Physics 621 & 622, 2008-2009

Advanced Electrodynamics
Instructor: Dr. Marco Cavaglia
Notes Compiled by: Phil Blom
Text Used:
Classical Electrodynamics by J.D. Jackson
Last updated: May 26, 2009
1
Contents
1 Introduction - Foundations of Electromagnetism 12
1.1 Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
I Electrostatics 12
2 The Basic Assumptions of Electrostatics 13
3 The Dirac Delta Function 14
3.1 Properties of the Dirac Delta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4 The Greens Function 16
4.1 More Solutions Using the Greens Function Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2 Special Case - Point Like Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3 More Dicult Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5 Interpretation of the Potential 20
6 The Electric Field on a Surface - Deriving Boundary Conditions 20
7 Denition of Potential Energy in a Charge Distribution 21
8 Electrostatics in the Presence of Continuous Media - Conductors 22
8.1 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9 Dipole Layer 23
10 Poisson Equation With Boundary Conditions - Greens Identity 25
10.1 Dirichlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
10.2 Neumann Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
10.3 Example of a Greens Formula Problem - Planar Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
11 Mean Value Theorem 27
2
12 Methods for 2 - Dimensional Problems 28
13 Method of Images 29
13.1 Point Charge Near A Conducting Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
14 Finding the Greens Function For a Sphere From the Image Solution 31
14.1 Conductive Sphere With Fixed Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
14.2 Sphere With Two Charges On A Line - Sphere In External Field . . . . . . . . . . . 32
14.3 Spherical Conductor with Dierent Potentials on Hemispheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
15 Orthogonal Functions and Expansions 33
15.1 Fourier Series Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
15.2 Polynomial Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
15.3 Innite Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
15.4 Applications and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
15.5 Two Dimensional Problems Solved With Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
16 Poissons Equation In Other Coordinate Systems - Spherical Coordinates 38
16.1 Boundary Value Problems With Azimuthal Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
16.2 Conic Holes and Sharp Points - Note: Will not be on tests or homework . . . . . . . 41
16.3 Azimuthal Variations - The Spherical Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
16.4 The Addition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
16.5 Greens Function Expansion For a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
16.6 Examples of Problems Solved With Spherical Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
17 Poissons Equation In Other Coordinate Systems - Cylindrical Coordinates 49
17.1 Simplications For Dierent Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17.2 An Example - A Hollow Conductive Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17.3 Modied Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
18 Some Mathematics - Getting Greens Functions From A Generic Operator 51
19 Multipole Expansions In Electrostatics 52
3
19.1 Multipole Treatment of a Dipole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
20 Transition To Non-negligible Media 56
20.1 An Alternate Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
20.2 More On Electrostatics In Real Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
21 Energy of a Dielectric in an External Field 61
22 A Theoretical Model For Polarization 62
23 Summary of Equations For Problems Involving Dielectrics 63
24 Solving Problems With Dielectrics 64
24.1 Method of Images - Planar Boundary With a Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
24.2 Dielectric Sphere In External Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
II MAGNETOSTATICS 68
25 Introduction to Magnetostatics 68
25.1 Gauge Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
26 Deriving the Magnetic Field 69
26.1 Force on a Charged Particle From a Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
26.2 Magnetic Field From a Circular Loop of Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
26.3 First Order Approximation of the Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
27 Current Density For a Group of Moving Charges 75
28 Force and Torque From an External Magnetic Field 76
29 Transition To Macroscopic Magnetostatics 77
29.1 Relations between H, B, and M - Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
29.2 Some Important Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
30 Energy In An External Magnetic Field 80
4
30.1 Special Case - Change in Energy of a Region When a Material Is Inserted . . . . . . 81
31 Behavior of Various Materials In a Magnetic Field 82
31.1 Paramagnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
31.2 Ferromagnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
32 Summary of Problem Solving Methods 85
32.1 Free Space Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
32.2 Magnetization Known With No Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
32.3 No Current, but no given magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
32.4 Example: Uniformly Magnetized Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
33 Additional Topics In Magnetostatics 87
33.1 Magnetic Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
33.2 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
33.3 Quasistatics Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
33.4 Faradays Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
III TRANSITION TO NON-STATICS 91
34 Modications To Potentials For Non-Statics 91
35 Simplications By Gauge Transformations 92
35.1 Gauge Transforms in Non-Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
35.2 Separating the Transverse and Longitudinal Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
35.3 Summary of Gauge Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
36 Magnetic Monopoles 94
37 Special Symmetries - Parity and Time Inversion 96
37.1 Example - Expansion for Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
38 Energy in an Electromagnetic Field - The Poynting Vector 97
5
39 Momentum in the Electromagnetic Field 98
39.1 Angular Momentum in the Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
39.2 Radiation Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
40 Time Average of Vector Products 100
IV SPECIAL RELATIVITY AND TENSORS IN ELECTROSTATICS 102
41 Transition to Semester II 102
41.1 Review of First Semester: Maxwells Equations and Gauge Transforms . . . . . . . . 102
41.2 Introduction of Gaussian Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
42 Propagation in a Vacuum - Introduction to Special Relativity 104
43 The Lorentz Transform 105
43.1 Deriving the Lorentz Transform Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
43.2 Properties of the Lorentz Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
43.3 The Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
43.4 New Notation - The 4 Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
43.5 The Boost Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
44 Space-Time Diagrams 110
44.1 The Line Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
44.2 Some More Interesting Cases - Moving Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
44.3 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
45 Introduction to Tensors 114
45.1 Matrix Representation of Lorentz Transformations - Innitesimal Generators . . . . 114
45.2 Tensor Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
45.3 Building Tensors from Other Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
45.4 Raising and Lowering Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
45.5 Some Special Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
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46 Back to Electromagnetism 122
46.1 Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
46.2 Lorentz Transform of the Electromagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
46.3 Lorentz Force in Invariant Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
47 The Lagrangian In Electrodynamics 129
47.1 The Action and Lagrangian For A Relativistic Free Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
47.2 The Lagrangian For A Charged Particle With Minimal Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . 132
48 Hamiltonian Dynamics in Electromagnetism 133
48.1 The Minimal Coupling Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
48.2 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
48.3 Lagrangian Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
48.4 Results of Hamiltonian Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
49 Solving Problems Using Tensor Notation 136
49.1 Relativistic Doppler Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
49.2 Particle in an Uniform Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
50 The Lagrangian of the Electromagnetic Field 139
50.1 Gauge Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
51 Massive Photons and the Proca Lagrangian Density 141
51.1 The Proca Lagrangian
A Phenomenological Description of Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
52 Symmetries and Invariant Equations of Motion 144
52.1 More on Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
52.2 Generalize The Result for Fields - The Stress Energy Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
52.3 Deriving the Components of the Stress Energy Tensor for Electromagnetic Fields . . 147
53 Finding a General Solution to the Maxwell Equations 149
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V SPECIAL CASES 153
54 Plane Waves 153
54.1 Plane Wave Solutions Of Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
54.2 Polarization of Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
54.3 Plane Waves In Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
54.4 Energy Contained in Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
54.5 Plane Waves Incident on a Boundary Between Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
54.6 Plane Wave Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
54.7 Wave Packets - Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
54.8 Wave Packet Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
54.9 Modeling the Index of Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
54.10Relating the Displacement Field to the Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
55 Geometric Optics 175
55.1 The Approximations and Assumptions of Geometric Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
55.2 Consequences of Geometric Optics
Fermats Theorem and Generalization of Snells Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
55.3 Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
56 Wave Guides 181
56.1 General Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
56.2 Solving problems in a waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
56.3 Energy Flow in a Wave Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
56.4 Resonant Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
57 Solutions with Sources 190
57.1 Deriving the Electric and Magnetic Field for Relativistic Particles . . . . . . . . . . 195
57.2 Interesting Cases - Linear and Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
57.3 Power Loss Per Unit Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
57.4 Application - Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
57.5 Back Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8
58 Localized Sources 206
58.1 The Near (Static) Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
58.2 The Intermediate Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
58.3 The Far Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
59 Scattering 212
59.1 Oscillating Scatterers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
59.2 Scattering In A Medium - Diraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
VI Summary of Semester I 218
60 Electrostatics 219
60.1 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
60.2 Methods for Working Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
61 Magnetostatics 220
61.1 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
61.2 Methods for Working Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
VII Summary of Semester II 223
62 Special Relativity 223
63 Tensors and Lorentz Invariant Forms 223
64 Hamiltonian Dynamics in Electromagnetism 224
65 Special Cases 225
65.1 Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
65.2 Geometric Optics and Wave Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
65.3 Solutions with Sources (Radiation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
VIII Greens Functions and Reference Equations 231
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66 Greens Functions for Nabla Squared 231
66.1 Free Space Greens Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
66.2 Unique Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
67 Greens Function for the Helmholtz Operator 232
68 Expansions 233
IX Homework Assignments (Problems only) 234
69 Semester 1 234
69.1 Homework 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
69.2 Homework 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
69.3 Homework 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
69.4 Homework 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
69.5 Homework 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
69.6 Homework 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
69.7 Homework 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
69.8 Homework 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
69.9 Homework 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
69.10Homework 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
69.11Homework 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
70 Semester 2 245
70.1 Homework 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
70.2 Homework 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
70.3 Homework 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
70.4 Homework 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
70.5 Homework 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
70.6 Homework 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
70.7 Homework 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
70.8 Homework 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
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70.9 Homework 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11
Monday - 8/25
1 Introduction - Foundations of Electromagnetism
1.1 Maxwells Equations
Solve them by the end of the semester...

E =

B = 0

E +


B
t
= 0

B =
0

j +
1
c
2

E
t
Additional Equations include the conservation of charges and the Lorentz Force.

t
+

j = 0

F = q
_

E + v

B
_
Variable denitions:

E(x, y, z, t) = electric eld

B(x, y, z, t) = magnetic eld

(x, y, z, t) = charge density
j(x, y, z, t) = current density

0
,
0
= constants
Electromagnetism is a Gauge Theory meaning that there is a hidden symmetry that can be found
with some analysis of the equations. In the language of group theory, the equations forms an
Abelian group. From the equations above, it is easily seen that Electromagnetism is a linear rst-
order theory as well. There is no dependence on terms such as

E
2
, 1/

E, or other nonlinear functions.
This means that the equations for many problems are solvable without strong computational needs
or numerical approximations.
12
Part I
Electrostatics
2 The Basic Assumptions of Electrostatics
In general, it is understood that the terms and j are the sources for elds dened as

E and

B. If
we neglect one of these sources, we can begin by studying one of the simplest of cases: Electrostatics.
If there is no current, then we can assume that the elds are static in time, thus:
j =


E
t
=


B
t
= 0
These assumptions yield a new set of equations, the Electric and Magnetic elds are decoupled, and
if we assume the magnetic eld is zero, the resulting equations for the electric eld are:

E =

E = 0

F = q

E
Next, we assume that the electric eld has both direction and magnitude dependent on its geometric
location and therefore it can be written as

E = [E
x
(x, y, z), E
y
(x, y, z), E
z
(x, y, z)]. Then, if we
rotate the coordinate system so that the electric eld at some point (x, y, z) points only in the new
x direction. Now the electric eld can be written as:

E

= [E

x
(x, y, z), 0, 0]. Then, taking the curl
of this electric eld (which by the equations above must be zero), one has:

E = det

i

j

k

x
E
x
(x, y, z) 0 0

=
E
x
z

E
x
y
= 0

E
x
z
=
E
x
y
= 0
And so the electric eld can be written as a function depending only on the x coordinate. And so
we can write for some scalar function that

E = [E
x
(x), 0, 0]

E =
and this leads to the new problem of solving for the potential :
( ) = 0
( ) =

2
=

0
13
This new equation is the Poisson Equation and states the general problem involved in solving
electrostatics:

2
( x) =
( x)

0
3 The Dirac Delta Function
The dirac function is dened as an improper function such that:
_

(x a)f(x)dx = f(a)
and if we let f(x) = 1 and a = 0, we have the normalization of the delta function:
_

(x)dx = 1
Mathematicians Denition: can be dened by a distribution of functions. Consider the functions
g
1
(x), g
2
(x), . . . , g
n
(x) and let n . In most cases, this limit will not exist, however, if we
consider instead:
lim
n
_
b
a
f(x)g
n
This value is bounded as the limit is taken. Because of this, we can dene the delta function as the
limit of any distribution of functions g
n
(x) where:
(x) = lim
n
g
n
(x)dx; g
n
(x) = nG(xn)
Where G(x) is a function that is bounded, even, and normalized to unity. Two examples of this
are:
G(x) =
1

1
1 +x
2
g
n
(x) =
n

1
1 + (nx)
2
lim
n
_

f(x)
n

1
1 + (nx)
2
dx = f(0)
G(x) =
1

sin(x)
x
g
n
(x) =
1

sin(nx)
x
(x) = lim
n
1

sin(nx)
x
dx = lim
n
1
2ix
_
e
inx
e
inx
_
=
1
2
_

e
ikx
dk
14
3.1 Properties of the Dirac Delta Function
Some properties of the dirac delta function include:
(x) = (x)
(ax) =
1
[a[
(a)
(x x
0
)f(x) = (x x
0
)f(x
0
)
x(x) = 0
(f(x)) =

i
(x x
i
)
y

(x
i
)
_

(x)f(x)dx =
_

(x)f

(x)dx = f

(0)
Homework: A Problem To Try:
d
dx
ln(x) =
1
x
; x ,= 0
What about at zero?
Wednesday - 8/27
Solution to problem:
Integrate whole equation around zero and try to smooth out the singularity point:
_

d
dx
ln(x)dx =
_

1
x
dx
The right hand side evaluates to zero on the region from to + and the left hand side is:
_

d
dx
ln(x)dx = ln(x)[

= ln() ln()
But we can write the term instead as: = 1[[ = [[e
i
and then the above is simply:
ln() ln([[) ln(e
i
) = 0 i
this leads to the result that i = 0 which is obviously not possible, so the right hand side of the
above must have a missing contribution at x = 0. That is:
d
dx
ln(x) =
1
x
i(x)
15
Next, we need to generalize the Dirac Delta function into three dimensions. this is easy enough in
Cartesian coordinates.
_ _ _
f(x, y, z)(x)(y)(z)dxdydz = f(0, 0, 0)
_

3
( x x

)f( x)d
3
x = f( x

)
In other coordinate systems, we need only to account for additional terms in the volume element.
Of particular interest are Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates:
_
d
3
cyl
x =
_

0
rdr
_
2
0
d
_

dz
3
cyl
( r) =
(r r

)
r
(

)(z z

)
_
d
3
sph
x =
_

0
r
2
dr
_

0
d cos
_
2
0

3
sph
( r) =
(r r

)
r
2
(cos cos

)(

)
4 The Greens Function
Recall the Poisson Equation that we derived previously and consider writing in an integral rep-
resentation:

2
=
( r)

0
=
_
( r)

0
f( x

, x)d
3
x

Then, plugging this into the Poisson Equation, we can move the derivatives inside the integral since
they are dierent variables x and x

which are being used.

2
x
=
_
(

2
x
f( x

, x)d
3
x

( x)

0
=
_
(

2
x
f( x

, x)d
3
x

This leads to the condition that:

( x) =
_
( x

)
2
x
f( x

, x)d
3
x

Under closer examination, this result is the same as that of the Dirac Delta function. Therefore, if
we choose f( x, x

) to be a Greens Function of the operator

2
then it satises:

2
x
f( x, x

) = ( x x

)
thus the potential function ( x) is can be found by the above relation that:
=
_
( r)

0
f( x

, x)d
3
x

16
By setting x

= 0 and noting the rotational invariance of the forces, we can write the above as:

2
=
1
r
2

r
_
r
2

r
_
+L

2
f(r) =
1
r
2

r
_
r
2

r
_
f(r) = (r); r ,= 0
Checking the region away from r = 0 we can see that:
1
r
2
d
dr
_
r
2
d
dr
_
f(r) = 0 r
2
d
dr
f(r) = k
df
dr
=
k
r
2
f( x, x

) =
k
[ x x

[
; x ,= x

Finally, using the same trick as with the homework problem above, we can integrate around the
inhomogeneous area (in this case, around a sphere at 0 or radius ). That is:
_
b
0
_

2
f = (x)
_
d
3
x
R.H.S. = 1
L.H.S. =
_
b
0

2
fd
3
x =
_
b
0
f ndA
The integral is now over only the surface of the sphere and we can recall that f =
k
r
so then
f =
k
r
2
which leaves the integral as:
_
b
0
k
R
2
R
2
d = 4k k =
1
4
Therefore the Greens function for
2
x
is:
f( x, x

) =
1
4
1
[ x x

[
And nally, the potential is:
( x) =
1
4
0
_
( x

)
[ x x

[
d
3
x

17
Friday - 8/29
4.1 More Solutions Using the Greens Function Solution
Recall the Poisson Equation and the Greens Function solution we derived previously,

2
( x) =
( x)

0
( x) =
1
4
0
_
( x

)
[ x x

[
d
3
x

This solution is for the inhomogeneous problem. In order to get the most general solution, we need
to solve the homogeneous problem:

2
( x) = 0
In order to get the vector eld

E we need to refer to the denition:

E = =
x
_
1
4
0
_
( x

)
[ x x

[
d
3
x

_
=
1
4
0
_
( x

)
x
1
[ x x

[
d
3
x

This derivative is simply shown to be:

x
1
[ x x

[
=
x x

[ x x

[
3
Which gives:

E =
1
4
0
_
( x

)
x x

[ x x

[
3
d
3
x

4.2 Special Case - Point Like Charges

For point like charges, the charge density distribution can be written as:
( x) =

i
q
i
( x x
i
)
for each of i charges. Lets assume there is only one charge in the universe and it is located at a
point x
0
. Then,
( x) = q( x x
0
)
18
In this case, we have:

E =
1
4
0
_
q( x

x
0
)
x x

[ x x

[
3
d
3
x

=
q
4
0
x x
0
[ x x
0
[
3
In the case that x
0
is the origin of the coordinate system, then this can be written as:

E =
q
4
0
r e
r
[r[
3
=
q
4
0
1
r
2
e
r
Alternately, we can plug the denition of ( x) straight into the Poisson Equation, this gives:

2
( x) =
q

0
( x x
0
)
2
_

0
q
( x)
_
= ( x x
0
)
So, the general solution here is the Greens Function for above.
4.3 More Dicult Cases
Next, well consider how to write ( x) for non-point like charge distributions. Consider a rod of
charge from x = a to x = a. If the rod has total charge Q then we need to take only values at
z = 0 and y = 0 and x from a to a. So that means:
= A(z)(y)(a [x[)
The coecient A can be found by integrating the charge density. If we integrate over all space,
then we should get the total charge.
Q =
_
A(z)(y)(a [x[)d
3
x = A(1)(1)(2a) = LA A = Q/L
From this information we can see that the units of the delta function are inverse length and the
step function is unitless. So, the charge distribution does indeed have units of charge over volume.
=
Q
L
(z)(y)(a [x[)
From this result, we can derive a simplied method for nding the

E eld,
_ _

E =

0
_
=
_
V

E ndA =
Q

0
19
5 Interpretation of the Potential
Finally, we can discuss exactly what is. Consider a eld

E with a charged particle moving in it.
The work done in moving the particle from point a to point b is:
W =
_
b
a

F d

l = q
_
b
a

E d

l = q
_
b
a
d

l
= q
_
b
a
d

l = [(b) (a)]q
Therefore, as expected, the work in moving a charged particle in a complete loop is zero because
when a = b, W = 0.
Monday - 9/1 - No Class, Labor Day.
Wednesday - 9/3
6 The Electric Field on a Surface - Deriving Boundary Conditions
Consider Gauss Law for a surface of charged material. Firstly, we can dene the charge density on
the surface as ( x):
( x) = ( x n)( x n, ( x n) n)
The delta function picks out only points which lie on the surface and the function characterizes
the charge distribution on the surface. For reference, in the case that the surface of interest is a
plane, we can dene the plane to be orientated in the XP plane and the above becomes simply
( x) = (z)(x, y)
We can plug this into Gauss Law and get:
_
S

E ndS =
1

_
V
( x n)( x n, ( x n) n)dV
The right hand side becomes an integral over the surface because of the delta function, so this can
be written as:
_
S

E n
1

0
( x n, ( x n) n)dS = 0
20
The integral must be zero, and therefore the integrand itself must be zero. However, the

E eld on
the surface is actually dependent on both the eld above and below the surface. So nally, we have
that for a charged surface the normal components of the eld are discontinuous:
_

E
2

E
1
_
n =
1

So what about the tangential components? Consider a complete path passing through a charged
surface. In such a case, we can state that
_

E d

l = 0 because we are completing a full loop in

the eld. Because of this, we can take the four sides of the rectangular path into consideration
separately. This integrates to: L
1
E
2
+L
2
E

+L
3
E
1
+L
4
E

= 0 where E
1
and E
2
are the projected
elds along the path (that is the tangential component). If we shrink the height of the path, then
the lengths of L
2
and L
4
will go to zero. Further, because we are integrating along the loop in a
constant direction we can state that L
1
= L
3
and so the above will become L
1
(E
1
E
2
) = 0 and
because the length is not zero, we have the solution that the tangential components are continuous
across such a boundary. So, to summarize:
_

E
2

E
1
_
n =
1

0
;
_

E
2

E
1
_
n = 0
This result summarizes the behavior of the

E eld on either side of a surface which contains a
charge distribution .
We can plug this denition for the charge distribution into the integral form of :
( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
( x

)
[ x x

[
d
3
x

=
1
4
0
_
S
( x

)
[ x x

[
d
2
x

7 Denition of Potential Energy in a Charge Distribution

We can dene the Potential Energy of a charge distribution as
W =
1
2
_
( x)( x)d
3
x =
1
8
0
_
( x)d
3
x
_
( x

)
[ x x

[
d
3
x

where weve included the factor of

1
2
to account for the fact that were considering the potential of
a distribution from itself. In the case of a distribution in some external potential, the factor would
not be necessary. Consider a system of point charges. In the system of n point like charges, we
can write the charge distribution as ( x) =

n
i=1
( x x
i
) where x
i
is the location of the i
th
point
charge. Plugging this into the above equation for the potential yields:
W =
1
8
0

ij
q
i
q
j
[ x
i
x
j
[
21
This seems alright at rst, however, consider the case where i = j. In this case, the denominator
blows up. This is due to the fact that classical electrodynamics is not equipped to properly deal
with point sources. In order to get a physical results, we have to take the potential and subtract
out the self energy. The physical potential of a charge distribution is then:
W
phys
=
1
8
0

i=j
q
i
q
j
[ x
i
x
j
[
We can use a separate analysis to nd the energy density w for a distribution of charge. We know
from denition that

E = , and that
2
= /
0
. From this we can write:
W =
1
2
_

2

0
d
3
x =

0
2
_
d
3
x =

0
2
_
[

E[
2
d
3
x
w =

0
2
[

E[
2
8 Electrostatics in the Presence of Continuous Media - Conductors
Inside of a conductor, the

E eld is 0 (this will be proved next). Because of this, we can consider
the eld on either side of the boundary (shell) of the conductor and see that:
_

E
2

E
1
_
n =

0
=
_

E
2
0
_
n =

0
w =

0
2
_

0
_
2
Thus, the potential energy density for a conductor with surface charge can be written as:
w =

2
2
0
PROOF: The

E eld inside of a conductor is zero.
Consider a complete path near a conductor which passes out of and in to the conductor at points
a and b respectively. For this loop, it must hold that:
_

E d

l = 0
_
b
a

E
inside
d

l +
_
a
b

E
surface
d

l = 0
Because the charge on the conductor is evenly distributed (there are no isolated areas of excess
charge) it is possible to choose the locations of a and b so that (a) = (b) and the second integral
is zero. In this case, regardless of the path chosen for the inside portion of the conductor, the

E
eld inside must be zero. Thus the eld inside of a conductor is zero.
22
8.1 Capacitance
Consider a series of point charges as before: =

i
q
i
(x x
i
). Plugging this into the denition
for one gets the relation:
( x) =

i
q
i

i
,
i
=
1
4
0
1
[ x x
i
[
In the case that there are multiple conductors, the sum of the above can be written:
V
j
=

i
Q
i
P
ij
Q
i
=

j
C
ij
V
j
, C = P
1
Friday - 9/5
9 Dipole Layer
Consider a thin separation between conducting surfaces. Assume that the charge density on the
top and bottom surface is ( x) and ( x) respectively and the surfaces are separated by a distance
d( x). If we dene the origin to be some other location (see notes for illustrations) then we can
dene the following vectors:
x = location of observer.
x

= location of upper layer edge.

x

= x

d n location of lower layer edge.

x x

= separation of observer and upper edge of Dipole Layer.

d( x) n = x x

= separation between the two layers (with normal n)

= angle between x x

and d n.
The potential from this arrangement can be written as:
( x) =
1
4
0
_
S
( x

)
[ x x

[
d
2
x

( x) =
1
4
0
_
S

( x

)
[ x x

[
da

1
4
0
_
S

( x

)
[ x x

[
da

Using the above relation for the vector x

we can write this as:

( x) =
1
4
0
_
S

( x

)
_
1
[ x x

[

1
[ x x

+d n[
_
da

If we assume that d n is much small than x x

, then we can expand this as:

23
1
[ v a[
=
1
_
(v
1
+a
1
)
2
+ (v
2
+a
2
)
2
+ (v
3
+a
3
)
2
=
1
_
v
2
1
+v
2
2
+v
2
3
+a
2
1
+a
2
2
+a
2
3
+ 2(v
1
a
1
+v
2
a
2
+v
3
a
3
)
=
1

v
2
+ a
2
+ 2 v a
=
1
[ v[
_
1 + 2
v a
| v|
+
_
| a|
| v|
_
2
And approximating for small [ a[ we can write:
1
[ v a[

1
[ v[
_
1 +
a v
[ v[
2
+O([ a[
2
_
1
[ v a[

1
[ v[
_
1 + a
1
[ v[
+O([ a[
2
_
This turns the above expression for the potential into:
( x)
1
4
0
_
S

( x

)
_
1
[ x x

[

1
[ x x

[
d n
x
1
[ x x

[
_
da

=
1
4
0
_
S

( x

)
_
d n
x
1
[ x x

[
_
da

Another trick we can use is to change the variable were dierentiating by:
z
f(z z
0
) =
z
0
f(z
z
0
). This leaves us with,
=
1
4
0
_
S

( x

)
_
d n
x

1
[ x x

[
_
da

We can then evaluate the derivative and also dene a new function D( x) to simplify our equation:
(

)d = D(

1
[ x x

[
=
x x

[ x x

[
3
=
1
4
0
_
S

D( x

)
n ( x x

)
[ x x

[
3
da

We know from our information above that the angle between n and x x

is . So then we can
write:
n ( x x

) = [ x x

[ cos
24
Finally, we can use the geometry of the observers location we can write the solid angle which the
observer would see as:
d =
cos
[ x x

[
2
da

So the potential from the Dipole layer at some observers point x can be written as:
( x) =
1
4
0
_
D( x

)d
10 Poisson Equation With Boundary Conditions - Greens Identity
Starting with the divergence theorem:
_
V

Ad
3
x =
_
V
n

Ad
2
x
one can dene A
1
= , A
2
= . We can then apply both to the above and subtract the two
equations:
_
V
( ) d
3
x =
_
V
( n n ) d
2
x
_
V
_

2
+
2

_
d
3
x =
_
V
(( n ) ( n )) d
2
x
_
V
_

2

2

_
d
3
x =
_
V
_

n
_
d
2
x
Now, well assume that in this equation is the potential, and is a Greens function of the operator

2
.

