls 8allly, Cluseppe Longo, Motbmotlpoes et
scleoces Je lo ootote. lo sloqolotlt pbyslpoe Jo vlvoot, Permann, arlgl, 2006.
Commentaiy -Nouelli epistemologici in psicologia

187

e lmpresslonanLe e lnLeressa purLroppo anche coloro che fanno scuola"). Ma quesLa e
un'alLra quesLlone, molLo lmporLanLe, dl cul non posslamo occuparcl qul!
AlLrl aspeLLl lnLeressanLl sarebbero anch'essl perLlnenLl alle nosLre osservazlonl sullo sLaLo
della rlcerca pslcologlca aLLuale: l'lnLrecclo sempre plu sLreLLo con la fllosofla della menLe e le
conseguenze che cerLe acqulslzlonl sLanno avendo sulle lpoLesl clrca l'eslsLenza e la naLura
degll evenLl menLall" e solo un esemplo, la rlnasclLa dl un forLe lnLeresse verso l'onLologla e ll
recupero dl alcunl lmporLanLl rlsulLaLl della loglca novecenLesca, alLrl due.
vorrel concludere quesLo breve commenLo Lornando alla domanda lnlzlale: perche
rlleggere quesLo LesLo unlverslLarlo a dlsLanza dl sel annl dalla sua pubbllcazlone? Cual e la sua
uLlllLa, quallLa oggl molLo apprezzaLa ln una scuola aLLenLa alle compeLenze"? La mla rlsposLa
e, ln ulLlma anallsl, molLo sempllce e dlscende da quanLo sopra argomenLaLo: cl Lrovlamo ln un
conLesLo sLorlco e culLurale parLlcolarmenLe vlvace nel quale le lsLanze lnnovaLlve sl fanno plu
pressanLl a fronLe dl una slLuazlone che presenLa molLl aspeLLl dl crlsl, ossla ln cul lnLerl seLLorl
della conoscenza, lnLere aree dlsclpllnarl, lnLerl paradlgml sembrano aver esaurlLo la loro
funzlone. ln poche sempllcl parole, sl senLe ll blsogno dl aprlre nuove sLrade, essendo che
molLe dl quelle vecchle sono glunLe al Lermlne: dobblamo cercare dl guardare plu lonLano.
un famoso moLLo, aLLrlbulLo a newLon, dlchlarava che, per vedere plu lonLano era sLaLo
necessarlo sallre sulle spalle dl glganLl. Lcco, lo credo che ll LesLo dl CasLlgllonl e Corradlnl sla
necessarlo per avere un'ldea abbasLanza preclsa dl quall slano sLaLl quesLl glganLl sulle cul
spalle blsogna sallre se vogllamo provare a vedere davvero plu lonLano.

8I8LICGkAIIA
!ervls, C. (2007). leosote Jtltto, peosote stotto. 1orlno: 8ollaLl 8orlnghlerl.


189

Commentaiy
L'aroma del cervello. Commento a le Oxxervuzlonl xullu
flloxoflu Jellu pxlcologlu
Ludwlg WlLLgensLeln
Adelphl, Mllano, 1990

lolql letlsslootto
*

lperlssl[unlve.lL

jO]oello cbe lo voqllo Jlte , lovece.
totto pol.
Ludwlg WlLLgensLeln

l due voluml lnLlLolaLl kemotks oo tbe lbllosopby of
lsycboloqy/8emetkooqeo obet Jle lbllosopble Jet lsycboloqle
furono pubbllcaLl da 8asll 8lackwell a Cxford nel 1980, ben 27 annl
dopo la pubbllcazlone delle lbllosopblcol lovestlqotloos/
lbllosopblscbe uotetsocbooqeo, la prlma delle opere" posLume dl
WlLLgensLeln, la quale era usclLa sempre da 8asll 8lackwell nel 1933,
due annl dopo la sua morLe, a cura del suol Lre esecuLorl leLLerarl: C.
M. Anscombe, 8. 8hees, Ceorg P. von WrlghL.
1
La cura del prlmo
volume delle 8emetkooqeo e della Anscombe, la quale ne e anche la
LraduLLrlce lnglese, e dl von WrlghL, la cura del secondo e
nuovamenLe dl von WrlghL, afflancaLo quesLa volLa da P. nyman,
menLre la Lraduzlone lnglese e dl C. C. LuckardL e M. A. L. Aune. Sl
LraLLa della penulLlma delle opere Lra l cul curaLorl compalono uno o
plu degll esecuLorl leLLerarl lnlzlalmenLe lndlcaLl da WlLLgensLeln, l'ulLlma essendo cosLlLulLa
dal due voluml del lost wtltloqs oo tbe lbllosopby of lsycboloqy/lezte 5cbtlfteo obet Jle
lbllosopble Jet lsycboloqle, usclLl, rlspeLLlvamenLe, nel 1982 e nel 1992, ancora da 8asll
8lackwell a cura dl von WrlghL e P. nyman.
2
La Lraduzlone lLallana del due voluml delle
8emetkooqeo usclra, a cura dl 8. ue MonLlcelll, dlecl annl dopo l'edlzlone orlglnale, nel 1990,
presso Adelphl dl Mllano ln un unlco volume dal LlLolo Ossetvozlool sollo fllosoflo Jello
pslcoloqlo.
3

nel 1980, l'anno della pubbllcazlone delle 8ememtkooqeo, gll esecuLorl leLLerarl dl
WlLLgensLeln erano ben consapevoll del dlsaccordo che molLl sLudlosl avevano manlfesLaLo nel
rlguardl delle forme, modl e Lempl con cul essl sLavano facendo conoscere ll lasclLo
wlLLgensLelnlano. ln parLlcolare, erano sLaLl forLemenLe crlLlcaLe (a) la declslone dl rlnunclare a

*
rofessore ordlnarlo dl lllosofla del Llnguagglo presso l'unlverslLa Ca' loscarl dl venezla
1
1radoLLe ln lLallano da 8. lovesan e M. 1rlnchero con ll LlLolo klcetcbe fllosoflcbe, Llnaudl, 1orlno, 1967
(con dlverse rlsLampe successlve).
2
1radoLLl ln lLallano da 8. Agnese e A. C. Carganl ln un unlco volume dal LlLolo ultlml sctlttl 1948-1951.
lo fllosoflo Jello pslcoloqlo, LaLerza, 8oma-8arl, 1998.
3
nel segulLo clLer (nel LesLo prlnclpale) da quesLa Lraduzlone: la clfra romana, che lndlca ll numero del
volume, sara segulLa dal numero del paragrafo, ll numero della paglna sl rlferlra lnvece alla premessa del
curaLorl.


190

pubbllcare ll coslddeLLo 8lq 1ypesctlpt
4
e dl confezlonare al suo posLo un'opera", la
lbllosopblscbe Ctommotlk
3
, che, dal punLo dl vlsLa fllologlco, apparlva, come aveva dlmosLraLo
nel deLLagllo A. kenny
6
, a dlr poco dlscuLlblle, (b) la scelLa dl agglungere senza alcuna chlara ed
espllclLa moLlvazlone alla coslddeLLa arLe l" delle lbllosopblcol lovestlqotloos una arLe ll
cosLlLulLa da un daLLlloscrlLLo, andaLo ln segulLo perduLo, rlsalenLe probabllmenLe al 1949. lu
ln generale, cl che con sempre plu forza e da plu parLl sl crlLlcava era la preLesa dl rlLagllare
dall'lnsleme del manoscrlLLl e daLLlloscrlLLl dl WlLLgensLeln delle vere e proprle opere" a cul sl
poLesse aLLrlbulre una qualche slgnlflcaLlva, anche se non deflnlLlva, compluLezza. A parere dl
dlversl sLudlosl cl che cosl sl produceva era per solo una lmmaglne forLemenLe deformaLa
del lavoro fllosoflco dl WlLLgensLeln, molLo megllo sarebbe sLaLo pubbllcare l'lnLero lasclLo
wlLLgensLelnlano, senza censure e senza quegll arblLrl fllologlcl da cul era naLa la lbllosopblcol
Ctommot.
7

L'edlzlone delle 8emetkooqeo mosLra che gll esecuLorl del lasclLo wlLLgensLelnano non
erano lnsenslblll a quesLe crlLlche. nel due voluml vengono lnfaLLl pubbllcaLl lo toto (p. 4), ossla
senza selezlonl e rlorganlzzazlonl, due daLLlloscrlLLl, rlspeLLlvamenLe l daLLlloscrlLLl 229 (deLLaLo
nel Lardo auLunno 1947) e 232 (deLLaLo agll lnlzl dell'auLunno 1948) che sl basano su una serle
dl manoscrlLLl (l manoscrlLLl 130-138 secondo la ormal classlca numerazlone dl von WrlghL)
sLesl a comlnclare dal magglo 1946. ln quesLo senso quesLa edlzlone sl avvlclna plu dl alLre a
quel rlgore fllologlco da molLl sLudlosl ausplcaLo, anche se, come negll alLrl casl, ll resoconLo
del crlLerl edlLorlall daLocl dal curaLorl cl appare, se paragonaLo alle LormenLaLe revlslonl e
rlcoplaLure dl WlLLgensLeln, lmpasslblle e breve.
8
va qul Lra l'alLro rlcordaLo come quesLe
annoLazlonl non fossero, alla daLa della loro pubbllcazlone, lnLeramenLe sconoscluLe. un
numero non lndlfferenLe dl esse era gla comparso nel 1967 ln 2ettel
9
(369 del frammenLl qul
raccolLl erano sLaLl lnfaLLl rlLagllaLl da WlLLgensLeln proprlo da daLLlloscrlLLl 229 e 232). lnolLre
dlverse alLre annoLazlonl erano sLaLe pubbllcaLe nel 1933 nella gla rlcordaLa arLe ll delle
lbllosopblcol lovestlqotloos, ossla dl quella parLe ln vlsLa della quale, secondo la Anscombe e
von WrlghL, WlLLgensLeln aveva per l'appunLo sLeso l manoscrlLLl 130-138, l quall possono
essere cosl conslderaLl, non senza glusLlflcazlone [ma senza che la evocaLa glusLlflcazlone
venga resa espllclLa dal curaLorl], come un lnsleme dl sLudl preparaLorl per la arLe ll delle
klcetcbe fllosoflcbe (p. 3).
Come leggere le Ossetvozlool? ul sollLo dl fronLe a un LesLo la domanda che cl sl pone per
prlma rlguarda ll suo Lema, conLenuLo o argomenLo: ul che cosa LraLLa?". uno del complLl dl
un LlLolo, forse ll suo complLo prlnclpale, e darcl una prlma lndlcazlone al rlguardo. nel caso
delle Ossetvozlool sapplamo per che ll LlLolo non e dell'auLore, bensl del curaLorl. ul plu:
menLre ll Lermlne osservazlonl" (8emetkooqeo) e dl evldenLe derlvazlone wlLLgensLelnlana (e
WlLLgensLeln lnfaLLl che nella ltefozlooe alle klcetcbe fllosoflcbe, ma non solo qul, parla, a

4
Cra pubbllcaLo a cura dl M. nedo come ll volume della wleoet Aosqobe (Sprlnger, Wlen 2000), la
Lraduzlone lLallana dl A. ue alma e sLaLa pubbllcaLa nel 2002 presso Llnaudl (1orlno).
3
ubbllcaLa nel 1969 a cura dl 8. 8hees, presso 8asll 8lackwell (Cxford), la Lraduzlone lnglese dl A.
kenny (lbllosopblcol Ctommot) fu pubbllcaLa nel 1974, la Lraduzlone lLallana dl M. 1rlnchero
(Ctommotlco fllosoflco) nel 1990 presso La nuova lLalla (llrenze).
6
A. kenny, lrom Lhe 8lq 1ypesctlpt Lo Lhe lbllosopblcol Ctommot. Acto lbllosopblco leoolco, 28 (1976).
7
ua qualche anno gll sLudlosl hanno flnalmenLe a dlsposlzlone l'edlzlone eleLLronlca del lasclLo dl
WlLLgensLeln, curaLa dal WlLLgensLeln Archlves dell'unlverslLa dl 8ergen: wlttqeostelos Nocbloss. 1be
8etqeo lecttoolc Jltloo, Cxford unlveslLy ress, Cxford, 2000.
8
Cosl scrlve 8oberLa ue MonLlcelll nella sua posLfazlone alle Ossetvozlool, clL., p. 311.
9
A cura dl C. L. M. Anscombe e C. P. von WrlghL con Lraduzlone lnglese a fronLe della Anscombe, 8asll
8lackwell, Cxford, 1967 (seconda edlzlone 1981), Lraduzlone lLallana dl M. 1rlnchero, Llnaudl, 1orlno,
1986.
Commentaiy -L'aioma uel ceivello

191

proposlLo delle sue annoLazlonl, dl osservazlonl fllosoflche
10
), l'espresslone fllosofla della
pslcologla" non solo sl Lrova raramenLe
11
ln WlLLgensLeln, ma non e nemmeno
lmmedlaLamenLe persplcua. nella loro breve ltemesso la Anscombe e von WrlghL sembrano
glusLlflcare la scelLa del LlLolo allorche cl lnformano che l quadernl manoscrlLLl 130-138, che
sLanno alla base del daLLlloscrlLLl 229 e 232, conLengono osservazlonl quasl escluslvamenLe
dedlcaLe alla naLura del conceLLl pslcologlcl (p. 3). Sono comunque sublLo evldenLl l dlversl
lnLerrogaLlvl che quesLa succlnLa lndlcazlone solleva. er esemplo: (1) se l conceLLl pslcologlcl
a cul sono dedlcaLe le annoLazlonl dl WlLLgensLeln slano gll sLessl conceLLl dl cul LraLLa la
pslcologla lnLesa come sclenza, (2) quale rapporLo vl sla Lra la fllosofla e la pslcologla, ossla se
Lra la prlma e la seconda vl slano o meno sovrapposlzlonl o addlrlLLura lnLerferenze, (3) come e
ln che senso la fllosofla (cloe, la fllosofla come la lnLende e praLlca WlLLgensLeln, l'ovvla
preclsazlone sara d'ora ln pol soLLlnLesa) sl mlsurl con la oototo del conceLLl, nel nosLro caso
con la naLura del conceLLl pslcoloqlcl, (4) perche mal l conceLLl pslcologlcl slano dl cosl grande
lnLeresse e rlchlamo per la fllosofla, lnsomma perche WlLLgensLeln abbla loro dedlcaLo LanLo
Lempo e spazlo negll ulLlml lnLensl clnque annl della sua vlLa.
La rlsposLa dl WlLLgensLeln al prlmo del nosLrl lnLerrogaLlvl e cerLamenLe affermaLlva. ln ll,
.20, per esemplo, egll osserva, ln rlferlmenLo al conceLLo dl 'pensare', che e [d]al llnguagglo
quoLldlano, dall'uso che facclamo del verbo pensare", che prendlamo quel conceLLo (vedl
anche ll, .194: 'pensare' e una parola del llnguagglo quoLldlano), ln ll, .62 e nell'appena
clLaLo ll, .194, l'osservazlone vlene, per cosl dlre, esLesa a LuLLl l Lermlnl e l conceLLl della
pslcologla, l conceLLl pslcologlcl (e l relaLlvl Lermlnl), annoLa lnfaLLl WlLLgensLeln, sono
davvero conceLLl della vlLa quoLldlana, conceLLl della vlLa umana (ll, .16), e nlenLe affaLLo
conceLLl creaLl ex oovo dalla sclenza per l proprl scopl, come, lnvece, quelll della flslca e della
chlmlca (ll, .62). L appunLo per quesLo, ossla perche l conceLLl pslcologlcl non sono ne creaLl
ex oovo ne lnLrodoLLl ln vlsLa dl scopl lnLernl alla sclenza, che l'lmplego del Lermlnl pslcologlcl
rlsulLa lngarbugllaLo, ossla non [.] cosl chlaro, e cosl faclle da afferrare con un colpo
d'occhlo, come quello, per esemplo, del Lermlnl della meccanlca (ll, .20), ed e sempre per
quesLo che non dobblamo aspeLLarcl che essl abblano un lmplego unlLarlo (ll, .194). l
conceLLl pslcologlcl - preclsa lnfaLLl WlLLgensLeln con un cerLo complaclmenLo - hanno con
quelll delle sclenze rlgorose la sLessa relazlone che hanno l conceLLl della medlclna sclenLlflca
con quelll delle vecchle donne che sl dedlcano alla cura del malaLl (ll, .62).
L'oblezlone dl chl asplrava (ll rlferlmenLo e ovvlamenLe agll annl ln cul scrlveva
WlLLgensLeln) a lnLendere e a praLlcare la pslcologla come una sclenza pu essere qul
facllmenLe prevlsLa. Se la pslcologla pu cosl apparlre - cosLul poLra osservare - e perche essa
non e ancora pervenuLa a quella maLurlLa che da Lempo e sLaLa ragglunLa dalla flslca o dalla
chlmlca. er forLuna, comunque, essa sLa ormal smeLLendo l nerl gremblall delle vecchle donne
per lndossare l blanchl camlcl del medlcl. WlLLgensLeln conosceva quesLa reazlone, la quale
Lrovava espressa, per esemplo, ln W. khler
12
, ll quale rlLeneva che la confuslone ln
pslcologla andrebbe splegaLa con ll faLLo che essa e una 'sclenza glovane' (l, .1039), ossla

10
[.] ml accorsl che ll megllo che poLessl scrlvere sarebbe sempre rlmasLo allo sLaLo dl osservazlonl
fllosoflche [.] Le osservazlonl fllosoflche conLenuLe ln quesLo llbro sono, per cosl dlre, una raccolLa dl
schlzzl paeslsLlcl, naLe da quesLe lunghe e compllcaLe scorrlbande [ln una vasLa reglone dl penslero"]"
(klcetcbe fllosoflcbe, clL., p. 3).
11
lllosofla della pslcologla" sarebbe sLaLa, per esemplo, l'espresslone usaLa da WlLLgensLeln per
lndlcare delle sue lezlonl a Cambrldge nel 1946-1947, vedl, al rlguardo, wlttqeostelos lectotes oo
lbllosopblcol lsycboloqy, 1946-1947, a cura dl . 1. Ceach, ParvesLer, London, 1988, p. 233.
12
La LraduLLrlce lLallana rlnvla al rlguardo al secondo caplLolo dl W. khler, lo pslcoloqlo Jello Cestolt,
Lr.lL. dl C. ue 1onl, lelLrlnelll, Mllano 1984, ll cul LlLolo e, per l'appunLo, La pslcologla e una sclenza
glovane" (edlzlone orlglnale: Cestolt lsycboloqy, new ?ork 1947).


