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In population genetics and population ecology, population size (usually denoted N) is the number of individual organisms in a population. The effective population size (Ne) is defined as "the number of breeding individuals in an idealized population that would show the same amount of dispersion of allele frequencies under random genetic drift or the same amount of inbreeding as the population under consideration." Definition: The best definition of a population size is the number of people or other living creatures within a given area. This number varies depending on the number of births and deaths at any given time.
educated before they have fewer children is being replaced by a clearer understanding of the many barriers that separate women from the knowledge and technologies they need to manage the size of their family. When these barriers are removed, family size falls even in poor, illiterate communities. Conversely, as a result of lost attention to family planning since the 1990s, the projection for the population of several countries in 2050 has been raised. Investment in family planning and education interact synergistically. It is therefore imperative that attention be given to the large and growing unmet need for family planning.
Age Structure
Categorization of the population of communities or countries by age groups, allowing demographers to make projections of the growth or decline of the particular population. Definition: The age structure of a population is the distribution of people among various ages. In graphic form, age structure is portrayed as an age pyramid whose relatively broad base indicates the number of children while the peak reflects the increasing likelihood of death as people age. A population whose age structure has a very broad base and a sharp narrow peak is said to be young, while a structure whose base is not much wider than the rest of the pyramid is old.
Effects of age-structure
Age Structure of the Workforce and Firm Performance
An important task of human resource management is the development and retention of an efficient workforce. Therefore, applicants have to be checked, whether they are in line with the requirements of a certain job. Besides, the characteristics of employees may change over time and comparative advantages differ between young and older workers. The productivity of a certain employee might be affected by her colleague. It might matter, whether this employee works together with a similar-aged colleague or with someone from a very different generation. It is important to know, whether firms with homogeneous rather than heterogeneous workforces are doing well. In 2001, the median age of Bangladesh population was about 18 years. From 1951, the death rate started declining but with little effect on birth rate. The population increased from 40.21 million in 1951, 89.9 million in 1981,109.9 million in 1991and 130.5 million in 2001. As the second phase of the theory of demographic transition has been passing through the composition of census data of 1974, 1981, 1991 and 2001 respectively, show the "baby boom" generation and slight edge of the population in the old ages.
In the context of the present characteristics of young population, the rapid population growth accompanied with the ageing of population has its impact on bio-social and socio-economic aspects of the population. The high population growth rate of Bangladesh is caused not only by current or high past fertility but also by the "momentum" created by the high fertility and falling mortality in the past five decades. In Bangladesh, the potential exists for a second-generation "baby boom" resulting from this changing age structure. Unless compensated for by a rapid fall in the fertility of younger married women, who should be reached by more effective family planning programmers and benefited by other associated socio-economic improvements, birth rates and population growth rates are unlikely to fall. In considering the future policy direction for fertility regulation, it is important to take note of this emerging phenomenon. During the transition from high to low fertility in Bangladesh, an unprecedented proportion of the population will be between the age 15 and 64 years, which are roughly the working ages. The working-age population will increase at a rate considerably higher than that of the total population, and initially the larger increments in absolute terms will be to the younger half the working ages. The rapid increase in the population in the younger working ages between 2010 and 2020 will pose a serious challenge to Bangladesh to generate sufficient employment opportunities. Similarly, the faster growth of labor-force in the coming years of this century will require longterm perspective planning for necessary adjustment in manpower planning as well as the economy in general. Changes in age structure would also imply changes in consumption patterns and level of saving and investment. Therefore, planning for production, consumption, investment, distribution and so forth should reflect the changes in age structure. Between now and 2025, the country will witness its maximum population growth. Such growth threatens severe implications not only in the alleviation of poverty but also in such matters as food supplies, employment, housing, health care, forests and other natural resources, and the environment. In conclusion, we can say that no matter what we do, the population will continue to increase over the 40 years, that with tomorrow's mother already born, even major fall in family size would mean that many more babies would be born in the following generation than the present one. As such, the age-structure of population is an important field for policy planning and policy implementers to study.