2
=

2
= 4
(3)
( x x

)
So then the above becomes:
_
V
4
(3)
( x x

0
d
3
x =
_
V
_

n
_
d
2
x
And collecting terms, we obtain Greens Formula:
25
( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
( x

)G( x x

)d
3
x

+
1
4
_
V
_
G( x x

n
( x

)
G
n
_
d
2
x

10.1 Dirichlet Boundary Conditions

If on the surface of the boundary is known, then we can use the Dirichlet Greens function which
is dened as G
D
( x x

) = 0 for x on V . In this case,

=
V ol

1
4
_
V
(V

)
G
D
n
d
2
x

The Dirichlet Greens Function can be derived by:

G
D
=
1
[ x x

[
+( x x

);
2
= 0
10.2 Neumann Boundary Conditions
If the

E eld on the surface is known, then is known and we can use Neumann conditions. The
resultant for this case is:
=
V ol
+
1
4
_
V
G
N
( x x

)
( x

)
n
d
2
x

+
1
S
_
( x

)d
2
x

=
V ol
+
1
4
_
V
G
N
( x x

)
( x

)
n
d
2
x

+ <
V
>
10.3 Example of a Greens Formula Problem - Planar Conductor
Monday - 9/8 Consider a distribution of charge near a conducting plane where the potential is
equal to V
0
(which could be zero if the conductor is grounded). The Greens function associated
with this condition is a Dirichlet Greens Function:
G
D
( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

[

1
[ x x

[
x

= (x

, y

, z

); x

= (x

, y

, z

)
This Greens function is zero on the surface. Therefore in this case we can write the potential as:
( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
( x

)
_
1
[ x x

[

1
[ x x

[
_

1
4
_
V
V
0
G
D
n
d
2
x

26
Lets check a simple case of a point charge over a conducting plane at z = d. The charge distribution
can then be written as: ( x) = q( x

d);

d = (0, 0, d). The potential comes out to be:
( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
q( x

d)
_
1
[ x x

[

1
[ x x

[
_
d
3
x
1
4
_
V
V
0
G
D
n
d
2
x

( x) =
q
4
0
_
1
_
x
2
+y
2
+ (z d)
2

1
_
x
2
+y
2
+ (z +d)
2
_

V
0
4
_
V

_
1
_
x
2
+y
2
+ (z

d)
2

1
_
x
2
+y
2
+ (z

+d)
2
_
dx

dy

In the case that the conducting plane is grounded, then V

0
= 0 and the above simply becomes:
( x) =
q
4
0
_
1
_
x
2
+y
2
+ (z d)
2

1
_
x
2
+y
2
+ (z +d)
2
_
Which is a method known as image charge since there is a second charge located as a distance
d below the plane and the resulting potential is the combination of the two.
11 Mean Value Theorem
Proof: Consider the potential around a point p. If there are no charges nearby, then we can write
the potential as only the second (boundary) terms.
( x) =
1
4
_
V
_
G( x x

n
( x

)
G
n
_
d
2
x

Using the free space Greens Function G =

1
| x x

|
=
1
r
then we can get more analysis from this
scenario. Consider a spherical shell of radius R around the point. In this case r R and the
potential can be written:
( x) =
1
4
_
V
_
1
R

n
( x

)

n
1
R
_
R
2
d

The rst term makes no contribution since:

_


Ed

= 0
And the second term can be simplied to make the potential:
27
( x) =
1
4
_
V
_
( x

R
1
R
_
R
2
d

( x) =
1
4
_
V
_
( x

)
1
R
2
_
R
2
d

=
1
4
_
V
( x

)d

So, the potential at any point p can be found by taking the mean potential along every point on a
spherical shell around that point. Mathematically, that is:
( x) =
1
4
_
V
( x

)d

12 Methods for 2 - Dimensional Problems

Consider a two dimensional area with no charges, Poissons equation becomes:

2
= 0
Making a change of coordinate we can write:
z = x +iy; z = x iy

2
=

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
= 4

z

z
Poissons Equation then becomes:
4

z

z
= 0
The solution of this is any function that is only dependent on z or z. So, we can write the potential
as any function (x +iy). For some function (z) we can perform the analysis:
1
2

z
=
1
2
_

x
+i

y
_
= 0 = U(x, y) +iV (x, y)
U
x
+i
V
x
+i
U
y

V
y
= 0
U
x
=
V
y
;
V
x
=
U
x
Then, by taking

x
of the rst and

y
of the second equation and then sum or subtract the results,
we get the new conditions on U and V :
28

2
U = 0;
2
V = 0
From this information we can write the functions U and V from any function f(z). Consider the
function (z) = z
2
. In this case,
z
2
= (x +iy)
2
= x
2
y
2
+ 2ixy U(x, y) = x
2
y
2
; V (x, y) = 2xy
Plotting out various constant values of U and V, we see that x
2
y
2
= U generate equipotential
lines of a wedge shaped conductor while y =
V
2x
plots out the E eld lines of a charged conductor
of the same geometry.
This same analysis can be done with any f(z). The diculty is in that it is unclear what geometry
will result from a generic function of z.
Wednesday - 9/10
13 Method of Images
Consider a bounded region well label as region 1 with a charge distribution ( x) in it. The
potential in the region can be found without considering the boundary directly by creating a virtual
charge density

( x) in the second region. This is easiest to understand through a few examples.

One example of this was seen last class in the virtual charge below the conducting plane. Consider
another:
13.1 Point Charge Near A Conducting Sphere
For today, consider a conducting sphere of radius a with a single point charge at some location x

such that [ x

[ > a. If we take the physical region outside the sphere to be the real region and the
area inside the sphere as being the virtual area where well use image charges, we can assume that
there will be some virtual charge q

along the same direction as x

but located inside the sphere.

Calling this point y we can the write:
x

= x

; x

> a
y = y n

; y < a
The potential can then be written as:
( x) =
1
4
0
q
[ x x

[
+
1
4
0
q

[ x y[
If the sphere is grounded (that is, the potential across it is zero) then we can write a condition on
the above that when x = a the potential must be zero.
29
( a) =
1
4
0
_
q
[ a x

[
+
q

[ a y[
_
= 0
q
a
1
[ n
x

a
n

[
+
q

y
1
[ n

a
y
n[
= 0
The solution with this condition is:
x

a
=
a
y
;
q
a
=
q

y
q

= q
a
x

; y =
a
2
x

So, the potential for this system can be written:

( x) =
q
4
0
_
1
[x n x

[

a
x

1
[x n
a
2
x

[
_
We can get an expression for the charge distribution on the surface by integrating on the surface
of the sphere. We can take the angle between the real charge

n

and the observer n as .

=
0
n[
x= a
=

x
q
4
0
_
1
[x n x

[

a
x

1
[x n
a
2
x

[
_
=
q
4a
2
_
_
_
a
x

1
a
2
x
2
_
1 +
a
2
x
2

2a
x

cos
_
3/2
_
_
_
This has maximums at = 0 and and minima at =

2
and
3
2
. This is as expected, the most
polarized angles are those that line up with the charge point and that on the opposite side. The
presence of the charge polarizes the sphere.
If we integrate over the entire solid angle we can get the total charge on the sphere. This has
been left to an exercise for the student.
Q = 2
_
1
1
q
4a
2
_
_
_
a
x

_
1
a
2
x
2
_
d cos
_
1 +
a
2
x
2

2a
x

cos
_
3/2
_
_
_ = q
a
x

= q

30
14 Finding the Greens Function For a Sphere From the Image
Solution
It should be possible to express the potential we found by the Greens Identity and from that, nd
the Greens Function used.
( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
( x

)G( x x

)d
3
x

+
1
4
_
V
_
G( x x

n
( x

)
G
n
_
d
2
x

(V ) = 0; G
D
( x, x

)[
x=V
= 0
This leaves,
( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
q( x x

)G
D
( x x

)d
3
x

=
q
4
0
G
D
( x x

)
So, comparing this to the solution above we have the Dirichlet Greens Function for a sphere of
radius a.
G
D
( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

[

a
[ x

[
1
[ x
a
2
| x

|
2
x

[
Friday - 9/12
Recall the Dirichlet Greens Function for a sphere of radius of a and an observer outside the sphere
derived above. Next well look at a few examples of its use.
14.1 Conductive Sphere With Fixed Potential
Consider a spherical conductor with a xed potential V (a, , ) on the surface but no charge distri-
bution. The Greens Identity is the source of our potential equation, however only one term remains
since there are no charges and the Dirichlet Greens function goes to zero on the surface of the
sphere. This leaves us with an expression for the potential of:
( x) =
1
4
_
V
V (a,

)
G
D
n

d
2
x

So we just need to nd the value of the term

G
D
n

at x

= a. This turns out to be:

G
D
n
=
1
a
a
2
x
2
(x
2
+a
2
2axcos (, ))
3/2
Where is the angle between the observer and the location x

on the sphere surface. The potential

can then be written as:
31
( x) =
1
4
_
S
V (a,

)
a
_
a
2
x
2
_
(x
2
+a
2
2axcos (

))
3/2
d

14.2 Sphere With Two Charges On A Line - Sphere In External Field

Consider a conductive sphere at the origin with point charges of Q located at points

R
1
,

R
2
respectively where

R
1
= (0, 0, R);

R
2
= (0, 0, R)
The charge density for this distribution is then:
( x) = Q(x)(y) ((z R) (z +R))
And with the solution from the method of images, we have the potential is:
( x) =
Q
4
0
_
1
_
[ x[
2
+R
2
+ 2R[ x[ cos

1
_
[ x[
2
+R
2
2R[ x[ cos
+
1
_
| x|
2
R
2
a
2
+a
2
2R[ x[ cos

1
_
| x|
2
R
2
a
2
+a
2
+ 2R[ x[ cos
_
Next, consider the case that we let R but increase the charge Q such that the quantity
Q
R
2
remains constant. The above can be written as a Taylor expansion in such a case and the leading
order term found is of order
Q
R
2
. This is actually a constant electric eld surrounding the conductor.
From this we have found that the potential can be written in terms of such a eld as:
( x) = E
0
cos()
_
[ x[
a
2
[ x[
3
+. . .
_
+V
0
From this we can further compute the charge distribution on the sphere shell and the total induced
charge.
() =
0
n[
sph
= 3
0
E
0
cos(())
Q =
_
(

)d

= 0
14.3 Spherical Conductor with Dierent Potentials on Hemispheres
Consider a spherical conductor where an insulating ring at the equator allows the upper and lower
hemispheres to be charged with dierent potentials. Again because there are no charges to integrate
in the volume, there is only the boundary terms. The potential is then written as:
32
( x) =
1
4
_
V
V (a,

)
G
D
n

d
2
x

This result is similar to the rst example, but to solve it requires separating the integrated surface
into two pieces and doing each separately.
_
V
d
2
x

_
2
0
d

_
0
1
d cos

+
_
2
0
d

_
1
0
d cos

( x) =
V
0
4
_
2
0
_
0
1
G
D
n

dd cos +
V
0
4
_
2
0
_
0
1
G
D
n

dd cos
The integrand is a function of which we have not dened. It is straightforward to visualize. The
angle between two vectors in spherical coordinates can be expressed as a dierence in and .
After some geometric analysis, its straightforward to show that:
cos = cos() cos(

) + sin() sin(

) cos
_

_
We can get an analytic solution if we assume that the observer is along the vertical axis, in this
case

= 0 or and the above can be integrated to:

( x) = V
0
_
1
[ x[
2
a
2
[ x[
_
[ x[
2
+a
2
_
Far from the sphere, the solution can be approximated by the Legendre Polynomials series.
Monday - 9/15
15 Orthogonal Functions and Expansions
Consider some coordinate x on a region (a, b). We can dene a set of functions U
m
(x) (m =
1 . . . N) such that
_
b
a
U
m
(x)U

m
(x)dx =
mm

In some cases, the term dx can contain an additional weighting function w(x) to assist in normalizing
the above relation. If the dimension N is innite. Then any function can be expanded in terms of
the functions.
f(x) =

m
a
m
U
m
(x); a
m
=
_
b
a
U

m
(x)f(x)dx = U
m
, f)
33
This leads to another useful relation:

m
U
m
(x)U

m
(y) = (x y)
15.1 Fourier Series Expansions
On an interval from
a
2
to
a
2
we can expand any function in a series of sines and cosines:
f(x) =
A
0
2
+

m=1
_
A
m
sin
_
2mx
a
_
+B
m
cos
_
2mx
a
__
A
m
=
2
a
_ a
2

a
2
f(x) cos
_
2mx
a
_
dx; B
m
=
2
a
_ a
2

a
2
f(x) sin
_
2mx
a
_
dx
15.2 Polynomial Series
On an interval from 1 to 1 the Legendre Polynomials can be used. These are polynomials such
that U
m
(x) = P
m
(x). These can be looked up in any math reference book.
15.3 Innite Intervals
If we dene a new constant k = 2
m
a
which we keep constant as we increase a to innity, then we
can change the above Fourier Series into an Integral form.

m=
c
m
e
2imx
a

1

2
_

c(k)e
ikx
dk
This leads to the Fourier Transform:
f(x) =
1

2
_

c(k)e
ikx
dk
c(k) =
1

2
_

f(x)e
ikx
dk
15.4 Applications and Examples
15.4.1 Finite Box With Potentials on Dierent Walls
Consider a box of dimensions (a, b, c). If there are no charges, but the top panel of the box (z = c)
has a voltage given by V (x, y) then we can use the above expansions to nd the potential. Since
there are no charges, the Poisson equation is simply:
34

2
( x) = 0
and well use a Fourier Integral to solve for the potential.
( x) =
_
A(

k)e
i

k x
d
3
k
x = (x, y, z);

k = (k
1
, k
2
, k
3
)

k x = k
1
x +k
2
y +k
3
z
Inserting this into the equation, we have the condition that:
k
2
1
+k
2
2
+k
2
3
= 0 k
3
= i
_
k
2
1
+k
2
2
Because of the symmetry of the geometry, we can break the above into separate integrals. The
potential is then:
( x) =
_
A(k
1
, k
2
)e
ik
1
x+ik
2
y
e

k
2
1
+k
2
2
d
2
k =
_
A
1
(k
1
)e
ik
1
x
_
A
2
(k
2
)e
ik
2
y
e
z

k
2
1
+k
2
2
dk
1
dk
2
Because the solution must be zero at the boundaries of the box except for at z = c, we can write
the exponentials instead as sine functions. The conditions at the other edges of the box ( x = a,
y = b) give the values of k
1
and k
2
. These functions turn the integral back into a summation, so
nally, the potential is:
=

m,n
C
m,n
sin
_
mx
a
_
sin
_
ny
b
_
e
z
q
(
m
a
)
2
+(
n
b
)
2
Imposing the boundary condition at z = 0 we can write the other exponential as a hyperbolic sine
and nally we have:
=

m,n
C
m,n
sin
_
mx
a
_
sin
_
ny
b
_
sinh
_
z
_
_
m
a
_
2
+
_
n
b
_
2
_
C
m,n
=
4
ab
_
a
0
_
b
0
sin
_
mx
a
_
sin
_
ny
b
_
V (x, y)
sinh
_
z
_
_
m
a
_
2
+
_
n
b
_
2
_dxdy
35
Wednesday - 9/17
15.5 Two Dimensional Problems Solved With Expansions
Consider a volume of space which allows the potential to be solved in two dimensions. In such a
region, one can write the Poisson Equation as:

2
( x) = 0
_

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
_
(x, y) = 0
Assume the potential can be written as a Fourier Integral Transform and then applying the above
equation:
( x) =
_
A(

k)e
i

k x
_

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
_
(x, y) =
_
A(

k)([

k[
2
)e
i

k x
Requiring this is zero yields the conditions on k
1
and k
2
. Since [

k[
2
= k
2
1
+ k
2
2
= 0 must hold, we
know that k
2
= ik
1
. Therefore the most general solution is
(x, y) =
_
A

(k
1
)e
ik
1
(xiy)
dk
1
(z) =
_
A(k)e
ikz
dk
15.5.1 The Innite Square Well
Consider an innite square well of length a with the walls grounded and a potential V on the base.
For such a geometry, we can solve the problem in two dimensions. Dene the vertical axis of the
well to be the y axis and the horizontal to be x. This leads to a number of boundary conditions on
the above solution.
(x, y) =
_
A(k)e
ik(xiy)
dk
lim
y
(x, y) = 0; (x, 0) = V
(0, y) = 0; (a, y) = 0
The condition at y kills the positive exponential. The combination of the two conditions for
x = 0, x = a transform the oscillating exponential into sin
_
n
a
x
_
and the integral into a summation
over the index n. Finally, setting y to zero and then taking the inner product of the result with
sin
_
m
a
x
_
will yield the value for the coecient A
n
. If n is even, then the coecient is zero.
Otherwise:
36
A
n(odd)
=
2a
n
Combining the result:
(x, y) =
4V

n=1,odd
1
n
sin
_
n
a
x
_
e

n
a
y
This result can be transformed a number of ways:
1
n
sin
_
n
a
x
_
e

n
a
y
= Im
_
X
n
n
_
; X = e
i

a
(x+iy
(z) =
4V

Im

n=1,odd
X
n
n
However, the summation is actually a natural log:

n=1
X
n
n
= ln(1 +X)
Or, to take only the odd values of n,

n=1,odd
X
n
n
= ln
_
1 +X
1 X
_
Plugging in the denition above for X and after some algebra we have the general form for the
result:
(z) =
4V

Im
_
ln
_
1 +e
i

a
(x+iy)
1 e
i

a
(x+iy)
__
Expanding this:
(z) =
2V

arctan
_
sin
_
x
a
_
sinh
_
x
a
_
_
37
16 Poissons Equation In Other Coordinate Systems - Spherical
Coordinates
Consider Poissons Equation in spherical coordinates:

2
(r, , ) = 0
1
r

2
r
2
(r) +
1
r
2
sin

_
sin

_
+
1
r
2
sin
2

2
= 0
We can separate this into 3 dierential functions as:
(r, , ) =

_
l,m
u(r, l)P(, l, m)Q(, m)
Where the integral and sum denote that it is unclear if the values of l and m will be integer indices or
continuous variables of the functions. This behavior is determined by the geometry of the problems.
For our purposes currently, assume that both are integers and so this is:
(r, , ) =

l,m
u(r, l)P(, l, m)Q(, m)
Plugging this into the equation above we nd that:
u
l
(r) =
1
r
_
c
l
r
l+1
+d
l
r
l
_
Q
m
() = A
m
e
im
= B
m
e
im
In the case that m = 0 the equation for is simply the Legendre equation and so the function P is
merely the l
th
Legendre polynomial:
P
l,0
() = P
l
(cos )
38
Friday - 9/19
16.1 Boundary Value Problems With Azimuthal Symmetry
For a case where the geometry of the problem is symmetric about some axis, the geometry results
in a potential that is only dependent on the radial distance and the secondary angle. This can be
written as:
(r, ) =

l=0
1
r
_
A
l
r

l +B
l
r
l+1
_
P
l
(cos )
In the case that r = 0 is in the volume of interest, the rst term must be ignored as it diverges at
that point. In this case the potential is written as:
(r, ) =
A
0
r
+

l=0
1
r
B
l
r
l+1
P
l
(cos )
where the term A
0
is nonzero only for a point charge located at the origin.
Alternately, if the volume of interest extends to r , then the second term diverges and because
the zeroth order term of that summation is a constant, it can be neglected entirely,
(r, ) =

l=0
A
l
r
(l+1)
P
l
(cos )
As an example consider the hemisphere problem we worked previously. This problem can be solved
as a summation by noting that the potential on the sphere is a function only of . If we are
interested in the potential outside the sphere, we take the appropriate solution of the above two
and we can then write the potential as:
(r, ) =

l=0
A
l
r
(l+1)
P
l
(cos ); A
l
=
2l + 1
2
a
l+1
_
V ()P
l
(cos )d cos
And the coecients are determined by:
_
P
l
(cos )P
l
(cos )d cos =
ll

2
2l + 1

_
_
(r, ) =

l=0
A
l
r
(l+1)
P
l
(cos )
_
P
l
(cos )d cos
Another trick we can use with these expansions is to take a solution for an azimuthal symmetric
problem along the axis of symmetry and by expanding that solution we can nd the solution in all
space. Given some problem which results in a potential which is symmetric about an axis where
39
the potential is known, we can write that potential as (z). However, consider the expansion which
we are working with:
(r, 0) =

l=0
1
r
_
A
l
r

l +B
l
r
l+1
_
P
l
(cos(0))
however, it can be shown that for all values of l the term P
l
(1) is simply 1. Therefore the potential
is merely,
(r, 0) =

l=0
A
l
r

l 1 +B
l
r
l
=

l=0
A
l
z

l 1 +B
l
z
l
However, consider expanding the original unknown (z) in terms of powers of either r or
1
r
. The
choice between the two is dependent on whether we are looking a close cavity about the origin or
an extended region that includes r . In either case:
(z) (r) =

l=0
C
1l
r
l+1
+C
2l
r
l
(r, ) =

l=0
_
C
1l
r
l+1
+C
2l
r
l
_
P
l
(cos )
In this manner, the solution for any point can be found by simply multiplying each term by the
appropriate Legendre Polynomial of cos . In most cases only one of the two coecients is relevant
for a single solution but depending which region is being investigated will determine which.
16.1.1 Example - Ring of Charge
Consider a ring of charge (total charge = Q) some distance b above the x, y plane with radius a.
The potential for this problem is dicult to nd, however, we can easily see that along the axis of
symmetry (x = y = 0) the solution is just:
(z) =
1
4
0
Q
D
Where D is the separation of that location with the z axis. In this case we can dene the dis-
tance in terms of z, the angle from the plane up to the ring, and c where c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
:
D =

r
2
+c
2
2rc cos . So then, the potential is;
(z) =
1
4
0
Q

z
2
+c
2
2zc cos
Depending what value of r we are interested in we can either expand this about
r
c
or
c
r
. Consider
r c,
40
(r) =
Q
4
0
1
r
1
_
1 +
c
2
r
2
2
c
r
cos
(r, ) =
Q
4
0

l=0
c
l
r
l+1
P
l
(cos )P
l
(cos )
Note that the value of cos can be written as
b

a
2
+b
2
where b is the location of the ring above the
x, y plane and a is the radius of the ring.
16.1.2 Greens Function Solution For Problems With Azimuthal Symmetry
One last trick is to write the free space Greens Function for a point charge as an expansion. Consider:
G( x, x

); x

= (0, 0, z

) G =
1
_
x
2
+y
2
+ (z z

)
2
And so along the axis this simplies to:
G(z, z

) =
1
z z

which can be expanded about powers of either

z
z

or
z

z
depending which is larger. Out of this we
get that:
1
[r r

[
=

l=0
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
P
l
(cos )
This is of great help if we are given some charge distribution in terms of the above expansion, since
the potential can then be written as:
(r, ) =
1
4
0

l=0
_
(r

)
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
P
l
(cos )r
2
dr

dd cos
(r, ) =
1
2
0

l=0
_
(r

)
r
l
<
r
>l+1
P
l
(cos )r
2
dr

d cos

Monday - 9/22
16.2 Conic Holes and Sharp Points - Note: Will not be on tests or homework
In the case that a problem includes azimuthal symmetry but the angle does not sweep out its
entire range of (0, ) but instead some angle (0, ), the radial solution is still valid, however the
angular solution is changed. In this case, the general solution can be written as:
41
(r, ) =

k=1
A
k
r
k
P

k
(cos )
Where the values of
k
are selected by the condition that:
P

k
(cos ) = 0
16.3 Azimuthal Variations - The Spherical Harmonics
If the geometry of a problem allows the variable m to remain an integer but isnt azimuthal sym-
metric, then m will become an index for the functions and the general solution becomes:
(r, , ) =

l=0
l

m=l
_
A
l,m
r
l
+B
l,m
r
(l+1)
_
Y
l,m
(, )
Y
l,m
(, ) =

2l + 1
4
(l m)!
(l +m)!
P
m
l
(cos ); Y
l,m
(, ) = (1)
m
Y

l,m
(, )
P
m
l
(x) = (1)
m
(1 +x
2
)
m
2
d
m
dx
m
P
l
(x); P
m
l
(x) = (1)
m
(l m)!
(l +m)!
P
m
l
(x)
The orthonormality condition for the spherical harmonics is:
_
Y

l,m
(, )Y
l

,m
(, )d =
l,l

m,m

Therefore any angular function g(, ) can be expanded in spherical harmonics:

g(, ) =

l=0
l

m=l
C
l,m
Y
l,m
(, ); C
l,m
=
_
Y

l,m
(, )g(, )d
16.4 The Addition Theorem
For some angle between angle x and x

the relation between and the angles ,

, , and

can
be written as:
P
l
(cos ) =
4
2l + 1
l

m=1
Y

l,m
(

)Y
l,m
(, )
42
We can use this result to write the free space Greens function G( x, x

) as:
G
D
( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

[
=

l=0
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
P
l
(cos )
G
D
( x, x

) =

l=0
l

m=1
4
2l + 1
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
Y

l,m
(

)Y
l,m
(, )
Which yields the form for the potential:
(r, ) =
1

l=0
l

m=1
1
2l + 1
_
(r

)
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
Y

l,m
(

)Y
l,m
(, )r
2
dr

d cos

One important simplication to the above is that if we return to the case of azimuthal symmetry,
then the spherical harmonics simplify and only the m = 0 term is relevant. It can be shown that
this leads to the simplication that:
G
D
( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

[
=

l=0
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
P
l
(cos ) P
l
_
cos

_
43
Wednesday - 9/24
16.5 Greens Function Expansion For a Sphere
Using the above form for the free space Greens function in 3 dimensions one can write the Greens
Function for a sphere of radius a by extending this denition to the form:
G
D
( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

[

a
[ x

[
1
[ x
a
2
| x

|
2
x

[
The rst term can immediately be written in the above form, however we need to write the second
in a form suitable to
1
| v v

|
. This can be done by bringing the coecients inside and obtaining:
a
[ x

[
1
[ x
a
2
| x

|
2
x

[
=
1
[
| x

|
a
x
a
| x

|
x

[
Therefore,
G
D
( x,

x

) =
1
[ x x

[

1
[ y y

[
y =
[ x

[
a
x; y

=
a
[ x

[
x

Consider the magnitudes of each of these vectors:

[ x[ = r; [ x

[ = r

[ y[ =
rr

a
; [ y

[ =
r

a
r

= a
So, with the above expression, we can write the Greens Function for a sphere of radius a as an
expansion of the form:
G
D
( x,

x

) = 4

l=0
l

m=l
1
2l + 1
Y

lm
(

)Y
lm
(, )
_
r
l
r
l+1

a
l
_
rr

a
_
l+1
_
This simplies down to:
G
D
( x,

x

) = 4

l=0
l

m=l
1
2l + 1
_
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
_
1
1
a
_
a
2
r
>
r
<
_
l+1
__
Y

lm
(

)Y
lm
(, )
44
16.5.1 Greens Function Expansion for Concentric Spherical Shells
Consider a pair of spherical conductive shells of radii a and b such that a < b. If we want to calculate
the potential for a < r < b then we need to solve the equation:

2
G
D
(r, , , r

) = 4
(3)
( x x

) = 4
(r r

)
r
2
(

)
G
D
[
r,r

=a
= 0; G
D
[
r,r

=b
= 0
Where weve dened (

) = (cos cos

)(

). We can immediately see that we can

satisfy the angular conditions if we choose:
G
D
(r, , , r

) =

l=0

=0
l

m=l
l

=l

A
lml

m
(r, r

)Y

m
(

)Y
lm
(, )
From this, we can nd the conditions to determine A
lml

m
(r, r

):

2
(r,,)
G
D
=

l=0

=0
l

m=l
l

=l

2
(r,,)
A
_
Y

Y + 2
_

(r,,)
A
(r,,)
Y
_
Y

+AY

2
(r,,)
Y
It is clear that the term A Y is zero since A is only a function of radial values while the spherical
harmonics are not. The dot product will then be
_
r

_
which is zero. The third term is solved by
noting that it is merely an eigenvalue equation.