192

una sclenza dal cul meLodo sperlmenLale non abblamo ancora oLLenuLo LuLLo cl che esso pu
darcl per quanLo rlguarda, per esemplo, la comprenslone del penslero. Se conLlnueremo a fare
esperlmenLl, prlma o pol ll penslero cessera LuLLavla dl essere quel processo enlgmaLlco" che
e ancora per nol.
WlLLgensLeln rlLlene per che sla fuorvlanLe lmpuLare alla clrcosLanza che ll meLodo
sperlmenLale e ancora agll lnlzl le lnsufflclenze della pslcologla. ln quesLo modo sl rlschla dl far
assomlgllare lo pslcologo a qualcuno che volesse sLablllre per mezzo dl esperlmenLl chlmlcl
che cosa sla maLerla e che cosa sla splrlLo (l, .1093). A dlfferenza dl quanLo credeva khler,
la confuslone che sl ha nella pslcologla (quella confuslone che cl fa apparlre enlgmaLlco ll
penslero) e, secondo WlLLgensLeln, lnnanzlLuLLo una confuslone conceLLuale (l, .1039), per
cul cercare dl farvl fronLe con degll esperlmenLl slgnlflca confondere conceLLl e fenomenl,
rlcerche emplrlche e rlcerche conceLLuall. Cl che qul WlLLgensLeln crlLlca non e allora la
pslcologla ln quanLo sclenza sperlmenLale, bensl lo pslcologo che preLende dl Lrovare negll
esperlmenLl e nel meLodo sperlmenLale la rlsposLa a un problema che e dl naLura
conceLLuale. nella prospeLLlva delle Ossetvozlool cosLul e proprlamenLe un meLaflslco, se sl
consldera che per WlLLgensLeln [l]'essenzlale della meLaflslca conslsLe, per l'appunLo, nel
non aver chlara la dlfferenza fra rlcerche conceLLuall e rlcerche rlguardo al faLLl (l, .949).
Come sl rlcordera cl eravamo domandaLl (era ll secondo del nosLrl lnLerrogaLlvl) se la
fllosofla possa ln qualche modo o senso lnLerferlre con la pslcologla. La rlsposLa e per
WlLLgensLeln senz'alLro negaLlva: la fllosofla non pu ne deve lndlrlzzare o condlzlonare
l'lndaglne pslcologlca ln quanLo Lale, essa non ha nulla da dlrcl sulla correLLezza meLodologlca
dl un esperlmenLo ne speLLa a essa valuLare la fondaLezza dl un'lpoLesl flslologlca. ln quesLo
senso ll suo rapporLo con la pslcologla non e dlfferenLe da quello che essa lnLraLLlene con
qualslasl alLra sclenza. CuesLa non e per LuLLa la sLorla. La fllosofla pu lnfaLLl lndurre lo
pslcologo a domandarsl se alcunl dl quelll che gll sl presenLano come probleml da rlsolvere
sperlmenLalmenLe non slano pluLLosLo delle confuslonl conceLLuall che occorre prlmarlamenLe
chlarlre e sbrogllare. ln quesLo senso e posslblle parlare, come fllosofo, della pslcologla o,
come pslcologo, dedlcare una parLe del proprlo lmpegno al mallnLesl e romplcapl e
fralnLendlmenLl che l'lmplego del conceLLl pslcologlcl e del relaLlvl Lermlnl produce. Come
WlLLgensLeln preclsa alLrove, sl LraLLa, ln parLlcolare (ma non solo), dl quel genere dl mallnLesl
[.] che sono prodoLLl dalla Lendenza ad asslmllare Lra loro espresslonl che svolgono nel
llnguagglo funzlonl assal dlfferenLl o che sorgono allorche [c]erchlamo dl parlare dl cose
molLo dlverse medlanLe un medeslmo schema (ulamond, 1982, p.13).
13

Ma che cosa e una rlcerca conceLLuale? sl domanda lo sLesso WlLLgensLeln ln l, .930.
WlLLgensLeln esclude lnnanzlLuLLo che una rlcerca conceLLuale abbla come suo complLo quello
dl splegare perche abblamo proprlo l conceLLl che abblamo, ossla che ll suo scopo sla quello dl
scoprlre come sl formlno, ossla su quall faLLl dl naLura (pslcologlcl e flslcl) sl fondlno, l nosLrl
conceLLl. ln quesLo senso, la fllosofla ln quanLo rlcerca conceLLuale non e affaLLo una sclenza
naLurale LravesLlLa, la quale farebbe allora bene a lnLeressarsl espllclLamenLe, senza
LravesLlmenLl per l'appunLo, e ln manlera sclenLlflca (ossla, facendo lpoLesl e meLLendole alla
prova) dl cl che davvero lmporLa, ossla, per l'appunLo, dl cl che ln naLura sLa alla [.] base
delle nosLre cosLruzlonl conceLLuall.
nelle Ossetvozlool WlLLgensLeln rlLorna plu volLe sul punLo a LesLlmonlanza della sua
lmporLanza. nell'annoLazlone appena rlcordaLa, egll ammeLLe che vl e lndubblamenLe una

13
WlLLgensLeln meLLe comunque ln guardla dall'assoluLlzzazlone del proprlo aLLegglamenLo: lo
soLLollneer le dlfferenze Lra le cose, laddove dl sollLo se ne soLLollneano le somlgllanze (ulamond,
1982, p.13), benche anche quesLo possa far nascere mallnLesl.

193

corrlspondenza fra la nosLra grammaLlca [Lra l nosLrl conceLLl]
14
e faLLl molLo generall della
naLura (raramenLe espressl ln parole) (l, .46). er esemplo, se ll rosso apparlsse solLanLo
[.] sulla punLa delle foglle dl cerLl alberl, che ln auLunno gradualmenLe sl Lrasformano da verdl
ln rosse, nlenLe verrebbe plu naLurale che chlamare ll rosso un verde degeneraLo (l, .47, vedl
anche l, .626). ln quesLo modo: ll rosso e un verde degeneraLo" cesserebbe dl essere un
nonsenso e sarebbe proprlo esso a dlrcl che Llpo dl colore ll rosso sla.
13
CuesLo per non
slgnlflca che nelle clrcosLanze lmmaglnaLe ll rosso sarebbe sLaLo necessarlamenLe chlamaLo un
verde degeneraLo o che ll conceLLo dl 'rosso' sarebbe sLaLo necessarlamenLe dlverso dal
nosLro. Come annoLa scrupolosamenLe WlLLgensLeln, cl che cl appare naLurale, non per
quesLo e necessarlo (vedl ll, .49).
La corrlspondenza Lra conceLLl e faLLl molLo generall della naLura non va ln ognl caso lnLesa
come un'lpoLesl sulle cause posslblll (l, .46) del conceLLl, come se parlando dl
corrlspondenza sl volesse avanzare l'lpoLesl che, [s]e l faLLl dl naLura sLessero dlversamenLe,
avremmo conceLLl dlversl (l, .48). Cl che a WlLLgensLeln preme e qualcosa dl ben dlverso:
muLare l'aLLegglamenLo nel confronLl del nosLrl conceLLl sconflggendo la LenLazlone dl
lmprlmere su dl essl ll suggello della necesslLa.

Cuello che dlco - annoLa lnfaLLl WlLLgensLeln - e solo: Se credl che l nosLrl conceLLl slano quelll
glusLl, quelll che sl confanno a essere umanl lnLelllgenLl, [.] allora prova a rappresenLarLl cerLl
faLLl generall dl naLura dlversamenLe da come sono, e cosLruzlonl conceLLuall dlverse dalle nosLre
Ll apparlranno oototoll. (l, .48, vedl anche l, .643)

er esemplo, a chl rlLenesse la dlsLlnzlone Lra forma e colore come qualcosa dl necessarlo, al
punLo che un slsLema conceLLuale prlvo dl essa poLrebbe solo apparlrgll come qualcosa dl
sLrano e dl ancora prlmlLlvo, WlLLgensLeln chlede dl rappresenLarsl un mondo ln cul
deLermlnaLe forme slano sempre vlncolaLe a deLermlnaLl colorl (per esemplo, ll verde alla
forma clrcolare, ll rosso a quella quadraLa) e dl domandarsl se ln quel caso un slsLema
conceLLuale senza la dlsLlnzlone Lra forma e colore non cesserebbe dl colplrlo come sLrano e
lncompleLo (vedl l, .47).
Anche se pu rlchlamarsl ad alcunl faLLl molLo generall della naLura, una rlcerca
conceLLuale e dunque essenzlalmenLe dlfferenLe da una rlcerca faLLuale (sclenLlflca) che meLLe
alla prova lpoLesl, rlcerca splegazlonl causall, elabora Leorle, fa predlzlonl. L quesLo un punLo
plu volLe rlbadlLo nelle Ossetvozlool, del resLo ln sLreLLa slnLonla con LuLLo cl che sulla fllosofla
WlLLgensLeln ha sempre conLlnuaLo a sosLenere. non che quesLa rlnuncla alla Leorla e alla
splegazlone sla qualcosa dl faclle, al conLrarlo, la rlnuncla e parLlcolarmenLe dlfflclle e, per cosl
dlre, dolorosa. Sembra lnfaLLl che rlnunclarvl equlvalga a rlnunclare alla fllosofla ln quanLo Lale,
flnendo con l'acconLenLarsl dl cl che cl e plu vlclno e ablLuale (l, .361), dl sempllcl esempl e
del casl speclall (l, .633) e lncompleLl (l, .723), abbandonando cl che sembra sla sempre
sLaLo lo scopo della fllosofla (e della sclenza): scendere ln profondlLa (l, .361), rldurre l
dlversl casl e esempl al mlnor numero dl leggl [.] prlmlLlve [.] unlflcare, medlanLe una
generallzzazlone, la LraLLazlone dl dlfferenLl argomenLl (WlLLgensLeln, 1983, p. 28).

LlmlLarsl a descrlvere [rlnunclando a splegare] - annoLa lnfaLLl WlLLgensLeln - e cosl dlfflclle
perche sl crede che per comprendere l faLLl sla necessarlo lnLegrarll. L come se uno vedesse uno

14
Cll enunclaLl grammaLlcall sono quegll enunclaLl dl cul cl servlamo per deLermlnare (clrcoscrlvere o
dellmlLare) l nosLrl conceLLl. lmplegaLo grammaLlcalmenLe, un enunclaLo come l llbrl non sparlscono da
soll" non cl da lnformazlonl sul llbrl, ma deLermlna ll nosLro conceLLo dl 'oggeLLo maLerlale'. ln quesLo
senso, l'espresslone la nosLra grammaLlca che compare ln l, .46 pu essere sosLlLulLa
dall'espresslone l nosLrl conceLLl".
13
Che Llpo dl oggeLLo una cosa sla: quesLo dlce la grammaLlca (WlLLgensLeln 1967, l, .373).


194

schermo su cul sono sparse delle macchle dl colore e dlcesse: cosl come sono, sono lnlnLelllglblll,
acqulsLeranno senso solo se le sl lnLegra ln una flgura. MenLre quello che lo vogllo dlre e, lnvece:
e LuLLo qul. (Se lo lnLegrl, lo snaLurl). (l, .237)

L ancora: La dlfflcolLa della rlnuncla a ognl Leorla: blsogna conceplre quesLo e quello, che pare
cosl chlaramenLe lncompleLo, come qualcosa dl compleLo (l, .723).
rovlamo a chlarlre ll punLo conslderando brevemenLe quelle osservazlonl ln cul
WlLLgensLeln sl confronLa con chl sosLlene non solo che la pslcologla debba splegare
(formulare lpoLesl, meLLerle sperlmenLalmenLe alla prova, elaborare Leorle), ma anche che
solo le splegazlonl flsloloqlcbe slano da conslderare vere e proprle splegazlonl. L evldenLe che
se WlLLgensLeln non ha nulla da obleLLare alle splegazlonl, non ha nemmeno nulla da obleLLare
alle splegazlonl flslologlche ln quanLo Lall, cl che conLesLa e ancora una volLa l'assunLo che da
esse, o addlrlLLura solo da esse, possa venlre un chlarlmenLo del probleml conceLLuall ln
pslcologla (l, .1063). un esemplo dl problema conceLLuale dlscusso a lungo nelle
Ossetvozlool rlguarda la LrlsLezza: se la LrlsLezza sla una sensazlone, se essa vada lnfllaLa, per
cosl dlre, nel casseLLo delle sensazlonl. ll punLo e per WlLLgensLeln dl grande lmporLanza
perche lnfllare qualcosa nel casseLLo sbagllaLo, ossla classlflcarlo malamenLe, slgnlflca farlo
apparlre mlsLerloso, lnafferrablle, sorprendenLe, menLre se lo conslderlamo nel modo
glusLo, la sua 'lnafferrablllLa' sl affaccla alla nosLra cosclenza non plu dl quella del Lempo
quando senLlamo dlre: 'L Lempo dl pranzare' (l, .380). Cra, e del LuLLo leglLLlmo condurre
una rlcerca sperlmenLale sulla LrlsLezza, poLremmo, per esemplo, scoprlre che le ghlandole
della persona che e LrlsLe producono una secrezlone dlversa da quelle dl una che e allegra e
poLremmo anche concludere, su base sperlmenLale, che quesLa secrezlone e la causa, o una
delle cause, della LrlsLezza. Cll effeLLl dl quesLa scoperLa sperlmenLale sarebbero, com'e faclle
lmmaglnare, molLl e alcunl dl quesLl dl grande lmporLanza (ln campo medlco, per esemplo).
CuesLa scoperLa per - e quesLo per WlLLgensLeln ll punLo rllevanLe - non servlrebbe affaLLo a
provare che la LrlsLezza e una seosozlooe prodoLLa da quesLa secrezlone (l, .802). Con
quesLa scoperLa non avremmo lnsomma rlsposLo al problema dl naLura conceLLuale Che cos'e
la LrlsLezza?" (Che cosa slgnlflca 'essere LrlsLe'?"). lmmaglnlamo, per esemplo, che
lnLervenendo per vla farmacologlca sl blocchl ln qualcuno la secrezlone che e causa della
LrlsLezza. Lbbene, dl fronLe, per esemplo, alla malaLLla dl un amlco, cosLul poLrebbe ancora
dlre: non provo nessuna delle sensazlonl che provavo quando ml senLlvo LrlsLe, anche se so
bene che dovrel essere LrlsLe".
nel secondo volume delle Ossetvozlool, WlLLgensLeln abbozza un [p]lano della LraLLazlone
del conceLLl pslcologl (vedl ll, .63 e .148) dal quale, Lra le alLre cose, sl rlcava che la LrlsLezza
va lnfllaLa nel casseLLo delle emozlonl pluLLosLo che ln quello delle sensazlonl. nel suo plano
WlLLgensLeln dlsLlngue lnfaLLl le emozlonl (collera, glola, depresslone, paura, ecceLera) dalle
sensazlonl (per esemplo, sensazlonl dl presslone, LemperaLura, sapore, dolore). Come le
sensazlonl anche le emozlonl hanno una duraLa auLenLlca (per esemplo, [l]a collera dlvampa,
sl placa, sparlsce, cosl fanno anche la glola, la depresslone, la paura), ma, a dlfferenza delle
sensazlonl, esse non sono locallzzaLe (e nemmeno dlffuse!). Le emozlonl sono lnolLre
accompagnaLe da espresslonl comporLamenLall e sensazlonl caraLLerlsLlche (per esemplo, la
LrlsLezza spesso sl accompagna al planLo, e alle sue sensazlonl caraLLerlsLlche), ma quesLe
sensazlonl non sono le emozlonl. Alcune emozlonl pol sono doLaLe dl una dlrezlone [.]
aura Jl qualcosa, glola pet qualcosa, anche se [q]uesLo qualcosa non e la causa, bensl
l'oggeLLo dell'emozlone: che sl provl placere per qualcosa, aveva gla annoLaLo WlLLgensLeln
nel prlmo daLLlloscrlLLo, non vuol dlre che quesLo qualcosa causl una ln nol una sensazlone,
pensarla alLrlmenLl slgnlflcherebbe non dlsLlnguere Lra raglone e causa (l, .800). un'ulLerlore
caraLLerlsLlca dell'emozlone e che essa ha un conLenuLo che cl rappresenLlamo sempre come

193

un'lmmaglne, per esemplo, [l]e Lenebre della depresslone, che calano su una persona, le
flamme dell'lra. lnflne, le emozlonl, a dlfferenza delle sensazlonl, non cl lsLrulscono sul
mondo esLerno (ll, .148).
La cosLruzlone dl un plano slffaLLo, ll quale non asplra all'esaLLezza, ma alla persplculLa (l,
.893), e uno del modl con cul WlLLgensLeln cerca dl fare cl che dovrebbe fare una rlcerca
conceLLuale: poJtooeqqlote le afflnlLa e le dlfferenze fra l conceLLl (l, .1034), andare ln
cerca delle analogle e connesslonl Lra l conceLLl (l, .923 e ll, .39). uue punLl vanno qul
soLLollneaLl, l quall cl permeLLeranno anche dl abbozzare una rlsposLa al Lerzo degll
lnLerrogaLlvl che cl hanno guldaLo ln quesLa rlleLLura delle Ossetvozlool: prlma dl LuLLo, nel
Lracclare una mappa del nosLrl conceLLl (vedl l, .303 e l, .336), ognl maLerlale va, per cosl
dlre, bene: cl che ablLualmenLe dlclamo, cl che posslamo lmmaglnare che dlremmo se.,
come gll uomlnl hanno racconLaLo la LrlsLezza, la glola, la sofferenza, la collera o la paura ln
romanzl e novelle, come le hanno dlplnLe o dlsegnaLe, come sl reclLa la paura o sl lmlLa la glola,
come sl reaglsce alla sofferenza o come sl condlvlde la glola. L ln quesLo senso che dovremmo
dlre che la pslcologla ha a che fare proprlamenLe con la vlLa umana o con deLermlnaLl suol
aspeLLl (vedl ll, .33). ll secondo punLo e alLreLLanLo rllevanLe: analogle e connesslonl non se
ne sLanno ll, lmpresse nelle cose: LuLLo pu lnfaLLl essere connesso a LuLLo, ognl cosa pu
essere dlvlsa da ognl alLra. er esemplo, Lra ll vedere, l'udlre, ecceLera, susslsLono analogle e
connesslonl le quall cosLlLulscono la glusLlflcazlone del nosLro meLLerll assleme (ll, .39). Ma
se provlamo a domandarcl che Llpo dl connesslonl e analogle vl slano Lra vedere e udlre,
vedere e prendere, vedere e annusare, sublLo l sensl, per cosl dlre, sl dlsLanzlano l'uno
dall'alLro plu dl quanLo non sembrasse a prlma vlsLa (ll, .60-61). Che cosa mal vl pu essere
- verrebbe lnfaLLl da dlre - dl plu dlverso del vedere e dell'annusare? Ma allora sbagllavamo
prlma quando ll meLLevamo assleme o sbagllamo adesso? La rlsposLa e che sbagllamo solo se
scamblamo ll nosLro ordlne, ll quale e solo uno del molLl ordlnl posslblll, per l'ordlne
(WllLgensLeln 1967, l, .132), se prendlamo la nosLra mappa, dlsegnaLa per uno scopo
deLermlnaLo, per la ldea preconceLLa a cul la realLa Jeve corrlspondere (WllLgensLeln 1967, l,
.131).
16

Ma - sl poLrebbe a quesLo punLo obleLLare - non e alLreLLanLo dogmaLlca l'lnslsLenza con
cul WlLLgensLeln lnslsLe sulla lrrllevanza per la fllosofla dl ognl splegazlone ln pslcologla, ln
parLlcolare delle splegazlonl flslologlche? Cul ml rlferlsco, ln parLlcolare, ad alcune annoLazlonl
delle Ossetvozlool che sono sLaLe sovenLe rlgeLLaLe o addlrlLLura lrrlse come l'espresslone dl un
oscuranLlsmo anLlsclenLlflco. Cl vale, per esemplo, per la dlchlarazlone che apre l, .903:

nessuna supposlzlone ml sembra plu naLurale dl quella che al fare assoclazlonl, o al penslero, non
sla coordlnaLo nessun processo nel cervello, cosl che sarebbe lmposslblle leggere nel processl del
cervello del processl dl penslero. (l, .903, vedl anche l, .1063)

C per l'annoLazlone: uunque e assoluLamenLe posslblle che cerLl fenomenl pslcologlcl non
possano essere lndagaLl flslologlcamenLe, perche nlenLe dl flslologlco corrlsponde loro (l,
.904).
vl sono dlversl modl dl lnLendere ll ruolo e ll peso dl quesLa e alLre conLroverse annoLazlonl.
CvvlamenLe, WlLLgensLeln sa bene che penslero e cervello sono, dlclamo cosl, coordlnaLl. Lo sa
come lo sapplamo LuLLl nol, anche quando le nosLre lnformazlonl sugll sLaLl e l processl
cerebrall sono del LuLLo vaghe e lmpreclse. ne e sua lnLenzlone soLLovaluLare o denlgrare le
lndaglnl flslologlche ln amblLo pslcologlco. Le conslderazlonl wlLLgensLelnlane vanno pluLLosLo
rlcondoLLe a uno speclflco conLesLo caraLLerlzzaLo dalla sua reslsLenza a quelll che egll chlama

16
ln quesLo conslsLe, preclsa WlLLgensLeln Lra parenLesl, quel dogmaLlsmo ln cul sl cade cosl facllmenLe
facendo fllosofla (WllLgensLeln 1967, l, .131).