Geographical Distribution
Definition: the natural arrangement and apportionment of the various forms of animals and plants in the different regions and localities of the earth. This word doesn't usually appear in our free dictionary, but the definition from our premium Unabridged Dictionary is offered here on a limited basis. Note that some information is displayed differently in the Unabridged.
To access the complete Unabridged Dictionary, with an additional 300,000 words that aren't in our free dictionary, starts a free trial. Put simply, geographic distribution is the way plants and animals are organized within a given area. The study of geographic distribution is part of the field of biogeography, which seeks to answer not only where animals live, but the reasons behind their presence in these locations. The geographic distributions and phylogenetic relationships of surface taxa and related subterranean taxa can help to distinguish between the two key hypotheses of origin;
Ethnic Mix
Definition: People of the same race or nationality who share a distinctive culture. An ethnic group is a group of people who share a common characteristic that makes them unique to every other group. An example of an ethnic group would share the same culture or race. Ethnic group defined the term ethnic group is generally understood in anthropological literature (cf.e.g.Narroll1964) to designate a population which:
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2. Shares fundamental cultural values, Realized in overt unity in cultural forms 3. Makes up a field of communication & interaction 1. pertaining to or characteristic of a people, especially a group (ethnic group) sharing a common and distinctive culture, religion, language, or the like. 2. Referring to the origin, classification, characteristics, etc., of such groups. 4. of, pertaining to, or characteristic of members of such a group. 5. Belonging to or deriving from the cultural, racial, religious, or linguistic traditions of a people or country: ethnic dances.
Income distribution
Definition: The distribution of wages earned across a company, industry, or country. Income distribution reveals what percentage of individuals are at various wage levels, information that can reveal more about overall wage patterns than average income.
Economic Definition of income distribution Term income distribution Definition: The manner in which income is divided among the members of the economy. A perfectly equal income distribution would mean everyone in the country has exactly the same income. The income distribution in the good old U. S. of A., while more equal than most nations of the world, is far from perfectly equal. A certain amount of inequality in the income distribution is to be expected because resources are never equally distributed. Some labor is naturally going to be more productive--better able to produce the stuff that consumers want--and thus get more income. The same is true for capital, land, entrepreneurship. However, without government intervention, an unequal distribution of income tends to perpetuate itself. Those who have more income, can invest in additional productive resources, and thus can add even more to their income.
In the United States, there is plenty of evidence that this has been occurring. Bush administration policies that have already reduced the estate tax and cut the top income and capital gains tax rates benefit the well-to-do. It seems hardly an accident that the gap between rich and poor has widened. Professor Pressman relates those results to economic behavior in corporate America. "If a C.E.O.'s salary is going through the roof and workers are getting pay cuts, what will happen?" he said. "Workers can't outright reject the offer they need to work but they can reject it by working less hard and not caring about the quality of what they are producing. Then the whole efficiency of the firm is affected." THE effects of income inequality aren't entirely negative. Without some inequality, there would be little economic incentive to earn more. And some researchers, particularly advocates of supply-side theories, predict that as the rich get richer, their increased wealth will be used for greater savings and investment, thereby bolstering growth. The latest data on the American economy, though, do not seem to support this prediction.
Effects of Inflation
The most immediate effects of inflation are the decreased purchasing power of the dollar and its depreciation. Depreciation is especially hard on retired people with fixed incomes because their money buys a little less each month. Those not on fixed incomes are more able to cope because they can simply increase their fees. A second destabilizing effect is that inflation can cause consumers and investors to change their speeding habits. When inflation occurs, people tend to spend less meaning that factories have to lay off workers because of a decline in orders. A third destabilizing effect of inflation is that some people choose to speculate heavily in an attempt to take advantage of the higher price level. Because some of the purchases are high-risk investments, spending is diverted from the normal channels and some structural unemployment may take place. Finally, inflation alters the distribution of income. Lenders are generally hurt more than borrowers during long inflationary periods which mean that loans made earlier are repaid later in inflated dollars.