2
G
D
=

l=0

=0
l

m=l
l

=l

_
1
r

2
r
2
_
rA
lml

m
(r, r

)
_

l(l + 1)
r
2
A
lml

m
(r, r

)
_
Y

Y
It is clear from this equation that A
lml

m
(r, r

) is actually only dependent on a single index l.

Therefore we can write this function as A
lml

m
(r, r

) = c
l
(r, r

)
l,l

m,m
. Thus we have an initial
form for the Greens Function:
G
D
(r, , , r

) =

l=0
l

m=l
c
l
(r, r

)Y

lm
(

)Y
lm
(, )
1
r

2
r
2
_
rc
l
(r, r

)
_

l(l + 1)
r
2
c
l
(r, r

) = 4
(r r

)
r
2
This has solutions of:
c
l
(r, r

) = A
l
(r

)r
l
+B
l
(r

)r
(l+1)
45
c
l
(a, r

) = 0 c
l
(r, r

) = A
l
(r

)
_
r
l

a
2l+1
r
l+1
_
c
l
(r, r

) = c
l
(r

, r); c
l
(r, b) = 0 c
l
(r, r

) = c
_
r
l

a
2l+1
r
l+1
_ _
r
l

b
2l+1
r
l+1
_
The constant c can be found by integrating around r = r

. That is:
_
r

+
r

c
_
r
l
<

a
2l+1
r
l+1
<
__
1
r
l+1
>

r
l
>
b
2l+1
_
=
_
r

+
r

4
(r r

)
r
2
This gives:
c =
4
2l + 1
1
1
_
a
b
_
2l+1
And thus the Greens Function for this geometry:
G
D
(r, , , r

) = 4

l=0
l

m=l
Y

lm
(

)Y
lm
(, )
(2l + 1)
_
1
_
a
b
_
2l+1
_
_
r
l
<

a
2l+1
r
l+1
<
__
1
r
l+1
>

r
l
>
b
2l+1
_
Friday - 9/26 - NO CLASS - DEBATE DAY
Monday - 9/29
Note on a common mistake in the homework: For a derivative of a Greens Function
dened as
G
D
n
the direction of the normal is dependent on the volume and volume
boundary. However, for the surface charge density =

n
the normal is always
pointing out of the conductive surface.
16.6 Examples of Problems Solved With Spherical Harmonics
Consider a charged ring of radius a inside of a grounded conductive sphere of radius b. Because the
sphere is grounded, the potential on the sphere is 0 and therefore the potential in the entire volume
outside the sphere is also 0. Inside the sphere, we can solve for the potential as:
( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
( x

)G( x x

)d
3
x

+
1
4
_
V
_
G( x x

n
( x

)
G
n
_
d
2
x

Choosing a Dirichlet Greens function for a sphere (which we know), we can drive one boundary
term to zero. The second boundary term is zero since the potential on the sphere is zero. This
leaves us with only the volume integral:
46
( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
( x

)G
D
( x, x

)d
3
x

The charge distribution can then be written as:

( x) =
Q
2a
2
(r a)(cos 1)
Plugging this all in we can immediately see the solution is:
(r, ) =
Q
4
0

l=0
P
l
(0)P
l
(cos )
_
r
l
<
_
1
r
l+1
>

r
l
>
b
2l+1
__
The values of r
<
and r
>
are dependent on where inside the sphere we are. For r > a the values are
r
>
= r and r
<
= a. For r < a the values are reversed.
16.6.1 Dipole Solved With Two Methods
An alternate method to nd this solution would be to take the exact solution for the charge dis-
tribution given, then add on a homogeneous solution and rig the coecients so that the potential
goes to zero at the desired location. As an example of this method, consider a geometry where two
opposite point charges are separated by a distance 2a.
( x) =
q
4
0
_
1
[ x x

[

1
[ x x

[
_
; x

= (0, 0, a), x

= (0, 0, a)
Expanding for r > a:
(r, ) =
q
4
0

l=0
_
1
r
_
a
r
_
l
P
l
(cos ())
1
r
_
a
r
_
l
P
l
(cos ( +))
_
And since we can write P
l
(cos ( +)) = P
l
(cos ) = (1)
l
P
l
(cos ), The above simply becomes:
(r, ) =
q
4
0

l=0
1
r
_
a
r
_
l
_
1 (1)
l
_
P
l
(cos ())
If we dene a variable p = 2qa and take the limit as a goes to zero, but require that qa remains
constant and nite, then we can drop terms of order higher than l = 1 and noting that the term of
order zero is a constant (which is irrelevant for the potential), we can write the familiar expression
for a dipole:
47

dipole
(r, ) =
p
4
cos
r
2
Now, consider putting the dipole in a spherical grounded conductor of radius b (like the ring of
charge) and assume that b a. We could do as we did before using the Greens function for the
sphere and the charge density as a sum of two delta functions.
( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
( x

)G
D
( x, x

)d
3
x

=
q
4
0
_
V
_
( x x

) ( x x

G
D
( x, x

)d
3
x

Alternately, we could use the solution from above and require the homogeneous solution to drive
the over all potential to zero on the surface of the sphere. That is:
=
dipole
+
hom.
=
q
4
0

l=0
1
r
_
a
r
_
l
_
1 (1)
l
_
P
l
(cos ()) +
q
4
0
b
a
_
1
[ x
b
2
a
2

1
[ x
b
2
a
2

[
_
=
q
4
0

l=0
1
r
_
a
r
_
l
_
1 (1)
l
_
P
l
(cos ()) +
1
b
_
ra
b
2
_
l
_
1 (1)
l
_
P
l
(cos ())
Again, letting a go to zero but keeping aq constant leaves only the l = 1 term:
(r, ) =
p
4
cos
_
1
r
2

r
b
3
_
Alternately, we could have simply taken the result and added a homogeneous solution;
=
dipole
+
hom.
=
q
4
0

l=0
1
r
_
a
r
_
l
_
1 (1)
l
_
P
l
(cos ()) +C
l
r
l
P
l
(cos )
C
l
=
q
4
0
1
b
l+1
_
a
b
_
l
_
1 (1)
l
_
And in the limit of a 0 we once again nd that:
(r, ) =
p
4
cos
_
1
r
2

r
b
3
_
48
17 Poissons Equation In Other Coordinate Systems - Cylindrical
Coordinates
Consider the cylindrical coordinates form for the Homogeneous Poisson Equation:

2
(, , z) =
_

2

2
+
1

+
1

2
+

2
z
2
_
(r, , z) = 0
This can be separated into phi(r, , z) = R(r)Q()Z(z) where these functions satisfy:
d
2
dz
2
Z(z) k
2
Z(z) = 0 Z = e
kz
d
2
d
2
Q() +
2
Q() = 0 Q = e

d
2
d
2
R() +
1

d
d
R() +
_
k
2

2
_
R() = 0
The solutions of the last equation are Bessel Functions of the rst time. Thus:
R() = C
1
J

(k) +C
2
Y

(k)
So, for a problem where sweeps out a total circle of 2, the general solution can be written as:
(, , z) =

n=0
_
dk (A
n
(k)J
n
(k) +B
n
(k)Y
n
(k))
_
C
n
(k)e
in
+D
n
(k)e
in
_
_
E(k)e
kz
+F(k)e
kz
_
Wednesday - 10/1
17.1 Simplications For Dierent Geometries
In the case that the region of interest contains = 0, the Bessel Y
n
blows up and the term B
n
must
be zero. If the region contains z then e
kz
blows up and thus E(k) = 0. If z then e
kz
blows up and F(k) = 0.
17.2 An Example - A Hollow Conductive Cylinder
Consider the example of a conductive cylinder of radius a and length l. Find the potential inside the
cylinder under given boundary conditions. If the potential on the base (z = 0) and sides = a) are
zero and the top piece is described by some function V (, ) then we can write the above subject
to these boundary conditions. The condition at z = 0 means that E(k) = F(k) and then the z
49
dependence becomes e
kz
e
kz
= sinh(kz). Also, because = 0 is within our region, B
n
(k) = 0
and our potential is given by:
(, , z) =

n=0
_
dkA
n
(k)J
n
(k) sinh(kz)
_
C
n
(k)e
in
+D
n
(k)e
in
_
Imposing the boundary condition that ( = a) = 0 gives the values of k. Requiring that J
n
(ka) = 0
means that k =
xn,m
a
where x
n,m
gives the m
th
zero of J
n
(x). This kills the integral and gives the
values of k allowed for our potential. The angular terms are more easily dealt with in trig form, so
nally our potential is:
(, , z) =

n=0

m=1
J
n
_
x
n,m
a

_
sinh
_
x
n,m
a
z
_
(C
n,m
cos (n) +D
n,m
sin(n))
The two coecients are found by the remaining boundary condition:
V (, ) =

n=0

m=1
J
n
_
x
n,m
a

_
sinh
_
x
n,m
a
l
_
(C
n,m
cos (n) +D
n,m
sin(n))
_
dd
_
V (, ) =

n=0

m=1
J
n
_
x
n,m
a

_
sinh
_
x
n,m
a
l
_
(C
n,m
cos (n) +D
n,m
sin(n))
_
J
n

_
x

,m

a

_
_
sin(n

)
cos (n

)
_
The choice of sin or cos is determined by which of the two coecients is being solved for.
17.3 Modied Bessel Functions
In the case that the geometry is periodic in z, the values of the variable k will become imaginary
and the solutions are then the Modied Bessel Functions.
I
n
(x) = i
n
J
n
(ix)
K
n
(x) =

2
i
n+1
H
(1)
n
(ix) =

2
i
n+1
(J
n
(ix) +iY
n
(ix))
50
18 Some Mathematics - Getting Greens Functions From A Generic
Operator
Consider the operator O and its eigenfunction and eigenvalue solutions, O = . Given such an
operator, if the set of its eigenfunctions
n
are known, then we can expand any function as either
a sum or integral transform (depending on the nature of the spectrum of the operator):
f(x) =
_
dkc(k)
k
(x) =

n
c
n

n
(x)
Note also the properties of orthonormality and completeness (respectively):
_

n
(x)
n
(x)dx =
n,n
;

n
(x)
n
(x

) = (x x

)
Now, consider building a Greens function in this nature:
G( x, x

) =

n
c
n
( x

)
n
( x)
Using the above relation we can nd the coecient and we get:
c
n
( x

) =
4

n
( x

)
Thus we end with our two possible solutions for a three dimensional Greens function where the
exact form is dependent on whether the spectra is discrete or continuous:
G( x, x

) = 4

n
( x

)
n
( x)

n
; G( x, x

) = 4
_
dk

k
( x

)
k
( x)
(k)
As an example, consider the Greens Function in Cartesian Coordinates for the Laplacian in a box
of dimensions a, b, c with Dirichlet boundary conditions. With Dirichlet conditions, we have:

l,m,n
(x, y, z) =
2
3/2

abc
sin
_
lx
a
_
sin
_
my
b
_
sin
_
nz
c
_
Applying the above relation gives the Dirichlet Greens Function for a rectangular box:
G
D
( x, x

) =
8
abc

l,m,n
sin
_
lx
a
_
sin
_
lx

a
_
sin
_
my
b
_
sin
_
my

b
_
sin
_
lz
c
_
sin
_
nz

c
_
l
2
a
2
+
m
2
b
2
+
n
2
c
2
51
Friday - 10/3
19 Multipole Expansions In Electrostatics
Consider some charge distribution contained within a volume of space of scale L. At some point x
such that
L
| x|
1 we can write the potential as a series of the form:
(r, , ) =
1
4
0

l=0
l

m=l
1
2l + 1
q
lm
Y
lm
(, )
r
l+1
; q
l,m
=
_
dr

r
2
d

(r

)r
l
Y

l,m
(

)
This is known as a multipole expansion, since each of the terms q
lm
is determined by a geometrical
distribution of point like charges. Of particular interest are the rst three terms. They are the
monopole, dipole, and quadrupole terms. Lets consider them:
l = 0, m = 0
q
0,0
=
_
dr

r
2
d

(r

)r
2
Y

0,0
(

) =
1

4
_
d
3
x

( x

) =
Q

4
l = 1, m = 1, 0, 1
q
1,0
=
_
d
3
x

( x

)r

0,1
(

) =
_
3
4
_
d
3
x

( x

)r

cos

=
_
3
4
_
d
3
x

( x

)z

q
1,1
=
_
d
3
x

( x

)r

1,1
(

) =
_
3
8
_
d
3
x

( x

)r

_
sin

e
i
_
=

_
3
8
_
d
3
x

( x

)r

sin

_
cos

i sin

_
=
_
3
8
_
d
3
x

( x

)
_
x

iy

_
q
1,1
= q

1,1
=
_
3
8
_
d
3
x

( x

)
_
x

+iy

_
If we dene a new quantity p =
_
d
3
x

( x

) x

Then we can write the above as:

q
1,0
=
_
3
4
p
z
; q
1,1
=
_
3
8
(p
x
ip
y
) ; q
1,1
=
_
3
8
(p
x
+ip
y
)
The quadrupole term can be written in terms of the quadrupole moment tensor:
Q
ij
=
_
_
3x

i
x

j
r
2

ij
_
( x

)d
3
x

52
With all of this, we can write the potential as:
( x) =
1
4
0
_
_
Q
r
+
p x
r
3
+
1
2

ij
Q
ij
x
i
x
j
r
5
+. . .
_
_
Q =
_
d
3
x

( x

)
p =
_
d
3
x

( x

) x

Q
ij
=
_
_
3x

i
x

j
r
2

ij
_
( x

)d
3
x

Lastly, with the denition

E = we can write the electric eld components in terms of the
multipole expansion:
E
r
=

l=0
l

m=l
l + 1
(2l + 1)
0
q
l,m
Y
l,m
(, )
r
l+2
E

l=0
l

m=l
1
(2l + 1)
0
q
l,m
1
r
l+2

Y
l,m
(, )
E

l=0
l

m=l
1
(2l + 1)
0
q
l,m
im
sin
Y
l,m
(, )
r
l+2
Monday - 10/6
19.1 Multipole Treatment of a Dipole Source
Consider the electric eld from a dipole. We can write this as:

E
(2)
= =
1
4
0

_
p x
r
3
_
=
1
4
0

_
p
x

x
x
r
3
+p
y

y
y
r
3
+p
z

z
z
r
3
_
=
1
4
0

_
p
x
r
3

3p
x
x
2
r
5
+
p
x
r
3

3p
y
y
2
r
5
+
p
z
r
3

3p
z
z
2
r
5
_
If we dene a vector x = r n then the above can be written as:

E
(2)
=
1
4
0
3 n( p n) p
r
3
=
1
4
0
3 n( p n) p
[ x x
0
[
3
This solution is valid for dipoles unless x = x
0
(that is r = 0). In that case we have a solution of
the form:
53

E
(2)
=
1
4
0
3 n( p n) p
r
3
+k(r)
The coecient k can be found by integrating around the singularity at r = 0. That is:
_
V
_

E
(2)
=
1
4
0
3 n( p n) p
r
3
+k(r)
_
d
3
x
Because of symmetry, the term on the right is zero for a spherical shell about the origin, thus:
_
V

E
(2)
d
3
x = k
We can write the electric eld as an expansion and thus the left hand side becomes:
_
V

E
(2)
d
3
x =
_
V

(2)
d
3
x =
_
V

(2)
nd
2
x
=
R
2
4
0
_
V
d
3
x

_
d(x

)
n
[ x x

[
=
R
2
4
0
_
V
d
3
x

_
d(x

l=0
n
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
P
l
(cos )
We can rotate the system so that only the l = 1 term is nonzero. The r
>
term is then R
2
which
cancels with the other R
2
term. This leaves:
_
V

E
(2)
d
3
x =
1
4
0
_
V
d
3
x

(x

) nr

4
3
=
1
3
0
p
And nally we have the electric eld from a dipole:

E
(2)
=
1
4
0
3 n( p n) p
r
3

1
3
0
p (r)
19.1.1 Energy of a Dipole in an External Field
Consider some charge distribution in an external eld. The potential energy of such a system is:
W =
_
( x)
ext
( x)d
3
x
The external potential can be expanded as long as it is slowly varying in the region containing the
charge distribution. That is:
54

ext
( x)
ext
( x
0
) + x
ext
( x
0
) +
1
2

i,j
x
i
x
j

ext
x
i
x
j
( x
0
) +. . .
Plugging this in, we nd:
W = Q
ext
( x
0
) p

E( x
0
)
1
6

i,j
Q
i,j

E
x
i
( x
0
) +. . .
If we assume that the external eld is from a second dipole as some location x
2
, then we can write
the energy of the rst dipole at x
1
.
W
(d1d2)
=
1
4
0
p
1
p
2
3 ( n p
1
) ( n p
2
)
[ x
1
x
2
[
3
55
Wednesday - 10/8
20 Transition To Non-negligible Media
Up until now weve been working with charge distributions or conductors with voltage distributions
in vacuums. The changes to real matter arent incredibly drastic, but need to be understood.
Recall that we have been examining the behavior of:

E = 0;

E =

0
We will now be interested in a macroscopic treatment of these equations. Consider the function
F(x) and its spacial average which we will denote as F(x)). We can dene this as:
F(x)) =
_
d
3
x

f( x

)F( x x

)
From this denition, it is clear that derivatives commute with the averaging. That is:
d
dx
F(x)) =

d
dx
F(x)). Applying this to the above equations of electrostatics:

E = 0

E) = 0

E =

E) =
_

0
_
Because
0
is a constant, we only need to derive what ) is and we can work problems in a region
which is not a vacuum. There are two methods to dene exactly what this average charge density
is. Firstly, lets consider the multipole expansion.
( x) =
1
4
0
_
Q
r
+
p x
r
3
+. . .
_
Now, consider only a small (innitesimal) part of a region, for this small volume we can write that:
d( x) =
1
4
0
_
dq
r
+
d p x
r
3
+. . .
_
d( x) =
1
4
0
_
( x)
r
dV +
d p
dV
x
r
3
+. . .
_
If we dene the innitesimal dipole moment per volume to be
d p
dV
=

P, and then integrate this
equation over the entire region, we get a result of:
56
( x) =
1
4
0
_
d
3
x

_
( x)
[ x x

[
dV +

P ( x x

)
[ x x

[
3
+. . .
_
However, note that the second term can be written as a derivative of the separation, that is:

P ( x x

)
[ x x

[
3
=

P( x

)
x

_
1
[ x x

[
_
Integrating this by parts gives
x

P( x

)
1
| x x

|
which we can plug into the above form for the
potential and obtain:
( x) =
1
4
0
_
d
3
x

_
( x)
x

P( x

)
[ x x

[
dV +. . .
_
And comparing this with the vacuum equation we nd that we can treat the macroscopic charge
density as:
=
excess

P
Where weve dened the vector

P as the polarization per unit volume of the medium. With this in
mind we can dene what is known as the electric displacement eld

D =

E
0
+

P. And with this
information, we can write the macroscopic equations of electrostatics,

E = 0;

D =
Where in this case the electric eld in the rst equation is the macroscopic eld and the displacement
eld is dened as above in terms of the macroscopic electric eld and polarization eld.
20.1 An Alternate Derivation
An alternate derivation of these equations can be found in section 6.6 of Jackson. This involves
accounting for the actual electric charges of particles in the material. In this case we write the
charge density in the medium as:
( x) =

i
q
(free)
i

(3)
( x x
i
) +

n,j
q
(bound)
jn

(3)
( x ( x
jn
+ x
n
))
Where weve dened x
i
to be the location of each free electron, x
n
to be the location of each nucleus,
and x
jn
to be the location of the j
th
electron bound to the n
th
nucleus. Taking the spacial average
of the above yields:
( x)) =

i
q
(free)
i
_

(3)
( x x
i
)
_
+

n,j
q
(bound)
j,n
_

(3)
( x ( x
jn
+ x
n
))
_
57
The second term can be expanded in terms of the weight function in the denition of the spacial av-
erage and expanding for [ x
jn
[ [ x
n
[, [ x[ generates an additional correction term which is dependent
on the dipole moment of the medium. This gives a nal result of:
) =
_

i
q
(free)
i

(3)
( x x
i
) +

n,j
q
(bound)
jn

(3)
( x ( x
jn
+ x
n
))
_
+
_

n
p
n

( x x
n
)
_
The rst term of this result in the excess free and bound charges in the medium, while the second
term is the total dipole moment per unit volume. This result agrees with the above result. The
quadurpole term is worked out in Jackson as well.
Friday - 10/10
20.2 More On Electrostatics In Real Media
The boundary conditions on the equations for macroscopic media are found by simply plugging the
values into the vacuum boundary relations:
_

D
2

D
1
_
n =
_

E
2

E
1
_
n = 0
Considering the denition above, in the case of a weak electric eld, the displacement eld is
a function of the electric eld. Further, in this same limit, the polarization of the material is
dependent on the electric eld, that is:

D =

D
_

E
_
;

P =

P
_

E
_
As proof of the above, consider some region of a medium subject to an external electric eld

E
ext
.
Inside the material, a given amount of polarization will occur which will cause a local electric eld
in a given region. Denoting this internal eld as

E
int
, we can write the total eld as some point x
as a sum of the two. However, the internal eld can be considered as a combination of the local
dipole induced minus the eld from the entire dipole moment within the media. That is:

E
tot
=

E
ext
+
_

E
near

E
p
_
Taking average of the internal eld, the near dipoles average out to zero since the integral would
cover the entire volume. The same goes for the dipole term, except recall that we derived the electric
eld from a dipole as:

E
(2)
=
1
4
0
3 n( p n) p
r
3

1
3
0
p (r)
58
The delta function is the only part which contributes. Therefore the total electric eld can be
written:

E
tot
) =

E
ext
+
p
3
0
We can expand this out for weak electric elds in terms of a multipole expansion,

E
tot
) = c
1
p
mol
) +c
2
Q
(i,j)
mol
)
The second term can be dropped for weak elds, and this leaves a relation of the form
p
mol
) =
0

mol

E
ext
Where the variable
mol
describes how the molecules in the media respond to the electric eld (how
much they are polarized). Multiplying this by the number of particles in the media, we get that:
N

P
mol
) = N
0

mol

E)
However, note that the left hand side of this equation is simply the dipole moment of the media.
This implies that:

P =
0

mol
N
_

E
ext
+

P
3
0
_

P =
0

e

E;
e
=
N
mol
1
N
mol
3
Then if we dene the electric susceptibility of the material
e
and the dielectric constant or relative
electric permittivity

0
= 1+
e
. In actuality, any variation in the equations resulting from qualities
of a material are absorbed into these variables. That means that the variable
e
and therefore
can be functions of position, time, temperature, electric eld, magnetic eld, density, or any other
variable that can arise in a physical experiment. These denitions allow us to write the equation
for the electric displacement as

D =

E. Then,

D =
_

E
_
=
In the case that the electric susceptibility of the material is independent of position (in any manner),
then this simplies to the familiar form:

E =

However, if = ( x) then the divergence gives:

59

E =

E ln

2
=

ln
For the case that there are no excess charges, but
e
is dependent on position, we have that:

P =
0

e
( x)

E +
0

e
( x)

E
In the case that the variation in the susceptibility is a step function of the form:

e
( x) = (x)
e
1
(x)
e
2
then we can write the derivative of
e
in terms of the delta function
e
= (x) (
e
2

e
1
) [
s
and
thus,

e
[
s
=

2

0
n
Plugging this into the above equation gives:

P =
e
( x) (0) +
0
_

0
n
_

E = (
2

1
) n

E =
pol

pol
= ( p
2
p
1
) n = (
2

1
) n
This value describes the induced polarization on the boundary of two materials with dierent
dielectric properties when there are no charges present in the system.
60
Monday - 10/13 - No Lecture, Midterm Day.
Wednesday - 10/15
21 Energy of a Dielectric in an External Field
Recall that the potential energy of a charge conguration in an electric eld can be written as:
W =
1
2
_
d
3
x( x)( x)
Where the charge distribution of interest is the excess charge in the dielectric (since the total charge
would include internal energy in the dielectric and isnt of interest to us). It can be shown that for
some function dened as:
F( x) =
_
x
d
3
x

G( x

) F( x)) =
_
d
3
x

f( x

)F( x

) =
_
d
3
x

f( x

)
_
x x

d
3
x

G( x

)
x

+ x

= y F( x)) =
_
d
3
y
_
d
3
x

x x

f( x

)G( y

)
F( x) =
_
d
3
x

G( x

) F( x)) =
_
x
d
3
yG( y)
From this we can write the macroscopic energy as:
W) =
1
2
_
d
3
x( x)( x))
And if we assume that the medium is exhibits linear response, then the potential is proportional to
the charge density and we can further approximate that:
( x)
2
) ( x))
2
And since the excess charge in this case obeys the relation:

D, the macroscopic energy is:
W) =
1
2
_
d
3
x

D
And integrating by parts we can easily see that:
W
macro
=
1
2
_
d
3
x

E

D
61
Consider moving a dielectric into a region with an initial electric eld. If the initial eld and
displacement eld are

E
1
and

D
1
then we can denote the resulting elds as

E
2
and

D
2
. Then we
can write that the change in energy of this movement is:
W
m
=
1
2
_
d
3
x
_

E
2

D
2

E
1

D
1
_
This can be expanded as:
W
m
=
1
2
_
d
3
x
__

D
2

D
1
_ _

E
1
+

E
2
_

D
2

E
1
+

D
1

E
2

There are no excess charges in the dielectric in this case, so the rst term is zero and since the elds
are weak we note that the displacement and electric elds are proportional to one another. Then
we have the result that:
W
m
=
1
2
_
d
3
x
_

D
1

E
1

D
2

E
2

=
1
2
_
d
3
x[
1

2
]

E
1

E
2
In the case that the region of interest is a vacuum, then
1

0
. And noting that the term is
simply the polarization of the material, then the change in energy is:
W
m
=
1
2
_
d
3
x

P

E
1
Where the vector

P is the resulting polarization of the dielectric material in the eld and

E
1
is the
initial electric eld (before the dielectric is introduced).
22 A Theoretical Model For Polarization
Consider the denitions:

D =

E; =
0
(1 +
e
) ;

P =
0

e

E;
e
=
e
(
mol
)
If we can derive a simple model for the behavior of
mol
then we can get an idea of how dierent
materials will react to electric elds and why they do so. Consider a molecule modeled as a simple
harmonic oscillator. If we assume that the system is in static equilibrium, then the electrostatic
forces must balance the restoring oscillatory force, that is:
m

x = m
2
0
x +e

E = 0 x =
e

E
m
2
62
If we multiply this by e and note that the polarization is dened by the charge times location, we
get the result that:
e x =

P =

k
e
2
m
k

2
0k

E
mol
=

k
e
2
m
k

2
0k

0
This models the behavior of
mol
for each molecule in a dielectric.
23 Summary of Equations For Problems Involving Dielectrics

D =
excess

E = 0

E =
_

D
2

D
1
_
n =
excess
;
_

E
2

E
1
_
n = 0

P =
0

e

E;
e
=
e
( x, t, T,

E, . . .)