196

pregludlzl flslologlcl (l, .1101). SlgnlflcaLlvo e al rlguardo ll gruppo dl annoLazlonl l, .1100-
1101. Cul WlLLgensLeln osserva come nol non vedlamo l'occhlo umano come un rlceLLore,
lnfaLLl, l'occhlo non sembra lasclar enLrare qualcosa, bensl sembra che lo emeLLa. L'orecchlo
rlceve, l'occhlo guarda. (Lancla sguardl, s'accende dl lampl, e ragglanLe, rlsplende). lnsomma:
[s]e vedl l'occhlo, [.] vedl lo sguardo dell'occhlo (l, .1100). Come reaglre a LuLLo quesLo?
lorse qualcuno poLrebbe obleLLare che lo sguardo nol non lo vedlamo ln senso proprlo. Ma
quesLa sarebbe per WlLLgensLeln una sLupldagglne deLLaLa e condlzlonaLa, per l'appunLo, dal
suddeLLl pregludlzl flslologlcl. Lo sguardo dell'occhlo lo lo vedo, come, per esemplo, vedo lo
sguardo che lancl a un alLro (l, .1101). non per quesLo, LuLLavla, sono cosLreLLo ad
ammeLLere che vedo lo sguardo 'esaLLamenLe' come vedo la forma e ll colore dell'occhlo (l,
.1101). ll nosLro conceLLo dl 'vedere' pu raccogllere senza asslmllarll enLrambl l casl.
Ma che cosa accade quando qualcuno, WlLLgensLeln lo chlama qul ll purlsLa, afferma che
[l]n realLa lo non vedo lo sguardo, ma solo forme e colorl? SLa forse con cl dlcendo che
aveva LorLo chl sosLeneva dl aver vlsLo bene ll mlo sguardo (l, .1102)? La rlsposLa alla
domanda sarebbe affermaLlva se Po vlsLo bene ll Luo sguardo" conLenesse una Leorla della
vlslone. Ma le cose non sLanno assoluLamenLe cosl (l, .1101). ln effeLLl, la sola manlera dl
conLraddlre chl dlce dl aver vlsLo bene ll mlo sguardo e dl obleLLargll che egll sl lnganna o
menLe perche non ha veramenLe vlsLo quello che dlce dl aver vlsLo cosl bene. Come lnLendere
allora ll purlsLa? ll suggerlmenLo dl WlLLgensLeln e che cosLul sLla solLanLo rlchlamando
l'aLLenzlone su un conflne fra conceLLl, ossla sul modo ln cul la parola 'vedere' classlflca le
percezlonl. CerLo, ll conflne pu essere dlversamenLe rldlsegnaLo, forse ln relazlone allo
sguardo sarebbe plu glusLo usare un'alLra parola ln luogo dl 'vedere' (l, .1102) al flne dl
dare rlllevo a quesLa o a quella dlsLlnzlone, ma ln ognl caso nessuna lndaglne e splegazlone
flslologlca pu, ln quanLo Lale, sLablllre che la llnea conceLLuale che e sLaLa LracclaLa sla
esaLLamenLe la llnea che doveva essere LracclaLa.
Le ulLlme conslderazlonl cl consenLono anche dl dare una rlsposLa espllclLa, anche se breve
e non deflnlLlva, all'ulLlmo del nosLrl lnLerrogaLlvl. l conceLLl pslcologlcl sono - lo sapplamo -
conceLLl lngarbugllaLl, cosl come varlo e varlegaLo e l'lmplego del relaLlvl Lermlnl pslcologlcl.
non pu allora sLuplre che da essl sorgano naLuralmenLe (Ceach 1988, p. 233) quel
mallnLesl, romplcapl e fralnLendlmenLl che speLLa alla fllosofla sclogllere e sbrogllare. Ma ll
fllosofo ll scloglle e sbroglla solo rlconoscendo che quel conceLLl e Lermlnl sono parLe della
nosLra vlLa, che sono l conceLLl e l Lermlnl con cul gll uomlnl parlano dl se, sl racconLano, sl
espongono gll unl agll alLrl o sl nascondono, menLono o sl confessano, sl esprlmono e sl
LravesLono. ln quesLo senso e l'lnLeresse poslLlvo per la vlLa degll uomlnl che moLlva, nelle
Ossetvozlool, ll lavoro fllosoflco, ln apparenza solo negaLlvo, dl WlLLgensLeln.
17

8I8LICGkAIIA
ulamond, C. (Ld.) (1982). lezlool Jl wlttqeostelo sol fooJomeotl Jello motemotlco.
combtlJqe, 19J9. (Lrad. lL. dl L. lcardl). 1orlno: 8ollaLl 8orlnghlerl. (Ldlzlone
orglnale: 1976)
Ceach, . 1. (Ld.) (1988). wlttqeostelos lectotes oo lbllosopblcol lsycboloqy, 1946-
1947. London : ParvesLer.

17
ua quesLo punLo dl vlsLa sono d'accordo con le conslderazlonl svolLe, nella posLfazlone, dalla curaLrlce
della Lraduzlone lLallana delle Ossetvozlool (vedl, ln parLlcolare, pp. 319-321).

197
WlLLgensLeln, L. (1967). klcetcbe fllosoflcbe. (Lrad. lL. dl 8. lovesan e M. 1rlnchero).
1orlno: Llnaudl.
WlLLgensLeln, L. (1983). llbto blo e llbto mottooe. (Lrad. lL. dl A. C. ConLe). 1orlno:
Llnaudl. (Ldlzlone orlglnale: 1938).


199

Commentaiy
Psycbiatry in tbe Scientific Image
uomlnlc Murphy
Ml1 ress, Cambrldge, MA, 2006

llsobetto 5ltqlovoool
*

ellslrglovannl[hoLmall.com

uomlnlc Murphy's flrsL book ls a conLrlbuLlon Lo Lhe debaLe on
psychlaLry wlLhln analyLlcal phllosophy, ln splLe of Lhe well-known
phllosophlcal producLlon on Lhe sub[ecL ln Lhe conLlnenLal
LradlLlon. Lven clearer Lhan Lhe few avallable LexLbooks on
analyLlcal phllosophy of psychlaLry, Lhe auLhor remarkably presenLs
and dlscusses ln deLall Lhe mosL conslderable psychlaLrlc lssues on
whlch conLemporary phllosophers of mlnd are lnLeresLed: Lhe
concepL of menLal dlsorder (ChapLer 2), folk psychology (ChapLer
3), Lhe medlcal model ln psychlaLry (ChapLer 4), mechanlsLlc
explanaLlon (ChapLer 3), Lhe problem of valldaLlon (ChapLer 6),
boLh soclal consLrucLlonlsL (ChapLer 7) and evoluLlonary
approaches (ChapLer 8), and flnally Laxonomy (ChapLers 8-9).
lLs LlLle, lsycblotty lo tbe 5cleotlflc lmoqe, remlnds LhaL of Lhe
Wllfrld Sellars' paper lbllosopby ooJ tbe 5cleotlflc lmoqe of moo LhaL lnsplred also Lhe popular
8as van lraassen's work 1be 5cleotlflc lmoqe. Murphy sLaLes openly Lhls llngulsLlc faLherhood
buL reporLs only Sellars' LexL, lgnorlng van lraassen's one among blbllographlcal references.
Sellars' expresslon conLrasLs Lhe moolfest lmage of Lhe world, roughly Lhe world as lL appears
Lo human observaLlon, wlLh lLs scleotlflc one. Murphy shows LhaL presenL psychlaLry, alLhough
lnLended Lo be dlscussed wlLhln Lhe laLLer, conforms much more Lo Lhe former. As a maLLer of
facL, he dlscredlLs Lhe currenL psychlaLrlc nosology, LhaL of Lhe uSM, as locobeteot-
betetoqeoeoos-ptovloclol, belng rellable on manlfesL sympLoms buL unsaLlsfylng abouL causal
explanaLlons of menLal lllnesses (ChapLer 9). ?eL LhaL consLrucLlve emplrlclsm suggesLed by
van lraassen, and apparenLly lgnored by an expllclL reference, seems Lo be somewhaL a
LheoreLlcal lnsplraLlon. Accordlng Lo van lraassen (1980), sclence does noL alm Lo sLaLe Lhe
LruLh, buL emplrlcal adequacy, Lherefore lL should explaln correcLly whaL ls observable, and
should consLrucL moJels sulLable Lo phenomena. 1hough adverse Lo a purely descrlpLlvlsL
approach, concelved as [usL commonsense based, Murphy sLaLes LhaL wonderlng wheLher
menLal dlsorders are naLural klnds ls an lnconcluslve quesLlon as lL obscures Lhe more
lmporLanL lssue of Lhe avallablllLy of caLegorlcal Laxonomles. WhaL maLLers, he says, ls wheLher
we can come up wlLh a basls for classlflcaLlon and he suggesLs we can do lL Lhrough Lhe
ldeallzed noLlon of exemplot, causally explalned represenLaLlons of sympLoms (ChapLer 7 and
10). Powever, whlle, on Lhe one hand, he creaLes exemplars on Lhe basls of Lhe uSM
caLegorles (e.g., CCu and schlzophrenla), on Lhe oLher hand he seems Lo forgeL Lhe llmlLs of
Lhe uSM whose commonsense clusLers hardly flL for ldenLlfylng a shared cause.
Concernlng Lhe sclenLlflc lmage of psychlaLry, uomlnlc Murphy explores an aLLracLlve
posslblllLy: maklng psychlaLry parL of Lhe mosL lmporLanL conLemporary sclenLlflc enLerprlse on
mlnd-braln, cognlLlve sclence. Cn Lhe one hand, hls alm LesLlfles Lhe worrylng lsolaLlon of

*
unlverslLy of Slena


200

psychlaLry from Lhe oLher sclences of Lhe mlnd. Cn Lhe oLher hand, cognlLlve Lheorles appear
only as one dlrecLlon among a range of eLlologlcal and Laxonomlc approaches Lo psychlaLry. ln
facL, cerLaln skepLlclsm abouL such a pro[ecL ln Lhe psychlaLrlc debaLe ls ofLen moLlvaLed by Lhe
facL LhaL cognlLlvlsm would lnvolve a deflnlLe LheoreLlcal cholce for a pre-paradlgmaLlc
dlsclpllne llke psychlaLry, a cholce LhaL many psychlaLrlsLs would feel noL lncllned Lo. Powever,
Murphy's work has Lhe remarkable merlL of beglnnlng Lo bulld a brldge beLween cognlLlve
sclences and psychlaLry as accuraLely and wldely as no one before. 1he general goal of hls LexL
ls offerlng Lhe lmage LhaL psychlaLry should acqulre, concernlng Lhe maln relaLed phllosophlcal
problems, lf lL came Lo be reformulaLed as a cllnlcal cognlLlve neurosclence".
WlLh regard Lo Lhe former paper uotwlo lo tbe MoJboose, co-auLhored wlLh SLephen SLlch
ln 1998, Lhe concepLlon of psychlaLry ln cognlLlve Lerms shows dlfferenL feaLures. As a maLLer
of facL Murphy ralses ob[ecLlons Lo Lhe vlew he prevlously defended LhaL such a reformulaLlon
should be compleLely modeled on LvoluLlonary sychology and on lLs maln consLralnLs, Lhe
Mosslve MoJolotlty nypotbesls and Lhe AJoptotloo nypotbesls. 1hls could dlsappolnL whoever
expecLed Lhls book were an exLenslon of Lhose ldeas. ln facL, Lwo cenLral chapLers are
dedlcaLed Lo argumenLs agalnsL Lhe posslblllLy of fully explalnlng menLal lllnesses elLher as a
modular deflclL (ChapLer 3) or as an adapLlve problem (ChapLer 8). Powever, whlle Murphy
clalms LhaL LvoluLlonary LxplanaLlon slmply fall Lo sLand up, ModularlLy ls parLly malnLalned for
deflclLs of perlpheral cognlLlve sysLems. 1herefore, Murphy seems Lo have agreed Lo !ose Louls
8ermudez' ob[ecLlons (8ermudez 2001), accordlng Lo whlch modularlLy could noL face Lhe
problem of explalnlng supposed deflclLs of cenLral sysLems (l.e., deluslons and oLher problems
ln raLlonallLy) ln neurocompuLaLlonal Lerms.
neverLheless, 8ermudez referred Lo a dlfferenL concepLlon of ModularlLy from Lhe Masslve
one, namely, lodorlan ModularlLy (lodor 1983). Pence, by Laklng 8ermudez' argumenLs ln
conslderaLlon, Murphy does noL seem Lo adopL a deflnlLe poslLlon regardlng Lhe maLLer. lL ls
noL clear wheLher and why he became lodorlan ln maLLer of archlLecLure of mlnd slnce Lhe
problem of explalnlng cenLral cognlLlve sysLems largely resulLs from lodorlan concepLlons
abouL modules and cognlLlve reasonlng mechanlsm LhaL Masslve ModularlsLs elude. Masslve
modules do noL lnclude sLrong lnformaLlonal encapsulaLlon and can lnLend reasonlng noL Lo be
execuLed by a slngle and lsolaLed module, whlch manlfesLs Lhe same properLles - hollsm and
lsoLropy - Lhe phenomenon of reasonlng shows from Lhe ouLslde (see Sperber 1996).
lurLhermore, Lhose properLles seem noL Lo be ln human reasonlng as sharp as lodor Lhlnks
Lhey are. Murphy conslders nelLher Lhese counLer-argumenLaLlons nor Lhose comlng from Lhe
ConnecLlonlsL area agalnsL Lwo maln ldeas: Lhe ldea of Lhe lack of lnformaLlonal encapsulaLlon
even ln perlpheral sysLems (Churchland 1988) and Lhe ldea of sub-symbollc compuLaLlon for
modules (Waskan & 8echLel 1997). ConnecLlonlsLs sLaLe LhaL Lhelr approach poses fewer
problems Lo Lhe hollsm of represenLaLlons. Cn Lhe conLrary, Murphy prefers Lo share whaL he
deflnes a Lwo-sLage plcLure" abouL psychlaLry, accordlng Lo whlch Lhe foundaLlon of
psychlaLry ln poslLlve facLs (or naLurallzaLlon pro[ecL) ls noL always wholly aLLalnable. ln case of
deflclLs of cenLral sysLems, normaLlvlLy slde would reslsL Lo naLurallzaLlon as well as personal
explanaLlon.
AgalnsL Lhe currenL Mlcro-reducLlonlsL approach ln blologlcal psychlaLry (LhaL of genes and
neuroLransmlLLers), Murphy espouses a klnd of non-ellmlnaLlve eplsLemologlcal 8educLlonlsm
(ChapLers 2-3), whlch places psychlaLry wlLhln Lhe medlcal model (l.e., menLal lllnesses as
deflclLs of braln mechanlsms) buL malnLalns mulLllevel explanaLlons (l.e., personal-lnLenLlonal
plus compuLaLlonal and neurologlcal levels). Pe challenges Lhe ldea of a fooJomeotol
explanaLlon, whlch corresponds for Mlcro-reducLlonlsLs wlLh Lhe smallesL level ln naLure.
Powever reasons he offers agalnsL Molecular 8esearch SLraLegles are noL as declslve as he
Commentaiy -Psychiatiy anu the Scientific Image

201
Lhlnks. Pe sLaLes LhaL Molecular 8educLlonlsm cannoL play Lhe unlfylng explanaLory role lLs
LheorlsLs expecL for lL. As a reason, he clalms LhaL CeneLlc 8educLlonlsm ls dependenL on
anlmal models. Pe Lhen argues LhaL even ln very slmple organlsm llke small worms Lhe causal
paLhways beLween genes and phenoLype are of greaL complexlLy, and requlre mulLllevel causal
models. neverLheless Lhe very same dependence occurs ln models of braln mechanlsms aL
hlghesL levels. Moreover, he does noL clarlfy whaL he means when Lalklng of 'levels' excepL for
menLlonlng uavld Marr. As a maLLer of facL, he confuses slze or aggregaLlon levels (molecules,
cells, organ areas, organs, bodles, eLc.) wlLh reallzaLlon levels (mlnd-braln) (see klm 1998).
1herefore, hls argumenLaLlons save aL mosL hlghesL slze levels. Powever, lf Lhey are lnLended
Lo save psychologlcal level Loo, Lhey fall.
Pe ldenLlfles hls klnd of reducLlon wlLh Lhe MechanlsL approach and wlLh lLs decomposlLlon
assumpLlon (ChapLer 3). Powever, Lhe offered characLerlzaLlon of MechanlsLlc approach seems
Lo be mlsleadlng. Pe refers Lo Lhe menLloned lodorlan ob[ecLlons agalnsL Masslve ModularlLy
as 1he LlmlLs of MechanlsLlc LxplanaLlon", as he enLlLles ChapLer 3. neverLheless Wllllam
8echLel and colleagues lnslsL LhaL MechanlsLlc Lheory, alLhough a funcLlonal decomposlLlon
Lheory, has llLLle Lo do wlLh ModularlLy (see, for example, 8echLel 2003, 2009). Among several
dlfferences beLween Lhe Lwo approaches, lL ls worLh saylng LhaL Mechanlsm does noL reLaln
Lhe ldea of relaLlvely auLonomous componenLs because lL sLaLes such an ldea hardly squares
Lhe organlzaLlon of Lhe braln. Accordlng Lo Mechanlsms, lL ls no longer approprlaLe Lo Lhlnk ln
Lerms of a dlchoLomy beLween modular accounLs and hollsLlc ones, buL a conLlnuum ln whlch
Lhe mlddle ls occupled by varlous deslgns of mechanlsms. Assumlng decomposablllLy ln
sclenLlflc lnvesLlgaLlons ls [usL a heurlsLlc assumpLlon LhaL ls only parLlally Lrue of any glven
mechanlsm. naLural sysLems, especlally blologlcal sysLems, are concelved oeotly Jecomposoble
sysLems, or beLLer sLlll lndependenL only Lo a flrsL approxlmaLlon. Accordlngly, even when
mechanlsLlc LheorlsLs ldenLlfy a parLlcular sysLem as a locus of conLrol for a parLlcular funcLlon,
Lhey need noL lmpuLe full responslblllLy Lo LhaL componenL. 1hey Lhlnk naLural sysLems are
complex sysLems whose maln characLerlsLlc ls lnLeracLlon.
Anyhow Murphy's concepL of dlsorder ls ob[ecLlvlsL (ChapLer 2). 1haL ls, menLal lllnesses are
braln dlseases and Lhey can be explalned ln facLual blologlcal Lerms. Pe Lakes place agalnsL Lhe
Soclal ConsLrucLlvlsL vlew LhaL menLal lllnesses are vlolaLlons of soclal norms buL hls argumenLs
agalnsL Soclal ConsLrucLlvlsm are clearly lnadequaLe. llrsLly, he argues LhaL ConsLrucLlvlsm
cannoL explaln why we dlsLlngulsh beLween psychologlcal and behavloral phenomena llke
raclsm, boorlshness, hypocrlsy and so on, concelved only as dlsapproved, and menLal
dlsorders. Secondly, he says LhaL ConsLrucLlvlsm cannoL avold 8elaLlvlsm. Powever, on Lhe one
hand, ConsLrucLlvlsLs Lhlnk LhaL soclal devlances and menLal dlsorders have much more ln
common Lhan one may Lhlnk aL flrsL slghL. lor Soclal ConsLrucLlvlsLs, Lhey are boLh soclal
consLrucLs whlch vary from socleLy Lo socleLy and relaLe on Lhe dlfferenL norms esLabllshed by
each of Lhem. lor example, raclsm wasn'L a devlance from soclal norms up Lo Lhe laLesL
cenLury as well as rellglous deluslons. A ConsLrucLlvlsL mlghL argue LhaL our dlfferenL
[udgmenLs depend on Lhe way each socleLy conslders Lhem more or less dangerous. Mlchel
loucaulL, for example, consecraLed hls work Lo boLh Lhe phenomena of crlmlnallLy and
madness, and concelved Lhem as Lwo form of Lhe same purpose of segregaLlon of people
vlolaLlng soclal norms, whlch orlglnaLe deLenLlons as cllnlcs (loucaulL 1966) and prlson
(loucaulL 1973). Cn Lhe oLher hand, Murphy ls espouslng a petltlo ptloclpll. Soclal
ConsLrucLlvlsm ls exacLly a klnd of 1ruLh 8elaLlvlsm (see 8oghosslan 2006), a Lhesls accordlng
Lo whlch Lhere are noL Lrue sLaLemenLs buL sLaLemenLs Lrue for x and noL for ? - where x and ?
are people, hlsLorlcal eras or soclal communlLles. ConsLrucLlvlsm ls a 8elaLlvlsL Lhesls and Lhus
cannoL avold 8elaLlvlsm, Murphy says. 1he lnference ls noL sLrlcLly lnvalld, buL clearly
decepLlve. Why should we avold relaLlvlsm? Pe has no argumenLs for LhaL. neverLheless,