High inflation distorts consumer behavior. Because of the fear of price increases, people tend to purchase their requirements in advance as much as possible. This can destabilize markets creating unnecessary shortages. High inflation redistributes the income of people. The fixed income earners and those lacking bargaining power will become relatively worse off as their purchasing power falls. Trade unions may demand for higher wages at times of high inflation. If the claims are accepted by the employers, it may give rise to a wage-price spiral which may aggravate the inflation problem. During a high inflation period, wide fluctuations in the inflation rate make it difficult for business organizations to predict the future and accurately calculate prices and returns from investments. Therefore, it can undermine business confidence. When inflation in a country is more than that in a competitive country, the exports from former country will be less attractive compared to the other country. This means there will be less sales for that countrys goods both at home and abroad and that will create a larger trade deficit. At the same time, high inflation in a country weakens its competitive position in the international market.
Interest Rate
Definition: The interest rate is the yearly price charged by a lender to a borrower in order for the borrower to obtain a loan. This is usually expressed as a percentage of the total amount loaned.
In this AD/AS diagram, higher interest rates have reduced AD causing lower real GDP and lower inflation.
Trade Deficit
Definition: Excess of a nation's imports of goods (tangibles) over its export of goods during a
financial year, resulting in a negative balance of trade. Opposite of trade surplus. A trade deficit occurs when the value of a country's imports is greater than the value of its exports. This means that the country's balance of trade is negative.
That's because the industry is usually already moribund, and the skills lost, by the time these policies are suggested.
Budget deficit
Definition: The amount by which a government, company, or individual's spending exceeds its income over a particular period of time. also called deficit or deficit spending. Opposite of budget surplus. Excess of spending over income for a government, corporation, or individual over a particular period of time. A budget deficit accumulated by the federal government of the United States must be financed by the issuance of Treasury bonds .Corporate deficits must be reduced or eliminated by increasing sales and reducing expenditures, or the company will not survive in the long run. Similarly, individuals who consistently spend more than they earn will accumulate huge debts, which may ultimately force them to declare bankruptcy if the debt cannot be serviced. The opposite of a deficit is a surplus.
Sovereign Debt - Budget deficits can lead to lower sovereign debt ratings, if structural balances remain in negative territory for too long, while budget surpluses can lead to lower interest rates on sovereign debt due to an improved credit rating. Tax Code Change - Structural deficits necessitate changes to either revenues or spending, with the former being the easiest to implement. Tax increases aimed at improving these deficits can negatively impact corporations/equities. Currency Valuation - Financial markets can quickly lose faith in countries unable to resolve structural deficits, resulting in potential currency devaluations, while increased confidence in a country can lead to higher currency valuations. Increased borrowing-The govt will have to borrow from the private sector, it does this by asking the Bank of England to sell bonds and gilts to the private sector. Higher debt interest payments-Selling bonds will increase the national debt, this is currently 300 billion. The annual interest payments is approximately 23 billion, this has a high opportunity cost because it requires future generations to pay higher taxes. Increased AD-A budget deficit implies lower taxes and increased G, this will increase AD and this may cause higher Real GDP and inflation. Higher Taxes and lower spending -In the future the govt may have to increase taxes or cut spending in order to reduce the deficit. This may cause reduced incentives to work
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Increased Interest rates-If the govt sells more bonds this is likely to cause interest rates to increase. This is because they will need to increase interest rates in order to attract investors to buy the extra debt. If govt interest rates increase this will push up other interest rates as well. Crowding Out-Increased govt borrowing may cause a decrease in the size of the private sector. Inflation: o In extreme circumstances the govt may increase the money supply to pay the debt, however this is unlikely to occur in the UK o If the govt sells short term gilts to the banking sector then there will be an increase in the money supply, this is because banks see gilts as near money therefore they can maintain their lending to customers.