P =
_

P
2

P
1
_
n

surface
=
induced
And for linearly reacting media

D =
0
(1 +
e
)

E =

E
Friday - 10/17
Test Review - Test was extra credit.
A note about nding quadurpole moments: if the distribution is symmetric in x and
y and spherically symmetric (as problem 3 was), then you only need to nd Q33 and
then all o diagonals are zero and Q11 = Q22 =
1
2
Q33.
63
Monday - 10/20
24 Solving Problems With Dielectrics
We can use many of the methods from before to solve problems, but some additional steps and
analysis is involved. Consider a few examples.
24.1 Method of Images - Planar Boundary With a Point Charge
Consider the case of two dielectric materials separated by a planar boundary at z = 0. The material
above the xy plane has
1
and the region below the plane has
2
. If there is a single point charge
at a distance d above the boundary (in region I) then we can assume that there will be an induced
polarization on the boundary and we can solve for the potential in the two regions by inserting a
second charge in region II and replacing the real charge with a second image charge to simulate
the eld from the induced polarization in region II. That is:

I
=
1
4
1
_
q
R
1
+
q

R
2
_
z > 0

II
=
1
4
2
q

R
1
z < 0
In the above equations weve put a the charge q

in the same location as q and chosen to solve for

its charge value. We could have just as easily chosen to make it a dened charge q
0
and solved
for its location, but this method is easier. The lengths R
1
and R
2
are the distances to the point
of interest from the real and rst image charge respectively. Noting this, we can write these two
distances as:
R
1
=
_
(z d)
2
+
2
; R
2
=
_
(z +d)
2
+
2
As the charge on the boundary is zero, the boundary conditions we must satisfy are:
_

D
2

D
1
_
n = 0;
_

E
2

E
1
_
n = 0
E

z
; E

=
i

z
; D

=
i

And taking derivatives of the inverse lengths above give the results:

z
1
R
1
=

z
1
R
2
=
d
(
2
+d
2
)
3/2
64

1
R
1
=

1
R
2
=

(
2
+d
2
)
3/2
Plugging this in gives the results:
q q

= q

; q +q

=

1

2
q

= q

1
+
2
q

= q
2
2

1
+
2
24.2 Dielectric Sphere In External Field
Consider a spherical dielectric in an external electric eld initially described as

E = E
0
z. The
solution of this problem is azimuthally symmetric, therefore we have the mathematical conditions
that:

in
=

l=0
A
l
r
l
P
l
(cos )

out
= E
0
r cos +

l=0
B
l
r
(l+1)
P
l
(cos )
And the boundary conditions are found by:

E =

r

1
r

1
r sin

E n =

E


1
a

in

r=a
=
1
a

out

r=a

E n =

E r
0

out
r

r=a
=

in
r

r=a
These conditions lead to the result that only the l = 1 terms in the sums are nonzero. So, the
potential of the sphere in an external eld is

in
(r, ) =
3

0
+ 2
E
0
r cos

out
(r, ) = E
0
r cos +

0
1

0
+ 2
E
0
a
3
r
2
cos
Wednesday - 10/22 From this potential we can write the electric eld inside the sphere. Note that
r cos = z,

E =
in
=
3

0
+ 2
E
0
r cos =
3

0
+ 2
E
0
z

E = E
z
=
3

0
+ 2
E
0
65

out
(r, ) = E
0
z +

0
1

0
+ 2
E
0
a
3
r
3
z
The potential outside is like that of the original eld plus a dipole term (
dipole

p x
r
3
). So only p
z
is non-zero and we can write that:
_

0
1

0
+ 2
_
E
0
a
3
r
3
z =
1
4
0
p
z
z
r
3
p
z
=
_

0
1

0
+ 2
_
4
0
E
0
a
3
And thus the polarization

P is:

P =
p
V
= 3
0

0
1

0
+ 2
E
0
z
This leads to a general result that for some region with an electric eld contained inside it, the
resulting polarization is determined by the internal eld and change in dielectric constants:

P
in
= (
in

out
)

E
in
Next, we can calculate the polarization distribution,

pol
=
_

P
out

P
in

S
and as there is no polarization on the outside of the sphere (not a sphere embedded in a second
dielectric), we have that

pol
=

P
in
n

S
= 3
0
_

0
1

0
+ 2
_
E
0
z r

r=a
= 3
0
_

0
1

0
+ 2
_
E
0
cos
The net charge can be found by integrating this solution from = 0 to . However, integrating
cosine on these limits gives zero. That is as expected since the net charge on the dielectric is zero.
The resulting eld outside the sphere can be found from the potential described as:

out
=
1
4
0
_

pol
dS
[ x x

[
Rotating so that the angles of and coincide, we can write this as:

out
=
2
4
0
_
d (cos )
3
0
_

0
1

0
+2
_
E
0
cos

a
2
+r
2
2ar cos
=
3E
0
2
_

0
1

0
+ 2
_
_
cos d (cos )

a
2
+r
2
2ar cos
66
And from this we can easily nd the electric eld components
E
r
=

r
; E

=
1
r

However, it isnt necessary to evaluate these. We can simply look at the behavior of E
r
at the
middle of the sphere.
E
r
(r = 0) = 3
0
_

0
1

0
+ 2
_
E
0
=

P
3
0
But recall, the delta function addition for the electric eld at r = 0 for a dipole was exactly the
above. Therefore we can write the eld outside the sphere as the external eld plus the additional
eld of a dipole oriented at the center of the sphere pointing antiparallel to the eld.
67
Part II
MAGNETOSTATICS
25 Introduction to Magnetostatics
Recall the Maxwell Equations. We are still assuming no time dependence, but instead of solving the
system for

B = 0, lets consider the case of

E = 0. This is called Magnetostatics. The equations
we need to consider are:

E =

E =

B = 0

B = 0

E =
B
t


E = 0

B =
0

j +
1
c
2

E
t


B =
0

j =

j = 0
If the electric eld is zero, then this reduces to a system of three equations.

B = 0;

B =
0

j;

j = 0
As it turns out, all three of the above can be solved by writing the magnetic eld in terms of a
vector potential

A. This can be seen as:

B =
_

A
_
= 0

A =
_

A
_

2

A =
0

j
If we assume that the divergence of

A is zero, then the above leaves only the familiar (but now
multidimensional) Laplacian Equation:

2

A =
0

j
Which has solutions of the form:

A( x) =

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ x x

[
And by taking the divergence of the solution and integrating by parts it can be shown that this
solutions satises both the conditions of

A = 0 and

j = 0.
68
Friday - 10/24
However, the above is only the special solution for this equation the most general solution would
be something of the form:

A
gen
( x) =

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ x x

[
+
25.1 Gauge Transforms
It can be shown that this additional term is a gauge transform which doesnt alter the physical
eld. The addition of to the vector potential gives a contribution of to the magnetic
eld, but this is zero. Such an additional term is known as a Coulomb Gauge since it requires
that
2
= 0. Therefore the most general vector potential in the Coulomb Gauge is simply the
special solution above.
So can we always make a statement such as

A = 0? Consider a vector potential

A such that

A ,= 0. In this case we can dene some new potential

A

as:

=

A+;
2
=

A
If the function satises this requirement, then we can immediately see that this rigs the vector
potential so that

A

= 0. Therefore, yes, we can always make the potential satisfy

A = 0.
26 Deriving the Magnetic Field
From the above denition for the vector potential we can write that the resulting

B eld is;

B =

A =
x

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ x x

[
Moving the operator into the integral gives:

B =

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
x

1
[ x x

[
Switching
x
to
x
and integrating by parts (noting that the boundary values are zero since the
potential should be zero at innity) we nd the magnetic eld to be:

B =

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

) ( x x

)
[ x x

[
3
If we consider some innitesimal portion of this eld we can write that:
69
d

B =

0
4

j( x

) ( x x

) d
3
x

[ x x

[
3
However, we can write that d
3
x

= dV = da dl and dene the current as

Jda dl Id

l. Then, letting
x

= 0, the innitesimal eld can be written:

d

B =

0
4
Id

l x
[ x[
3
Now we can derive the integral form of Maxwells equation for magnetism (i.e. Amperes Law):
_
_

B =
0

j
_
da n
_

B d

l =
0
I
26.0.1 An Example - Innitely Long Wire
Consider an innitely long wire with constant uniform current I traveling through it. The innites-
imal magnetic eld at some point a distance R from the wire from the a small length d

l of the wire
can be written as:
d

B =

0
4
Id

l x
[ x[
3
Dening to be the angle the vector x makes with the axis of the wire, we can write that d

l x =
dl x sin = dl R and further note that [ x[ =

l
2
+R
2
and thus,
d

B =

0
4
IR
dl
(l
2
+R
2
)
3/2
Integrating l over all values gives the familiar result for the magnetic eld a distance R from a
current carrying wire:
[

B[ =

0
I
2R
26.1 Force on a Charged Particle From a Magnetic Field
Given that the force on a particle in an electromagnetic eld is

F = q
_

E + v

B
_
. We can write
that since the electric eld is zero and q v = I d

l =

j

Bd
3
x,
70

F =
_
d
3
x

j( x)

B( x)
Using this we can write the force on one wire from a second as:
d

F =

j

Bd
3
x = I
1
d

l
1

0
2
I
2
d

l
2
x
[ x[
3
If we assume that there are closed loops of current, then the force is:

F =

0
4
I
1
I
2
_
d

l
1

_
d

l
2
x
[ x[
3
Using vector relations, we can write this in an expanded form

F =

0
4
I
1
I
2
__ _
d

l
1
d

l
2

1
[ x[
+
_ _
d

l
2
d

l
1

1
[ x[
_
The second term proportional to
_
d

l
1
x
and since its a closed loop, this is zero. So only the rst
term is left. This gives the force as:

F =

0
4
I
1
I
2
_ _
d

l
1
d

l
2

1
[ x[
Which in the case of two innitely long parallel wires separated by d, gives a force per unit length
of:

F
dl
1

=

0
2
I
1
I
2
d
Monday - 10/27
26.2 Magnetic Field From a Circular Loop of Wire
Consider the magnetic eld from a circular loop of wire in the xy plane with current I in the
direction. The vector potential from the loop is then,

A =

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ x x

j = K(r a)(cos) (sin e

x
+ cos e
y
)
The constant K can be found by noting that:
71
_

jd
3
x =
_
Id

l = 2a
2
I K =
I
a
Next, we can expand the separation of two points in spherical coordinates as:
[ x x

[ =
_
r
2
+r
2
2rr

(cos cos

+ sinsin

cos (

))
Plugging this in, we can note the azimuthal symmetry of the problem and assume = 0. The
deltas then pick out only the values of r

= a and =

2
. This leaves the vector potential as:

A(r, ) =

0
Ia
4
_
2
0
cos (

) d

_
a
2
+r
2
2ar sincos

From this we can immediately write the magnetic eld as:

B = B
r
e
r
+B

+B

B
r
=
1
r sin

(sinA

)
B

=
1
r

r
A

= 0
The exact solution of the above are elliptical functions. However, if we assume that the point of
interest is far from the loop of wire then we can expand the solution for
a
r
1. In this case we can
write the above vector potential as:

A(r, ) =

0
I
4
a
r
_
2
0
cos (

) d

_
1 +
a
2
r
2
+2
a
r
sincos

A

0
Ia
2
r sin
4 (a
2
+r
2
)
3
2
_
1 +
15a
2
r
2
sin
2

8 (a
2
+r
2
)
2
+. . .
_
e

And keeping only the lowest order terms we nd that the resulting

B eld far from the loop of wire
is:

B
_

0
2
_
Ia
2
_
cos
r
3
_
e
r
+
_

0
4
_
Ia
2
_
sin
r
3
_
e

72
26.2.1 Interpretation and Analysis - Dening the Dipole Moment
As an aside, recall the electric eld from a dipole far from the charges,

E
dipole

_
1
4
0
2p cos
r
3
_
e
r

_
1
4
0
p sin
r
3
_
e

We can dene the magnetic dipole moment as m = IA for a circular loop of current with current I
and area A.
Alternately, if we return to the above and expand in terms of powers of
1
| x|
:

A =

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ x x

[
=

A =

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
1
[ x[
_
1 +
x x

[ x[
2
+. . .
_
We can then write the above in terms of the monopole and dipole terms,

A =

0
4
1
[ x[
__
d
3
x

j( x

) +
1
[ x[
2
_
d
3
x

_
x x

j( x

) +. . .
_
It is easy to show that the rst term is zero for magnetostatics since we can write that for a localized
current:
_
d
3
x

x

_

j( x

)x

i
_
= 0
And then expand this as:
_
d
3
x

j( x

)x
i
+

j( x

)
x
x

i
The rst term goes to zero since the currents are innity are required to be zero. The second term
picks out the i component of the current and thus we can be sure that for each component of the
current,
_
d
3
x

j
i
( x

) = 0
This leaves only the dipole term, which we can expand as:
_
d
3
x

_
x x

j( x

) =

j
x
i
_
d
3
x

j
i
( x

)x

j
We can easily see from the divergence of the current being zero that:
73
_
d
3
x

x

_
x
i
x
j

j( x

)
_
= 0
_
d
3
x

_
x

j
j
i
( x

) x

i
j
j
( x

)
_
= 0
We can add this to the above integral without altering it,
_
d
3
x

_
x x

j
i
( x

) =

j
x
j
_
d
3
x

j
i
( x

)x

1
2
_
x

j
j
i
( x

) x

i
j
j
( x

)
_
=
1
2

j,k

ijk
x
j
_
d
3
x

_
x

j
_
k
=
1
2
_
x
_
_
x

j
_
_
i
Thus, we can write the dipole term as:

A =

0
4
_
m x
[ x[
3
+. . .
_
; m =
1
2
_
d
3
x

j( x)
Wednesday - 10/29
26.3 First Order Approximation of the Magnetic Field
From the above result, we can derive a rst order approximation for the magnetic eld.

B =

A =
_

0
4
_
m x
[ x[
3
+. . .
__
=

0
4
_

_
1
[ x[
3
_
( m x) +
1
[ x[
3
( m x)
_
=

0
4
_
3
x
[ x[
5
( m x) +
1
[ x[
3
( m( x) ( m ) x)
_
=

0
4
_
3
1
[ x[
5
[( x m) x + ( x x) m] +
3 m
[ x[
3

m
[ x[
3
_
=

0
4
_
3
( x m) x
[ x[
5
3
m
[ x[
5
+
3 m
[ x[
3

m
[ x[
3
_

B =

0
4
_
3 ( n m) n m
[ x[
3
+. . .
_
As with the electric elds dipole term, the contribution at [ x[ = 0 is undened due to the singularity.
This can be accounted for in the same manner (by integrating over the singularity) and it is found
that the full solution for the magnetic eld of a dipole contribution is:

B =

0
4
_
3 ( n m) n m
[ x[
3
+
8
3
m( x) +. . .
_
As an aside, recall the relation we derived for current density and current.
74

j d
3
x

= Id

l m =
I
2
_
x d

l
[ m[ = I Area
Thus, for any planar current distribution, the dipole moment of the distribution will be normal to
the plane or current and have magnitude given by the current times the area enclosed in the loop.
27 Current Density For a Group of Moving Charges
Consider if instead of a current density

j or current I, one were working with moving charged
particles, in this case we can write the current density from the position, charge, and velocity of
each particle:

j = v =

i
q
i
v
i
( x x
i
)
Then, writing the dipole moment of such a distribution,
m =
1
2
_
d
3
x

i
q
i
v
i
( x

x
i
)
_
=

i
q
i
2
( x
i
v
i
)
However, the cross product is simply the angular momentum of the particle without the mass term(
M), thus we can write:
m =

i
q
i
2M
i

L
i
This leads to the intrinsic spin for a charged particle. Classically, this quantity for a single particle
is expected to be:
m
intrinsic
=
q
2M

S
However, it was found experimentally that (at least for electrons) this quantity was incorrect. The
experimentally found dipole moment was m
intrinsic
= g
q
2M

S where for the electron g = 2.000116.

The factor of 2 was explained by the Dirac equation using relativistic quantum mechanics. The
additional small factor is explained in Quantum Field Theory from interaction with a polarization
in the background.
75
28 Force and Torque From an External Magnetic Field
The force on a current distribution was found earlier to be:

F =
_
d
3
x

j

B
ext
And from this we can nd that the torque on the distribution can be written:

N =
_
d
3
x x
_

j

B
ext
_
Expanding the magnetic eld as

B =

B(0) + ( x )

B[
0
+ . . . we can nd the dominant terms of
the above force and torque vectors.

F =
_
d
3
x

j
_

B(0) + ( x )

B[
0
+. . .
_
The rst term is zero since the integral of

j is zero for electrostatics. The remaining term can be
written tensor notation as:
F
i
=

j,k

ijk
( m)
j
B
k
And expanding out the cross product,

F = ( m)

B =
_
m

B
_
m
_

B
_
And since

B is zero for all cases, we can simplify write that to rst order,

F
(dipole)
=
_
m

B
_
As expected, the force can be written in terms of the gradient of some other function. The potential
energy for a dipole in an external eld is:

F = U U = m

B
ext
Similar analysis gives the dipole contribution to the torque as:

N
(dipole)
=
_
x

j

B(0)

d
3
x

= m

B(0)
76
Friday - 10/31: HAPPY HALLOWEEN!!!
29 Transition To Macroscopic Magnetostatics
For the macroscopic equations of magnetostatics, we make the transitions:

B = 0)

B) = 0

B =
0

j)

B) =
0

j) =

j +

M
Where weve dened the average magnetization per unit volume

M. Further, if we denote the
average magnetic induction

B) as simply

B and dene the magnetic eld in the media

H =
1

B

M
then the above equations become:

B = 0;

H =

j
As proof of the above claim for

j), consider some volume of material with current

j in it. Inside
the volume, the current will cause small loops of current to form, each with a single dipole moment.
We can denote this as:

M( x) =

i
N
i
m
i
)
where N
i
is the density of particles in a volume around x
i
. The vector potential for such a material
can be written as:

A =

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ x x

[
+

0
4

i
m
i
( x x
i
)
[ x x
i
[
3
And some innitesimal volume has:
d

A =

0
4

j( x

)
[ x x

[
dV

+

0
4
d m
dV

( x

) ( x x

)
[ x x

[
3
dV

However, weve dened the average magnetization over the volume to be the macroscopic magneti-
zation. Therefore the above can be integrated on the volume to give:

A =

0
4
_
d
3
x

_

j( x

)
[ x x

[
+

M( x) ( x x

)
[ x x

[
3
_
Noting that the second term can be written as

M( x)( x x

)
| x x

|
3
=

M( x

_
1
| x x

|
_
, and then inte-
grating by parts gives the result:
77

A =

0
4
_
d
3
x

j( x

) +
x


M( x

)
[ x x

[
Which produces the expected result that in the macroscopic case the current can be written as
above.
29.1 Relations between H, B, and M - Boundary Conditions
If we assume that the magnetization is a function of

H then we can write that:

B =
0

H +

M(

H)

B =

B
_

H
_

B =

H; = (

H)
The boundary conditions for the magnetic eld in macroscopic media are:
_

B
2

B
1
_
n = 0
_

H
2

H
1
_
n =

K
Where

K is the idealized surface current density in between the two materials.
29.2 Some Important Cases
29.2.1 Constant Magnetic Permeability
In a material such as a paramagnet or diamagnet, the value of is constant. In such a case, the
equations work out exactly as before, only with
0
replaced by . The vector potential is then:

A =

4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ x x

[
29.2.2 No Current In a Region
In the case that there is no current density in a region, then the equations for magnetostatics result
in:

H = 0

H =
M

B = 0
M
= 0
78
29.2.3 No Current In a Region, Magnetization Is Given
If there is no current density, the we have from the above,

0
_

H +

M
__
= 0
2

M
=

M
And for such a problem on can immediately write the solution as:

M
=
1
4
_
d
3
x

M
[ x x

[
Expanding the above and taking the rst term as x

0 and x x

, one nds:

M
( x)
1
4

_
1
r
_

_

M( x

)d
3
x

=
m x
4r
3
+. . .
In the case of a Dirichlet boundary for the above magnetic scalar potential, one can write:

M
=
1
4
_
V
d
3
x

M
_
G
D
( x, x

) +
1
4
_
V

M
G
D
( x, x

)
Where weve dened the eective magnetic surface charge density:

M
= n

M( x

)
79
Monday - 11/3
30 Energy In An External Magnetic Field
Recall that the energy for an electrostatic conguration in an external eld can be written in a
vacuum and medium as:
w =

0
2
[

E[
2
w =
1
2

E

D
Similarly, in magnetostatics, one can write that:
w =
1
2
0
[

B[
2
w =
1
2

H

B
This is proven by calculating the variation in force of moving a current in a medium. Consider some
region with an external eld

B
ext
into which a current density

j is inserted. If the charge density
is then nudged a small amount, a variation in the energy can be calculated. Consider some small
portion of the current density, the force on it can be written as:
d

F = Id

l

B
ext
=

j

B
ext
d
3
x
Then, if we move the distribution by a distance d

l
2
the new force is written:
d

F d

l
2
= I
_
d

l

B
ext
_
d

l
2
= I
_
d

l d

l
2
_

B = IdA

B n
Thus the force is proportional to the area bounded by d

l and d

l
2
. The variation of this can then be
taken,
(dW) =
_
IdA

B n
_
= Ida (

B) n
Integrating by parts to nd the total variation of the work in the system:
(W) =
_
Ida(

B) n =
_
Ida
_
(

A
_
n
By Stokes theorem, we can write this as:
(W) =
_
C
(

A) Id

l =
_
(

A)

jd
3
x
But since

j =

H we can use the relation
_
a

b
_
=

b ( a) a
_

b
_
we can write the
above as simply:
80
(W) =
_
d
3
x

H
_

A
_
(W) =
_
d
3
x

H
_

B
_
And in the case of linearly reacting media,

B =

H and = constant. In this case the above
simply becomes:
(W) =
1
2
_
d
3
x

H

B =
1
2
_
d
3
x

A

j
Where the second denition comes from

B =

A and

H =

j.
30.1 Special Case - Change in Energy of a Region When a Material Is Inserted
For some region with an initial magnetic eld, the change in energy when a material is inserted can
be written as:
W =
1
2
_
d
3
x
_

B

H

B
0

H
0
_
Expanding this out, we nd that:

B

H

B
0

H
0
=
_

H

H
0
_

B

B
0
_

H

B
0
+

H
0

B
The rst two terms are zero, this leaves only
W =
1
2
_
d
3
x
_

H
0

B

H

B
0
_
And again, for linearly reacting media,

B =

H, so the above simply becomes:
W =
1
2
_
d
3
x
_
1

_

B
0

B
Alternately, one can note that the magnetization in a material can be written as:

M =
_
1

_

B
and therefore the above is:
W =
1
2
_
d
3
x

M

B
0
81
31 Behavior of Various Materials In a Magnetic Field
Note that in general the magnetic moment of a material can be written as:
m =
q
2m
e

L + m
s
=
q
2m
e
( r p) + m
s
And noting that in a magnetic eld the momentum changes from p to p q

A, we can include this
in the above and nd that the magnetic moment in a material is:
m =
e
2m
e
r
_
p +e

A
_
+ m
s
and writing the vector potential instead as

A =
0
_

H
r
2
_
+
0
( r )

H
2
. The second term is zero
and this leaves only:
m =
e
2m
e
r p
e
2

0
4m
e
r
_

H r
_
+ m
s
And taking the average in the medium, we nd that:
< m >=
_

e
2m
e
r p
_

e
2

0
6m
e

r
2
_

H
Next, consider the reaction of a diamagnetic material in an external eld. Since in a diamagnetic,
there is no intrinsic magnetic moment, the rst term above is zero. This means that < m > is
negative and thus the change in energy is positive when it is inserted. The system will try to get
back to the lower energy state, so the material will be pushed out of the eld. Further, it can be
seen that the magnetization is:

M =
e
2

0
N
6m
e

r
2
_

H =
M

H
where weve dened the magnetic susceptibility
M
as:

B =
0
(1 +
M
)

H

M =
M

H
For a paramagnetic material, the intrinsic moment is non zero and in most cases the rst term
dominates over the second for < m >. In this case the change in energy is negative and the param-
agnet is pulled into the eld. Next, well look at the behavior of a paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
material as well.
82
Wednesday - 11/5
31.1 Paramagnets
For each atom in a paramagnetic material, the outermost shell of electrons can exhibit a total
angular momentum

j (not to be confused with current density). When a magnetic eld is switched
on, the energy in the material changes by a given amount. We can write this as:
E =
0

H

l +g
s
s) =
0

H

j + (g
s
1) s)
If we absorb this spin term into the total angular momentum, we can denote this in terms of the
Lande factor g
l,s,j
:
E =
0

H

j)g
l,s,j
=
0
m
j
g
l,s,j
H
z
Taking the average of this value gives the magnetic moment m and we can write the Boltzmann
Distribution for the energy P
E
=
_
exp
_
E
kT
_
/
_
n
exp(
En
kT
)

.
m) =

m
j

0
m
j
g
l,s,j
P
Em
j
This can be summed over all atoms to obtain the total magnetization in terms of the Brillouin
Function B(x):
M = m)N = N
0
g
l,s,j
jB(x)
B(x) =
1
j
__
j +
1
2
_
coth
_
x
_
j +
1
2
__

1
2
coth
_
x
2
_
_
; x = g
l,s,j

0
H
kT
In the case of high temperatures, x and so B(x)
H
T
. In this case, the magnetization goes
like:

M =
M

H
M
Ng
2
l,s,j

2
0
j
(j + 1)
3kT
This behavior of

M
C
T

H at high temperatures follows the Curie Law since

M
=
C
T
in this limit.
In the limit of low temperatures, the value of x and so
M
becomes a constant Ng
l,s,j

0
j.
NOTE: There are several other eects that can cause paramagnetic phenomena. First,
atoms with paired electrons will exhibit a weak (10

3 times the magnitude of that of the

electron) magnetic momenta which can be measured. Second, in a metal the electrons
are free to move about, however if a magnetic eld causes some spin up and some
spin down imbalance, then the excess unpaired electrons will cause a paramagnetic eect.
83
31.2 Ferromagnets
It has been observed in ferromagnetic materials that
M
obeys the relation:

M
=
C
T T
C
Where T
C
is come critical temperature below which this relation no longer holds. Note that in
the case of high temperatures, T T
C
and this reverts to the Curie law of
M

C
T
. The above
relation can be derived with a number of assumptions.
1) Domains in the material have uniform magnetization. These ares behave similar to dipoles in
that they inuence one another by external and exchange elds.
2) The interaction Hamiltonian can be written in terms of the exchange and external elds as
H
I
= m
i

H
ext
+

i=j
U
ij
([ x
i
x
j
[)
Assuming that the function in the summation can be written in terms of the scalar product of

j
i

j
j
we can write this instead in terms of the exchange eld:

H
I
= m
i

H
ext
+

H
exch
_
3) If we assume that the exchange eld is proportional to the magnetization of the other domains,
then we can dene some relation

H
exch
= D

M and all together we get the result:

M =
M
_

H
ext
+

H
exch
_
=
C
T
_

H
ext
+D

M
_

M =
C
T T
C

H
ext
One last note about this result, in the case that T T
C
, we can consider the value of
|

H|
|

M|
.
[

H[
[

M[

T T
C
C
and in this case the right hand side goes to zero. This means that the left hand side also must go to
zero. Now, in addition to this, consider the case that [

H[ . We still require that the above hold,

therefore even in the limit of no external eld, [

M[ , = 0 for low temperatures.
84
Friday - 11/7
32 Summary of Problem Solving Methods
We can now summarize several methods of solving problems in magnetostatics.
32.1 Free Space Vector Potential
If there are no boundary conditions and

j( x) is given, then the vector potential can be calculated
as:

A( x) =

4
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ x x

[
32.2 Magnetization Known With No Current
If a region in space has no current but some dened magnetization

M, then we can use either
magnetic scalar potential or vector potential to solve the problem. Dening the magnetic scalar
potential from

H =
M
, we can write the equation as:

M
=
1
4
_
V
d
3
x

M( x

)
[ x x

[
+
1
4
_
V
da

n

M( x

)
[ x x

[
This can be written more compactly if we dene:
M
=

M and
M
= n

M since it is then
simply,

M
=
1
4
_
V
d
3
x

M
( x

)
[ x x

[
+
1
4
_
V
da

M
( x

)
[ x x

[
Alternately, we can assume that

B =

A and from this we get the vector potential

A as:

A( x) =

4
_
V
d
3
x

M( x

)
[ x x

[
+

4
_
V
da

n

M( x

)
[ x x

[
32.3 No Current, but no given magnetization
In this case, we can refer back to the denition for the magnetic scalar potential and write that:
(
M
) = 0
2

M
= 0
85
32.4 Example: Uniformly Magnetized Sphere
Consider a sphere of radius a which uniform magnetization barM = M
0
z. In this case we can
solve the problem with either of the methods in part 2 above. Firstly, consider if we use the scalar
potential.