202

excepL for Lhls faulL, hls way of lnLegraLlng soclal ln naLural causaLlon (ChapLer 7) ls lnLeresLlng
and worLhy, as well as hls lnLegraLlve concepLlon (ChapLer 3) of Lhe medlcal (Cuze 1992) and
Lhe blopsychosoclal model (Lngel 1977), usually regarded as alLernaLlve soluLlons. Soclal forces
are naLural ones.
Lven Lhough commonsense lnLulLlons are seen relevanL Lo sclence, Lhe book refuses
LradlLlonal concepLual analysls. Parmful-dysfuncLlon analysls (Wakefleld 1992) for Lhe concepL
of dlsorder ls re[ecLed as a lolk sychology o ptlotl producL (ChapLer 2), exacLly as uSM
consLrucLs (ChapLer 9). As lnvolvlng emplrlcal assumpLlon, Lhey boLh need Lo be deflned on
Lhe basls of emplrlcal enqulry, and Murphy has a llklng parLlcularly for Lhe former approach
abouL dlsorder deflnlLlon. WlLh regard Lo Lhe concepL of 'funcLlon' lnvolved ln Lhe dysfuncLlon
componenL of Lhe deflnlLlon of dlsorder, beLween hlsLorlcal-Leleologlcal and deslgned, he
chooses an eclecLlc vlew LhaL reflecLs currenL debaLe ln phllosophy of blology (see Codfrey-
SmlLh 1993) accordlng Lo whlch Lhe Lerm vary dependlng of whaL Lhe Lheory ls Lrylng Lo
explaln. lL ls unusual however LhaL he conLlnues Lo use Lhe sclenLlflcally Lemporary Lerm
'dlsorder', whlch llLerally denoLes a behavloral condlLlon wlLh unknown eLlopaLhogenesls, even
Lhough he Lhlnks menLal dlsorders hlde underllng causal dlsrupLlons. 1hus Lhey are
paLhologles, noL dlsorders.
AdmlLLedly some argumenLaLlons ln Lhe book are noL very accuraLe and do noL meeL
analyLlcal phllosopher's sLandards of clarlLy and meLhod. 8easons Lo accepL some Lheorles are
someLlmes proposed ln a rheLorlcal sLyle. neverLheless maln suggesLlons are boLh well-
descrlbed and aLLracLlve. 1hls ls noL only Lhe flrsL monographlc book LhaL explores
sysLemaLlcally Lhe whole pro[ecL of dlscusslng Lhe LheoreLlcal foundaLlons of a fuLure cognlLlve
neuropsychlaLry. lL ls one of Lhe mosL brllllanL ln Lhe currenL phllosophy of psychlaLry. WrlLLen
by a phllosopher alone, lL ls a remarkable and hard work of research. lL offers palnsLaklng
knowledge for maln lssues ln boLh huge phllosophlcal and psychlaLrlc debaLes. 1haL whaL
makes lL a fundamenLal and lndlspensable reference for phllosophers of mlnd, of sclence and
of blology and for psychlaLrlsLs. Moreover Lhls book ls an excellenL gulde Lo phllosophy of
paLhologlcal mlnd, also for beglnners. lLs concluslons supporL a promlslng new dlrecLlon of
sclenLlflc research for psychlaLry. 1hey leave lnLeresLlng open quesLlons regardlng Lhe role of
normaLlvlLy and Lhe posslblllLy of a compleLe naLurallzaLlon. rollflc maLLer of debaLe for fuLure
phllosophlcal work.

8I8LICGkAn
8echLel, W. (2003). Modules, 8raln arLs, and LvoluLlonary sychology. ln S. !. Scher and l.
8auscher (Lds.), volotloooty psycboloqy. Altetootlve opptoocbes. uordrechL: kluwer.
8echLel, W. (2009). LxplanaLlon: Mechanlsm, ModularlLy, and SlLuaLed CognlLlon. ln .
8obblns and M. Aydede (Lds.), combtlJqe nooJbook of 5ltooteJ coqoltloo.
Cambrldge: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.
8ermudez, !. L. (2001). normaLlvlLy and 8aLlonallLy ln ueluslonal sychlaLrlc ulsorders. MloJ
ooJ looqooqe, 16: 437-493.
8oghosslan, . (2006). leot of koowleJqe, Aqolost kelotlvlsm ooJ coosttoctlvlsm. Cxford:
Cxford unlverslLy ress.
Churchland, . M. (1988). ercepLual lasLlclLy and 1heoreLlcal neuLrallLy: A 8eply Lo !erry
lodor. lbllosopby of scleoce, 55(2): 167-187.
Commentaiy -Psychiatiy anu the Scientific Image

203

Lngel, C. L. (1977). 1he need for a new Medlcal Model: A Challenge for 8lomedlclne.
5cleoce, 196: 129-136.
lodor, !. A. (1983). 1be MoJolotlty of MloJ. Cambrldge, MA: Ml1 ress.
loucaulL, M. (1966). Nolssooce Je lo cllolpoe. uoe otcboloqle Jo tqotJ mJlcol. arls:
ul.
loucaulL, M. (1973). 5otvelllet et poolt. Nolssooce Je lo ptlsoo. arls: Calllmard.
Codfrey-SmlLh, . (1993). luncLlons: Consensus WlLhouL unlLy. loclflc lbllosopblcol
Ooottetly, 74: 196-208.
Cuze, S. (1992). wby lsycblotty ls o 8toocb of MeJlcloe. new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy ress.
klm, !. (1998). MloJ lo o lbyslcol wotlJ. Cambrldge, MA: Ml1 ress.
Murphy, u., & SLlch, S. . (1998). uarwln ln Lhe Madhouse", paper aL volvloq tbe nomoo
MloJ coofeteoce, Pang Seng CenLre for CognlLlve SLudles, unlverslLy of Sheffleld, 24-
27 !une.
Sellars, W. (1963). hllosophy and Lhe SclenLlflc lmage of Man. ln W. Sellars, 5cleoce,
letceptloo ooJ keollty. London: 8ouLledge & kegan aul.
Slrglovannl, L. (2006). slcopaLologla e ModularlLa. ln l. lerreLLl & l. Marraffa (a cura dl),
lotcbltettoto Jello meote, 5oqql sollo moJolotlt (pp. 213-244). CaLanzaro: Abramo.
Slrglovannl, L. (2008). ll uSM e la slchlaLrla occldenLale. Ausplcl fuLurl per la classlflcazlone
del dlsLurbl menLall. lAtco Jl Clooo, 57, 123-138.
Sperber, u. (1996). xplololoq coltote. A Nototollstlc Apptoocb. Cambrldge, uk: Cambrldge
unlverslLy ress.
van lraassen, 8. C. (1980). 1be 5cleotlflc lmoqe. Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress.
Wakefleld, !. C. (1992). ulsorder as Parmful uysfuncLlon: A ConcepLual CrlLlque of uSM-lll-
8's ueflnlLlon of MenLal ulsorder. lsycboloqlcol kevlew, 99(2), 232-247.
Waskan, !., & 8echLel, W. (1997). ulrecLlons ln ConnecLlonlsL 8esearch: 1racLable
CompuLaLlons wlLhouL SynLacLlcally SLrucLured 8epresenLaLlons. Metopbllosopby,
1/2, 31-62.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S
1. lnLroducLlon
2. 1he ConcepL of MenLal ulsorder
3. sychlaLry and lolk sychology
4. 1he Medlcal Model and Lhe loundaLlons of sychlaLrlc LxplanaLlon
3. 1he LlmlLs of MechanlsLlc LxplanaLlon ln sychlaLry
6. A More or Less 8eallsL 1heory of valldaLlon as Causal LxplanaLlon
7. Soclal ConsLrucLlon and Soclologlcal CausaLlon
8. LvoluLlonary LxplanaLlons of sychopaLhology
9. ClasslflcaLlon
10. ClasslflcaLlon ln sychlaLry


203

Commentaiy
Tbe Pbilosopbical Legacy of Bebaviorism
8ruce A. 1hyer
kluwer Academlc, uordrechL, 1999

Albetto 8loozzl
alberLo.blnazzl[humana-menLe.lL

1hls volume conLalns a collecLlon of papers concernlng Lhe
phllosophlcal lmpllcaLlons of behavlorlsm, ln Lhe era of Lhe
CognlLlve 8evoluLlon". 1he conLrlbuLlons of behavlorlsm Lo Lhe
sLudy of mlnd are manlfold: Lhe analysls of verbal behavlor, Lhe
naLure of lnner sLaLes and prlvaLe evenLs, Lhe examlnaLlon of
concepLs llke free wlll, deLermlnlsm and self conLrol, Lhe
developmenL and Lhe appllcaLlon of educaLlonal Lechnologles and
psychoLheraplc Lechnlques. 8uL behavlorlsm ls more Lhan an
lnLeresLlng phllosophy, lL ls also synonymous wlLh rlgour and
sclenLlflc approach Lo Lhe sclence of mlnd. lL lnvolves lmporLanL
phllosophlcal anLecedenLs llke Lhe conLrlbuLlons of Mach, ComLe,
olncare, loglcal emplrlclsm and poslLlvlsm. lL ls more Lhan [usL
Sklnner's Lhlnklng, Lhanks, malnly, Lo Lhe work of avlov, 1olman,
Pull, WaLson, Spence, CuLhrle. 8esldes, as !ames ulnsmoor says ln Lhe foreword, behavlorlsm
hlghllghLs a greaL deal of conLlnulLy wlLh cognlLlve psychology and cognlLlve sclence (p. 2).
WhaL ls, Lhen, lLs lnherlLance Lo currenL psychology and phllosophy of sclence?
1he program of behavlorlsm concerns Lhree prlnclpal polnLs (Lwo phllosophlcal and one
meLhodologlcal): Lhe re[ecLlon of Lhe duallsm beLween physlcal evenLs and sLaLes of mlnd, Lhe
refusal of Lhe lnLrospecLlve meLhod, and, Lhlrd, lLs parLlcular goal, whlch ls llmlLed Lo Lhe
predlcLlon and conLrol of behavlor raLher Lhan Lo Lhe analysls of consclous sLaLes (p. 1). WhaL
could be Lhe lmpllcaLlons - acknowledglng Lhese requlremenLs - Lo eLhlcs and psychoLherapy?
Pow ls lL posslble, ln facL, Lo ascrlbe Lhe ad[ecLlve 'eLhlc' Lo human acLlons wlLhouL lnLroduclng
a form of agencles LhaL ls compaLlble wlLh a quanLlLaLlve analysls of Lhe properLles of
conLlngency condlLlons (p. 90)? WhaL does Lhlnklng of behavlorlsm lmply noL excluslvely ln
Lerms of Sklnner's precepLs? ls a behavloral analysls asplrlng Lo become an [effecLlve] analyLlc
and sclenLlflc eplsLemology (p. 71)? Are we able Lo flnd a conslsLenL sysLem of bellef for
cognlLlve psychology or does Lhe word coqoltlve serve prlmarlly as a maglc wand LhaL
Lransforms mlce lnLo horses (p. 3)? And ls lL correcL Lo Lalk abouL Lhe cognlLlve tevolotloo?
ConLemporary cognlLlve psychology, ln facL, ls full of Lheorles assumlng, wlLhouL any
emplrlcal evldence, Lhe exlsLence of cognlLlve sLrucLures llke lnner models, frames, scrlpLs,
schemas, menLal represenLaLlons, resources, modules eLc. WlLh respecL Lo Lhem, Lhe analysls
glven by Lhe legacy of behavlorlsm appears sLlll acLual: how could one flnd, ln facL, Lhe proof of
Lhe exlsLence of Lhese 'menLal ob[ecLs'? robably noL emplrlcally, because we would lose Lhe
lnner access, essenLlal, by means of reasonlng, Lo posLulaLe Lhese same sLrucLures. And how ls
lL posslble Lo refuse an lnner access and, aL Lhe same Llme, deny someLhlng LhaL ls
psychologlcally oot exlsLenL? 1he problem ls well known, buL we Lhlnk LhaL leavlng ouL lnner
causes and lncludlng stotes and menLal ptocesses among naLural phenomena does noL mean
solvlng Lhe CarLeslan dllemma. Pow Payes, Wllson and Clfford clalm, ln a sense,
meLhodologlcal behavlorlsm was overLly duallsLlc. lL posLulaLed a word composed by Lwo


206

klnds of sLuff, and sclence can only Lake parL ln one of Lhe Lwo dlrecLly (p. 134). ln addlLlon,
menLal sLaLes and consclousness are noL - as some cognlLlvlsLs argue - eplphenomena or
llluslons creaLed by Lhe evoluLlon: we need Lheorles Lo explaln Lhem.
PonesLly, we musL say LhaL Lhe problem of Lhe exlsLence of lnner sLaLes has been denled
only by one parL of Lhe behavlorlsLlc school: Sklnner, for example, clalmed LhaL consclousness
ls Lhe producL of lnner sLlmulaLlons and LhaL lL has an lmporLanL role for Lhe behavlor and Lhe
economy of Lhe organlsm (Sklnner 1974, p. 221). 8uL lL ls also a soclal producL expressed by a
verbal communlLy. lor Sklnner, prlvaLe evenLs are Lhe resulL of envlronmenLal causes: only ln a
second Llme Lhe verbal communlLy can ask quesLlons abouL Lhese evenLs, noL before. MenLal
properLles, accordlng Lo Sklnner, are noL necessary: boLh processes (blologlcal and soclo-
llngulsLlc) are physlcal. Such approach does noL lmply leavlng ouL Lhe problem of Lhe self, or
glvlng up Lhe mlnd's causal role, buL lL needs Lo refuse Lhe phllosophers' meLaphyslcal
preLenslon of concelvlng consclousness as a form of self-consclousness: lnLulLlons, Lhese, sLlll
perLlnenL ln Lhe debaLe on mlnd-body problem.
Accordlng Lo Lhe auLhors, behavloral sclence can glve lmporLanL conLrlbuLlons Lo Lhe ma[or
Loplcs of phllosophy, as we can read from Lhe LlLles of Lhe chapLers: eplsLemology, eLhlcs,
consclousness, language, free wlll and deLermlnlsm. 1he auLhors' lnLenL Lo underllne Lhe
confuslons abouL radlcal behavlorlsm and oLher behavloral approaches deserves
conslderaLlon. ln facL, we musL remember LhaL Lhe sLereoLyplcal lmage of behavlorlsm as a
sclence of sLlmulus-response ls LoLally wrong: as Sklnner clalmed, lf lL were so, an organlsm
would look very much llke Lo an auLomaLon, or a puppeL. SLlmull do noL ellclL operaLlonal
reacLlons, buL Lhey change Lhe ptoboblllty of emlsslon of speclflc reacLlons (Sklnner 1974, p.
223). aradoxlcally, Lhe lmage of Lhe auLomaLon sulLs beLLer Lhe concepLlon of mlnd suggesLed
by some perslsLenL clalmers of Lhe vlew of 'compuLaLlonallsm'. ln facL, Lhe meLaphor of
cognlLlon as symbol manlpulaLlon and lLs analysls of condlLlon-acLlon rules deflned over daLa
sLrucLures concelved by parLlcular research programs have mlnlmlzed Lhe acLlve role of Lhe
body and Lhe soclal conLexL for Lhe developmenL of menLal processes. And lL ls parLlally as a
reacLlon Lo Lhls vlew of Lhe human mlnd LhaL some cognlLlve sclenLlsLs have developed Lhe
ldea of human cognlLlon coupled wlLh Lhe envlronmenL and Lhe body of Lhe organlsm called
embodled or slLuaLed cognlLlon.
ln addlLlon Lo Lhe lmporLanL conLrlbuLlons for phllosophy of mlnd and sclence's
meLhodology, behavlorlsm had an lmporLanL role ln Lhe genesls of cognlLlvlsm. ln facL, from
Lhe behavlorlsLs, Lhe cognlLlvlsLs have lnherlLed Lhe aLLenLlon for Lhe experlmenLal
meLhodology and Lhe selecLlon of Lhe problems Lo be faced (eruzzl 2004, p. 173). lL ls
lmporLanL Lo remember, for example, LhaL WaLson hlmself dld noL refuse verbal reporLs of
lnLernal processes, and LhaL he was one of Lhe flrsL researchers Lo use Lalklng-aloud
procedures - procedures LhaL are now wldely used by many cognlLlve psychologlsLs. 1he llnk
beLween Lhese Lwo schools ls well represenLed by Ldward 1olman, who lnLroduced Lhe Lerm
'cognlLlve maps' for raLs performlng ln absence of relnforcemenL (Mecaccl 1998, p. 208).
8esldes, Lhe cognlLlvlsLs have recovered menLallsL argumenLs by means of Lhe meLaphor of
compuLer programs. And, aL Lhls Llme, compuLers do noL have menLal sLaLes, lnner access or
consclousness' processes! ConnecLlonlsm, for example, represenLs, among conLemporary
developmenLs of Al, an lmporLanL resulL of Lhe phllosophlcal legacy of behavlorlsm. neural
neLs, programs Lralned algebralcally by 'reward and punlshmenL', represenL Lhe concreLe
answer Lo Lhe dllemma beLween symbollc and sub-symbollc neurologlcally plauslble
represenLaLlons. Cne can debaLe lf neural neLs are, ln facL, represenLaLlon-free: Lucclo, for
example, clalmed LhaL Lhe represenLaLlons of neural neLs are, slmply, Lhe maLrlces of synapLlc
welghLs, and LhaL Lhe evoluLlon of Lhe represenLaLlons ls symbollzeJ by Lhe evoluLlon of Lhe
Commentaiy -The Philosophical Legacy of Behavioiism

207

maLrlces (Lucclo 1998, p. 113). 8uL Lhe phllosophlcal legacy of behavlorlsm ls also expressed by
Lhose scholars who clalmed a neurosclenLlflcally-lnsplred form of ellmlnaLlvlsm abouL menLal
conLenL, or by some proponenLs of dynamlc approaches Lo cognlLlon who crlLlclzed Lhe
posLulaLlon of menLal represenLaLlons, even Lhough boLh approaches do noL lmply elLher Lhe
refusal of oll forms of menLal represenLaLlons, or Lhe refusal of lnLernallsLlc soluLlons Lo menLal
conLenL.
8ehavloral analysls, flnally, has sLlll an lmporLanL role Lowards classlc problems of
phllosophy of mlnd: Lhe onLology of poollo, Lhe opposlLlon beLween reducLlonlsLs and
anLlreducLlonlsLs, Lhe role of folk psychology, Lhe relaLlon beLween blologlcal and soclal
lnfluences ln Lhe developmenL of mlnd and problems concernlng language and lnLenLlonallLy.
1hese argumenLs deserve a deeper scruLlny Lhan LhaL posslble here. llnally, we agree wlLh Lhe
auLhors LhaL behavlorlsm ls a 'phllosophy allve' and LhaL lL represenLs a school of Lhlnklng
more complex Lhan a rough and lncompleLe plcLure of Lhe human belng.