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Ideally, there should be a growth rate of about 6% per year. A proper way to compare GDP data year after year is to factor in inflation, deflation, and population growth. This way we can compute for real growth in the economy. If the GDP only increases in proportion with population growth, then there is no growth at all. Given such, the economy is expected to grow by 6% or more. If not, then this could be a sign that there are problems in the economy. A countrys currency is a direct reflection of its GDP. The total amount of money in a given country is equal to the total amount of its economic production. The higher the GDP, the stronger is the currency and its purchasing power. An experienced foreign trader would have to make cross country comparisons on the GDPs and the currencies of many nations. This is usually done by comparing exchange rates using global currency rates of exchange. Then by factoring trends in the market of each country, one can have a fairly good grasp of what currency is getting stronger and what currency is getting weaker. If there is a growth pattern in the GDP of one economy, then the best decision is to buy that currency because its value will increase through the years. Just make sure that this country can sustain growth through the years because it may sometimes happen that GDP growth may not be sustainable due to environmental factors and other variables. In the analysis it is best to factor in data on the Balance of Trade and Balance of Payments. If the statistics on these register a surplus through the years while GDP growth rate is 6% and higher, then one can fairly expect that the value of its currency is going to go up.
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Forming agreements or understanding that could wrongly restrict competition such as price fixing, market allocation, group boycott, and bid rigging. Discussing competitive information such as pricing policies, distribution policies, supplier pricing or selection, customer selection or classification, credit policies, advertising policies and other critical information is strictly prohibited. Meeting with competitors to agree or discuss competitive information is not allowed.
With regards to a business dealing with customers, antitrust laws, generally, prohibit the following: 1. Selection of customers an effective example of this would be a company who does not cater to customers that also deal with competitors. 2. Non-Price Restrictions restrictions that do not involve price e.g., a customer can resell the company's products only to approved or designated persons. Of course, the rule of reason applies to this restriction. So it is up to the company to determine if the restriction is within required limits approved by law. 3. Resale Price Maintenance it is unlawful for the companys customer to set the resale price of the product. But this rule again is subject to rule of reason. This practice may be legal but up to a certain degree or within reasonable bounds. 4. Price discrimination seller must treat all buyers without discrimination in price. Exceptions to this rule are:
Meeting competition rule that is a seller is allowed to lower the price set to a particular customer to counter competitors low price. Cost justification proper documentation is necessary for proof
Services, Facilities and Promotional Allowances all of these must be available all purchasers. Exclusive Dealing Arrangements commits the buyer to buy most or all of its products from a particular seller. Tying arrangements this practice conditions the sale of a product to purchase a different product or service from the same company (Keeley, et al. 2005). It is important for a company to consider the above prohibitions before going into business with a customer or in dealing with its competitors. Management decisions must take the antitrust laws into account in order to prevent sanctions or other grave penalties should violations occur. On the part of the customers, the introduction of antitrust legislation enables the consumers to enjoy lower prices, better product diversity, giving them more choices. Since the influence of large cartels is decreased, they need to compete effectively by catering to the customers needs. Businesses, on the other hand, especially those that are just starting are assured that large businesses could not put them out of business. In the long run, this would provide ample opportunities for the business to grow.
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Antitrust does not only favor the customers. In a way, it helps the competing companies too because it enables them to use resources available to them in the most efficient way. They make profits by offering the products consumers are looking for at the price consumers are willing to pay for the amount they need to buy.
Tax Law
Definition: Tax law refers to the rules constituting the law applicable to taxation. In the United States, these rules include the Internal Revenue Code and other statutes, regulations, the Constitution and common-law court decisions. Tax law also refers to the area of legal study regarding these rules.
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ordinary income. You may also prefer to consider real estate investments, if you want a more tax-free way of earning income. Other individuals may also try to take advantage of tax deferred investments or investments that offer certain tax advantages. For example, you may opt to open an IRA, which allows you to invest tax free, or a Roth IRA, which allows you to enjoy tax free gains, depending on whether you believe your tax bracket is likely to rise or fall. The impact of taxes on investments generally depends on how much have to invest and how sophisticated an investor. You should consider speaking to a financial planner or accountant or tax attorney, if you have a lot of money to invest and are concerned about how taxes will affect your gains.