M =

z
M
0
= 0; n

M = M
0
r z = M
0
cos
The rst term in the result is zero and the second term leaves only:

M
=
1
4
_
V
da

M
0
cos
[ x x

[
=
M
0
4
_
a
2
d

cos
[ x x

[
Using the expansion for the free space Greens Function for azimuthal symmetry quickly evaluates
this integral:

M
=
M
0
a
2
4
(2)

l
P
l
(cos )
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
_
d cos

P
L
_
cos

_
cos

The integral produces a

l,1
which leaves the scalar potential as:

M
=
M
0
a
2
3
r
<
r
2
>

(r>a)
M
=
M
0
a
3
3r
2
cos =
M
0
a
3
3
z
r
3

(r<a)
M
=
M
0
3
r cos =
M
0
3
z
_
Note that from the solution outside the sphere we can see that the result is that of a magnetic
dipole with dipole moment m = M
0
4
3
a
3
. Which is the magnetization over the volume.
An alternate analysis could be performed using the vector potential, however it requires computing
the following:

M =

i

y
M
0

j

x
M
0
= 0
n

M = M
0
r z = M
0
sincos

i +M
0
sincos

We can drop the rst term in the r z result, and the remaining term can be expressed in terms
of meaning that we can write the potential outside as
A

=

0
4
M
0
a
2
_
d

sin

cos

[ x x

[
Expressing this instead as
sin

cos

=
_
8
3
Re
_
Y
1,1
(

we get the exact B eld as from above.

86
Monday - 11/10
33 Additional Topics In Magnetostatics
33.1 Magnetic Shielding
Consider a spherical Shell of inner and outer radii a and b respectively. If there is an external
eld

B = B
0
z =
0
H
0
z, then the sphere can be used to shield the area contained inside of it.
Firstly, we need to set up the problem. There are no charges, so we simply need to solve the system
of equations formed by the boundary conditions on the solutions in the three regions. Since the
problem is azimuthally symmetric, we can write the resulting magnetic potential as:

(I)
M
= H
0
r cos +

l=0
B
(I)
l
r
(l+1)
P
l
(cos ); r > b

(II)
M
=

l=0
_
A
(II)
l
r
l
+B
(II)
l
r
(l+1)
_
P
l
(cos ); a < r < b

(III)
M
=

l=0
A
(III)
l
r
l
P
l
(cos ); r < a
The boundary conditions require:

(III)
M
r

r=b
=

(II)
M
r

r=b
;

(II)
M
r

r=a
=
0

(I)
M
r

r=a

(III)
M

r=b
=

(II)
M

r=b
;

(II)
M

r=a
=

(I)
M

r=a
The source function causes only the l = 1 terms to be nonzero. The result inside the cavity is the
primary interest to our problem, the coecient A
(III)
1
is found to be:
A
(III)
1
= H
0
_
9

(2

+ 1)(

+ 2)

2a
3
b
3
(

1)
2
_
Where weve dened

0
. In the limit that

1, the above reduces to a potential of the form:

(III)
M
H
0
9
2

_
1
a
3
b
3
_
r cos
The magnetic eld inside the cavity is thus negligible for

1. The cavity is shielded in this

manner.
87
33.2 Inductance
Consider the energy of a system containing two loops of current I
1
and I
2
.
W =
1
2
_
d
3
x

j( x)

A( x) =
1
2
_
d
3
x

H

B
Using the denition for the vector potential, we can write the energy of the two currents as:
W =

0
8
_
d
3
x

j
1
( x)
_
d
3
x

j
2
( x)
[ x x

[
For some generic system of n current loops, we can write the above instead as:
W =

0
8

i,j
_
d
3
x
_
d
3
x

j
i
( x
i
)

j
j
( x
j
)
[ x
i
x

j
[
We can break this into two parts, containing the mutual inductance i ,= j and the self inductance
i = j.
W =

0
4

i
_
d
3
x
_
d
3
x

j
i
( x
i
)

j
i
( x
i
)
[ x
i
x

i
[
+

0
8

i,j
_
d
3
x
_
d
3
x

j
i
( x
i
)

j
j
( x
j
)
[ x
i
x

j
[
We can then dene the Inductance coecients as:
L
i
=

0
4I
2
i

i
_
d
3
x
_
d
3
x

j
i
( x
i
)

j
i
( x
i
)
[ x
i
x

i
[
M
ij
=

0
4I
i
I
j

i,j
_
d
3
x
_
d
3
x

j
i
( x
i
)

j
j
( x
j
)
[ x
i
x

j
[
W =
1
2

i
L
i
I
2
i
+

i>j
M
ij
I
i
I
j
In the case of a single loop of wire, M
ij
= 0 and we are left with only:
W =
1
2
LI
2
L =
1
I
2
_
d
3
x
[

B[
2

33.3 Quasistatics Fields

We can now consider the case of a slowly varying electric eld. If we assume that


D
t
0 then we
can write the relevant equations:
88

H =

j;

B = 0;

E =

B
t
;

j =

E
And noting that we can still write

B =

A, we can write that:

E =

A
t

Assuming there is negligible free charge, the changing

B is the only source of the electric eld and
thus the scalar potential is constant which we can set to zero. This leaves the above as:

E =

A
t
.
From Amperes law, we require:

B =

j =

E
Replacing

B and

E in the above with the vector potential, we are left with a diusion equation for
the potential:

A =
_

A
_

2

A

2

A =

A
t
Wednesday - 11/12
33.4 Faradays Law
Consider some current distribution

j( x) localized to a region of space. It is immediately clear that

E = 0 and

B ,= 0 for this system. However, if the current distribution and observer are not in the
same inertial frame, then the charge density will appear to be moving with some velocity. For our
analysis, assume that v c and is a constant. For this system, the equations for the elds are:

E =

B
t


E =

B = 0

B =
0

j +
1
c
2

E
t
We can write the total time derivative of the magnetic eld as:
d

B
dt
=


B
t
+ ( v )

B
And expand this by vector relations and dropping the term

B gives:
( v )

B = v
_

B
_
+
_

B v
_

d

B
dt
=


B
t
+
_

B v
_
89
Combining this with the other equation above, we nd that:

E =
d

B
dt
+
_

B v
_

E + v

B
_
=
d

B
dt
We can take this result and integrate the projection over the surface enclosing the distribution:
_ _

E + v

B
_
=
d

B
dt
_
ndA
The righthand side gives the total time derivative of the magnetic ux through the region, while
the second side can be rewritten via Stokes theorem to give:
_
d

l
_

E + v

B
_
=
_
1
q

F
We can dene this to be the electromotive force and we get the familiar relation:
=
d
dt
Note that in this analysis weve assigned a new force

F = q

E

where the new eld is an eective

eld we have dened from

E

=

E+ v

B. This demonstrates how

E and

B are actually connected
in non-static systems.
90
Part III
TRANSITION TO NON-STATICS
34 Modications To Potentials For Non-Statics
Recall that in general, Maxwells equations and other relevant equations for solving problems can
be summarized as:

E =

B = 0

E =

B
t


B =
0

j +
1
c
2

E
t

F = q
_

E + v

B
_

t
+

j = 0
And in the cases of Electrostatics and Magnetostatics we assume that

E = and

B =

A
respectively. Now that were dealing with non-statics, these assumptions will have to be altered. As
we still require

B = 0, we can still dene a vector potential

A. Plugging this into the equation
above, we nd that the new scalar potential can be dened as:

E =

A =


A
t

E +


A
t
_
= 0

E +


A
t
=
So, summarizing, we have satised two of the equations by writing the elds in terms of the poten-
tials:

B =

A

E =


A
t
Plugging these into the remaining Maxwell equations yields:

_



A
t
_
=

0

2
+


A
t
=

A =
_

A
_

2

A =
0

j +
1
c
2
_



A
t
_

2

A
_

A
_

1
c
2

t

1
c
2

2

A
t
2
=
0

j
2

A
1
c
2

2

A
t
2

_

A+
1
c
2

t
_
=
0

j
91
35 Simplications By Gauge Transformations
35.1 Gauge Transforms in Non-Statics
Recall how we dened Gauge transforms to be cases where altering the potential functions didnt
alter the physical elds. In this non-static case, we can still dene a Gauge transform. If we
transform

A

=

A+ this results in

B =

B

. However, the resulting electric eld is:

=


A

t
=


A
t


t
=
_
+

t
_

A
t
So, then, we can see that this transform holds still if dene the additional transform on the scalar
potential:
_

=

t

=

A+
_
Finally, consider the case that we transform the scalars so that one of the terms

t
_

A
_
and

A+
1
c
2

t
_
go to zero. In general, the second term would be equal to some function well
dene as ( x, t). So, we want to rig the scalar transform above so that:

A+
1
c
2

t
=
becomes:

2
+
1
c
2

t
+
1
c
2

t
2
=
_

2
+
1
c
2

t
2
=

+
1
c
2

t
= 0
_
This is known as the Lorenz Gauge since the resulting equations are wave equations of the form:

2

A
1
c
2

2

A
t
2
=
0

j
2
+
1
c
2

t
2
=

A =
0

j =

0
Friday - 11/14
Alternately, suppose we can write the evolution of the charge distribution as ( x, t), in this case we
can refer back to electrostatics and apply the Coulomb Gauge (

A = 0). Plugging this into the
above results give:

2
=

0
92

2

A
1
c
2

2

A
t
2

1
c
2

t
() =
0

j
We can easily show that from any potential

A we can reduce the equations to the above by the
transform

A

=

A+ as long as we satisfy that:

2
=

A =
1
4
_
d
3
x

x


A( x

)
[ x x

[
We can further simplify this result since from the above we can write the solution for the scalar
potential as:
( x, t) =
1
4
0
_
d
3
x

( x

, t)
[ x x

[
35.2 Separating the Transverse and Longitudinal Current Density
So, plugging this into the second equation and noting that

t
=

j we can write the equation

for the vector potential as;

A =
0

j +
1
4
0
c
2

_
d
3
x

t
( x

, t)
[ x x

[
And since c
2
=
1

0
, the above reduces to:

A =
0

j

0
4

_
d
3
x

j( x

, t)
[ x x

[
If we make the following denitions,

j =

j
l
+

j
t

j
l
=
1
4

_
d
3
x

j
[ x x

j
t
=
1
4

_
d
3
x

j
[ x x

[
Then the above simply reduces to:

A =

j
t
The components of

j given above satisfy:
93

j
t
= 0

j
l
= 0
Which means that they are the transverse and longitudinal components of the current.
35.3 Summary of Gauge Transforms
So then summarizing, the vector and scalar potentials can be transformed as:

A

A+;

t
and the physical elds are left unchanged. And from this, two specic cases can be dened:
35.3.1 Lorentz-Gauge
Let

A+
1
c
2

t
= 0, then the resulting decoupled equations are:

A =
0

j =

0
35.3.2 Coulomb Gauge
Let

A = 0. If in addition to this we have the conditions = 0 and

j = 0 then = 0 results in
the equation:

A = 0
36 Magnetic Monopoles
If magnetic monopoles do exist in the universe, then Maxwells equations will be altered as shown
below:

E =

D =
e

B = 0

B =
m

E =

B
t


E =

B
t

j
m

H =


H
t
+

j

H =


H
t
+

j
e
With the conditions of:
94

e
t
+

j
e
= 0

m
t
+

j
m
= 0
However, these equations show a global symmetry in that we can change any pair of eld denitions
(

E and

H for example) as:

E =

E

cos +Z
0

H

sin

H = Z
0

H

cos +

E

sin
Or alternately written:
_

E
Z
0

H
_
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
__

E

Z
0

H

_
But this is simply an SO(2) symmetry which is isomorphic to a symmetry in U(1) meaning this
is merely adding a phase to the eld. This means that we can actually rig the charge density
denitions so that only electric monopole sources exist, only magnetic monopoles exist, or somewhere
in between. Since we physically only see electric monopoles, we rig the system to only depend
on such sources. However, it is interesting to note that the Dirac equation predicts a quantized
electronic-magnetic charge condition of
eg
4
=
n
2
where e is the electric charge and g is the magnetic
charge.
95
Monday - 11/17
37 Special Symmetries - Parity and Time Inversion
We can summarize a few other symmetries which the Maxwell equations obey. For instance, spacial
translation ( x x

+ c), time translation (t t

+ c), and rotations ( x x

R
) all conserve the
elds. In all, the Maxwell Equations are invariant under all Poincare Transformations (all relativistic
transforms). Of particular interest to us are parity transformations ( x x), and time inversion
transformations (t t). We can see that the electric and magnetic elds are still vector elds
under such transforms, however, lets consider how the elds behave under transforms. By the rst
of Maxwells Equations, the electric eld changes as:

E =

0
Under the parity transformation, the following changes occur:


E

E

since we require that the electronic charge be conserved in such a transformation, the scalar function
must also stay the same. Therefore in order to conserve the eld we must assume that

E

E.
Thus the electric eld is a real vector.
We can nd the behavior of the magnetic eld from:

E =


B
t
()
_

E
_
=


B

t
Thus the vector eld

B remains the same in a parity transformation. This behavior for

B is due to it
being dened by a cross product of two real vectors. Such an object is known as a pseudo-vector.
However, to check that our results make sense, well check what happens in the remaining Maxwell
Equation:

B =
0

j +
1
c
2

E
t
()
_

B
_
=
0

+
1
c
2

E
_
t
This requires that the current density change sign in parity, which is what we expect since the vector
for the velocity will change direction. Thus we have the results that in a parity transformation:
x x
_

B

B
_

_
Considering the time reversal, we can check the result by applying the transform to:
96

E =

B
t


B =
0

j +
1
c
2

E
t
We can see immediately that this causes the changes of:
t t
_

E

E

B
_

_
37.1 Example - Expansion for Polarization
We can nd a form for the expansion of

P =
0

e

E by applying the above relations. Since we need
to add a function of the magnetic eld which is invariant under the above transformations, from
this we can immediately see that up to second order, the only allowed terms are:
1

P =
e

E +
1

E
t


B
0
+
2
_

B
0

B
0
_

E +
3
_

E

B
0
_

B
0
+. . .
38 Energy in an Electromagnetic Field - The Poynting Vector
Weve looked at the energy in a eld in the case of Electrostatics and Magnetostatics, now well
derive an expression for the general case. We can start from the force equation:

F = q
_

E + v

B
_
And note that the mechanical work done in moving a particle along some innitesimal distance d

l
can be written as:
dW
mech
=

F d

l
dW
mech
dt
=

F
d

l
dt
dt
And noting that the second term is simply the force dotted with the velocity, we can drop the
second term (as expected, the magnetic eld does no work), and this leaves:
dW
mech
dt
= q

E v =
_
d
3
x v

E
And given that W
mech
= W
EM
since energy is conserved, and the charge density times the velocity
is just the current density, the above gives that the work done by the eld is:
97
dW
EM
dt
=
_
d
3
x

j

E
Applying the relation

j =
1

0
_

B
1
c
2

E
t
_
we can write the above in terms of only the elds:
dW
EM
dt
=
1
c
2
_
d
3
x
_

B
1
c
2

E
t
_

E =
0

t
_
d
3
x
1
2
[

E[
2

0
_
d
3
x

E
_

B
_
And using vector relations and Maxwells Equations:

E
_

B
_
=
_

E

B
_
+

B
_

E
_
=
_

E

B
_

1
2

t
[

B[
2
So, combining this with the above gives the result:
dW
EM
dt
=

t
_
d
3
x
_

0
2
[

E[
2

1
2
0
[

B[
2
_
+
1

0
_
d
2
x n
_

E

B
_
From this result, we can also gain some information about energy conservation. Dening the scalar
energy density u and ux vector s as:
u
1
2
_

E

D +

B

H
_
=

0
2
[

E[
2

1
2
0
[

B[
2
s

E

H =
1

E

B
The vector eld s is dened to be the Poynting Vector and is used in a number of other derivations.
The above gives the continuity relation that:
u
t
+ s =

j

E
Which when there is no current is simply an energy conservation equation. In the case of a current
in a region, the energy is altered some amount by the moving charges.
Wednesday - 11/19
39 Momentum in the Electromagnetic Field
Last time we dened the energy in an electromagnetic eld in terms of the energy density u and
the Poynting vector s which described the ux of energy. Today well work with the momentum in
the eld. Starting from Newtons law and the equation for the force on a charged particle.
98
d

P
mech
dt
=

F = q
_

E + v

B
_
=
d

P
EM
dt
So, the momentum in the eld can be written as:
d

P
EM
dt
=
_
d
3
x
_

E +

j

B
_
We can replace with
0

E and

j with
1

B
0

E
t
to get the momentum in terms of only
the elds.
d

P
EM
dt
=
0
_
d
3
x
_

E
_

E
_
c
2

B
_

B
_
+

B


E
t
_
We can expand the last term as:

B


E
t
=

t
_

B

E
_

B
t


E
And replacing the derivative of

B with

E and noting that the resulting term is the Poynting
Vector, we can write the variation in the momentum as:
d

P
EM
dt
=

t
_
1
c
2
_
d
3
x s
_
+
0
_
d
3
x
_

E
_

E
_
+c
2

B
_

B
_
+

E
_

E
_
Using vector relations, the larger term can be reduced to the divergence of some tensor, thus the
above is simply,
d

P
EM
dt
=

t
_
1
c
2
_
d
3
x s
_
+

i
_
d
3
x

x
i
T
i
In the case that there are no charges in the system and the eld is the only source of momentum,
the change goes to zero and the above results in a continuity equation of the form:

t
_
1
c
2
_
d
3
x s
_
+

T = 0
From this we can see that the momentum density is given by p
EM
=
1
c
2
s. Thus the total momentum
in the eld is:
p
EM
=
1
c
2
s

P
EM
=
_
d
3
p
EM
99
39.1 Angular Momentum in the Field
From this denition we can write the angular momentum density at some location in the eld and
the total angular momentum in a volume of the eld as:

l
EM
= r p
EM
=
1
c
2
r s

L
EM
=
1
c
2
_
d
3
x r s
39.2 Radiation Pressure
From the momentum we can dene the radiation pressure as the force per unit area
P
EM
=

F
dA

P
EM
dAdt

=
1
c
2
dV
dAdt

E

H

This can be reduced further since

dV
dA
= dl and
dl
dt
= c for the eld. Thus we are left with only
P
EM
=
1
c
[

E

H[
In order to get the macroscopic pressure, we have to take the time average of this result. So,
concluding this portion well write out to time average such a quantity.
40 Time Average of Vector Products
Consider two vectors

C( x, t) and

D( x, t). We can write either of these in terms of its frequency
components via a Fourier Integral Transform:

C( x, t) =
_
de
it

C

( x, )
d

C( x, t)
d
=

C

( x, )e
it
And the combination of two vectors can then be written in terms of their complex conjugates:
d

C( x, t)
d
=
1
2
_

( x, )e
it
+

C

( x, )e
it
_
d

D( x, t)
d
=
1
2
_

( x, )e
it
+

D

( x, )e
it
_
Thus any combination

C

D can be consider a combination:

C

D
1
4
_

( x, )e
it
+

C

( x, )e
it
_

( x, )e
it
+

D

( x, )e
it
_
100
=
1
4
_

e
2it
+

C

e
2it
+

C

+

C

_
Taking the time average of this, the rst two terms drop out and we are left with only the last two.
Combining these, we get the result that:

C

D)
t

1
2
Re
_

D
_
Thus, the above relations can be time averaged to give:
s)
t
=
1
2
Re
_

H
_
u)
t
=
1
4
Re
_

E

D

+

B

H

_
101
Part IV
SPECIAL RELATIVITY AND TENSORS IN
ELECTROSTATICS
Wednesday - 1/21
41 Transition to Semester II
41.1 Review of First Semester: Maxwells Equations and Gauge Transforms
Maxwells Equations in a vacuum are:

E =

0
;

B = 0

E +


B
t
= 0;

B =
0

j +
1
c
2

E
t

t
+

j = 0;

F = q
_

E + v

B
_
We can use the scalar and vector potentials and

A where the electric and magnetic elds are
described as

E =


A
t
and

B =

A. From these denitions for the potentials Maxwells
Equations can be expressed as:

2
+


A
t
=

2

A
1
c
2

2

A
t
2

_

A+
1
c
2

t
_
=
0

j
Further, under gauge transformations, the potentials can be modied in specic ways that leave the
physical elds unchanged. Those changes are described as:

A

A+;

t
The two most useful gauge transforms are the Coulomb and Lorenz transformations:
41.1.1 Lorentz-Gauge
Let

A+
1
c
2

t
= 0, then the resulting decoupled equations are:

A =
0

j =

0
102
41.1.2 Coulomb Gauge
Let

A = 0. If in addition to this we have the conditions = 0 and

j = 0 then = 0 results in
the equation:

A = 0
41.2 Introduction of Gaussian Units
For the rest of this semester we will be using Gaussian units. We can write Maxwells Equations in
terms of generic scalars relating the elds and sources as:

E = 4
1
;

B = 0

E =
3

B
t
;

B = 4
2

j +

2

E
t
previously weve used the SI Units relations of:

1
=
1
4
0
;
2
=

0
4

3
= 1;
4
= 1
From this point forward we will be using Gaussian Units, where:

1
= 1;
2
=
1
c
2

3
=
1
c
;
4
= c
This unit system is useful since it makes the only scalar constant the speed of light c. The resulting
equations are:

E = 4;

B = 0

E =
1
c

B
t
;

B =
4
c

j +
1
c

E
t

t
+

j = 0;

F = q
_

E +
1
c
v

B
_
For more conversions, see page 782 in Jackson.
103
42 Propagation in a Vacuum - Introduction to Special Relativity
Consider electromagnetic waves propagating in a vacuum without sources. The solution is that
described by:

A = 0 = 0
=
1
c
2

2
t
2
+
2
This is the solution of waves moving at speed c. However, what is this speed relative to? There are
several possible results. Either (1) the speed c is that relative to some preferred reference frame,
(2) the speed c is that seen in any frame, or (3) for some specic set of frames, the waves propagate
at speed c. This is the problem of invariance and its solution leads to the main postulate of Special
Relativity.
Classical mechanics refers to the Galilean Transformation for coordinate systems moving at constant
velocity to one another as:
x x

; x

= x vt
In component form that is:
x

= x v
x
t
y

= y v
y
t
z

= z v
z
t
t = t

From this assumption, we can write the transformation of the potentials in terms of some transfor-
mation scalars k
i

= k
0
+
3

i=1
k
i
A
i
;

A

j
= k

0
+
3

i=1
k

i
A
i
Next, consider how the wave operator changes in this transformation. The vector operator
remains unchanged since each component transforms as:

=
x
x

x
+
y
x

y
+
z
x

z
+
t
x

t
=

x

=
However, the transformation of the time derivative generates extra terms as:

2
t
2
=

2
t
2
+ 2 v

t
+ ( v ) ( v )
104
This result implies that there is some preferred reference frame for propagation of light. However,
experiments showed otherwise. Clearly something was incorrect. The equations of Electromag-
netism seemed to be correct and no gauge transformation would produce more correct results. The
only thing remaining was a new transformation between reference frames. This leads to the primary
postulate of special relativity:
The laws of nature and the results of all experiments performed in a given frame of reference are
independent of the translational motion of the system as a whole. More precisely, there exists a triply
innite set of equivalent Euclidean reference frames moving with constant velocities in rectilinear
paths relative to one another in which all physical phenomena occur in an identical manner.
However, changing the way that two frames are related requires rewriting much of classical physics.
One particularly troubling result of a new transform is that it requires t ,= t

. This results in
dierent reference frames observing dierent rates of time.
43 The Lorentz Transform
Friday - 1/23
43.1 Deriving the Lorentz Transform Group
Our goal is to nd a change in coordinates for which Maxwells Equations remain invariant. In this
case, we want the potentials and

A to remain unchanged in the dierent coordinate frames. To
do this, we must nd transformation in which the wave equation is unchanged for some potential.
That is,
= 0

= 0
To do so, we must dene new operators and vectors which will incorporate time into the coordinate
system. The position 4-vector and the 4-vector nabla operator are dened as:
x =
_
_
_
_
ct
x
y
z
_
_
_
_
=
_
ct
x
_
;

=
_
1
c

t
,

x
,

y
,

z
_
=
_
1
c

t
,
_
From these denitions, we can show that the wave operator can be rewritten as:
=

g

T
; g =
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
=
_
1 0
0

1
_
105
where weve shortened notation of the 4 4 matrix g to a 2 2. This statement can quickly be
shown by expanding the above:
=
_
1
c

t
,
_
_
1 0
0

1
__
1
c

t
,

_
=
_
1
c

t
,
_
_
1
c

t
,

_
=
1
c
2

2
t
2

2
So, now we need to dene a transformation x

= x which keeps the operator

g

T
invariant.
Consider the structure of this matrix .
_
_
_
_
ct

_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_

0
0

0
1

0
2

0
3

1
0

1
1

1
2

1
3

2
0

2
1

2
2

2
3

3
0

3
1

3
2

3
3
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
ct
x
y
z
_
_
_
_
It would be time consuming and dicult to determine each component of the matrix via the equa-
tions generated by the above statement. An alternate way to continue is to show that

1
.
This can be shown by noting that

x = 4. And also,

= 4. Then, making multiple substitutions,

( x) =

1
x
So, with these conditions, we can make the invariance condition:

T
=

1
g
_

1
_
T

T
=

g

1
g
_

1
_
T
= g
Multiplying by , taking the transpose and multiplying by again yields the condition:
g
T
= g
This denes the Lorentz Transformation Group which is a subgroup of the more general Poincare
Group. The Poincare Group consists of transformations of the form:
x

= x +

A
where

A is some 4 vector dening a translation in space or time. The total dimensionality of the
Poincare transformation is 10. Those are 3 from rotation, 3 from velocity, and 4 from the translation.
From this we can see that the Lorentz transform were deriving will have 6 dimensions from the
rotations and velocities.
43.2 Properties of the Lorentz Transform
With the denition above, several properties of the Lorentz transform can be dened.
106
Determinant
The determinant of the transform is always 1. This can be shown by:
det
_
g
T
_
= det (g) det () (1)
_