8I8LICGkAn
Lucclo, 8. (1998). lslcoloqlo qeoetole. le ftootlete Jello tlcetco. 8oma-8arl: LaLerza.
Mecaccl, L. (1998). 5totlo Jello pslcoloqlo Jel Noveceoto. 8oma-8arl: LaLerza.
eruzzl, A. (2004). ll 5lqolflcoto loeslsteote. lezlool sollo semootlco. llrenze: llrenze
unlverslLy ress.
Sklnner, 8.l. (1974). lo 5cleozo Jel compottomeoto ovveto ll 8ebovlotlsmo. Mllano:
SugarCoLdlzlonl.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S

8ruce 1hyer - LdlLor's reface
!ames ulsmoore - loreword
Mlchael Commons & Lrlc CoodhearL - 1he Crlgnln of 8ehavlorlsm
!ay Moore - 1he 8aslc rlnclple of 8ehavlorlsm
8lchard CarreLL - LplsLemology
LrnesL vargas - LLhlcs
!ohn 8alley & 8oberL Wallander - verbal 8ehavlor
SLeven Payes, kelly Wllson LllsabeLh Clfford - Consclousness and rlvaLe LvenLs
8ruce Waller - ueLermlnlsm, free wlll and self conLroll
8oger SchnalLLer - Some CrlLlclsm of 8ehavlorlsm


209

Commentaiy
Alternative to Cognition. A New Look at Explaining
Human Social Bebavior
ChrlsLlna Lee
Lawrence Lrlbaum AssoclaLes, Mahwah, n!, 1998

Mottloo lootool
*

marLlna_panLanl[yahoo.lL

Altetootlve to coqoltloo. A New look At xplololoq nomoo 5oclol
8ebovlot arlses from Lhe need Lo crlLlclze Lhe cognlLlve domlnance
and cenLrallLy of cognlLlve explanaLlon for human behavlor. Lee
argues LhaL afLer Lhe cognlLlve revoluLlon" psychology appeared
Lo be Lhe only efflclenL explanaLlon for undersLandlng Lhe
complexlLy of human behavlor. Powever, Lhe focus of psychology
on lndlvldual LhoughL leads Lo lgnore oLher lmporLanL reallLles for
human belngs, such as Lhe blologlcal, Lhe soclal, and Lhe economlc
reallLles. 1herefore, lf psychology wanLs Lo become a really
sclenLlflc explanaLlon, a more crlLlcal and flexlble approach Lo our
sub[ecLlvlLy ls essenLlal. 1he auLhor does noL suggesL only a slngle
alLernaLlve Lo Lhe domlnance of Lhe cognlLlve vlew, buL proposes
Lhe developmenL of a more flexlble and open-mlnded approach Lo
human soclal behavlor conslderlng Lhe lnLeracLlons beLween
people and Lhelr envlronmenL.
ln Lhe flrsL chapLer, Lhe auLhor lnvesLlgaLes why Lhere ls a prlmacy of cognlLlon ln Lhe
explanaLlon of human experlence, and wheLher Lhe only alLernaLlve Lo behavlorlsm ls Lhe
coqoltlve explanaLlon. 1he prlmacy of cognlLlvlsm ls showed by a survey of Lhe long hlsLory of
consclousness sLudles from uescarLes' duallsm Lo Lhe conLemporary cognlLlve models, whlch
are also duallsLlc (for example when Lhey use Lhe meLaphor of Lhe mloJ os o compotet). lor
whaL concerns explanaLlon ln psychology, Lee noLes LhaL all conLemporary psychologlcal
Lheorles are based on Lhe assumpLlon LhaL consclous LhoughL ls a dlrecL cause of behavlor,
whlch ls Lhe only cause LhaL psychology oughL Lo sLudy. lnsLead, economlc as well as soclal and
envlronmenLal lnfluences on cholce are compleLely lgnored by conLemporary cognlLlve
Lheorles.
Accordlng Lo Lee, all cognlLlve Lheorles of psychology suffer from a blg flaw, namely, Lhey
rely on undeflned and unobservable varlables Lo explaln behavlor. Powever, Lhey are noL able
Lo explaln how Lhose varlables arlse from exLernal experlences and evenLs. Moreover, lL ls
unclear how Lhese cognlLlve varlables lnLeracL Lo produce composlLe cognlLlons.
ln Lhe second chapLer, Lee makes her argumenL more speclflc by analyzlng Lhe Lheory of
self-efflcacy and Lhe soclal-cognlLlve models lnLroduced by AlberL 8andura (1977). 8andura has
deflned self-efflcacy as one's bellef ln one's ablllLy Lo succeed ln speclflc slLuaLlons. Cne's sense
of self-efflcacy can play a ma[or role ln how one approaches goals, Lasks, and challenges.
AgalnsL 8andura, Lees argues LhaL aL Lhe level of LheoreLlcal explanaLlon Lhe sLaLemenL LhaL
people behave ln cerLaln ways because of Lhelr expecLaLlons cannoL be LesLed, and LhaL aL Lhe
level of pracLlcal Lechnlques Lhls hypoLhesls ls noL useful. ln facL, Lhe mosL lmporLanL weakness
of self-efflcacy and slmllar Lheorles ls Lhelr lnablllLy Lo make preclse predlcLlons. lor example,

*
unlverslLy of Slena, h.u


210

Lhere have been many demonsLraLlons LhaL correlaLlons beLween self-efflcacy and behavlor
(Lasks, goals) can be hlgh lf self-efflcacy ls measured speclflcally and lmmedlaLely prlor Lo a
sLralghLforward, unamblguous Lask performed ln a resLrlcLed envlronmenL. Powever, oLher
researches have falled Lo flnd any relaLlon beLween self-efflcacy and behavlor. lndeed, over
Lhe longer Lerm and ln less conLrolled seLLlngs, Lhe predlcLlve accuracy of self-efflcacy ls
generally very low. A furLher problem wlLh Lhe self-efflcacy Lheory and slmllar models ls LhaL
daLa conslsLenL wlLh one's chosen Lheory are ofLen assumed Lo supporL lL, alLhough Lhey could
equally supporL alLernaLlve models. Lee concludes LhaL 8andura's self-efflcacy Lheory, llke
oLher slmllar models, ls a vague descrlpLlve model, and cannoL be consldered an explanaLory
Lheory.
ln Lhe Lhlrd chapLer, Lhe auLhor argues LhaL cognlLlve Lheorles are less Lhan opLlmal because
Lhe LheoreLlcal basls of Lhe work ls poorly arLlculaLed. Accordlng Lo Lee, lf Lhe Lheorles LhaL
relaLe cognlLlve processes and overL behavlors were reflned ln order Lo make accuraLe
predlcLlons, lL mlghL be posslble Lo ldenLlfy Lhe clrcumsLances ln whlch parLlcular cognlLlve
varlables are useful predlcLors of behavlor and Lhose ln whlch Lhey are noL. llnally, lL mlghL be
posslble Lo flnd a llmlLed, buL useful, role for Lhese Lheorles. lor example, cognlLlve processes
are consldered Lo be lnfluenced by Lhe envlronmenL and also by sLable or Lemporary blologlcal
varlables, such as Lhe sLaLe of healLh, hunger and LhlrsL. lurLhermore, vlcarlous experlences
affecL levels of self-efflcacy ln a new slLuaLlon or hablL. Powever, wlLhouL any clue abouL how
Lhese lnfluences should be measured, we do noL have any lnformaLlon LhaL allows predlcLlons
beyond Lhose suggesLed by commonsense.
Lee proposes LhaL cognlLlve models should be able Lo deflne Lhelr llmlLs. lndeed, lf
cognlLlve-behavloral models only apply Lo clrcumscrlbed slLuaLlons, wlLhln a llmlLed range of
behavlors, Lhen one mlghL provlde emplrlcal supporL for Lhem by sLaLlng ln advance Lhe llmlLs
of Lhelr appllcablllLy. Cn Lhe oLher hand, lf lL ls lmposslble, even wlLhln qulLe narrow
consLralnLs, Lo develop an accuraLe cognlLlvely based model for predlcLlng behavlor, Lhe
deflnlLlon accordlng Lo whlch cognlLlve processes underlle our acLlons may be less cenLral for
undersLandlng behavlor Lhan we belleve.
ln Lhe fourLh chapLer, Lhe auLhor examlnes evldence LhaL challenges Lhe assumpLlon LhaL all
human behavlor ls caused by some underlylng cognlLlve processes. lndeed, evldence from a
number of areas of psychology shows LhaL cognlLlon ls noL cenLral for undersLandlng human
behavlor. Accordlng Lo Lee, one of Lhe ma[or problems wlLh Lhe cognlLlon-cenLered models of
human acLlon ls LhaL Lhey are based on confuslon beLween Lhe way human belngs appear from
Lhe lnslde and Lhe way ln whlch Lhey acLually work.
WlLh Lhls assumpLlon Lee examlnes crlLlcally Lhe vlew LhaL consclous cognlLlon conLrols
human emoLlonal experlence. AlLhough conLemporary cllnlcal psychologlcal Lheorles have
emphaslzed Lhe role of cognlLlon ln Lhe developmenL or malnLenance of negaLlve emoLlons,
evldence from oLher research areas suggesLs LhaL Lhls ls by no means Lhe only leglLlmaLe vlew.
lor example, Lhe !ames-Lange model, accordlng Lo whlch emoLlons arlse from a generallzed
arousal, ls no longer Lenable. lnsLead, Lheorles of emoLlons as grounded ln dlfferenL
physlologlcal processes have galned wldespread consensus wlLhln physlologlcal psychology. ln
Lhls framework, Lhe undersLandlng of Lhe underlylng neural basls musL consLraln and lnform
models of emoLlon. 1herefore, Lees concludes LhaL a cognlLlon-cenLered vlew of dysfuncLlonal
emoLlon ls noL a very explanaLory model, and LhaL perhaps cognlLlve models LhaL focus
excluslvely on undersLandlng emoLlons are mlsslng someLhlng lmporLanL.
Lee suggesLs LhaL Lhe use of physlologlcal Lechnlques ls useful ln order Lo explore Lhe
relaLlonshlps beLween emoLlon and cognlLlon. 8ecenL developmenLs ln Lhe measuremenL and
recordlng of boLh physlologlcal processes and mlcrobehavlors are now allowlng ob[ecLlve
Commentaiy -Alteinative to Cognition

211
measuremenLs ln areas LhaL were prevlously noL avallable for emplrlcal observaLlon.
1herefore, psychophyslology may allow us Lo undersLand emoLlonal evenLs. lL may also be LhaL
fuLure developmenLs ln behavloral Lheory and Lechnlque wlll requlre a sLronger focus on Lhe
assessmenL of physlologlcal evenLs. lor example, Lhere are sLudles conducLed by Chabrol,
8arrere, Cuell, and Moron (1986) showlng LhaL Lhe blood flow ln Lhe prefronLal cerebral reglon
ls lower ln cllnlcally depressed Lhan ln no-depressed sub[ecLs.
ln Lhe flfLh chapLer, Lee examlnes Lhe concepL of unconsclous cognlLlon, referrlng Lo whlch
one mlghL expecL Lo resolve some problems of Lhe general assumpLlon LhaL all human
behavlor ls Lhe resulL of consclous or reporLable LhoughL. lor example, researchers ln Lhe flelds
of memory and percepLlon have made an exLenslve use of Lhe noLlon of unconsclous LhoughL
Lo explaln Lhose behavlors LhaL have been learned wlLhouL Lhe sub[ecL belng aware of lL.
ConcepLs LhaL fall lnLo Lhls caLegory lnclude procedural knowledge and lmpllclL memory. 1he
auLhor Lhlnks LhaL unconsclous LhoughL provldes only an lllusory explanaLlon. ln facL, mosL
psychologlcal Lheorles of human behavlor assume LhaL any behavlor noL deLermlned by an
lmmedlaLe consclous LhoughL ls necessarlly deLermlned by unconsclous cognlLlve processes.
Powever, Lee argues LhaL, even Lhough lL ls noL posslble Lo assume LhaL people acL wlLhouL an
underlylng cause (e.g., as a response Lo an envlronmenLal sLlmulus), some hablLual behavlor
does noL lnvolve any cognlLlve acLlvlLy.
ln Lhe slxLh chapLer, Lhe auLhor presenLs Lhe argumenL for Lhe posslblllLy LhaL aL leasL some
human behavlor occurs ln Lhe absence of anyLhlng LhaL can be referred Lo as cognlLlon. Per
maln assumpLlon ls LhaL we do noL behave ln Lhe way we do because of Lhe way we Lhlnk buL
[.] we Lhlnk Lhe way we do because of Lhe way we see ourselves behave (p. 69).
1he ldea LhaL our cognlLlve processes arlse as a dlrecL resulL of Lhe observaLlon of our own
behavlor has a long hlsLory ln soclal psychology. lor example, Lhe Lheory of cognlLlve
dlssonance sLrongly supporLs Lhls hypoLhesls. Self-percepLlon Lheorles have also provlded
exLenslve evldence LhaL lndlvlduals do noL have prlvlleged access Lo lnLernal lnformaLlon abouL
Lhemselves. 1hus, reporLs of cognlLlve varlables, such as aLLrlbuLlons and aLLlLudes, can be
seen as explanaLlons of observed behavlors, lnsLead of Lhe causes of Lhose acLlons.
1here are experlmenLal flndlngs supporLlng Lhe ldea LhaL a developmenL of preferences
wlLhouL cognlLlve lnvolvemenL ls posslble. kunsL-Wllson and Za[onc (1980) demonsLraLed LhaL
affecLlve reacLlons Lo neuLral sLlmull become more poslLlve wlLh repeaLed exposure Lo Lhose
sLlmull. Moreover, sub[ecLs were unable Lo sLaLe wlLh any degree of accuracy wheLher Lhey
had seen Lhe sLlmull before. 1hls suggesLs LhaL Lhe exposure had an effecL on preference
wlLhouL any consclous awareness. Moreover, Lee reporLs lncreaslng evldence suggesLlng LhaL
complex and dynamlc behavlors lnvolved ln soclal lnLeracLlons may also be explalned wlLhouL
lnvolvlng cognlLlve processes. lor example, Lhe ablllLy Lo coordlnaLe verbal lnLeracLlons and
non-verbal gesLures durlng conversaLlon ls a complex acLlvlLy LhaL occurs wlLhouL consclous
efforL or conLrol. llnally, models LhaL emphaslze cognlLlon supporL Lhe ldea LhaL human belngs
are dlfferenL from Lhe oLher anlmals. uesplLe Lhls, deLalled works on prlmaLes, as well as on
humans, showed LhaL vlcarlous learnlng occurs ln anlmals and may be explalned ln classlcal
condlLlonlng Lerms.
1he sevenLh chapLer deals wlLh Lhe poslLlon of raLlonal LhoughL ln conLemporary soclal and
cllnlcal psychology. 1he auLhor examlnes some currenL approaches Lo raLlonallLy and Lhe
dlfflculLles LhaL arlse from Lhe muLual lncompaLlblllLy of Lhese approaches. 1he assumpLlon
LhaL Lhe capaclLy of raLlonal LhoughL ls crlLlcal ln healLhy human behavlor ls also dlscussed.
1he concepL of raLlonallLy ls cenLral Lo many conLemporary psychologlcal Lheorles. lor
example, Lhe cognlLlve-behavloral approaches Lo Lherapy are based on Lhe assumpLlon LhaL
dysfuncLlonal emoLlonal sLaLes necessarlly arlse from lrraLlonal LhoughL processes. Powever
Lhe cognlLlve models of depresslon and opLlmlsm show LhaL a healLhy LhoughL and a raLlonal


212

LhoughL are noL necessarlly Lhe same Lhlng. lurLhermore, oLher researches suggesL LhaL our
ablllLy Lo Lhlnk raLlonally may acLually be dlmlnlshed by poslLlve emoLlon.
1here ls an agreemenL abouL crlLlclzlng raLlonal LhoughL. lndeed, Argyle (1991) crlLlclzed Lhe
hard-llne verslon of cognlLlve soclal psychology LhaL assumes soclal behavlor and [udgmenLs as
a klnd of raLlonal problem-solvlng, performed by compuLer-llke processes ln Lhe head. Pe
argued LhaL soclal behavlor ln parLlcular could noL be undersLood wlLhouL conslderlng
emoLlonal and conLexLual varlables. Lee noLes LhaL argumenLs llke Lhls are largely lgnored,
because psychologlsLs have a culLurally acqulred Lendency Lo flnd menLallsLlc explanaLlons of
human behavlor.
ln Lhe elghLh chapLer, Lee argues LhaL Lhere are many reasons why an lndlvlduallsLlc and
menLallsLlc approach perslsLs ln psychology desplLe Lhe avallablllLy of conLrasLlng argumenLs
and evldence. As Plckey (1994) clalmed, a pervaslve soclal hosLlllLy Lo behavlorlsm has arlsen
because behavlorlsm argues agalnsL Lhe folk lnLulLlon LhaL human acLlon ls deLermlned by soul,
splrlL, or mlnd, so LhaL Lhe mechanlsm of human agency lles ouLslde Lhe naLural world. Lee
argues LhaL anoLher reason why psychology ls focused only on Lhe cognlLlve vlew ls LhaL Lhls
represenLs an unprecedenLed unlLy of purposes wlLhln academlc psychology. Powever, Lhe
auLhor argues LhaL unlLy has no lnLrlnslc value, buL lL ls Lhe adequacy of a unlLed approach Lo
be lmporLanL.
Lee adds LhaL a professlonal and sclenLlflc culLure LhaL places more lmporLance on cognlLlve
evenLs Lhan on ob[ecLlve reallLy ls llkely Lo encourage psychologlsLs Lo focus lnLervenLlons on
changlng cognlLlon raLher Lhan alLerlng ob[ecLlve clrcumsLances. Accordlng Lo 8raglnsky
(1983), by lgnorlng culLure and pollLlcs, psychologlsLs have falled Lo recognlze Lhe ldeologlcal
assumpLlons underlylng Lhelr work. 1herefore, Lhey have upheld Lhese ldeologles raLher Lhan
examlned Lhelr lmpacL on Lhe llves of oLhers. 1haL ls, Lhe role of cllnlcal, educaLlonal,
organlzaLlonal or experlmenLal psychologlsLs has become LhaL of helplng lndlvlduals ad[usL Lo
exlsLlng soclal order, raLher Lhan of empowerlng Lhem Lo make changes Lo Lhelr envlronmenL.
Lee's polnL ls noL LhaL soclal and cognlLlve psychology ls parL of a dellberaLe consplracy Lo
malnLaln soclal lnequallLles, buL LhaL psychology ls ofLen unaware of Lhe culLural basls and Lhe
culLural lmpllcaLlons of lLs focus.
ln Lhe lasL chapLer, Lee argues LhaL Lhe ldenLlflcaLlon of cognlLlvlsm as a unlfled Lheory
produces a false and premaLure exclLemenL, and LhaL psychology needs Lo explore many oLher
alLernaLlve explanaLory models. Lee polnLs ouL LhaL she ls noL advocaLlng a sLyle of eclecLlc
psychology ln whlch all Lheorles are equally rlghL, buL LhaL she ls dlsLlngulshlng eclecLlclsm
from a relaLlvlsLlc approach LhaL encourages dlfferenL LheoreLlcal developmenLs and supporLs
Lhe ldea LhaL each Lheory ldenLlfles lLs own boundarles and [usLlfles lLself ln lLs own Lerms.
1he auLhor clalms LhaL Lhe cognlLlve blas ln modern psychology has obscured Lhe
progresses LhaL characLerlze Lhe behavloral Lheory. lndeed, behavloral models explaln a range
of human behavlors generally regarded as cognlLlve, from speclflc lnsLances such as
Llsenberger's (1992) learned lndusLrlousness concepL, whlch provldes a learnlng Lheory
explanaLlon for Lhe work eLhlc, Lo general models LhaL Lry Lo explaln essenLlal human
characLerlsLlcs such as language ln behavloral Lerms. 1he alLernaLlve LhaL Lee proposes Lo
cognlLlon ls Lhe conLexLuallsL behavlorlsL approach, a developmenL LhaL alms Lo comblne a
non-cognlLlve approach Lo human behavlor wlLh an lncreased emphasls on Lhe lnfluences of
physlcal, soclal, and culLural conLexL on LhaL behavlor (p. 117).
ConLexLuallsm ls noL only a concepLlon of behavlorlsm because, for example, soclal
psychophyslology ls based on Lhe premlse LhaL physlologlcal evenLs can only be fully
undersLood wlLhln Lhelr speclflc soclal and physlcal conLexL. ConLexLuallsL behavlorlsm ls a
perspecLlve LhaL has arlsen, aL leasL ln parL, as a response Lo a frusLraLlon wlLh an lndlvldual-
Commentaiy -Alteinative to Cognition

213

focused psychology. Lee's concluslons concern Lhe facL LhaL Lhere ls a conslderable soclal
hosLlllLy Lo a behavlorlsL and sclenLlflc undersLandlng of human behavlor. lL arlses from a
dlscomforL wlLh models LhaL run counLer Lo our domlnanL duallsLlc phllosophy, from an
uneaslness concernlng Lhe lmpllcaLlons of such models for poLenLlally radlcal soclal changes,
and from Lhe deslre Lo malnLaln a comforLable vlew of psychologlcal dlsLress as someLhlng
dlfferenL from ordlnary behavlor.