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motivations of such training: improved business success could empower female micro entrepreneurs with respect to their husbands/partners in business and family decisions by giving them more control of their finances. The link to child labor is ambiguous, however. Since many children work in family enterprises, this is an important outcome to observe. The training may lead to changes in the business which either increase or decrease the marginal product of labor, hence increase or decrease child labor through a substitution effect. If the training increases business income, then we expect increased wealth to lead to a decrease in child labor and an increase in schooling. Furthermore, an indirect effect may occur in which the training inspires the mother to value education more and thus invest more in schooling of her children. n addition to impact on the clients businesses and households, the training could impact important outcomes for the microfinance institution (MF ). f clients businesses improve, they are more able to repay their loans. The training also may engender goodwill and sentiments of reciprocity, also leading to higher repayment rates. Loan sizes and savings volumes are more ambiguous: if clients learn how to manage their cash flows better, they perhaps will need less debt. On the other hand, the business training may lead them to expand their business, and thus also demand more financial capital. Although much of the academic literature focuses on repayment rates for microfinance, many are more concerned with client retention. The expected effects here are ambiguous. If clients like the training, they may be more likely to remain in the program in order to receive the training, whereas obviously if they do not like the training they may be more likely to leave. The net effect is critical for the microfinance institution, since maintaining a stable client base is important for the sustainability of the organization.
Philosophy of education
Philosophy of education can refer to either the academic field of applied philosophy or to one of any educational philosophies that promote a specific type or vision of education, and/or which examine the definition, goals and meaning of education. As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its problems...its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy". The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be meta disciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline."
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IMPACT was launched in 1999 as an initiative of the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain (PESGB). Written by leading general philosophers and philosophers of education,
IMPACT provides a unique forum for the analysis of education policy and practice from a philosophical perspective, and will be of interest to policy-makers, politicians, practitioners, academics and students alike. The launch of each pamphlet has been accompanied by a symposium for policy makers and others at which issues raised in the pamphlets have been further explored. These have been attended by Government ministers, Shadow ministers and other MPs, by members of a wide range of organizations including the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, the Institute of Directors, the Trades Union Congress, the General Teaching Council, the National Union of Teachers, the National Society, Polities, Civitas and Demos, and by leading educational journalists and academics. IMPACT pamphlets express the ideas of their authors and do not represent the views of the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain. The Society has several hundred members whose views are widely disparate. Part of the explanation for this diffuse state-of-affairs is that, quite reasonably, most philosophers of education have the goal (reinforced by their institutional affiliation with Schools of Education and their involvement in the initial training of teachers) of contributing not to philosophy but to educational policy and practice. This shapes not only their selection of topics, but also the manner in which the discussion is pursued; and this orientation also explains why philosophers of educationto a far greater degree, it is to be suspected, than their pure cousinspublish not in philosophy journals but in a wide range of professionally-oriented journals. Some individuals work directly on issues of classroom practice, others identify as much with fields such as educational policy analysis, curriculum theory, teacher education, or some particular subject-matter domain such as math or science education, as they do with philosophy of education. It is still fashionable in some quarters to decry having one's intellectual agenda shaped so strongly as this by concerns emanating from a field of practice; but as Stokes (1997) has made clear, many of the great, theoretically-fruitful research programs in natural science had their beginnings in such practical concernsas Pasteur's groundbreaking work illustrates. It is dangerous to take the theory versus practice dichotomy too seriously. However, there is another consequence of this institutional housing of the vast majority of philosophers of education that is worth notingone that is not found in a comparable way in philosophers of science.
Deregulation Philosophies
Deregulation Philosophies -as a linchpin of economic structure reformDeregulation will 1) Enable improvement of the level of the quality of life of citizens by reducing price differences between Japan and foreign nations and by providing larger choices for products and services,
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2) Open a way for reform of economic structures propelled by the entrepreneurship through eliminating, as much as possible, government interference in private sector business activities, 3) Enable government sector get over their financial difficulties by streamlining their operations and make it possible to distinguish between function of the government and function of private sector, and 4) Contribute to improve relationship with foreign
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