T
_
= 1
[det ()]
2
= 1 det () = 1
Transforms with determinant +1 are called Proper Transforms.
Making The Transform Self Adjoint
Given some form for , it is always possible to rig the coecients of the transform so that
=
T
. This is because we can easily show that both g
T
= g and
T
g = g are valid
statements. The result of this is that the components of the transform can always be written
as
j
i
=
i
j
.
Allowed Values of Time Element
The rst element (
0
0
) can take only certain values. This is evident from the rst equation
resulting from multiplying out the matrices.
1 =
_

0
0
_
2

i=1
_

0
i
_
2

0
0
_
2
1
thus the allowed values of this element are
0
0
1 or
0
0
1. The positive solutions
are orthochronous transforms and this is the second characteristic of the transform we are
looking for.
One Last Note
Further, one can use the velocities to set
j
i
with i = 0 or j = 0 equal to zero (obviously except the
component with i = j = 0). This results in a transform of the form:
=
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0
1
1

1
2

1
3
0
2
1

2
2

2
3
0
3
1

3
2

3
3
_
_
_
_
=
_
1 0
0

R
_
where the sub-matrix

R describes some rotation.
Monday - 1/26
43.3 The Lorentz Transformation
In order to actually nd the form for the transformation, consider a problem in only 2 dimensions.
In this case we have that:
x =
_
ct
x
_
107
And the condition equation becomes:
g
T
= g
_

1

2

3

4
__
1 0
0 1
__

1

3

2

4
_
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
Combining this with the requirement that the transformation be proper (det() = +1) gives:

3
= 1

2
1

2
2
= 1

1
= 0

2
3

2
1
(1 +
2

3
)
2
= 1
the rst equation can be solved to eliminate
4
from the system and since we assume
1
,= 0 the
third equation gives an immediate result of
2
=
3
which is expected. The last equation combined
with the second equation gives no additional information. The resulting system leaves 3 quantities
and only 2 equations. However, letting
2
=
1
simplies the equations and gives a result only
in terms of the new scalar quantity . The transform is then dened as:
=
_
_
1

1
2

1
2

1
2
1

1
2
_
_
If we use the notation that: =
1

1
2
then we can write the transform more simply as:
ct

= (ct x)
x

= (x ct)
The reverse transform is given by:
ct =
_
ct

+x

_
x =
_
x

+ct

_
These results can be generalized to multiple dimensions quickly:
t

=
_
t
v x
c
2
_
x

= x +
1

2
_

x
_

ct

=
v
c
; =
1
_
1 [

[
2
108
Consider the system at the location x = 0. In this case, the results give the value of .
t

(x = 0) = t; x

(x = 0) = ct
x

= c
the frame x

is traveling away from the frame x with speed v, so from the above result it is clear
that =
v
c
. Further analysis shows that the transformation is only valid for 1. That means
that velocities greater than c are not allowed by the transform. Consider a wave propagating. The
location of the wave can be described as c
2
t
2
x
2
. It can quickly be shown that in either frame,
the relation is equal, that is:
c
2
t
2
x
2
= c
2
t
2
x
2
= 0
This means that the quantity above is invariant under a Lorentz transform. Taking the dierential
of this results in the denition for the proper time .
dt

=
_
dt
v
c
2
dx
_
; dx

= (dx v dt)
c
2
d
2
= c
2
dt
2
dx
2
The next question is that of how velocities sum. In classical mechanics if a person is riding on some
object with velocity v and throws or shoots some other particle or object with velocity v
obj
, then
someone in the rest frame sees the object moving at a velocity which is simply the sum of the two.
However, given these relations, consider the result of this same problem
v

obj
=
dx

dt

=
dx vdt
dt
v
c
2
dx
=
dx
dt
v
1
v
c
2
dx
dt
=
v
obj
v
1
vv
obj
c
2
v

obj
=
v
obj
c
1

c
v
obj
43.4 New Notation - The 4 Vector
Consider if we dene the 4-vector as:
x =
_
_
_
_
ct
x
y
z
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
_
_
In this notation, the transform is easily summarized as:
x

0
= (x
0
x
1
)
109
x

1
= (x
1
x
0
)
43.5 The Boost Parameter
Because of the behavior of the variable , it is possible to dene it instead as a hyperbolic trigono-
metric function. Consider the denitions:
= tanh()
= cosh()
= sinh()
The new variable is the rapidity or boost parameter of the transformation. Consider the form of
the transform in terms of this new variable:
x

0
= x
0
cosh() x
1
sinh()
x

0
= x
1
sinh() +x
0
cosh()
Or in matrix form:
_
x

0
x

1
_
=
_
cosh() sinh()
sinh() cosh()
__
x
0
x
1
_
note that if one changes i and x
0
ix
0
then the above becomes simply the familiar rotation
matrix. This is because the Lorentz transformation is actually a hyperbolic rotation. Just as
the rotation matrices are a group of SO(3), the Lorentz Transform are a group of SO(1, 3) which
contains the group SO(3).
Wednesday - 1/28
44 Space-Time Diagrams
44.1 The Line Element
Last time we showed that the dierential element d was invariant under a Lorentz transformation
as:
c
2
d
2
= c
2
dt
2
dx
2
This can be alternately dened as the line element c
2
d
2
= ds
2
and distances in spacetime can
be determined from it. Lets consider the basic geometry of spacetime. Consider the examples in
Figure 1.
110
Figure 1: Spacetime Diagrams - Example of determining separations in space time diagrams. The length of the
lines AC, DE, and EF are calculated in the notes.
The length of AC can be determined as:
ds
2
= 5
2
3
2
= 25 9 [AC[ = 4
And the lengths of DE and EF are similarly calculated as:
ds
2
= 3
2
3
2
= 0 [DE[ = [EF[ = 0
From this result we can see that the null separated lines (DE and EF) dene paths of zero length.
These lines are null lines and dene the edges of light cones. As another example, lets consider
two observers both at rest shining ashlights at one another. This is shown in Figure 2. When Phil
shines his ashlight at Marco, the light travels along the line with slope 1 and reaches Marco after
some time t. Then Marco shines his ashlight back at Phil, who sees the light at some later time
2t. This is simple and straightforward when no one is moving.
44.2 Some More Interesting Cases - Moving Frames
When one frame is moving relative to another, the transforms weve derived describe how the
observers view events. Note that we refer to events as something that is designated with a
specic 4-vector (that is, it has a specic location and specic time that it occurred). The hyperbolic
transformation in spacetime diagram form is shown in Figure 3. Note that due to the time variable
being essentially an imaginary space variable, the axes dont transform as one would expect.
Consider for instance if Phil were to observe two events (A and B) which occurred in the same
location, but at separate times. If another individual (Sky) were to observe the same events from a
frame moving at speed v relative to Phil, then she would observe something dierent. The time and
location of the rst event would remain unchanged, however, Sky would see the second event behind
111
Figure 2: Stationary Observers - Light signals being passed between two stationary observers.
Figure 3: Stationary Observers - Light signals being passed between two stationary observers.
112
her and the two events would be separated by a dierent amount of time. The exact dierence is
given as:
t

= t; x

= vt
The diagram of these events is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Events viewed From Dierent Frames - Two events take place in the same location but dierent
times for one observer, but in dierent places and with a dierent time separation for another observer.
Consider also if two events take place at the same time in one frame. How does this appear in
another? The space time diagrams for this case are shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Simultaneous Events - Two events take place at the same time but in dierent locations for one
observer, but at dierent times and with a dierent spacial separation for another observer.
One interesting thought experiment in special relativity is the Twins Paradox. If two identical twins
were to undergo dierent experiences, could this alter their ages? Suppose one of the twins remains
on Earth while the other enters a spacecraft and travels at some velocity v (which is a large fraction
113
of c) out to Alpha Centauri and then returns. Because the second individual had traveled at high
speeds for an extended period of time, time dilation would cause the twins to be dierent ages. The
paradox is due to the fact that from the second individuals frame of reference, the rst twin is the
one who should be younger. This can be resolved by noting that the second twin had to accelerate
multiple times in the trip and special relativity only deals with constant velocities.
Friday - 1/30
44.3 Length Contraction
Weve seen how time dilation occurs in special relativity, next consider how the lengths of objects
appear in dierent frames. If an object is of length L in the rest frame, in a frame traveling at
speed v relative to that frame, the object will seem to change by a factor of:
L

=
1

L
Because the value of is always greater than or equal to one, the length of the object is always
contracted in the observers frame. This is seen in the spacetime diagram in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Length Contraction - The length of an object in the frame at rest and a frame traveling at some
velocity relative to it.
45 Introduction to Tensors
45.1 Matrix Representation of Lorentz Transformations - Innitesimal Gener-
ators
Before we begin delving into tensor notation, consider what can be determined about the Lorentz
Transformations from matrix representation analysis. Note that for some pair of 4-vectors a and b,
the matrix scalar product is dened as:
114
(a, b) = ab = a
T
b
and the scalar product can be written as:
a b = (a, gb) = (ga, b) = agb = a
T
gb
where weve dened the covariant vector gx as:
gx =
_
_
_
_
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
_
_
The Lorentz transform is one such that x

= Ax for some 44 transformation matrix A. We require

that the norm of the vector (x, gx) is left invariant, that is:
x
T
gx

= x
T
gx x
T
A
T
gAx = x
T
gx
and since this must hold for any 4-vector, the transformation matrix A must obey the relation;
A
T
gA = g
Constructing the transform A can be done by assuming that it has the form A = e
L
for some
4 4 matrix L. In this case, the determinant (which we already know must be equal to 1 for such
transforms) becomes:
det
_
e
L
_
= e
Tr(L)
This requires that the matrix L be traceless. Next, plugging this denition into the condition on A
gives the result that:
A
T
= e
L
T
; gA
T
g = e
gL
T
g
; A
1
= e
L
gL
T
g = L; (gL)
T
= (gL)
Thus the condition on A results in a condition on L that it be a real, traceless, antisymmetric 4 4
matrix. The most general form of the solution is then:
L =
_
_
_
_
0 L
01
L
02
L
03
L
01
0 L
12
L
13
L
02
L
12
0 L
23
L
03
L
13
L
23
0
_
_
_
_
115
This can be generalized in terms of several rotation matrices (

S, and boost matrices

K.
S
1
=
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
_
_
_
_
; S
2
=
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
_
_
; S
3
=
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
K
1
=
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
; K
2
=
_
_
_
_
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
; K
3
=
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
Of particular interest are the squares of these dierent matrices:
S
2
1
=
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
; S
2
2
=
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
; S
2
3
=
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
K
2
1
=
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
; K
2
2
=
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
; K
2
3
=
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
From this it is seen that any combination
_


S
_
3
or
_

K
_
3
can be written as

S or

K
respectively. That is, any power of the matrices can be written as a multiple of the matrix or its
square. The general result of the transform can be summarized now in terms of some rotation
and some boost

.
L =

S

K
A = e

K
Note two limiting cases which we are already familiar with. First, consider the case of = 0 and

=
x
. Then the transform is the familiar hyperbolic transform:
A =
_
_
_
_
cosh() sinh() 0 0
sinh() cosh() 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
While in the case that

= 0 and = omega
z
, the transform becomes:
116
A =
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 cos (
z
) sin(
z
) 0
0 sin(
z
) cos (
z
) 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
Generalizing the result above for a rotationless boost in some direction,

=

tanh
1
the boost
is written as:

boost
() =
_
_
_
_
_
_

1

2

3

1
1 +
(1)
2
1

2
(1)
1

2
(1)
1

2
(1)
1

2
1 +
(1)
2
2

2
(1)
2

3
(1)
1

2
(1)
2

2
1 +
(1)
2
3

2
_
_
_
_
_
_
Lastly, consider the commutator relations between the matrices derived above. It can easily be
shown that:
[S
i
, S
j
] =
ijk
S
k
[S
i
, K
j
] =
ijk
K
k
[K
i
, K
j
] =
ijk
S
k
The rst relation is the known rotation commutation. The second shows that the K transforms as
a vector under rotations, and the nal shows that in general, boosts do not commute. These specify
that the Lorentz group is SL(2, C) or O(3, 1).
Monday - 2/2
45.2 Tensor Notation
In order to simplify notation, well transition from matrix and vector notations to tensors. This is
simple at rst, but one must be careful to follow a few simple rules of working with tensors. These
rules are called Summation Conventions and are summarized as:
1. The location of the indices must be respected: in two dimensional tensors, superscripts denote
columns while subscripts denote rows.
2. Repeated indices always appear in superscript-subscript pairs and imply summation. These
indices are referred to as dummy indices since they can be replaced by any other index.
Such as:
g

= g

notations such as g

or g

are incorrect.
117
3. Indices not repeated must match indices on the opposite side of the equation. These are not
summed over and are called free indices since the value of such an index can be changed as
long as it is changed on both sides of the equation. For instance, the transform x

is correct. However, the equation x

makes no sense.
With those rules in place, we can dene a few objects. First, the column vector:
x =
_
_
_
_
ct
x
y
z
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
_
_
can be more compactly written as x

where can take values of 0, 1, 2, or 3. The column vector

transforms as:
x

such an object is a tensor of rank 1 called a contravariant vector. Consider also the row vector
operator dened as:

=
_
1
c

z
_
This can be compactly written as

x

where again can take the allowed values stated above. This
object transforms as:

=
_

1
_

where weve introduced the notation

_

1
_

for the inverse of a matrix. An object that
transforms in this way is called a covariant vector. Next, consider how the matrix g will be written
in tensor notation. It is chosen that g g

so that the relation:

g = g

; g
1
= g

With these new notations, lets check how the transformation condition and the Lorentz transfor-
mation itself will be written. First, consider the relations:
_

1
_

;
1
= I

and the condition g

T
= g then can be derived from:

= g

_
g

_
=

118
Multiplying both sides by g

and then change the value of to changes the above relation into:
g

= g

changing the order and simplifying indices by g

which eliminates some of the indices

and changes

. Changing the order of the values gives the form of the condition equation
in tensor notation:
g
T
= g

= g

Thus any Lorentz Transform will obey the relation:

= g

Lastly, consider how to construct higher rank tensors and other objects. As an example, consider
the rank 5 tensor

. This object can be constructed as:

Consider the scalar function f(x). The transform of this function can be written as:
f(x) f

(x

) = f(x

)
thus the scalar should not change under the transform. Alternately, consider a vector potential

A(

X), this quantity should transform as:

A

A

( x

) =

A( x

)
Lastly, it is quickly seen that the quantity x

is invariant in the case that = since:

x

=
_

_
(

) =

= x

119
Wednesday - 2/4
45.3 Building Tensors from Other Tensors
There are several methods to build a tensor out of other tensors. These are linear combinations of
tensors of equal rank and form, direct products of tensors (multiplication), Contraction of tensors,
and Dierentiation. Consider each:
1. Linear Combinations of Tensors
The linear combination of tensors with matching upper and lower indices is a new tensor with
those same indices. For instance:
T

= aR

+bS

and T

is a tensor since it can be shown that it transforms as:

T

(aR

+bS

) =

2. Direct Products
The products of the components of two tensors produces a tensor with the indices of all indices
of the original tensors. For instance:
T

= A

and its simple to show that this new object transforms as a tensor:
T

3. Contraction
Setting the upper and lower indices equal and summing over the values 0, 1, 2, 3 yields a tensor
with rank decreased by 2. Consider the example:
T

= T

and again its easily shown that:

T

T

4. Dierentiation
The derivative of any tensor is a tensor with an additional lower index. Again, as an example
consider:
T

=

x

120
and one last time we can show that this is indeed a new tensor since it transforms as:
T

45.4 Raising and Lowering Indices

The Minkowski Metric (g) can be used to raise and lower indices of tensors. Recall the denition
of the metric,
g

= g

=
_
_
_
1, = = 0
1, = = 1, 2, 3
0, else
_
_
_
By multiplying by g and contracting it is possible to raise or lower indices of tensors. A few
examples:
x

by g

by g

by g

45.5 Some Special Tensors

1. Minkowski Metric
The Minkowski metric which weve been using is a special tensor which is the same in any
frame of reference. This can easily be seen by:
g

= g

2. Levi-Civita Tensor
The Levi-Civita tensor is dened as

where:

=
_
_
_
1, if even permutation of 0123
1, if odd permutation of 0123
0, else
_
_
_
3. Zero Tensor
It is always possible to dene a tensor with an arbitrary pattern of indices and all components
being zero. This is a zero tensor.
121
46 Back to Electromagnetism
Now that weve covered some of the basics of tensor notation, lets turn our attention back to
the topic of electromagnetism. Recall that weve dened a scalar potential and a vector potential
(which has 3 components). That gives us 4 quantities to calculate, which we can dene in terms of
a 4-vector. Consider the denition:
A

=
_
A
0
,

A
_
=
_
( x),

A
x
( x),

A
y
( x),

A
z
( x)
_
From this we can increase the rank to 2 by dierentiating,
S

Then, raising the index so the two are both up,

g

= g

= S

where weve dened,

_
1
c

t
,
_

_
1
c

t
,
_
So then we can dene the antisymmetric tensor F

as:
F

As an example of what this tensor represents, consider the components with = 0,

F
01
=
0
A
1

1
A
0
=
1
c

t
A
x
+

x
=

E
x
So, the components of F

with = 0 are the negatives of the components of the electric eld.

F
0i
=

E
i
122
Friday - 2/6 Last time we saw that some of the elements of the F

tensor were the electric eld.

Lets summarize what weve found and check the remaining elements.
F
ii
= 0
F
0i
=

E
i
F
ij
=
i
A
j

j
A
i
=

x
i
A
j

x
j
A
i
=
ijk
B
k
So, then the rank two tensor F

can be written in matrix form as:

F

=
_
_
_
_
0 E
x
E
y
E
z
E
x
0 B
z
B
y
E
y
B
z
0 B
x
E
z
B
y
B
x
0
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
0 E
1
E
2
E
3
E
1
0 B
3
B
2
E
2
B
3
0 B
1
E
3
B
2
B
1
0
_
_
_
_
and it is straightforward to show that lowering the indices changes the signs of the each of the
components:
F

= g

=
_
_
_
_
0 E
x
E
y
E
z
E
x
0 B
z
B
y
E
y
B
z
0 B
x
E
z
B
y
B
x
0
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
0 E
1
E
2
E
3
E
1
0 B
3
B
2
E
2
B
3
0 B
1
E
3
B
2
B
1
0
_
_
_
_
It is also useful to dene what is called the Dual Tensor as

F

=
1
2

. It is easily shown
that this switches the locations of the magnetic and electric eld components and changing several
signs (

E

B,

B

E). This gives:

=
_
_
_
_
0 B
1
B
2
B
3
B
1
0 E
3
E
2
B
2
E
3
0 E
1
B
3
E
2
E
1
0
_
_
_
_
From all of this, we can immediately see that we can write the electromagnetic elds in some inertia
frame 0

relative to another 0 as:

F

from this it is clear that the components of the

E and

B elds mix in the moving frame, which
infers that the two elds are actually a single object.
123
46.1 Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form
By taking the derivative of the potentials tensor, it is possible to build the Maxwell Equations.
However, simply writing

makes an object with 4 4 4 free elements, while we are looking

for something with only 4 dependent dimensions.
1. Contraction of Indices
If we use g

to raise the index on the derivative and then contract over it, we end up with
the quantity

which is a set of 4 equations. Consider a few possible values of the indices:

i
F
i0
=
1
F
10
+
2
F
20
+
3
F
30
=

E

i
F
ji
=
1
F
1j
+
2
F
2j
+
3
F
3j
=
1
c

t
E
j
+
_

B
_
j
These are the Maxwell Equations proportional to the source functions and

j. As we did
with the potentials, it is possible to build a tensor out of the sources.
j

= (c,

j)
and with this denition, the remaining Maxwell Equations can easily be written as:

=
4
c
j

2. Linear Combination to Reduce Order

Consider if we expand the above object:

) =

from this expanded form we can see that adding on additional terms of the form

and

then all the elements would cancel and the resulting condition is:

= 0
but this is satised identically if F

, so what does it actually mean? Consider

a few possible elements:
_
_
_
= 1
= 2
= 3
_
_
_

2
F
13
+
1
F
32
+
3
F
21
=

y
B
y

x
B
x

z
B
z

B = 0
Repeating for another set of indices yields each component of the condition

E = 0. So,
we have shown that our scalar tensor denition alone gives two of Maxwells equation in the
form:
124

= 0
Alternately, this can be written in terms of the dual tensor as:

= 0
Recall that the continuity of charge relation can be derived from the Maxwell Equations. To get
the tensor form of this, one simply dierentiates the appropriate equation:

=
4
c
j

= 0
At this time it is possible to summarize Maxwells Equations in tensor form:

=
4
c
j

= 0
It was useful to write Maxwells Equations in terms of the potentials and

A, so well do that
again.

) =
4
c
j

but we can write that:

=
1
c
2

2
t
2

2
=

=
1
c

t
+

A
recall that in the Lorenz Gauge, this last term is set to zero. Thus in the Lorenz Gauge, Maxwells
Equations in term of the potentials are simply:
A

=
4
c
j

Monday - 2/9
125
46.2 Lorentz Transform of the Electromagnetic Field
Recall that weve derived the form of the electromagnetic elds in terms of the tensor F

. This is
given as:
F

where,
F

=
_
_
_
_
0 E
x
E
y
E
z
E
x
0 B
z
B
y
E
y
B
z
0 B
x
E
z
B
y
B
x
0
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
0 E
1
E
2
E
3
E
1
0 B
3
B
2
E
2
B
3
0 B
1
E
3
B
2
B
1
0
_
_
_
_

() =
_
_
_
_
_
_

1

2

3

1
1 +
(1)
2
1

2
(1)
1

2
(1)
1

2
(1)
1

2
1 +
(1)
2
2

2
(1)
2

3
(1)
1

2
(1)
2

2
1 +
(1)
2
3

2
_
_
_
_
_
_
Consider rst the electric eld. The transform is given as:
E
i
= F
0i
=
0

=
0
0

i
k
F
0k
+
0
j

i
0
F
j0
+
0
j

i
k
F
jk
Plugging in values from the above matrix representations,
E
i
= ()
_

i
k
+
1

2

i

k
_
_
E
k
_
+ (
j
)
_

i
_ _
E
j
_
+ (
j
)
_

i
k
+
1

2

i

k
_
_

jkl
B
l
_
= E
i

2

i

k
E
k

i
E
j
+
j

jil
B
l
+
1

2

i

jkl
B
l
The last term is zero since
k

jkl
is an antisymmetric tensor multiplied by a symmetric one.
Writing the summed terms as dot products and the remaining Levi-Civita term as a cross product,
we nd:
E
i
= E
i

2
_

E
_

2
_

E
_

i
+
_

B
_
i
Lastly, we can expand this in vector terms and nd that the electric eld components transform as:

=

E +
_

2
+
2
_
_

E
_


_

B
_
126
Then, simplifying the term using the fact that [[
2
=

2
+1

2
,

1
[[
2
+
_
=
_

1

2
1

2
_
=
2
_
1
1
( 1) ( + 1)

_
=

2
_
1

+ 1
_
=

2
+ 1
Thus,

=
_

E +



B
_

2
+ 1
_

E
_

The magnetic eld can be derived the same way and the result is:

=
_

B



E
_

2
+ 1
_

B
_

One important result from these equations is to consider some system where in the frame O, the
magnetic eld is zero. How will the system appear in another frame O

moving with respect to the

rst. Then, in each system the electromagnetic eld will be:
O
_

B = 0

E ,= 0
_
O

_

B

=

E

2
+1
_

E
_

_
An additional feature of this system is that if we consider the term

E

=

E



2
+ 1
_

E
_



=

E
however, in the frame O

, the velocity is seen as being in the opposite direction. Thus we can write
that:

E
46.2.1 Example: Point Charge In Moving Frame
Consider a point charge at rest with respect to some frame O

. If the observer is in another frame

O which O

is moving with respect to at velocity v (that is,

=
v
c
), then in the moving
frame,

=
q
r
3
_
x

i +y

j +z z
_
127

= 0
And in the observers frame,

E =
_

B
_

2
+ 1
_

_

=

E

2
+ 1
_

B =
_

2
+ 1
_

B
_

=

E
If the velocity is oriented only along the

i direction, then the above simplies to:

E =
_
_
E

x
E

y
E

z
_
_
B =
_
_
0

vx
c
E
z

vx
c
E
y
_
_
Thus the electric eld lines are more intense along the axes perpendicular to the direction of prop-
agation. This is seen in Figure 11.9 of Jackson.
Wednesday - 2/11 No Class
Friday - 2/13 No Class
Monday - 2/16
46.3 Lorentz Force in Invariant Form
As it is currently written, the only parts of the Lorentz Force which is invariant are the charge q
and the speed of light c.