1hls book ls noL an lnLroducLory work. lnsLead, lL ls for researchers already lnvolved ln Lhe
debaLe, because Lhe auLhor does noL characLerlze cognlLlvlsm and behavlorlsm ln a preclse
way, and she does noL explaln many Loplcs LhaL she menLlons (e.g., self-efflcacy Lheory, Lheory
of reasoned acLlon, Lheory of planned behavlor, proLecLlon moLlvaLlon Lheory, Lhe model of
behavloral cholce, aLLrlbuLlon Lheory, and dlssonance Lheory).
1he alm of Lhe book ls Lo propose alLernaLlve models Lo Lhe prlmacy of cognlLlve Lheorles ln
order Lo undersLand human behavlor, buL Lhe mosL parL of Lhe book ls dedlcaLed only Lo
crlLlclze psychologlcal Lheory focused on cognlLlon lnsLead of proposlng alLernaLlve models.
Cnly ln Lhe lasL pages of Lhe lasL chapLer, does Lee propose conLexLuallsL behavlorlsm as a
posslble alLernaLlve.
1herefore, even Lhough l agree wlLh her crlLlclsm abouL psychologlcal Lheorles - especlally
when she clalms LhaL cognlLlve models are vague and lnaccuraLe, and consequenLly noL able Lo
predlcL human behavlor -, l do noL Lhlnk LhaL conLexLuallsL behavlorlsm ls Lhe besL model for
undersLandlng human acLlon. l belleve LhaL ln some argumenLs Lhe book lacks ln conLlnulLy, for
example, ln Lhe fourLh chapLer, when Lalklng abouL Lhe causes of depresslon, Lhe auLhor
advocaLes Lhe lmporLance of physlologlcal daLa comlng from neurosclences, buL Lhen Lhese are
noL consldered ln conLexLuallsL behavloral models.
lL ls clear LhaL Lee's alm ls Lo propose a dlfferenL perspecLlve on psychology, ln parLlcular by
glvlng lmporLance Lo conLexL and envlronmenL as causes of psychologlcal problems, and by
crlLlclzlng Lhe lndlvldual cenLered models. Powever, even Lhough Lhe book ls useful Lo focus on
envlronmenLal condlLlons, l do noL agree wlLh conLexLuallsL behavlorlsm, whlch ls cenLered
only on exLernal facLors, because a good model for undersLandlng human behavlor has Lo
conslder boLh componenLs, cognlLlve and behavloral.
We can appreclaLe Lee's efforLs Lo change a very well esLabllshed psychologlcal model
cenLered on lndlvldual, consclous and raLlonal LhoughL, and arlse a crlLlcal vlew among
psychologlsLs, who someLlmes are Loo much focused on Lhe sub[ecL.

8I8LICGkAn
Argyle, M. (1991.) A CrlLlque of CognlLlve Approaches Lo Soclal !udgmenLs and Soclal
8ehavlor. ln !. . lorgas (Ld.), motloo ooJ 5oclol IoJqmeots (pp. 161-178). new
?ork: ergamon ress.
8andura, A. (1977). Self-efflcacy: 1oward a unlfylng 1heory of 8ehavlor Change.
lsycboloqlcol kevlew, 84: 303-324.
8raglnsky, u. u. (1983). sychology: Pandmalden Lo SocleLy. ln S. koch & u. L. Leary (Lds.),
A ceototy of lsycboloqy (pp. 880-891). new ?ork: McCraw-Plll.
Chabrol, P., 8arrere, M., Cuell 8. A., & Moron, . (1986). PyperfronLallLy of Cerebral 8lood
llow ln uepressed AdolescenLs. Ametlcoo lsycboloqlst, 14J: 263-264.
Llsenberger, 8. (1992). Learned lndusLrlousness. lsycboloqlcol kevlew, 99: 248-267.


214

Plckey, . (1994). 8eslsLance Lo 8ehavlorlsm. 8ebovlot 1betoplst, 17: 130-132.
kunsL-Wllson, W. 8., & Za[onc, 8. 8. (1980). AffecLlve ulscrlmlnaLlon of SLlmull LhaL cannoL
be 8ecognlzed. 5cleoce, 207: 297-316.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S

reface
1. CognlLlve uomlnance: 1he CenLrallLy of CognlLlve LxplanaLlons ln Soclal sychology
2. Sclence and LxplanaLlon: ulsLlngulshlng 8eLween Commonsense uescrlpLlon and SclenLlflc
LxplanaLlon
3. SeLLlng LlmlLs: lmprovlng Lhe LxlsLlng CognlLlve Models
4. 1hlnklng Makes lL So: 1he resumpLlon 1haL CognlLlon Causes LveryLhlng
3. unconsclous CognlLlon: LlaboraLlon of ldeas Lo Shore up a lalllng aradlgm
6. unseaLlng CognlLlon: 8ehavlng lndependenLly of Consclous 1houghL
7. 8aLlonallLy: 1he LssenLlal Puman CharacLerlsLlc?
8. 1he ollLlcs of CognlLlon: Cn Lhe laLal ALLracLlveness of CognlLlve Models
9. new ulrecLlons: AlLernaLlves Lo a MonollLhlc sychology of CognlLlon

213

Commentaiy
Critical Tbinking about Psycbology
LdlLed by 8renL u. Sllfe, !effrey S. 8eber and lrank C. 8lchardson
AA 8ooks, WashlngLon uC, 2004

Motto ul ueJJo
*

mdldedda[gmall.com

CrlLlcal Lhlnklng has ofLen been consldered Lo be a cornersLone for
many dlsclpllnes, and an essenLlal sklll for academlcs, especlally
wlLhln psychology. lndeed, psychologlsLs are LaughL Lo use Lhelr
research and flndlngs Lo examlne common myLhs and debunk false
bellefs. Powever, do Lhey sub[ecL psychology lLself Lo any
evaluaLlon? 1hls volume lnLends Lo show LhaL, desplLe Lhe emphasls
on crlLlcal analysls, rarely psychologlsLs can glve a poslLlve answer Lo
Lhe quesLlon.
1he book ls organlsed lnLo slx parLs correspondlng Lo some of Lhe
ma[or subdlsclpllnes of psychology. Lach parL ls composed of Lwo
chapLers: Lhe flrsL examlnes and crlLlques many hldden assumpLlons
of speclflc subdlsclpllnes, whlle Lhe second explores alLernaLlve
polnLs of vlew Lo beLLer undersLand Lhe human mlnd. arL l ls
focused on Lhe dlscusslon of cllnlcal psychology ln comparlson wlLh
vlrLue eLhlcs. arL ll lnvesLlgaLes soclal psychology ln Lhe llghL of consLrucLlonlsL psychology,
hermeneuLlc phllosophy and eLhlcal phenomenology. arL lll ls concerned wlLh Lhe concepL of
menLal dlsorder - ln parLlcular, depresslon - ln experlmenLal psychology and neurosclence.
arL lv underLakes a crlLlcal analysls of memory and reasonlng ln cognlLlve psychology. arL v
conslders Lhe blases lmposed Lo Lheorles of developmenL by Lhe WesLern culLure. llnally, arL
vl concerns sLaLlsLlcs meLhods used ln psychology.
ln ChapLer 1, lrank 8lchardson ldenLlfles and shows Lhe llmlLs of some of Lhe cruclal
assumpLlons underlylng boLh Lhe Lheory and Lhe pracLlce of modern counselllng, whlch he says
Lrlumphed ln our Llme afLer Lhe lreudlan revoluLlon ln psychology. 1he flrsL assumpLlon ls
value-freedom. lndeed, due Lo lLs ob[ecLlvlLy, psychoLherapy Lhlnks Lo be lndependenL ln Lhe
same way as oLher naLural sclences from eLhlcs and vlrLues. 1haL ls, moral and culLural values
are lrrelevanL Lo undersLand human behavlour and do noL maLLer for psychoLherapy. 1hls
leads Lo Lhe conLradlcLlon LhaL LheraplsLs oughL value belng value-free (Sllfe eL al. 2003).
AnoLher sLrong assumpLlon ln modern psychoLherapy ls LhaL Lhe lndlvldual ls Lhe baslc unlL of
human reallLy, whlch lnevlLably consLlLuLes a sllde Loward moral relaLlvlsm. We can dlsLlngulsh
a uLlllLarlan and an expresslve form of such lndlvlduallsm. 1he flrsL conslders human llfe Lo be
an efforL by lndlvlduals Lo maxlmlze Lhelr self-lnLeresL Lo reach glven ends such as survlval,
securlLy and saLlsfacLlon. 1he laLLer ls gulded by Lhe bellef LhaL each person has unlque feellngs
and lnLulLlons LhaL should be pursued and reallzed. 1he lasL assumpLlon ls lnsLrumenLallsm:
people Lhlnk ln Lerms of means-ends and cosL-beneflL, and are comforLable wlLh such a
language. Powever, lnsLrumenLallsm leads Lo soclal fragmenLaLlon, and lL fosLers emoLlonal
problems Lo people grew under Lhls prlnclple.
ChapLer 2 conLends LhaL psychoLherapy should respond Lo Lhe dllemmas generaLed by
Lhese assumpLlons. 8lalne lowers reformulaLes psychoLherapy as a process of helplng cllenLs

*
unlverslLy of Slena, h.u


216

Lo culLlvaLe Lhe besL ln Lhemselves and Lo llve Lhe besL klnd of llfe avallable Lo Lhem (p. 39).
Pe refers Lo Lhe ArlsLoLellan nlcomachean LLhlcs and malnLalns LhaL vlrLues llke generoslLy and
honesLy are Lhe LralLs LhaL enable us Lo pursue a good llfe. vlrLue eLhlcs slngles ouL LhaL human
flourlshlng" - as ArlsLoLle sald - ls Lhe ouLgrowLh of becomlng one's besL self. 1hls accounL ls
ln conLrasL wlLh lnsLrumenLal lndlvlduallsm, whlch sees Lhe soclal conLexL as an adversary, and
noL as Lhe arena ln whlch we learn whaL ls good.
vlrLue eLhlcs helps people - and LheraplsLs - Lo go beyond lnsLrumenLal reasons and Lo
focus on whaL ls mosL lmporLanL Lo Lhem. lowers examlnes slx ways ln whlch vlrLues and
human acLlvlLles are relaLed, and LhaL Lherefore should be consldered ln Lhe Lherapy. llrsL,
vlrLue eLhlcs porLrays human acLlvlLles as pursulng whaL we see as a worLhwhlle goal, because
humans are goal-seeklng belngs who acL Lo accompllsh meanlngful alms. 1hls suggesLs Lo Lhe
LheraplsL Lo help Lhe person Lo conslder whaL ls posslble, whaL ls ln her lnLeresL, and whaL Lhe
consequences of seeklng a parLlcular goal are. Second, vlrLue always shows lLself ln acLlon, and
Lhere ls no vlrLue wlLhouL concreLe acLlvlLy. ln facL, also for a LheraplsL excellence ls reflecLed ln
Lhe way he acLs. 1hlrd, Lo make an acLlon vlrLuous, we have Lo acL for Lhe rlghL reason.
1herefore, Lhe LheraplsL should sLlmulaLe Lhe undersLandlng of Lhe pralseworLhy end we seek
Lo gulde our acLlon and help us Lo beLLer enacL lL. lourLh, our acLlons depend also on our
hearLfelL emoLlons, Lhus we should be aware of whaL Lhese are. llfLh, vlrLue ls a characLer, LhaL
ls, a seLLled dlsposlLlon, and does noL depend on acLlng well on an occaslonal basls. SlxLh, slnce
vlrLue eLhlc ls a pracLlcal wlsdom, Lhere ls no Lralnlng Lo recognlze whaL ls mosL lmporLanL for a
cllenL. 1hls lmposes Lo Lhe LheraplsL Lo learn Lo make wlse cholces aL Lhe momenL.
arL ll ls abouL soclal psychology. ln ChapLer 3, !effrey 8eber and Llsa Csbeck conslder Lhe
lmpllclL assumpLlons ln Lhree of Lhe maln Loplcs of soclal psychology: human soclallLy, love and
helplng behavlour. 1he assumpLlon beyond human soclallLy ls aLomlsm, LhaL ls, Lhe ldea LhaL
Lhe self-properLles, alLhough developed ln soclal clrcumsLances, are lnherenL Lo Lhe lndlvldual
and noL Lo Lhe group. ALomlsm allows sLudylng complex soclal phenomena ln a sysLemaLlc way
boLh by lsolaLlng varlables and by maxlmlzlng experlmenLal conLrol. Powever, lL resLrlcLs Lhe
undersLandlng of human soclallLy. Moreover, Lhe proper sub[ecL of soclal psychology ls noL
only Lhe person, buL also Lhe soclal envlronmenL, whlch exlsLs for and ln relaLlon Lo LhaL
person. Slnce Lhe soclal whole ls dlfferenL from Lhe sum of lLs lndlvlduallsLlc parLs, and
aLomlsm ls concerned only wlLh Lhe laLLer, aLomlsm ls re[ecLed as a candldaLe prlnclple for a
real soclal psychology. 1he assumpLlon beyond love ls naLurallsm, LhaL ls Lhe ldea LhaL human
belngs are fundamenLally Lhe same as oLher ob[ecLs of naLure and as such are sub[ecL Lo Lhe
same laws, LhaL deLermlne Lhe behavlour of Lhose ob[ecLs (p. 168). Accordlng Lo a naLurallsLlc
perspecLlve, love ls an adapLlve mechanlsm LhaL faclllLaLes Lhe prollferaLlon of genes. ln Lhls
way, psychologlsLs have a maLerlal referenL Lo lnvesLlgaLe lL. Powever, Lhls approach hlnders a
deep undersLandlng of love. lor example, lL ls lnadequaLe Lo explaln why people aLLach Lo love
and Lhelr experlence ln lnLlmaLe relaLlonshlps. Moreover, lf love ls a funcLlon of naLural
selecLlon, lL would be a naLural phenomenon, and should noL be sLudled by soclal psychology.
llnally, Lhe auLhors analyze Lhe assumpLlon beyond helplng behavlour, namely, egolsm, LhaL ls,
Lhe ldea LhaL human belngs are lnLrlnslcally selflsh. Lgolsm has Lhe advanLage of explalnlng
human behavlour because Lhere ls an endless llsL of egolsLlc reasons for elLher helplng or noL
helplng people. neverLheless, lL does noL explaln Lhe range of alLrulsLlc behavlours. lndeed,
even Lhough we can always flnd an egolsLlc reason for an acL, such a reason does noL prove
LhaL any behavlour ls egolsLlc. 1he concluslon ls LhaL human soclallLy, love and helplng
behavlour easlly reduce sub[ecLlve experlences Lo blologlcal mechanlsms.
ln ChapLer 4, Ldwln CanLL examlnes alLernaLlve perspecLlves on human soclal llfe: soclal
consLrucLlonlsm, hermeneuLlcs, and Lhe eLhlcal phenomenology of Lmmanuel Levlnas. Lach of
Commentaiy -Ciitical Thinking About Psychology

217
Lhese Lhree approaches forces soclal psychology Lo wlde Lhe range of Lhe consldered
phenomena ln order Lo undersLand Lhe moral naLure of human soclal relaLlons. Accordlng Lo
soclal consLrucLlonlsm, Lhe reallLy of human soclal exlsLence occurs only by conslderlng Lhe
complex soclal relaLlonshlps beLween people. 1ruLh and knowledge are Lhe producLs of Lhe
soclal negoLlaLlon and consensus bulldlng LhaL consLanLly Lake place beLween people and
culLures. Moreover, hermeneuLlc soclal psychology alms aL undersLandlng human behavlour,
and noL aL explalnlng lL ln Lerms of naLural forces. lL shares wlLh soclal consLrucLlonlsm Lhe
averslon Lo aLomlsm and deLermlnlsm. llnally, Levlnas argued LhaL human exlsLence ls based
on alLerlLy": LhaL ls, we are who we are because we are wlLh oLhers. Cur llfe has a meanlng ln
LhaL we are flrsL relaLlonal belngs. 1o be a human belng ls Lo exlsL ln obllgaLlon Lo oLhers, and
only Lhls allows Lhe posslblllLy for genulne alLrulsm ln human acLlon.
arL lll regards neurosclence. ln ChapLer 3, uawson Pedges and Colln 8urchfleld conslder
depresslon as an example of Lhe currenL Lrend Lo rely on neuroblologlcal explanaLlons ln
psychology. MaLerlallsm, LhaL ls, Lhe ldea LhaL aL some polnL blologlcal explanaLlon wlll be able
Lo clarlfy psychologlcal phenomena, ls Lhe assumpLlon LhaL guldes neurosclence. uesplLe LhaL
many advances have been made Lhanks Lo Lhe maLerlallsLlc lnvesLlgaLlon of depresslon, some
assumpLlons beyond maLerlallsm need Lo be consldered: maLerlal causal deLermlnlsm,
aLomlsm and ob[ecLlvlsm. MaLerlal causal deLermlnlsm ls Lhe ldea LhaL blologlcal forces
deLermlne behavlour. lL lmplles LhaL any psychologlcal change ln Lhe lndlvldual requlres a
causal force. lor example, even Lhough Lhere ls a gap beLween neurochemlsLry and Lhe
sub[ecLlve experlence of depresslon, Lhe LreaLmenL for depresslon have Lo be pharmacologlcal.
ALomlsm asserLs LhaL ob[ecLs are composed by slngle cells or aLoms, and LhaL Lhe properLles of
an lndlvldual can be explalned on Lhe ground of Lhelr mere lnner sLrucLure. 1hls means LhaL
depresslon orlglns from wlLhln lndlvlduals, noL from Lhelr lnLeracLlon wlLh oLhers, and LhaL
lndlvldual's own neuroblology ls responslble for depresslon. llnally, ob[ecLlvlsm assumes LhaL
maLerlallsLlc meLhods are sufflclenL Lo lnvesLlgaLe maLerlallsLlc phenomena, and Lo provlde
observable, LransparenL LruLh. unforLunaLely, lf a research ls based on unevaluaLed
assumpLlons, lLs concluslon wlll be llmlLed. 1herefore, ob[ecLlvlsm llmlLs Lhe posslblllLy Lo
exLend Lhe resulLs of every research. 1he auLhors also conslder anoLher consequence of
maLerlallsm: by ellmlnaLlng Lhe lmmaLerlal slde of Lhe braln as a reacLlon Lo CarLeslan duallsm,
maLerlallsm [olns a one-slded duallsm, because Lhe lmmaLerlal remalns a parL of Lhe meLhods
for lnvesLlgaLlng psychologlcal phenomena.
ln ChapLer 6, 8renL Sllfe and 8amona Popklns explore Lhe posslblllLy of a Lrue monlsm,
posLulaLlng Lhe oneness of mlnd and body wlLhouL glvlng up Lhe noLlon of agenLlc
responslblllLy. 1hey propose a hollsLlc perspecLlve, where mlnd and body are vlewed as parLs
of a larger sysLem ln whlch Lhey muLually consLlLuLe one anoLher. MaLerlallsm alone ls noL
sufflclenL for undersLandlng our mlnds and behavlour. 1herefore, we need aL leasL Lhree
caLegorles Lo explaln human behavlour: Lhe mlnd, Lhe body and Lhe conLexL. 1he auLhors Lhlnk
LhaL hollsLlc monlsm ls a beLLer framework for neurosclence because lL Lakes lnLo accounL Lhe
llmlLs of currenL meLhods, and lL ls more open Lo oLher emplrlcal posslblllLles. 1hls proposal
wlll faclllLaLe research because lL admlLs also agenLlc and conLexLual facLors.
arL lv ls concerned wlLh cognlLlve psychology. ln ChapLer 7, 8oberL 8lshop crlLlclzes four
assumpLlons LhaL make Lhls approach so appeallng: efflclenL causaLlon, lnsLrumenLal reason,
lndlvlduallsm and aLomlsm. LfflclenL causaLlon ls Lhe mosL wldely accepLed form of causaLlon
ln Lhe sclences, and also cognlLlve psychology wanLs Lo explaln all quesLlons abouL human
behavlour ln Lerms of lL by proposlng Lhe lnpuL-processlng-ouLpuL" model. 1he lnsLrumenLal
vlew of reason means LhaL agenLs are lmmersed ln Lhe causal flow of evenLs, and ln some way
are able Lo manlpulaLe lL. 1hls noLlon flLs well wlLhln a physlcal world of efflclenL causaLlon,
and wlLh Lhe ldea LhaL all lnformaLlon ls represenLaLlonal. Powever, lL does noL conslder LhaL