F = q
_

E +
1
c
v

B
_
If we instead write the force as a change in momentum
d p
dt
, then we can write this in terms of the
invariant proper time.
c
2
d
2
= c
2
dt
2
+d x
2
= c
2
dt
2
_
1 +
1
c
2
_
d x
dt
_
2
_
=
c
2

2
dt
2
d =
1

dt
Using this result we can write
d p
dt
=
1

d p
d
. And so the Lorentz Force equation looks like:
d p
d
= q
_

E +

c
v

B
_
Further, note that the cross product term has the form v =
d x
dt
=
d x
d
. Pulling the factor c out of
the equation,
128
d p
d
=
q
c
_
c

E +
d x
d


B
_
This can be simplied by dening a 4-velocity u

=
dx

d
which gives it components:
u

=
_
dx
0
d
,
d x
d
_
=
_
c
dt
d
,
d x
d
_
= (c, u)
considering only the i
th
component,
d p
i
d
=
q
c
_
u
0
E
i
+
ijk
u
j

B
k
_
=
q
c
_
u
0
F
i0
+ u
j
F
ij
_
d p
i
d
=
q
c
F
i
u

This three dimensional vector can be dened as a 4-vector if we add a zero component. Consider
the result:
d p

d
=
q
c
F

This denes the minimal coupling of a particle with the electromagnetic eld. But what exactly is
p
0
? Lets evaluate it:
d p
0
d
=
q
c
F
0
u

=
q
c

E
i
v
i
=
q
c

E v
This is the variation of the energy normalized to c. So then, we can see that p
0
=
1
c
[

E[. This denes

the 4-momentum as:
p

=
_
1
c
[

E[, p
_
47 The Lagrangian In Electrodynamics
47.0.1 Review of the Lagrangian in Classical Mechanics
Recall that in classical mechanics, the Lagrangian is some function L(q
i
(t), q
i
(t), t) which denes
the action of a particle S as:
S =
_
t
2
t
1
L(q
i
(t), q
i
(t), t) dt
129
The minimal variation of the action over the interval (t
1
, t
2
) is described by:
S =
_
t
2
t
1
_
L
q
i
q
i
+
L
q
i
q
i
_
dt =
_
t
2
t
1
_
L
q
i
q
i
+
L
q
i
d
dt
(q
i
)
_
dt
S =
_
t
2
t
1
q
i
dt
_
L
q
i
+
d
dt
L
q
i
_
= 0
d
dt
L
q
i
=
L
q
i
47.1 The Action and Lagrangian For A Relativistic Free Particle
In order to have the Lagrangian be an invariant scalar, well dene it as
L = L
_
x

(),
dx

d
,
_
However, we could use some other parameter than . One possible choice is ds
2
= g

dx

dx

. With
this we can write that the action is proportional to:
S
_
ds =
_
_
g

dx

dx

There are multiple other ways to expand this in terms of other dierential variables. The two well
consider are:
S
_
d
_
g

dx

d
dx

d
=
_
d
_
g

S = mc
_
s
2
s
1
ds
_
g

dx

ds
dx

ds
Wednesday - 2/18
130
Review of Group Theory In Physics: For any group, each element can be repre-
sented by some object G = e
L
where G is an element of the group and L is an element
of the Lie Algebra of the group. Consider the two examples from the homework:
The Orthogonal Group O(n)
The orthogonal group are all matrices which satisfy RR
T
= I. From the rep-
resentation given above, it is easily seen that this requires the Lie Algebra to
satisfy:
e
L

e
L

T
= e
L
e
L
T
= I L = L
T
Therefore each matrix element of L can be given by lij = lji. This means that
of the n
2
elements of L, n of them are zero along the diagonal, and half of the
remaining terms are determined by the above condition. Therefore, there are
n
2
n
2
=
n(n1)
2
free elements of the Lie Algebra
The Special Unitary Group SU(n)
The special unitary group are all matrices that satisfy R

R = 1 which have de-

terminant equal to 1. The characteristics of L can be determined as before and
the total number of elements are then determined to be half of the total elements
minus 1 along the diagonal so that the determinant is 1. Therefore there are a
total of n
2
1 free elements in L.
From the action derived last time, we can immediately see that the Lagrangian for a free relativistic
particle is given by:
L = mc
_
g

Deriving the equations of motion from this:

d
ds
L
x

=
L
x

The right hand side is zero since the given Lagrangian doesnt depend on position. The remaining
term is:
L
x

=
mc
2
_
g

(g

= g

_
x

+
x

_
= g

_
= g

+g

= 2g

Plugging this result in and canceling the powers of 2 leaves,

L
x

=
mcg

_
g

Then, applying the derivative with s, the equation of motion is:

131
d
ds
_
_
g

dx

ds
_
g

dx

ds
dx

ds
_
_
= 0
this is a set of 4 equations ( = 0, 1, 2, 3) which determine the exact location of the free particle in
spacetime. Consider though, if we redene the parameter s as some new value s

= ks, then the

above equation doesnt change. Further, note that c
2
d
2
= g

dx

dx

. With this notation, if we

redene s = c, then the square root term is equal to 1. This leaves the expected result of:
d
d
g

dx

d
= 0
d
2
x

d
2
= 0
The 4-acceleration is zero for a free particle. That means that it maintains a constant velocity and
travels in a straight line (as expected).
47.2 The Lagrangian For A Charged Particle With Minimal Coupling
We can use the scalar A

as the additional term for a particle coupled to the electromagnetic

eld. With this assumption, the Lagrangian becomes:
L = mc
_
g

q
c
A

We can nd the equations of motion as before, but more terms are non-zero. Consider:
d
ds
L
x

=
L
x

d
ds
_

mcg

_
g

q
c
A

_
=
q
c
A

d
ds
_
mcg

_
g

_
+
q
c
A

dx

ds
=
q
c
A

dx

ds
Making a change of parameter from s turns the square root into c and this gives:
m
d
2
x

d
2
=
q
c
dx

d
_
A

_
=
q
c
x

d
2
x

d
2
=
q
mc
x

Friday - 2/20 For this interaction Lagrangian, it is possible to show that the Action integral for
the second term can be alternately written in the form:
132
S = S
free
+S
int
S
int
=
_
s
2
s
1
dsA

dx

ds
=
1
c
_
d
4
xj

this can be accomplished by writing the tensor j

as:
j

= q
_
d u

4
_
x x

()
_
48 Hamiltonian Dynamics in Electromagnetism
Recall from classical mechanics that given some Lagrangian L = L(q, q, t), the Hamiltonian can be
derived by:
H = p
i
q
i
L p
i
=
L
x
i
48.1 The Minimal Coupling Hamiltonian
So, using our Lagrangian for the relativistic particle with minimal coupling, we can dene the tensor
p

=
L
x

. Then, dening the Hamiltonian in tensor notation,

H = p

L
Plugging in our value for L,
p

=
L
x

=
mcg

_
g

q
c
A

H =
mcg

_
g

q
c
A

_
mc
_
g

q
c
A

_
= 0
The Hamiltonian is zero since the system is constrained. That is, some of the elements arent
independent of the others.
48.2 Constraints
Consider the constraint:
C =
_
p

+
q
c
A

__
p

+
q
c
A

_
m
2
c
2
= 0
133
this constraint demonstrates how p
0
and p arent independent of one another since it can be solved
to get one in terms of the other. We can rewrite this in the case that the particle is free:
p
free

p
free
m
2
c
2
= 0
where we can make the change
_
p

= p
free
+
q
c
A

_
to recover the interacting case. From this
denition, it is easily shown that the above statement is true since:
p
free

p
free
m
2
c
2
=
m
2
c
2
_
g
2

x
2
g

m
2
c
2
= 0
48.3 Lagrangian Multipliers
Consider if we add a Lagrangian Multiplier l to the Action:
S =
_
dsL =
_
ds (p

H)
_
ds
_
p

H lH +p
l

l
_
Here we can dene the new Hamiltonian H

= HlH and the equations of motion for the coordinate

l are:

l =
H

p
l
= 0 l = constant
p
l
=
H

l
= H = 0 H = 0
With this result, we can make the choice for Hamiltonian:
H =
_
_
p

+
q
c
A

__
p

+
q
c
A

_
m
2
c
2
This generates the equations of motion
x

=
H
p

=
H
x

Which can be shown to give the resulting equation of motion from last class,
d
2
x

d
2
=
q
mc
x

134
48.4 Results of Hamiltonian Analysis
There are several results regarding the momentum tensor p

which we can make somewhat quickly.

Recall that weve shown that:
p
free

=
mc
_
g

If we make the change of parameter from s , then the square root is equal to c and we are left
with:
p
free

= mg

dx

d
p
free

m
dx

d
From this it is evident that:
p

is a constant of the system. This can be seen since p

m
2
c
2
= 0. So, all components
of the tensor are conserved quantities.
It can be shown that p

transforms as:
p

and therefore we know that p

is indeed a tensor.
The relation p

= m
2
c
2
is valid in all systems. This requires some additional analysis.
Consider if we take = 1 + where is some very small quantity. In this case, the relation
can be written as:
p

=
_
p
0
, p
_
= (mc, m v)
And with velocity much smaller than c, can be approximated as:
1 +
1
2
v
2
c
2
+. . .
Plugging these in gives the results:
p
0
= mc +
1
2
m
c
v
2
+. . . p = m v
_
1 +
1
2
v
2
c
2
+. . .
_
m v
The second result is straightforward in that it states the momentum vetoer p is the classically
known p = mv relation in the limit of small velocities. Additionally, the rst term can quickly
be seen to represent the rest energy plus the kinetic energy short of a factor of c. Thus,
p

=
_
1
c
E, p
_
=
_
mc
2
, m v
_
135
Lastly, consider the above relation p

= m
2
c
2
. Plugging in the above results,
p
0
2
p
2
= m
2
c
2

1
c
2
E
2
= p
2
+m
2
c
2
E
2
= c
2
p
2
+m
2
c
4
Which is the familiar result for energy of a relativistic particle. Thus we can see that in
relativistic mechanics, both momentum and energy are conserved for a system with no external
forces.
Monday - 2/23
49 Solving Problems Using Tensor Notation
49.1 Relativistic Doppler Shift
Consider a particle emitting light of frequency

in the frame O

. If an observer in a frame
O observes the light, what kind of Doppler shift will occur according to the laws of special
relativity? Consider the phase of the emitted light:
= t

k x
This scalar quantity should be invariant under a Lorentz transform, therefore we should be
able to write it as = k

. The tensor k

is known as the wave vector and from the above

relation we can see that it has components:
k

=
_

c
,

k
_
k

=
_

c
,

k
_
The transform of the wave vector is then given by:
k
0
=
_
k
0

k
_

=

k +
1

2
_

k
_

k
0
In terms of the vector

k and the frequency, the transform is written:

=
_

k
_

=

k +
1

2
_

k
_



c

Taking the dot product and using the angle between the observer and direction of the emitted
light as , the above relations can be reduced to:
136

k + ( 1)

k

c

2
=
_

k

2

c
_
k

cos

=
_
k cos

c
_
Using the fact that [k[ =

c
, this can be further written as:

cos

= (cos )
Repeating this process with the cross product generates

sin

= sin
which combined with the other result gives the relation between the emitted frequency and
observed frequency along with the emitted angle and observed angle.

= (1 cos )
tan

=
sin
cos
Written in terms of the emitted and observed frequencies, this is

obs

emit
=
_
1
v
2
c
2
1
1
v
c
cos
one interesting result of this is that for the relativistic Doppler Shift, even transverse light
is shifted by an amount depending only on how fast the frames are moving relative to one
another.
49.2 Particle in an Uniform Magnetic Field
Consider the trajectory of a particle in a uniform magnetic eld described by

B = B e
3
. The
system is described by:
dp

d
=
e
c
F

Where u

= (c, v), p

= mu

, e is the charge of the particle, m is the mass of the par-

ticle, and F

is the rank two tensor weve seen before. Since there is no electric eld, the
components F
0i
are zero and thus our equation above becomes:
dp
0
d
=
e
c
F
0
u

= 0 p
0
= constant
137
This result shows that the energy is constant in time. From this it is also clear that
d
d
mc = 0
and thus [ v[
2
and are constant as well. The remaining components are:
dp
i
d
=
e
c
F
ij
u
j
=
e
c

ijk
B
k
u
j
=
e
c
_
u

B
_
i
Replacing d =
1

dt and u = v, the factors of cancel and leave:

d p
dt
=
e
c
v

B =
d
dt
m v
d v
dt
=
e
mc
v

B
This result can be written instead in terms of the frequency
B
as:
d v
dt
= v
B
Then, if we separate the components of the velocity parallel and perpendicular to the magnetic
eld, we get that:
d
dt
_
v

+v

_
=
_
v

+v

_

B
The cross product with the component parallel to

B is zero and this leaves only:
dv

dt
+
dv

dt
= v

B
Since the parallel component has no component on the right side, it must be zero, thus the
parallel velocity is a constant of the motion. The remaining terms can be determined by
assuming that the velocity has the form:
v = v
1
e
1
+v
2
e
2
+v

e
3
The above dierential equation the reduces to the coupled equations:
dv
1
dt
= v
2

B
dv
2
dt
= v
1

B
This has solutions of sines and cosines, but it is more informative to write it as:
v
1
= A
1
e
i
B
t
+B
1
e
i
B
t
v
2
= A
2
e
i
B
t
+B
2
e
i
B
t
Plugging into the equations above yields the relations iA
2
= A
1
and iB
2
= B
1
.
v = A
1
e
i
B
t
( e
1
+i e
2
) +B
1
e
it
( e
1
i e
2
) +v

e
3
138
Lastly, requiring that the nal result be real gives the condition A
1
= B
1
, plugging in this
gives the velocity as
v = 2A
1
[cos (
B
t) e
1
sin(
B
t) e
2
] +v

e
3
Integration gives the trajectory as:
x = x
0
+
2A
1

B
[sin(
B
t) e
1
+ cos (
B
t) e
2
] +v

t e
3
Wednesday - 2/25
50 The Lagrangian of the Electromagnetic Field
Recall that weve derived Maxwells Equations in tensor form as:

=
4
c
j

We can write a Lagrangian for the elds and check that it is correct by showing that the
resulting equations of motion are Maxwells equations for the elds. Consider the action of
the eld:
S =
_
d
4
x =
_
dt
_
d
3
x =
_
dtL
Here weve dened the Lagrangian density and the Lagrangian L by L =
_
d
3
x. The
Lagrangian density can then be written as the eld contribution and the matter contribution.
Note that the matter term will contain the free particle and coupling components. Consider
the denitions:
=
field
+
matter

field
=
1
16
F

matter
=
1
c
j

+
free
where we can neglect the free particle term from our analysis. Using this denition, we can
check that the resulting equations of motion are indeed the Maxwell Equations. Consider:
S = 0
_
d
4
=
_
d
4
x
_

(i)

(i)
+

(i)
_
_

(i)
_
_
= 0
_
d
4
x
_

(i)

(i)

(i)
_
_

(i)
+

(i)
_
(i)
__
= 0
139
The third term is evaluated only on the boundaries of the region, which we require have zero
variation, so that term can be neglected. The remaining terms give the condition:

(i)
_ =

(i)
Consider each side separately. The left hand side of the equation gives:

)
_

1
16
F

1
c
j

_
The second term is zero since its independent of

. This leaves only the rst term which

has certain symmetries we can exploit to solve:

1
16

)
F

=
F

16
2

(

)
F

=
F

)
(

) =
F

8
2 (g

)
=
1
4

And the right hand side is simple:

1
c
j

_
=
1
c
j

=
1
c
j

therefore weve recovered Maxwells Equations,

1
4

=
1
c
j

=
4
c
j

50.1 Gauge Invariance

Lets check if the action integral is gauge invariant. Consider the generic change of gauge
described by A

. Plugging this in, the eld term of the Lagrangian density

doesnt change, but the coupling term becomes:

1
c
j

1
c
j

_
A

_
Plugging this into the integral, we get that these terms are:
S =
_
. . .
1
c
_
d
4
xj

+
1
c
_
j

And integrating by parts to separate the last term gives:

140
_
j

=
_
d
4
x[

(j

]
These two resulting terms are zero under most conditions. The rst term is zero as long as
the boundary of the region contains no currents and the second it zero by denition since it
is the continuity condition. Thus for these denitions, the action integral is indeed Lorentz
invariant.
51 Massive Photons and the Proca Lagrangian Density
We have seen that in the Lorenz Gauge the resulting tensor equation for a source free region
is:
A

= 0
The solutions of this are waves that propagate at speed c and carry zero mass. Consider
what would change in the Lagrangian if the eld wasnt massless. The resulting eld equation
would look like:
_
+m
2
_
= 0
This would require an additional term of order
2
in the Lagrangian density, which leads to
the proposed Proca Lagrangian Density of:

field
=
1
16
F

+

2
8
A

the factor is proportional to the mass of the eld and has units of inverse length. The
resulting modied Maxwell Equations are then:

+
2
A

=
4
c
j

Friday - 2/27
51.1 The Proca Lagrangian
A Phenomenological Description of Superconductivity
Recall the Proca Lagrangian Density which we wrote out last class,

Proca
=
1
16
F

+

2
8
A

1
c
j

From this we get the equation of motion

141

+
2
A

=
4
c
j

where has units of inverse length and can be written as =

mc

. If we substitute in the
denition F

then the equation of motion becomes:

A

+
2
A

=
4
c
j

By applying

to both sides of this equation we get the result,

+
2

=
4
c

=
4
c

The term

= 0 by continuity of charge, and therefore we have the result that

= 0.
This leaves the equation of motion:
A

+
2
A

=
4
c
j

If we assume the system is static, then

2
and the equation of motion becomes:

2
A

2
A

=
4
c
j

If we further consider only the electrostatic case, the only non zero component of A

is A
0
= .
This gives the equation for the potential as:

2

2
= 4
Consider if the charge distribution is a single point charge. In the case that there is no
additional term, the solution of this equation took the form =
q
r
. However, the additional
term requires using the Greens function of the Helmholtz Operator:
_

2
_
= 4q
(3)
( x x
0
) =
q
r
e
r
For reference, the Greens Function of the Helmholtz Operator is given as:
G( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

[
e
k| x x

|
This resulting potential is exponentially damped and acts only at short range. In particle
physics, it is known as the Yukawa Potential. At this time, one can make several assumptions
about the system and use this result as a method to phenomenologically treat superconductors.
Consider the postulates:
142
The current on the surface of a superconductive material can be described by:

j = nQ v
where n is the particle density, Q is the charge of the individual particles, and v is the
velocity of the particles.
The coupling of the particles to the electromagnetic eld is written as:
p

+
Q
c
A

Separating the spacial and components we get the change in energy and momentum as:
E E +
Q
c
p p
Q
c

A
combining this with the above gives the current on the surface of the superconductor:

j =
nQ
m
Q
c
p
Q
2
n
m
Q
c

A
We can make the assumption that in the superconductor the particles carry no individual
momentum, which leaves the result for the current on the surface as:

j =
Q
2
n
m
Q
c

A
This result is similar to Ohms Law (

j =

E).
Taking the curl of both sides of this equation gives the current in terms of the magnetic eld
on the surface,

j =
Q
2
n
m
Q
c

B
The primary results of this treatment can be found by returning to the original Maxwell
Equations. Consider rst:
A

=
4
c
j

And taking only the spatial part,

A =
4
c
_

nQ
2
m
Q
c
_

A
_
+
4nQ
2
m
Q
c
2
_

A = 0
Similarly, using the relation

B =
4
c

j =
4nQ
2
m
Q
c
2

A and taking the curl of both sides:

143

B =
4nQ
2
m
Q
c
2


A

B
_

2

B =
4nQ
2
m
Q
c
2

B
But by denition

B = 0, which leaves the equation for

B on the surface of the supercon-
ductor:

2

B =
4nQ
2
m
Q
c
2

B
The solutions of this are exponentials with coecients
m
Q
c
2
4nQ
2
, this gives the penetration depth
of the magnetic eld into the structure of the superconductor.
52 Symmetries and Invariant Equations of Motion
Consider two generic conditions which lead to a change in the Lagrangian of a system but
leave the equations of motion unchanged.
Scaling
It is easily shown that a change of L kL leaves the equations of motion unchanged
since:
_
d
dt
(kL)
q
=
(kL)
q
_
=
_
d
dt
L
q
=
L
q
_
Addition of a function
Consider the change of Lagrangian given by L L +
d
dt
F(q(t), t). It can be shown that
the equations of motion remain unchanged in this case as well.
The results of this analysis is that certain symmetries cause invariances in the equations of
motion. An example of this is the Lagrangian for a free particle.
L =
1
2m
[ q[
2
The exact direction of

q is independent of the Lagrangian, therefore all vectors which are radii
of the sphere in velocity space with magnitude matching the above are solutions. This leads
to an invariance in the rotation of the system about the origin.
Monday - 3/2
144
52.1 More on Symmetries
We are considering the consequences of having symmetries and invariances in the Lagrangian Den-
sity, Equations of Motion, and Actin Integral. Consider a system described by:
L(q(t), q(t), t) ; S =
_
dtL
If both q(t) and q

(t) are solutions of the equations of motion, then what can be determined about
the system? Rewriting the action as an action density dS = Ldt, we can describe the symmetries
as:
L
_
q

(t

), q

(t

), t

_
dt

= dt
_
L(q(t), q(t), t) +
d
dt
f (q(t), t)
_
Note that the change in variable has only eected the coordinates q
i
and not the Lagrangian function
L. To proceed, it is sucient to require that the transforms be continuous. That is, we want changes
that can be written as:
q(t) q

(t

) = q

(t, ) t t

= t

(t, )
If we assume that is innitesimal, then these transitions can be written as:
q

(t) = q(t) +q = q(t) +q t

= t +t = t +t
Where weve denoted (. . .) as a nite quantity. We can then write the Action Density to nd the
underlying symmetries dS =
d
dt
f(q(t), t)dt. Beginning from the Action Density,
d (S) = (Ldt) = (dt) L +dtL
Consider a few terms of this expansion separately,
dtL = dt
_
L
q
q +
L
q
q +
L
t
t
_
dt

dt
=
d
dt
(t +t) = 1 +
d
dt
t (dt) = dt

dt = dt
_
dt

dt
1
_
= dt
d
dt
t
Then, we can combine t
dL
dt
+L
d
dt
t =
d
dt
(Lt) and nd:
(dS) =
df
dt
dt =
_
L
q
+
L
q
q +

t
(Lt)
_
dt
145
At this point it is useful to reorder

t
q, this gives:
df
dt
=
L
q
+
d
dt
_
L
q
q
_

d
dt
_
L
q
_
q +

t
(Lt)
The rst and third terms cancel if the function q(t) is a solution of the equations of motion. This
leaves that:
d
dt
_
L
q
q +Lt f(q(t), t)
_
= 0
This result is known as Noethers Theorem and can be generalized to a system with n variations
which leave the equations of motion invariant. For each variation
i
and coordinate q
j
(t) there is
an underlying result of
L
q
j
q
j
i
+Lt
i
f
i
(q(t), t) = constant
52.1.1 Example - Time Translations
Consider a transform of t t

= t +. The equations of motion q(t) transform into new functions

q

(t

) and it can be quickly shown that:

q(t) q

(t

) = q

(t +) = q(t)
q

(t) = q(t ) = q(t) q = q(t) q q = q

this gives the constant of the motion as:
L
q
( q) +L(1) f
i
(q(t), t) = constant

L
q
q +L = H = constant
Here we see that the conserved quantity is the negative of the Hamiltonian of the system. Note the
important assumption weve made that in the case of
L
t
= 0, then f(q(t), t) = 0.
52.2 Generalize The Result for Fields - The Stress Energy Tensor
Consider the case of the action for a eld. The results above can be applied and one nds that for
the action dened as S =
_
d
4
x(,

, x

), the Lagrangian density is invariant under transforms

of the form:
146

= k +

The transformations can be written as:

(x)

(x

) = (x) + x

= x

+x

Repeating the above process, one nds:

= 0 j

=

(

i
)

i
+ x

Using the above denitions for the transforms, it is possible to write the variations as:
(x

) =

() =

Plugging these into the above result, we nd some new rank 2 tensor T

:
T

=

(

)
(

) + g

This result in known as the Stress Energy Tensor and well look more closely at it next class.
Consider rst the time derivative term = 0, This term must contain the energy of the eld:
T
0
=

(

)
_

_
+ g
0
Using the fact that

=

T
i
it is clear that T
00
is a constant of the system and can be
written as:
T
00
=

(
0
)
_

_
+ g
00
=
L

i
= H = constant
Wednesday - 3/4
52.3 Deriving the Components of the Stress Energy Tensor for Electromagnetic
Fields
Last times we found that the Stress Energy Tensor can be written as:
T

=

(

)
(

) + g

147
Recall that the Lagrangian Density for E & M elds is:
=
1
16
F

; F

From this, we can quickly nd that:

)
=
1
16
2F

=
1
4
F

=
1
4
F

+
1
16
g

It can be shown that the Stress Energy Tensor satised

= 0 given that the source free eld

equations are also satised (

= 0). However, we desire to nd a symmetric Stress Energy

Tensor. This can be done by adding a divergentless quantity (that is, any term which will leave the
resulting eld equations unchanged). Consider making the change of:
T

= T

1
4

_
F

_
Then, expanding the new term,
T

=
1
4
F

+
1
16
g

1
4
_
A

_
+F

)
_
The term

is zero and the remaining term can be combined with the rst term as:
T

=
1
4
_
F

)
_
+
1
16
g

And nally, removing the prime since this is our new Stress Energy Tensor, this gives:
T

=
1
4
F

+
1
16
g

Lets consider the components:

T
00
Consider the element = = 0. Plugging in these values to the above gives:
T
00
=
1
4
F
0
F

0
+
1
16
g
00
F

=
1
4
_
_

E
i
_ _

E
i
_
+
1
4
(1)
_
2
_
[

E[
2
[

B[
2
_
_
T
00
=
1
8
_
[

E[
2
+[

B[
2
_
148
The resulting term is the energy density w which we derived in the previous semester with
the corrected units for our current analysis.
T
0i
Consider the elements = 0, = 1, 2, 3. Again plugging in values,
T
0i
=
1
4
F
0
F

i
+ 0 =
1
4
_
E
i
_
_

jik
B
k
_
=
1
4

ijk
E
j
B
k
T
0i
=
1
4
_

E

B
_
i
These values are the components of the Poynting vector (which we can dene here as

T =
_
T
01
, T
02
, T
03
_
) we saw last semester. It can be shown that the condition

= 0 actually
gives the energy conservation equation:

0
T
00
+
3

i=1

i
T
i0
= 0
1
c

t
w +

T = 0
Integrating both sides over all space gives:
1
c

t
W
_
d
3
x

T = 0
Which we wrote last semester as
1
c
W
t
+ s = 0.
53 Finding a General Solution to the Maxwell Equations
Now that we have the basics of tensors in electromagnetism nished, we can derive a general
solution to the Maxwell Equations using this notation. Recall that in the Lorentz Gauge, the tensor
equations reduce to:

= F

=
4
c
j

=
4
c
j

So, in order to get a general solution, we need only nd the Greens Function of the operator.
The general solution would then be written as:
A

= A

Hom
+
4
c
_
d
4
x

D
_
x x

_
j

(x

); A

Hom
= 0; D(x, x

) =
(4)
_
x x

_
We can write the Greens Function as a Fourier Transform in 4 dimensions and note that the delta
function can be written similarly as:

_
x
0
x
0
_

(3)
_
x x

_
=
1
2
_
dk
0
e
ik
0(x
0
x
0
)
1
(2)
3
_
d
3
ke
i

k( x x

)
149
Then, we can write the Greens function as:
D(x, x

) =
1
(2)
4
_
d
4
k

D(k

)e
ik(x

)
If we operate on this with =

, then we can determine

D(k

),
D(x, x

) =
1
(2)
4

_
d
4
k

D(k

)e
ik(x

)
The left hand side is merely the delta functions dened about, while the right hand side can be
evaluated by moving the operator inside the integral:

e
ik(x

)
= (k

) e
ik(x

D(k) =
1
k

And so,
D(x, x

) =
1
(2)
4
_
d
4
k
1
k

e
ik(x

)
Friday - 3/6
To solve the problematic singularity at k

= 0 in the Greens function, consider separating the

terms and integrating over k
0
rst:
D(x, x

) =
1
(2)
4
_
d
3
ke
i

k( x x

)
_
dk
0
1
k
02
[

k[
2
e
ik
0
(x
0
x
0
)
We can evaluate the integral by Residue theory by using the expansion at each pole. Consider
integrating along the path given by the real part of k
0
except at the points k
0
= [

k[ where we
cover a small half circle into the positive imaginary part of the complex plain. The path can be
complete by looping over the upper or lower complex plane. The choice of upper or lower depends
on the sign of x
0
x
0
. If x
0
x
0
< 0, then we close the loop on the upper half plane. If x
0
x
0
> 0,
then we close on the lower half plane. Note that our choice of avoiding the poles by extending the
path into the upper half plane causes the upper plane loop to contain no singularities and therefore
the integral is zero for that loop. This leaves:
D(x, x

) =
i
(2)
3

_
x
0
x
0
_
_
d
3
ke
i

k( x x

)
Res
__
dk
0
1
k
02
[

k[
2
e
ik
0
(x
0
x
0
)
, k
0
= [

k[
_
The residue gives a contribution of:
150
Res
__
dk
0
1
k
02
[

k[
2
e
ik
0
(x
0
x
0
)
, k
0
= [

k[
_
=
1
2[

k[
_
e
i|

k|(x
0
x
0
)
e
i|

k|(x
0
x
0
)
_
=
i
[

k[
sin
_
[

k[
_
x
0
x
0
__
And this leaves the Greens Function:
D(x, x

) =
1
(2)
3

_
x
0
x
0
_
_
d
3
k
1
[

k[
sin
_
[

k[
_
x
0
x
0
__
e
i

k( x x

)
If we take the plane dened by

k and x x

as a reference, then we can change to spherical

coordinates:
d
3
k d[

k[[

k[
2
d

k
_
x x

_
[

k[[ x x

[ cos
The result is independent of and therefore that integral can be evaluated. Further the integral
over d (cos ) can be evaluated quickly:
_
1
1
d (cos ) e
i|

k|| x x

| cos
=
1
i[

k[[ x x

[
_
e
i|

k|| x x

|
e
i|

k|| x x

|
_
Writing the result as a sine function, the Greens Function is:
D(x, x

) =

_
x
0
x
0
_
2
2
1
[ x x

[
_

0
d[

k[ sin
_
[

k[
_
x
0
x
0
__
sin
_
[

k[
_
x x

__
At this point, it is useful to write the two trigonometric functions as exponentials and note that
they expand to 4 terms which can be rewritten as two terms by changing in range of integration,
D(x, x