218

we use oLher forms of non-represenLaLlonal knowledge (e.g., Lo undersLand how Lo comforL a
small chlld). lndlvlduallsm and aLomlsm remove psychology from lLs purpose, LhaL ls, Lhe
undersLandlng of Lhe human mlnd and behavlour lnLo hls mosL lnLlmaLe sphere, whlch lnvolves
also a soclal and shared conLexL.
ln ChapLer 8, SLephen ?anchar proposes an alLernaLlve conLexLuallsL Lheory based on
hollsm and on Lhe concepLs of llfeworld" and narraLlve sLrucLure. 8y endorslng hollsm,
conLexLuallsm assumes LhaL lnformaLlon ls noL fragmenLlsed, buL LhaL Lhe meanlng of one parL
of a sysLem ls consLlLuLed and codeLermlned by Lhe oLher parLs. 1he parLs are already
connecLed and meanlngful because of Lhelr shared exlsLence wlLhln Lhe whole conLexL. 1he
concepL of llfeworld refers Lo Lhe world of meanlngful human acLlvlLy as experlenced prlor Lo
deLached conLemplaLlons and sclenLlflc analysls (p. 176). Llfeworld removes Lhe separaLlon
beLween Lhe lnner mlnd and Lhe exLernal world, because lL ls presupposed LhaL Lhe mlnd has
unmedlaLed access Lo ob[ecLs and people. llnally, Lhe assumpLlon of narraLlve sLrucLures
sLresses LhaL people experlence Lhelr llves ln narraLlve meanlngful sequences, whlle for Lhe
malnsLream cognlLlve psychology llfe ls based on Lhe meLaphor of Lhe machlne, so LhaL lL ls
separaLed ln blLs and lnformaLlon. ?anchar conLends LhaL conLexLuallsm does noL deny Lhe
lmporLance of Lhe resulLs of cognlLlve psychology, and makes an example of how Lhe concepLs
of hollsm, llfeworld and narraLlve sLrucLure can explaln emplrlcal flndlngs, such as
reconsLrucLlve memory and menLal lmagery.
arL v regards developmenLal psychology and eLhlcal lssues. 8rlan vandenberg and Shawn
C'Connor wanL Lo demonsLraLe how hlsLorlcal undersLandlng can help crlLlcal Lhlnklng abouL
conLemporary psychology. 1hey use as an example lageL's Lheory abouL Lhe change from
Lheologlcal explanaLlon Lo maLerlal cause ln chlldren cognlLlon. lageL's work consLlLuLed an
lmporLanL sLep Loward a new concepLlon of human developmenL. ln facL, lageL lnLerpreLed
human lnLelllgence as adapLlon Lo envlronmenL. 1hanks Lo Lhe cognlLlve funcLlons of
asslmllaLlon and accommodaLlon, Lhe organlsm lncorporaLes Lhe world lnLo exlsLlng sLrucLures
and ad[usLs lLs sLrucLures Lo Lhe envlronmenL. ln order Lo reduce Lhe rlfL beLween sclence and
eLhlcal lssues, lageL Lrled Lo emplrlcally esLabllsh LhaL Lhe unlversal laws of Lhe progress of
knowledge, accordlng Lo whlch explanaLlon passes from rellglous and Leleologlcal Lo maLerlal
causes ln Lhe hlsLory of Lhe humanlLy, applles Lo lndlvldual developmenL. Powever, hls aLLempL
ls problemaLlc. lndeed, facLs and values, and , cannoL be separaLed. Moreover, sclence
ls noL free of moral values and eLhlcal lmpllcaLlons. 1herefore, we do noL need psychologlcal
Lheorles lncorporaLlng rellglous bellefs, buL Lheorles provldlng undersLandlng of Lhe meanlng
of eLhlcal lssues ln human llfe.
ln ChapLer 10, !ohn Chambers ChrlsLopher weaves LogeLher lnslghLs from lnLeracLlvlsm (an
emerglng proposal developed by Mark 8lckhard) and Lhe hermeneuLlc phllosophy of Peldegger
and Cadamer Lo explaln, ln a dlfferenL way from Lhe unlversallsm of lageL's developmenLal
psychology, boLh Lhe unlversals of human belng and Lhe culLural varlaLlons. ChrlsLopher makes
a deep crlLlque Lo Lhe lndlvlduallsLlc culLural rooLs of currenL psychology, and Lo Lhe WesLern
noLlon of lndlvldual. lndeed Lhls noLlon arlses from one culLural LradlLlon and lL ls noL
ob[ecLlvely Lrue Lhrough reason and sclence. CrlsLopher clalms LhaL Lhe perspecLlves he
examlnes malnLaln LhaL dlfferenL LradlLlons - Lhough ldenLlfylng some consLanLs across people
- culLlvaLe a varleLy of moral vlslon. uevelopmenLal psychology should examlne Lhe moral
vlslon of oLher culLural groups, and oLher accounLs of good llfe, ln order Lo undersLand also
why Lhese accounLs are so compelllng Lo Lhose who embrace Lhem.
1he slxLh parL of Lhe book ls abouL meLhodology. ln ChapLer 11, 8lchard Wllllams examlnes
Lhe assumpLlons underlylng Lhe appllcaLlon of LradlLlonal sclenLlflc meLhods Lo psychologlcal
phenomena, and he conLends LhaL we should reassess Lhe preLenslon LhaL psychology ls a
Commentaiy -Ciitical Thinking About Psychology

219

sclence. Pe clalms LhaL Lhe meLhods of emplrlcal sclence, namely verlflcaLlon and falslflcaLlon,
are Lhe producL of human reason, and Lhey are noL unproblemaLlc. WlLh respecL Lo Lhe case of
psychologlcal explanaLlons, Lhey do noL have Lhe power Lo supporL causal lnferences. lndeed,
Lhe lsolaLlon of a cause requlres Lhe compleLe conLrol of oLher causal lnfluences, and Lhls ls ln
prlnclple noL posslble. Pence, emplrlclsm falls as a basls for a nonconLlngenL knowledge.
Wllllams lnvlLes Lhe reader Lo search for alLernaLlve approaches, whlch enable psychology Lo
be a more relevanL dlsclpllne for Lhe undersLandlng of human condlLlon.
ln ChapLer 12, !eff Sugarman and !ack MarLln follow Lhese suggesLlons and propose an
alLernaLlve based on hermeneuLlcs, whlch ls concerned wlLh lnLerpreLaLlon of whaL ls Lo be
human and how human undersLandlng ls posslble. lndeed, hermeneuLlcs sLarLs from an
analysls of human naLure and lLs condlLlons Lo undersLand how people Lhlnk, acL and
experlence Lhelr llves. A hermeneuLlcal psychology opposes naLurallsm and reducLlonlsm by
assumlng LhaL human moLlvaLlons, LhoughLs, and acLlons are lmmersed ln a conLexL of
hlsLorlcal LradlLlons and soclal pracLlces. Moreover, unllke naLural phenomena, psychologlcal
phenomena requlre lnLerpreLaLlve pracLlces because lnLerpreLaLlon ls sLrlcLly lnvolved wlLh Lhe
sub[ecL of psychology, and does noL concern only lLs lnLerpreLaLlon.
1he book ends wlLh a reflecLlon by Suzanne klrschner, who resumes Lhe maln merlLs of
every secLlon and wlshes LhaL Lhe volume wlll open Lhe mlnd of sLudenLs by maklng Lhem
undersLand LhaL one's LruLh" can always be lmperfecL and parLlal.

1hls volume ls very rlch and accuraLely organlsed. 1he reader ls accompanled ln Lhe lecLure by
a well deflned and clear sLrucLure. Lven lf each chapLer has a dlfferenL auLhor, all of Lhem
share Lhe same approach. 1he book crlLlques Lhe mosL common bellefs ln psychology, buL
owlng Lo lLs arrangemenL lL ls qulLe easy also Lo lndlvlduaLe some of Lhe alLernaLlves"
proposed. 1herefore, lL ls a very good lnsLrumenL for sLudenLs who wanL Lo Lake a hard look aL
some fundamenLal Lhemes ln psychology and go beyond LradlLlonal assumpLlons.
All Lhe chapLers provlde good cues and glve Lhe chance Lo undersLand Lhe Loplcs from
dlfferenL polnLs of vlew. l wanL Lo hlghllghL, ln parLlcular, Lhe flrsL chapLer abouL cllnlcal
psychology, whlch, by opposlng Lhe greaL dlffuslon of psychoLherapy and psycho medlclne ln
our Llme, sLresses Lhe lmporLance elLher of values LhaL we have losL or of faceLs of our llfe LhaL
we ofLen forgeL. uesplLe Lhe number of scholars who conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe volume, all of Lhem
focus on Lhe same lssues: Lhe convlcLlon LhaL Lhe human belngs should be analysed ln Lhelr
conLexL, as a soclal anlmal", Lhe lmporLance of assumlng a hollsLlc perspecLlve and opposlng
lndlvlduallsm, Lhe wlsh Lo abandon a perspecLlve grounded on maLerlallsm and deLermlnlsm,
Lhe need Lo avold Lo glve lmporLance only Lo sclenLlflc daLa", as lf psychology were a sclence.
1he auLhors share Lhe ldea LhaL psychology cannoL be consldered a sclence [usL solely for Lhe
facL LhaL lnLerpreLaLlon and hermeneuLlc are aL Lhe basls of lLs work and lnvesLlgaLlon.
1hls approach ls meanlngful and of greaL lnLeresL for lL aLLempLs Lo develop a crlLlcal
Lhlnklng ln people sLudylng psychology, buL runs Lhe rlsk of Laklng an expllclL dlrecLlon LhaL
mlghL lnvolve some oLhers llmlLaLlons.

8I8LICGkAn
uamaslo, A. 8., & uamaslo, P. (2000). Aphasla and Lhe neural 8asls of Language. ln M. M.
Mesulam (Ld.), ltloclples of 8ebovlootol ooJ coqoltlve Neotoloqy (pp. 294-313). new
?ork: Cxford unlverslLy ress.
Mecaccl, L. (1993). 5totlo Jello pslcoloqlo Jel Noveceoto. 8oma-8arl: LaLerza.


220

Sllfe, 8., SmlLh, A., & 8urchfleld, C. (2003). sychoLheraplsLs as CrypLo-Mlsslonarles: An
Lxemplar on Lhe Crossroads of PlsLory, 1heory, and hllosophy. ln u. Plll and M. krall
(Lds.) Aboot lsycboloqy. At tbe ctosstooJs of nlstoty, 1beoty, ooJ lbllosopby.
Albany, n?: SLaLe unlverslLy of new ?ork ress.

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S
l. Cllnlcal and Counsellng sychology
1. sychoLherapy and Modern ullemmas - ltook c. klcbotJsoo
2. sychoLherapy, CharacLer, and Lhe Cood Llfe - 8loloe I. lowets
ll. Soclal sychology
3. Soclal sychology: key lssues, AssumpLlons, and lmpllcaLlons - Iefftey 5. kebet ooJ llso
M. Osbeck
4. Soclal sychology: Lxplorlng AlLernaLlve ConcepLual loundaLlons - Jwlo . Coott
lll. neurosclence and LxperlmenLal sychology
3. 1he AssumpLlons and lmpllcaLlons of Lhe neuroblologlcal Approach Lo uepresslon -
uowsoo neJqes ooJ collo 8otcbflelJ
6. AlLernaLlve AssumpLlons for neurosclence: lormulaLlng a 1rue Monlsm - 8teot u. 5llfe
ooJ komooo O. nopklos
lv. CognlLlve sychology
7. CognlLlve sychology: Pldden AssumpLlons - kobett c. 8lsbop
8. A ConLexLuallsL AlLernaLlve Lo CognlLlve sychology - 5tepbeo c. oocbot
v. uevelopmenLal sychology
9. uevelopmenLal sychology and Lhe ueaLh of Cod - 8tloo vooJeobetq ooJ 5bowo l.
O'coooot
10. Moral vlslons of uevelopmenLal sychology - Iobo cbombets cbtlstopbet
vl. MeLhodology ln sychology
11. 1he Language and MeLhods of Sclence: Common AssumpLlons and uncommon
Concluslons - klcbotJ N. wlllloms
12. 1oward An AlLernaLlve sychology - Ieff 5oqotmoo ooJ Iock Mottlo
Concluslon: 1oward CrlLlcal Cpenness - 5ozoooe k. kltscboet

221

Commentaiy
La costruzione del soggetto.
Le origini storicbe della ricerca psicologica
kurL uanzlger
LaLerza, 8oma-8arl, 1993

kobetto losslooe
*

roberLa.passlone[unlmlb.lL

Credo sla uLlle comlnclare ll percorso dl rlflesslone sul LesLo dl kurL uanzlger con qualche punLo
dl domanda: che ruolo rlvesLe oggl la sLorla nel campo dell'lsLruzlone sclenLlflca? Che
lmporLanza e quale funzlone pu avere la sLorla della sclenza nella formazlone unlverslLarla? L
ancora, vlsLo che ln quesLo fasclcolo dl nomooo.Meote sl LraLLa proprlo dl plurallLa: quale
sLorla serve a cosa?
Sono domande cerLo non nuove. Accompagnano - e spesso precedono - ll processo sLesso
dl lsLlLuzlonallzzazlone della sLorla della sclenza nelle unlverslLa. er esemplo, per quel che
rlguarda l'lLalla, facendo un rlferlmenLo speclflco al caso della medlclna, va rlcordaLo come nel
corso dell'CLLocenLo, quando gla rlsulLavano aLLlve nelle unlverslLa dl napoll e 8ologna le
caLLedre dl SLorla della medlclna (rlspeLLlvamenLe LenuLe da SalvaLore ue 8enzl e da Angelo
Camlllo ue Mels), le prospeLLlve sulle flnallLa e sul ruolo assegnaLo a quesLa dlsclpllna fossero
LuLL'alLro che argomenLo dl concordla, da una parLe, la vlslone dl chl ravvlsava nella sLorla della
medlclna al plu lo spunLo per un accessorlo arrlcchlmenLo culLurale - quasl uno svago, nel
quadro della severa formazlone sclenLlflca: era quesLa la poslzlone dl SalvaLore 1ommasl,
esponenLe dl splcco della medlclna sperlmenLale lLallana nonche auLore, nel 1863, dl uno del
'manlfesLl' del poslLlvlsmo lLallano. uall'alLra, la prospeLLlva del gla clLaLo ue Mels, convlnLo
che la sLorla della medlclna poLesse e dovesse servlre a colLlvare generazlonl dl medlcl
eplsLemologlcamenLe consapevoll, doLaLl dl cauLela e umllLa gnoseologlca, dl uno splrlLo crlLlco
che solo lo sguardo reLrospeLLlvo sulla proprla dlsclpllna avrebbe poLuLo saldamenLe fondare.
Sono due poslzlonl che esempllflcano agll esLreml l Lermlnl dl una quesLlone ln realLa assal
complessa. Cl non dl meno, nella loro esemplare conLrapposlzlone, sono poslzlonl che resLano
vlve e che offrono spunLl dl dlbaLLlLo e/o sconLro anche al glornl nosLrl. ua un laLo, la vlslone
accessorla dl una sLorla conslderaLa come predlcaLo della sclenza aLLuale, per la quale ll
passaLo vlene descrlLLo come la cronaca dl una successlone dl flgure e scoperLe, ordlnaLe sulla
base della loro rllevanza e rlspondenza agll aLLuall canonl dl sclenLlflclLa (che, va deLLo, sono
sempre canonl dl sclenLlflclLa speclflca, relaLlva cloe a deLermlnaLl lndlrlzzl, parLlcolarl scuole e
correnLl). ln quesLo caso la sLorla della sclenza rlfleLLe l'asseLLo, dlsLlnLo per compeLenze e
approccl, dl una rlglda speclallzzazlone seLLorlale. CuesLo elemenLo rafforza l'apparLenenza plu
che ll confronLo, o presLa l suol argomenLl plu alla rlvendlcazlone e allo sconLro che al dlbaLLlLo
e al dlalogo. Sul fronLe opposLo, sl pone una vlslone formaLlva plu ampla: la sLorla come velcolo
per una rlflesslone crlLlca e arLlcolaLa, non assoluLlsLlca, sul proprlo sapere. Lssa dlvenLa
faLLore non dl mera lsLruzlone (chl ha lnvenLaLo o deLLo cosa e quando), ma fonLe dl energla
vlva del penslero e della praLlca professlonall. ln quesLa seconda dlrezlone sembra oggl

*
8lcercaLrlce ln 'SLorla della sclenza e delle Lecnlche', unlverslLa dl Mllano 8lcocca.


222

procedere - per rlmanere nel campo della medlclna - la sLorla colLlvaLa nel vasLo arclpelago
dlsclpllnare a cul e sLaLo daLo ll nome dl MeJlcol nomooltles.
1

L la pslcologla? L la sLorla della pslcologla? CuanLo fln qul osservaLo per la sLorla della
medlclna cosLlLulsce un esemplo ln un cerLo senso paradlgmaLlco anche per la sLorla dl alLre
dlsclpllne sclenLlflche. Sl LraLLa dl un nodo cruclale: quello del rapporLl fra sclenza e sLorla. L su
quesLo nodo ll llbro dl uanzlger cl porLa a rlfleLLere proprlo per quello che concerne lo speclflco
amblLo della pslcologla.
er comprendere alcunl degll spunLl dl rlflesslone plu lnLeressanLl offerLl da lo costtozlooe
Jel soqqetto convlene forse soffermarsl un momenLo su alcunl aspeLLl relaLlvl alla flgura e alla
formazlone del suo auLore.
2
naLo nel 1926 a 8reslau, kurL uanzlger cresce e sLudla ln Sud
Afrlca, dove sl Lrasferlsce con la famlglla quando e ancora un bamblno. 1ermlnaLa la
formazlone unlverslLarla - sl laurea con una Lesl dl pslcologla soclale a Cape 1own - parLe per
Cxford, qul svolge ll doLLoraLo presso ll ulparLlmenLo dl pslcologla, soLLo la gulda dl Ceorge
Pumphrey. L'orlenLamenLo delle sue rlcerche, ln quesLa fase, e dl sLampo preLLamenLe
emplrlco e sperlmenLale: sLudla ln laboraLorlo ll comporLamenLo anlmale seguendo l modelll
classlcl delle rlcerche sul Lopl.
ln quesLo sLesso perlodo, LuLLavla, comlncla a nuLrlre una cerLa lnsofferenza e
lnsoddlsfazlone per l'orlenLamenLo dl rlcerca lnLrapreso. Compllce l'lnconLro con nlko
1lnbergen - fuLuro premlo nobel e padre dell'eLologla, ln quegll annl ln vlslLa a Cxford -
uanzlger comlncla a maLurare un camblamenLo profondo: l'uso dl modelll sperlmenLall
sLandard per lo sLudlo del comporLamenLo anlmale gll sembra non porLare da nessuna parLe.
Le condlzlonl arLlflclall dell'osservazlone ln laboraLorlo gll sembrano lmporre all'oggeLLo dl
sLudlo una llmlLazlone falsanLe.
Cl nondlmeno, kurL uanzlger e ormal colnvolLo ln un lavoro che non pu abbandonare,
cosLlLuendo ll suo programma dl rlcerca per ll consegulmenLo del doLLoraLo. llnlsce percl quel
che ha comlnclaLo, ma conLemporaneamenLe declde che la flne dl quel progeLLo segnera per
lul la flne dl una sLaglone: dopo ll consegulmenLo del h.u sl dedlchera ad alLro.
L cosl e. nel 1931, oLLenuLo ll doLLoraLo, declde dl camblare paglna. arLe per l'AusLralla,
dove lavora nel dlparLlmenLo dl pslcologla dell'unlverslLa dl Melbourne. Cul svolge nuove
rlcerche sul processl dl soclallzzazlone nel bamblnl. ll passagglo dalla pslcologla sperlmenLale
alla pslcologla dello svlluppo rappresenLa un momenLo cruclale: segna ll progresslvo
rlavvlclnamenLo dl uanzlger all'alveo orlglnarlo degll sLudl dl pslcologla soclale da cul, ancora
sLudenLe, aveva preso le mosse.
A meLa degll annl ClnquanLa, dopo la parenLesl ausLrallana, uanzlger Lorna ln Sud Afrlca,
presso l'unlverslLa dl naLal, dove conosce Cordon AllporL, pslcologo soclale sLaLunlLense noLo
per le sue rlcerche sul pregludlzlo. L'lnconLro con AllporL e uno sLlmolo a rlfleLLere sul rapporLl
fra pslcologla e conLesLo soclale, e plu ln parLlcolare sull'lnfluenza eserclLaLa dalle condlzlonl
soclall sul conLenuLl della rlcerca pslcologlca. Cll sLudl dl AllporL sul pregludlzlo, lnfaLLl, Lrovano
dlfflcllmenLe modo dl lnserlrsl ln un conLesLo sclenLlflco come quello sud afrlcano, dove gll
aspeLLl soggeLLlvl, pslcoloqlcl, del pregludlzlo rlsulLano un elemenLo LuLLo sommaLo secondarlo
dl fronLe alla drammaLlca realLa oqqettlvo della dlscrlmlnazlone dell'aparLheld.

1
Cfr. M. ConforLl, C. Corbelllnl, 5totlo Jello meJlcloo e meJlcol bomooltles, ln 8. 8uccl (a cura dl),
Moooole Jl MeJlcol nomooltles, Zadlg, 8oma, 2006.
2
Cfr. A. 8rock, Ao lotetvlew wltb kott uoozlqet, reperlblle all'lndlrlzzo:
hLLp://psychology.dur.ac.uk/eshhs/newsleLLer/lnLervlew.hLm

Commentaiy -La costiuzione uel soggetto

223
Le rlflesslonl maLuraLe ln quesLa dlrezlone a naLal, con AllporL, hanno modo dl
approfondlrsl e dl arLlcolarsl ulLerlormenLe negll annl successlvl, con ll LrasferlmenLo dl
uanzlger ln lndonesla. ll prlmo conLaLLo con un mondo LoLalmenLe 'alLro', con una culLura
profondamenLe dlversa da quella occldenLale, e un'esperlenza lmporLanLlsslma. A !akarLa non
sl usa nemmeno la parola 'pslcologla': sl preferlsce l'espresslone 'sclenza dell'anlma'. 1uLLo e
dlverso: meLodl, conceLLl, Leorle - LuLLo cl che nella quoLldlana praLlca dl rlcerca sembra
essere daLo per acqulslLo e sconLaLo, qul non lo e. Cl sono alLre parole, alLre prospeLLlve. un
mondo alLro, un'alLra sclenza.
uall'lndonesla uanzlger fara rlLorno ln Sud Afrlca - quesLa volLa a Cape 1own - con una
vlslone molLo plu marcaLamenLe culLurologlca e soclologlca dl prlma. Slamo negll annl
SessanLa. Lo sLudloso assume la dlrezlone del ulparLlmenLo dl pslcologla dell'unlverslLa.
ManLerra l'lncarlco flno a quando non sara cosLreLLo a lasclare ll paese, quesLa volLa a causa
dell'evldenLe osLlllLa del Coverno nel confronLl del suo aLLlvlsmo pollLlco anLl-aparLheld.
L la volLa del Canada. uanzlger approda alla ?ork unlverslLy dl 1oronLo e vl sl sLablllsce
deflnlLlvamenLe. Cul allarga ulLerlormenLe l suol campl dl lndaglne: alla pslcologla soclale e
dello svlluppo afflanca la sLorla della pslcologla.
Cuello per la sLorla della proprla dlsclpllna e un lnLeresse che uanzlger colLlva gla da Lempo.
Adesso, per, ll suo lmpegno su quesLo fronLe dlvlene sempre magglore, slsLemaLlco. un
lnLeresse che lncarna un'ulLerlore faccla del nomadlsmo sclenLlflco - olLre che geograflco - dl
quesLo sLudloso, e che forse nasce anche dall'eslgenza dl rlnLracclare, dl quel nomadlsmo,
raglonl e radlcl: apparenLe paradosso delle avvenLure lnLelleLLuall non dlsglunLe dalla vlto. non
a caso, parLendo dalle orlglnl della pslcologla sperlmenLale wundLlana, uanzlger allarga
progresslvamenLe la sua prospeLLlva all'anallsl dello svlluppo sLorlco del dlversl meLodl della
rlcerca pslcologlca.
lruLLo maLuro dl quesLo percorso e lo costtozlooe Jel soqqetto. LdlLo nel 1990 e LradoLLo ln
lLallano nel 1993, ll llbro prende ln esame l'evoluzlone e la varleLa delle praLlche dl rlcerca
pslcologlca ln un arco dl Lempo che va dalla fondazlone del laboraLorlo dl WundL a Llpsla, nel
1879, flno all'lnlzlo della ll guerra mondlale. lra quesLl esLreml Lemporall, che clrcoscrlvono ll
perlodo formaLlvo della pslcologla moderna" (uanzlger 1990), posslamo asslsLere al graduale
camblamenLo dl conceLLl, Leorle, meLodl, oggeLLl e obleLLlvl della rlcerca. uanzlger prende,
lnfaLLl, ln esame la Lrasformazlone delle praLlche pslcologlche, soLLollneandone la dlversa
collocazlone lsLlLuzlonale e soclale.
ll laboraLorlo dl Llpsla rappresenLa ll punLo dl parLenza polche la sua fondazlone segna un
momenLo ln cul la pslcologla sclenLlflca fu lnLesa per la prlma volLa come un'aLLlvlLa
organlzzaLa e auLoconsapevole dl una comunlLa dl rlcercaLorl (uanzlger 1990, p. 23). Con
WundL la sperlmenLazlone pslcologlca dlvlene praLlca soclale condlvlsa da un gruppo dl
'addeLLl al lavorl'. vengono deflnlLl l suol meLodl - l'anallsl sperlmenLale dl sensazlonl e
percezlonl, conlugaLa a una severa praLlca lnLrospeLLlva 'rlpullLa' da ognl soggeLLlvlsmo - e ll
suo oggeLLo - lo sLudlo della causallLa pslchlca.
Sullo scorclo della flne del xlx secolo, LuLLavla, ll modello dl sperlmenLazlone dl Llpsla non e
l'unlco ad lmporsl. La varleLa del 'canonl' sperlmenLall vlene presenLaLa da uanzlger come un
faLLore orlglnarlo e caraLLerlsLlco della rlcerca pslcologlca, cosl, dl flanco al nome dl WundL ne
Lrovlamo alLrl, come quello dl 8lneL ln lrancla, o dl CalLon ln lnghllLerra. Sl LraLLa dl modelll
profondamenLe dlversl da quello Ledesco, che aLLlngono a speclflche maLrlcl sclenLlflche e che
rlspecchlano l'lnserlmenLo delle comunlLa dl speclallsLl ln dlversl conLesLl culLurall e nazlonall.
Cosl come sono dlversl gll oggeLLl e gll scopl, olLre che l meLodl, della rlcerca: dallo sLudlo della
causallLa pslchlca, condoLLo con la sperlmenLazlone su soggeLLl adulLl, normall e lsLrulLl alla
Lecnlca sperlmenLale, sl passa con 8lneL (modello cllnlco) e CalLon (modello anLropomeLrlco)
allo sLudlo delle facolLa menLall, a scopo educaLlvo e/o seleLLlvo. ln breve: da una rlcerca -


224

come quella Ledesca - rlvolLa al chlarlmenLo del processl menLall 'unlversall', cloe non legaLl
alle caraLLerlsLlche lndlvlduall, sl passa a una rlcerca che mlra proprlo allo sLudlo dl quesLe
ulLlme.
La prospeLLlva adoLLaLa da uanzlger nel suo LesLo e dl Llpo marcaLamenLe soclologlco. Che sl
conceplsca come sLudlo delle leggl dell'accadere pslchlco, o come lndaglne cllnlca, o come
selezlone anLropomeLrlca, la pslcologla e sempre un prodoLLo umano l cul conLenuLl rlsulLano
sLreLLamenLe legaLl alle socleLa ln cul sl produce la rlcerca. ll Lermlne socleLa va peralLro qul
lnLeso ln dlverse accezlonl, posLe ovvlamenLe fra loro ln rapporLl d'lnLerazlone: ln senso
'rlsLreLLo', cloe rlferlLo alla comunlLa sclenLlflca, e ln senso plu amplo, relaLlvo al conLesLo
soclale nel quale gll sLessl gruppl dl addeLLl al lavorl sl rlLrovano ad operare.
nella sclenza cosl lnLesa, appunLo come aLLlvlLa soclale, una quesLlone cruclale e quella del
consenso. Anche ln quesLo caso, ll Lermlne va lnLeso ln due dlrezlonl: come consenso lnLerno
alla comunlLa sclenLlflca - problema su cul pure sl e clmenLaLo un classlco della soclologla della
sclenza, come lo sttottoto Jelle tlvolozlool scleotlflcbe (kuhn 1962), e come consenso esLerno,
spesso Lraduclblle nel Lermlnl dl un problema dl spendlblllLa soclale della rlcerca sclenLlflca.
Cuel che e cerLo e che ln enLrambe le accezlonl, ll consenso a un deLermlnaLo modello dl
rlcerca non vlene accordaLo sulla base dl valuLazlonl meramenLe razlonall e loglche, quanLo
pluLLosLo sulla base della sua rlspondenza a domande posLe dal poLenzlall consumaLorl del
fruLLl della rlcerca. non eslsLe dunque un modello 'plu vero', semmal, eslsLe un modello plu
opporLuno. ln quesLo senso sl pu lnquadrare, per esemplo, l'ecllsse del modello wundLlano
nel quadro della pslcologla sLaLunlLense:

uopo ll 1890 - scrlve uanzlger - lo sLlle orlglnarlo dl Llpsla [.] non domln plu realmenLe la
dlsclpllna. nel mlgllore del casl, era un modello Lra gll alLrl. Mal domlnanLe, quesLo modello perse
d'lmporLanza flno quasl a scomparlre nella pslcologla amerlcana duranLe ll perlodo precedenLe la
ll guerra mondlale. (uanzlger 1990, p. 87)

ua quesLo momenLo ln pol dlvenLa premlnenLe una pslcologla ln grado dl presLarsl al flnl
appllcaLlvl:

Cl che sl persegulva era una conoscenza che poLesse essere uLlllzzaLa rapldamenLe dalle agenzle
dl conLrollo soclale ln modo da rendere ll loro lavoro plu efflclenLe e dlfendlblle ln modo
razlonale. La conoscenza che permeLLeva dl fare delle predlzlonl comporLamenLall servlva a
quesLo scopo. (lblJem)

non era cerLo quesLo ll Llpo dl conoscenza prodoLLo dagll sLudl dl sLampo wundLlano.
SoLLollneando la molLepllclLa delle prospeLLlve dl rlcerca pslcologlca nonche ll loro varlo
desLlno ln relazlone alla sLruLLura soclale, kurL uanzlger sl muove nel solco dl un'accesa
aLLlLudlne crlLlca verso la rlgldlLa degll lmperaLlvl meLodologlcl legaLl alla assoluLlzzazlone dl
approccl e prospeLLlve. L'anallsl sLorlca, ln quesLa dlrezlone, da uno sLrumenLo all'ex
sperlmenLallsLa lnsoddlsfaLLo per mosLrare come l'espresslone pslcologla sclenLlflca non possa
essere lnLesa ln modo unlvoco. La sLorla, armaLa del suo grlmaldello soclologlco, dlvlene cosl
per uanzlger uno sLrumenLo crlLlco essenzlale e poLenzlalmenLe 'sovverslvo', polche,
mosLrandone le radlcl e lo svlluppo, rlvela che l meLodl dl rlcerca sono prodoLLl umanl
quesLlonablll e non assunLl lndlscuLlblll calaLl dal clelo.
non eslsLe qulndl una sola pslcologla, un solo crlLerlo valldo dl sclenLlflclLa leglLLlmaLo sulla
base dl una pura coerenza loglca. LslsLono lnvece molLe pslcologle, dlversamenLe arLlcolaLe ln
base a dlverse lmpronLe soclall. La pslcologla sclenLlflca non e ooo, ma plurlma. Megllo allora e
parlare dl pslcologle sclenLlflche. L rlcordare come quesLe slano soclalmenLe deLermlnaLe: nel
Commentaiy -La costiuzione uel soggetto

223

parlare dl un campo come la pslcologla sclenLlflca, parllamo dl un domlnlo dl cosLruzlonl
(uanzlger 1990, p. 4).
La dlsLlnzlone (e conLrapposlzlone) fra una pslcologla lnLesa come sclenza naLurale e una
pslcologla lnLesa come sclenza umana rappresenLa dunque solo l'esLrema sempllflcazlone dl
una plurallLa dl approccl che conLraddlsLlngue la pslcologla sperlmenLale sLessa. La sLorla,
svelandolo, pu essere percl anche lnLesa, non Lroppo lndlreLLamenLe, come sLrumenLo dl
posslblle dlalogo fra le dlverse anlme della dlsclpllna.
CerLo e che dalla leLLura proposLa da uanzlger ll conceLLo dl sclenza vlene a perdere un po'
della sua aurea, guadagnaLa obbedendo a un modello muLuaLo dalle sclenze flslche, secondo
cul la conoscenza vlene rappresenLaLa come un processo cumulaLlvo dl verlLa. Sl LraLLa dl un
modello che ha lnfluenzaLo a lungo - e ancora lnfluenza - anche ll lavoro dello sLorlco:

A molLl pslcologl e sLaLo lnsegnaLo a caraLLerlzzare la proprla dlsclpllna enLro uno schema
conceLLuale che provlene dalla flslca dell'CLLocenLo. CuesLl pslcologl vedono se sLessl come
slngoll rlcercaLorl che cercano dl accumulare del faLLl su alcunl aspeLLl della naLura aLLraverso
l'uso dl lpoLesl e Lecnlche approprlaLe. Cuando descrlvono lo svlluppo sLorlco del loro campo,
Lendono a farlo pressappoco nello sLesso modo, rappresenLandolo come una successlone dl
slngoll sLudlosl che accumulano 'scoperLe' sulla base dl lpoLesl progresslvamenLe sempre plu
rafflnaLe e con l'aluLo dl sLrumenLl sempre plu soflsLlcaLl. (uanzlger 1990, p. 4)

nella prefazlone a lo costtozlooe Jel soqqetto la presa dl dlsLanza da quesLo orlenLamenLo,
Llplco dl una sLorlografla lnLernlsLa, e espllclLa. kurL uanzlger Lorna pol anche ln segulLo a
rlfleLLere sull'argomenLo, a cul dedlca un arLlcolo dal LlLolo slgnlflcaLlvo: lo stotlo Jello
pslcoloqlo bo oo fototo?. La quesLlone qul affronLaLa e sopraLLuLLo relaLlva a quale fuLuro sl
voglla rlservare alla dlsclpllna. La poslzlone dl uanzlger e chlara: se la sLorla della pslcologla
vlene asservlLa al modello delle sclenze sperlmenLall, ll suo fuLuro sl esprlmera, al megllo, ln
una forma dl buon anLlquarlaLo. La sua sara dunque una prospeLLlva molLo llmlLaLa. Se, lnvece,
gll sLorlcl non sl lasceranno sedurre dalle LenLazlonl delle cerLezze lnLernlsLe, sl poLra allora
produrre una sLorla dl plu alLo llvello. una sLorla crlLlca che menLre sl pone fuorl dal modello
sperlmenLale, ne mosLra la varlablllLa, la componenLe soggeLLlva e soclale, offrendosl sla come
velcolo dl dlalogo fra le dlverse anlme della pslcologla, sla come sLrumenLo per la colLlvazlone
dl una magglore consapevolezza professlonale.
Sl pu decldere, allora, da quale parLe sLare, quale sLorla fare. Ma che nel farlo sl sLla
operando una scelLa, e dunque un'operazlone che non ammeLLe lngenulLa. SoclalmenLe e
lsLlLuzlonalmenLe parlando, del resLo, anche qul, come alLrove, sl LraLLa pur sempre dl una
quesLlone dl consenso.

8I8LICGkAIIA
8rock, A. C., Louw, !., & van Poorn, W. (Lds.) (2004). keJlscovetloq tbe nlstoty of
lsycboloqy. ssoys losplteJ by tbe wotk of kott uoozlqet. new ?ork: kluwer.
uanzlger, k. (1971). 5oclollzotloo. London: enguln.
uanzlger, k. (1976). lotetpetsoool commoolcotloo. new ?ork: ergamon ress.
uanzlger, k. (1990). coosttoctloq tbe 5object. nlstotlcol Otlqlos of lsycboloqlcol keseotcb.
new ?ork: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.
uanzlger, k. (1994). uoes Lhe PlsLory of sychology Pave a luLure?. 1beoty ooJ lsycboloqy,
4: 467-484.


226

uanzlger, k. (1997). Nomloq tbe MloJ. now lsycboloqy loooJ lts looqooqe. London: Sage.
uanzlger, k. (2008). Motkloq tbe MloJ. A nlstoty of Memoty. new ?ork: Cambrldge
unlverslLy ress.

HUMANA.MENTE
Journal Of Philosophical Studies
ISSN: 1972 -1293
www.humanamente.eu

Humana - Mente 11 Psychology or Psychologies

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ISSUE 11 - OCTOBER 2009

Psychology or Psychologies: which

h.u. sLudenL ln hllosophy and CognlLlve Sclence, unlverslLy of Slena, lLaly

Urmai siamo tutti psicologi

Summer Scbool on 1he Soclul Self

Summer Scbool on MlnJ unJ Iunguuge.

Rutgers-Siena )oint Worksbop on MlnJ unJ Culture

1he flrsL 8uLgers-Slena !olnL Workshop on MloJ ooJ coltote Look

As noLed ln Lhe lnLroducLlon Lo Lhls volume, many foundaLlonal assumpLlons conLlnue Lo be

A shorL anecdoLe ls approprlaLe Lo lnclude ln Lhls closlng secLlon

pistemo/oqico/ 5imi/orities ond uifferences

slcoLerapeuLa, h.u. ln '8lcerche e meLodologle avanzaLe ln slcoLerapla'. CenLro !onas dl 1orlno

C8lSS Crganlzzazlone lnLerdlsclpllnare Svlluppo e SaluLe

ulparLlmenLo dl Sclenze AnLropologlche, unlverslLa degll SLudl dl Cenova

MloJ. A blstotlcol ooJ lbllosopblcol lottoJoctloo to tbe Mojot

unlverslLa degll SLudl dl llrenze

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