) =

_
x
0
x
0
_
2
2
1
[ x x

[
_

d[

k[
_

1
4
_
_
e
i|

k|[(x
0
x
0
)+| x x

|]
e
i|

k|[(x
0
x
0
)| x x

|]
_
But these integrals can be written as delta functions of the arguments,
_

d[

k[e
i|

k|[(x
0
x
0
)+| x x

|]
= 2
__
x
0
x
0
_
+[ x x

d[

k[e
i|

k|[(x
0
x
0
)| x x

|]
= 2
__
x
0
x
0
_
[ x x

The rst of these two results is always zero since both quantities inside the delta must always be
positive. This leaves the Greens Function:
151
D(x, x

) =
1
4

_
x
0
x
0
_
[ x x

[

__
x
0
x
0
_
[ x x

Recall the property of the delta function:

_
x
2
a
2
_
=
1
2[a[
[ (x +a) + (x a)]
The two terms here are actually equivalent to the above two (the rst of which is zero). From this,
we can write the nal result of this analysis, the Retarded Greens Function for the wave operator:
D(x, x

) =
1
2

_
x
0
x
0
_

_
_
x
0
x
0
_
2
[ x x

[
2
_
Consider some characteristics of this result. Firstly, the step function causes the observer at x
0
to
only see an electromagnetic eld after the source has emitted the wave. Recalling that x
0
= ct, this
makes sense. The observer shouldnt see the eld until the source has caused it to exist. The delta
function causes no waves to be seen until:
c
_
t t

_
= [ x x

[ c =
[ x x

[
t t

This requires that all electromagnetic waves travel at the constant speed c. Again, this is something
we expect and understand.
152
Part V
SPECIAL CASES
54 Plane Waves
Monday - 3/9
54.1 Plane Wave Solutions Of Maxwells Equations
Recall the general solution to Maxwells Equations which weve derived recently.
A

= A

hom
+
4
c
_
d
4
xD(x x

)j

(x

)
Consider the case of a source free problem, the solution reduces to only the homogeneous solution.
We can write this as a Fourier expansion:
A

= 0 A

=
_
d
4
kc

(k)e
ikx
m
u
Applying the wave operator on this form gives some additional conditions:
_
d
4
kc

(k)e
ikx
m
u
=
_
d
4
kc

(k)k

e
ikx
m
u
= 0
The trivial solution c

(k) = 0 can be ignored. Therefore, we require k

= k
0
2
[

k[
2
= 0. This
can be written as the condition:

2
= c
2
[

k[
2
We further require that our potentials satisfy the Lorentz condition

= 0. This requires:
_
d
4
kc

(k) (k

) e
ika

= 0 c

(k)k
m
= 0 c
0

c
= c

k
Given this form for the potentials, it is possible to determine the form of the electric and magnetic
elds. Consider the magnetic eld:

B =

A =
_
d
4
k c(k)e
ikx

=
_
d
4
k
_
c(k)e
ikx

_
=
=
_
d
4
k
_
e
ikx

c(k) +e
ikx

c(k)
_
153

B = i
_
d
4
k e
i(t

k x)
_

k c
_
And the electric eld:

E =
1
c

A =
_
d
4
k c
0
(k)e
i(t

k x)

1
c

t
_
d
4
k c(k)e
i(t

k x)
=
_
d
4
k c
0
(k)
_
i

k
_
e
i(t

k x)

1
c
_
d
4
k c(k)
_
ik
0
c
_
e
i(t

k x)

E = i
_
d
4
k e
i(t

k x)
_
c
0

k

c
c
_
It can be shown that these result satisfy the Maxwell Equations. Consider though, the alternate
denition for the electric eld given by:

E = i
_
d
4
k
c

k
_

k c
_
e
i(t

k x)
It is straight forward to show that this is indeed the electric eld derived above by noting the vector
relation:

k
_

k c
_
=
_

k c
_

k
_

k
_
c = c
0
k
0

k [

k[
2
c = k
0
_
c
0

k k
0
c
_
From this, it is evident that

E and

B can be written in terms of c and therefore the two elds are
not independent of one another.
54.1.1 Special Case - Monochromatic Waves
Consider what the above solution becomes for the case of monochromatic waves. The vector c
becomes:
c(

k, ) =

G(

k, ) (
c
)
(3)
_

k
c
_
Given this assumption, the integrals collapse in the denitions of the elds and one nds:

B = i
_

k
c

G
_
e
i(ct

k x)

E = i

c
_

k
c

k
c

G
_
e
i(ct

k x)
Thus, the directionality of

E and

B are orthogonal to one another and to the vector

k
c
. If we dene
a few of these terms, these elds become simpler to deal with:
154
i

k
c

G B
c

2
i

k
c

k
c

G
_
E
c

1

k
c
[

k
c
[
3
Then, the electric and magnetic elds are simply:

E = E
c
e
i(ct

k x)

1

B = B
c
e
i(ct

k x)

2
Taking the rst of the above denitions and crossing it with

k
c
gives:
i

k
c

k
c

G
_
= B
c

k
c

2
Plugging in the other denitions,
E
c

c

1
= B
c
[

k
c
[
3

2
= B
c
[

k
c
[ (
1
)

c
E
c
= B
c
[

k
c
[ E
c
= B
c
Plugging these back into the above, it is possible to derive the relation:

B
c
=
c

k
c

E
c
Finally, the general solution can be written as:

E =

E
c
e
i(ct

kc x)

B =

B
c
e
i(ct

kc x)
Where

E
c
and

B
c
are related as dened above. It is important to note that these solutions are only
dependent on two parameters. Consider propagation described by:

E
c
= E
c1

1
+E
c2

2


B
c
= B
c1

1
+B
c2

2
= E
c2

1
+E
c1

2
The only independent parameters are E
c1
and E
c2
. The physical solution is the real part of this
result. Note that the coecients are complex and therefore can be written as:
E
cn
= Re
i
The additional phase can add a phase to the propagating plane waves which is dependent on the
value of . For a generic one, the induced change is known as elliptical polarization.
Wednesday - 3/11
155
54.2 Polarization of Plane Waves
Last time, we derived a relation between the two coecients of the electric eld in a plane wave.

E = E
c
1
_

1
e
i(t

k x)
+
2
Re
i(t

k x)
_
The physical solution is written as the real part of the above function. That is,

E
phy
= E
c
1
_

1
cos
_

k x t
_
+
2
Rcos
_

k x t +
_
Consider the behavior of this function as x and t approach zero. The resulting equation gives:

E
phy
( x = 0, t = 0) = E
c
1
[
1
+
2
Rcos ]
At this point in spacetime, the wave is directed along a line that traces out an elliptical path in the

1
,
2
plane. The path that this line covers is described by the polarization of the electromagnetic
wave. There are several special cases of these polarizations:
Circular Poliarization
Consider the case of R = 1 and =

2
. The resulting equation can be described as:

E
c
= E
c
1
(
1
+i
2
)

B
c
= iE
c
1
(
1
i
2
)
which allows the denition of

1
i . This gives the nal result of:
E
x
= E
c
1
cos
_
t

k x
_
E
y
= E
c
1
sin
_
t

k x
_
These results trace out a circle in the plane.
Linear Polarization
Consider the case of R = 1 and = 0. In this case only the single polarization occurs and
the resulting wave is said to be linearly polarized since its orientation doesnt change in the

1
,
2
plane.

E = E
c
1
cos
_

k x t
_
(
1
+
2
)
156
54.3 Plane Waves In Media
Recall Maxwells Equations in a medium (without sources):

B = 0

D = 0

E =
1
c

B
t


H =
1
c

D
t
If we plug in the relations

D =

E and

H =

B, then the above can be written as:

B = 0

E = 0

E =
1
c

B
t


B =

c

E
t
If we dene the speed of propagation in the medium as v =
c

then these become:

B = 0

E = 0

E =
1
v

B
t


B =

E
t
Lastly, if we dene the new elds

E =

B =
1

B. Then we can write:

B = 0

E = 0

E =
1
v

B
t

B =
1
v

B
t
This result shows that all results from the vacuum case can be extended to the case of propagation
in media. It is only necessary to change:
c v =
c

E =

B =
1

B
Note that this change also requires adjustments to the other condition equations. The new condi-
tions require:
_

B =
c

k

E
_

B =

n

E with =
[

k[c

157
54.4 Energy Contained in Plane Waves
It is possible using the Poynting vector to derive how much energy is contained in an electromagnetic
plane wave. Consider the time-averaged Poynting vector:

S = Re
_
c
8

E

B

_
Plugging in the above result for

B,

S = Re
_
c
8

E
_
n

E
_
_
=

S =
c
8
[

E[
2
n
This result is the ux of energy per unit area per unit time in the wave. Consider deriving the
energy density:
energy density =
energy
volume
=
energy
area c time
=
flux
c
u =
1
8
[

E[
2
Note that in a medium, the Poynting vector and resulting energy density is:

S =
c
8
_

E[
2
n u =

8
[

E[
2
158
Friday - 3/13
54.5 Plane Waves Incident on a Boundary Between Media
Consider a plane wave incident on a boundary between materials. Let the boundary exist on
the plane z = 0 and an incident wave with vector

k directed towards the origin. The incident
electromagnetic wave can be described by:

E =

E
0
e
i(t

k x)

B =

n
k

E
0
e
i(t

k x)
Using these denitions, all of our analysis can be done with only the electric eld. Consider the
eld in the upper and lower half plane:

E
(1)
=

E +

E

E
(2)
=

E

Where weve denoted

E

as the reected wave and

E

as the transmitted/refracted wave. These

give:

E =

E
0
e
i(t

k x)
Incident

=

E

0
e
i(

x)
Reflected

=

E

0
e
i(

x)
Refracted
Consider the known boundary conditions on regions with changes in media. The normal displace-
ment eld must be continuous across the region. This gives:
_

1

E
(1)
_

=
_

2

E
(2)
_

1
_

E
0
e
i(t

k x)
+

E

0
e
i(

x)
_
=
2

E

0
e
i(

x)
Consider this result at the origin ( x = 0),

1
_

E
0
e
it
+

E

0
e
i

t
_
=
2

E

0
e
i

t
Multiplying this by its complex conjugate gives a condition of:

2
1
_

E
0
e
it
+

E

0
e
i

t
_ _

0
e
it
+

E

0
e
i

t
_
=
2
2

E

0
e
i

t

E

0
e
i

2
1
_
[

E
0
[
2
+[

0
[
2
+ 2Re
_

E
0

E

0
e
i(

)t
__
=
2
2
[

0
[
2
159
This condition requires

= . Further, consider the initial result and note that this requires that

= as well. Repeating this process for the system at time t = 0 gives a similar result for the
wave vectors. These give;
=

;
_

k x
_
=
_

x
_
=
_

x
_
This demonstrates how the frequency of light passing through media doesnt change. Plugging these
into the above denitions give:

E =

E
0
e
i(t

k x)
Incident

=

E

0
e
i(t

k x)
Reflected

=

E

0
e
i(t

k x)
Refracted
Consider some incident electric eld with amplitude [

E
0
[ incident on such a boundary. How can one
determine the amount of energy transmitted through and reected back? Consider the remaining
boundary conditions given some additional geometrical information. Dene the angle the incident
light makes with the normal of the boundary to be
i
, the angle of the refracted light to be
r
and
the angle of the reected light to be
R
. These give the above dot products as:

k x = kxcos
_
3
2
+
i
_
= kxsin
i

x = k

xcos
_

2

R
_
= k

xsin
R

x = k

xcos
_
3
2
+
r
_
= k

xsin
r
Recall that in each medium, k
i
=

c

i
. Therefore the rst two of the above give:
kxsin
i
= k

xsin
R

i
=
R
That is, the incident and reected angles are equal. Additionally, for the incident and refracted
waves
kxsin
i
= k

sin
r
Using the notation for the refractive index n =
c
v
=

, the result is Snells Law:

n
1
sin
i
= n
2
sin
r
160
In the general case, what do the four boundary conditions give in terms of

E
0
on either side of the
boundary region? Consider plugging in the denitions above to the 4 boundary conditions:

= 0
_

1
_

E
0
+

E

0
_

2

E

n = 0

= 0
_

E
0
+

E

n = 0

= 0
__

k

E
0
_
+
_

0
_

0
_
n = 0

= 0
_
1

1
__

k

E
0
_
+
_

0
__

2
_

0
_
_
n = 0
Any wave can be written as a linear position of the two cases of

E
0
parallel or perpendicular to the
plane of incidence. Therefore, to determine the energy of the refracted and reected waves, these
two special cases must be done separately and each will give dierent results of the above. Consider
rst the case of

E
0
perpendicular to the plane. This turns the above into:
0 = 0
[

E
0
[ +[

0
[ [

0
[ = 0
kE
0
sin
i
+k

0
sin
R
k

0
sin
r
= 0
1

1
_
kE
0
cos
i
k

0
cos
R
_

2
k

0
cos
r
= 0
Using the previous result that
i
=
R
and the denition for k in each medium, one nds:
_

1
_
E
0
E

0
_
cos
i
=
_

2
E

0
cos
r
E
0
+E

0
= E

0
Which can be solved to give the ratio between the incident and reected and refracted waves,
E

0
E
0
=
2n
1
cos
i
n
1
cos
i
+n
2

2
cos
r
= Transmitted Field
E

0
E
0
=
n
1
cos
i
n
2

2
cos
r
n
1
cos
i
+n
2

2
cos
r
= Reflected Field
For the components parallel to the plane of incidence, the boundary conditions require that
_
E
0
E

0
_
cos
i
= E

0
cos
r
_

1
_
E
0
+E

0
_
=
_

2
E

0
161
Which generates the conditions:
E

0
E
0
=
2n
1
n
2
cos
i

2
n
2
2
cos
i
+n
1
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2

i
= Transmitted Field
E

0
E
0
=

2
n
2
2
cos
i
n
1
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2

2
n
2
2
cos
i
+n
1
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2

i
= Reflected Field
Monday - 3/23
54.6 Plane Wave Phenomena
Given all of this analysis of plane waves, it is useful to examine several special cases and interesting
phenomena. Consider some special cases of the above relations.
54.6.1 The Brewster Angle
Consider the above solutions for the reected and refracted intensity of the plane waves if there is
no reected wave parallel to the incident plane. This can be found by requiring:
E

0
E
0
= 0

1

2
n
2
2
cos
i
n
1
_
n
2
2
n
1
2
sin
2

i
= 0
If we consider that in most cases
1

2
, then we can square both sides and write the condition
as:
n
2
2
cos
2

i
= n
1
2
_
n
2
2
n
1
2
sin
2

i
_
tan
i
=
n
2
n
1
Any incident waves on the boundary with incoming angle
i
will contain no reected component
parallel to the plane of incidence. This result is useful for photographers and optical sciences to
eliminate glare from a surface or to generate uniformly polarized electromagnetic waves from a
surface.
54.6.2 Total Internal Reection
Consider the known result from Snells Law:
n
1
sin
i
= n
2
sin
r

r
= arcsin
_
n
1
n
2
sin
i
_
162
For the case that the quantity inside the arcsin function is greater than unity, the refracted angle
is undened. Lets consider what is actually going on. If the above condition is squared, we nds:
sin
2

r
=
n
1
2
n
2
2
sin
2

i
= 1 cos
2

r
cos
r
=

1
n
1
2
n
2
2
sin
2

i
If the transition angle is dened as
i
0
= arcsin
_
n
2
n
1
_
, then this condition can be more simply stated:
cos
r
=

1
n
1
2
n
2
2
sin
2

i
=

1
sin
2

i
sin
2

i
0
Consider the resulting transmitted wave,

=

E

0
e
it+i

x
If we consider the penetration direction to be
3
, then the resulting wave is described as:

=

E

0
e
it+i(k

y
y+k

z
z)
=

E

0
e
it+i(k sin ry+k cos rz)
Then plugging in the above result for cos
r
,

=

E

0
e
it+ik sin ry
e
ikz
r
1
sin
2

i
sin
2

i
0
For any incident angle such that sin
2

i
sin
2

i
0
, then the above becomes:

=

E

0
e
it+ik sin ry
e

|z|

1
k

sin
2

i
sin
2

i
0
1
This explains what actually occurs during total internal reection. The refracting wave decays
exponentially on a scale determined by . Such a wave is referred to as an evanescent wave.
Consider the ux of energy through the boundary, this is determined by taking the component of
the Poynting Vector along the surface,

S n =
c
8
Re
_

n
and plugging in:

H =
1

2
;

B =

2
n
k


E

=
_

2
n
k


E

163

S n =
c
8
_

2
[

[
2
Re [ n n
k
] =
c
8
_

2
[

[
2
cos
r
Recall though, that the value of cos
r
is pure imaginary for angles larger than the critical angle
for total internal reection. Therefore there is no energy ux into the second medium in this case.
Two interesting methods of measuring these evanescent waves have been used. In a method similar
to quantum tunneling, if the boundary layer containing n
2
is of thickness smaller than , then the
decaying wave will penetrate and some signal can be measured on the other side of the boundary.
Alternately, the Goos-Hanchen Eect has been observed where reections from depths up to are
observed by interference patterns in the reected signal.
54.7 Wave Packets - Introduction
Recall that we have determined the most general solution for Maxwells Equations as:
A

=
_
d
4
kD

k
_
e
ikx

In this case, consider the spherical coordinates solution:

A

=
1
c
_
dk
2
dkdD

(, k) e
it+i

k x
In addition to this denition, we have the relations from Maxwells Equations (k

= 0) and the
chosen gauge (D

= 0). These give the additional denitions:

k
0
2
= [

k[
2
=

2
c
2
=
_

k
_
Because we can write as a function of the wave vector, we can dene some new coecient
D

=

D

( (k)). This eliminates the integral over d and the general solution becomes:
A

=
1

2
_
dk

((k), k) e
i(k)t+ikr
In the next section well return to denoting

so as to simply notation. However, note that

this is some new coecient.
Wednesday - 3/25
54.8 Wave Packet Velocity
Integrating the above determines the reverse transform:
164
_ _
A

=
1

2
_
dkD

(k, ) e
it+ikr
_
e
ik

r
dr
D

(k, ) =
1

2
_

0
drA

(r, t)e
ikr
Note that in the case of D

= D

0
(
0
) then the result is the planewave solution weve previous
examined. Consider instead some case where (k) is approximately constant. In this case, the rst
derivative is the only relevant value and the frequency can be approximated as:
(k) (k
0
) +
d
dk

k
0
(k k
0
) +. . .
Plugging this into the above equation gives:
A

(r, t) =
1

2
_
dkD

(, k)e
i(
0
+
d
dk
|
k
0
(kk
0
))t+ikr
Pulling out the constant phase factor:
A

(r, t) =
1

2
e
i
0
t+i
d
dk
|
k
0
k
0
t
_
dkD

(, k)e
i[
d
dk
|
k
0
tr]k
However, note that this is actually the initial transform evaluated at some modied position:
A

(r, t) =
1

2
e
i
0
t+i
d
dk
|
k
0
k
0
t
_
dkD

(, k)e
i[
d
dk
|
k
0
tr]k
= e
i
0
t+i
d
dk

k
0
k
0
t
A

_
r
d
dk
[
k
0
t, 0
_
Consider only the amplitude of this result:
[A

(r, t)[ =

_
r
d
dk

k
0
t, 0
_

This means that if a packet of waves are initially centered at some point r = 0, then after some
time t, the packet will have moved to some new location centered at r =
d
dk

k
0
t. Note that this
group result gives a group velocity for the wave packet, but doesnt describe any distortion of the
packet. That is, if the initial packet is a given waveform, then the transmitted packet is the same
waveform.
Note that in a medium, the frequency of waves varies as:
(k) =
ck

=
ck
n(k)
165
From this, it is possible to determine the derivative as:
d
dk
=
c
n() +
dn
d
Therefore the group velocity is given as:
v
g
=
d
dk

k
0
=
c
n(
0
) +
dn
d
[

0
In most cases the value of n() 1 and for normal dispersion
dn
d
> 0, this results in the above
quantity being less than c for all cases. This is expected since for the wave packet to travel at a
velocity larger than c would violate the results of special relativity. However, solid state physicists
have found systems with
dn
d
< 0 which results in group velocities larger than the speed of light.
Such materials are said to have anomalous dispersion. These group velocities arent physically
real since the systems require
d
dk
to vary quickly and the above approximation is inappropriate.
54.9 Modeling the Index of Refraction
In order to build a model of the refractive index as a function of frequency, consider the denition
n =

. The value of is approximately 1 for most materials, therefore we can determine the
behavior by modeling the polarization in a material and then nding (). Consider a model of a
medium build out of atoms surrounded by bound electrons. Each electron is harmonically bound to
a nucleus and the incoming wave causes displacement of the electrons which induces a dipole and
therefore a polarization. From this model, it is possible to get some idea of the behavior of ()
and therefore the refractive index of the material.
Setting the origin of the system at the nucleus of an atom, we can model the motion of a single
electron (assuming there is no electrostatic background and the motion is non-relativistic):
L = T V =
1
2
m

x
2

1
2
k x
Then the Hamiltonian including coupling the incoming waves can be written as:
1
2m
p
2
+
1
2
k x p p

= p +
e
c

A
The equations of motion can then be determined as:
x
i
=
H
p
i

x =
1
m
_
p +
e
c

A
_
p
i
=
H
x
i

p = k x
These can be combined to give the motion of the electron as:
166
m
_

x +
k
m
x
_
=
e
c

A = e

E
where weve used the denition

E =
1
c

A
t
. In addition to the above results, it is useful to
introduce a damping term, the nal result for the motion is:
m
_

x +
k
m
x +

x
_
= e

E
The rst step to solving this is to note that the incoming electric eld can be described by

E =

E
0
e
it
, therefore the position must have similar form. Plugging in the denition for the electric
eld and a position of x = x
0
e
it
, the above becomes:
m
_

2
x
0
i x
0
+
0
2
x
0
_
= e

E
0
Solving for x
0
,
x =
e
m

E
0

0
2
+i
e
it
=
e
m

0
2
+i
And using the denition for the dipole moment of p = e x, the resulting dipole moment of the
electron is:
p =
e
2
m

0
2
+i
The total polarization is the written in terms of the density of atoms per unit volume N, and the
number of electrons per molecule with binding frequency
l
which well denote as f
l
.
P =
Ne
2
m

j
f
l

l
2

2
i
l
Finally, using the denition from last semester (in Gaussian units) for the polarization P =
1
4
,
the refractive index can be modeled as:
n() =
_
() = 1 +
4Ne
2
m

l
f
l

l
2

2
i
l
Note the result that for each molecule the sum

l
f
l
gives the total number of electrons Z.
Friday - 3/27
Consider ordering the frequencies as
1
<
2
< . . . <
l
< . . .. If one assumes that
l
then
quantity in the summation can be approximated as:
167
f
l

l
2

2
i
l

f
l

2
l

2
In the case that >
1
then the above is positive. However, if the real and imaginary parts of the
above are considered separately, then the behavior is determined as:

l
2

2
+i
l
(
l
2

2
)
2
+
2

l
2
The real and imaginary parts exhibit the behavior:
The values of
l
are resonant absorption frequencies. This can be shown by examining the wavenum-
ber k. Let k = +i

2
give the real and imaginary parts of the wave number. Consider some wave
propagating along

k = k
3
. The wave can the be written as:

E e
it+i

k x
= e
it+iz

2
z
The last term in the exponential causes a damping. This means that any imaginary component of
the wave number will result in a damping of the eld. Using some other denitions, it is possible
to determine:
k
2
=
2

2
4
+i =

2
c
2
n
2
=

2
c
2

=
Im()
Re ()


=

c
_
Re ()
This result shows that there is maximum attenuation when the real part of epsilon goes to zero.
Consider a few special cases of these results.
54.9.1 Free Electrons - Conductors
Consider some material where a number of electrons are free. That is, for some portion of the sum
over l, the binding frequency
l
= 0 and
l
is very small compared to the bound electrons. In this
case, we can separate the summation to include only the bound electrons. All of the free electrons
168
have the same
l
=
0
and
l
=
0
, so the summation can be dropped for the term containing these
contributions. This leaves:
=
b

4Ne
2
m
f
0

2
+i
0

b
1 +
4Ne
2
m

l
f
l

l
2

2
i
l
Where f
0
is the number of free electrons per molecule. Multiplying the free electron term by
i
i
gives the relation:
=
b
+
4iNe
2
m
f
0
(
0
i)
Consider how this eects wave propagation.. Maxwells Equations give:

H =
4
c

j +
1
c

D
t
We are consider only the case of harmonic dependence and current free propagation, therefore this
becomes:

H
0
=
i
c

D
0
=
i
c


E
0
Plugging in the result above for in a medium with free electrons,

H
0
=
i
c

b

E
0

i
c
4iNe
2
m
f
0
(
0
i)

E
0
The rst term describes the eect of the bound electrons in the material. Consider this second term
more closely:
+
4
c
Ne
2
f
0
m(
0
i)

E
0

4
c


E
0
This quantity

E
0
acts as an eective current

j

in the conductor due to the incident electromagnetic

wave. This quantity is the conductivity of the material and this method weve used to model is
known as the Drube Model.
54.9.2 High Frequency Limit - Plasma Physics
Consider the limiting case of
1
and
l
. The permeability can then be approximated as:
1

p
2

2

p
2

Ne
2
Z
m
169
This approximation is valid cases when is very large and also when all electrons are free (which
would mean
l
= 0 for all values of l and all molecules). This second case describes the physics of a
plasma. Because of this, the factor
p
is called the plasma frequency. So what is the attenuation
in this case? Recall that for most cases 1 and therefore:
n =
ck

=
c
2
k
2

2
= 1

p
2

2
k =
1
c
_

p
2
=

2

p
2

2
Consider this result in several cases. Recall that k = +i

2
. So, for very high frequencies >
p
,
k is real and thus,
= 0 =
1
c
_

p
2
Alternately, for lower frequencies <
p
, k is pure imaginary and then,
=
2
c
_

p
2

2
p
c
= 0
Monday - 3/30
54.10 Relating the Displacement Field to the Electric Field
Consider the relation between the displacement eld

D( x, t) and the electric eld

E ( x, t). In
general, the relation

D =

E
In the case of a vacuum, = 1 and the two elds are identical. In uniform materials with constant
, the above relation is simply a scalar relation between the elds. Consider the case weve been
examining where the permeability is a function of the frequency. In this case, we can write the
displacement as a Fourier Transform,

D( x, t) =
1

2
_

D( x, ) e
it
Using the above denition, we can make the substitution

D( x, ) = ()

E ( x, ) and the above

becomes:

D( x, t) =
1

2
_

d ()

E ( x, ) e
it
170
And since the function

E can be determined by the inverse transform of the electric eld,

D( x, t) =
1
2
_

d () e
it
_

dt

E
_
x, t

_
e
it

=
1
2
_

dt

E
_
x, t

_
_

d () e
i(tt

)
Expanding () as 1 + (() 1), we can write the rst term as a delta function which simplies
the solution to:

D( x, t) =

E ( x, t) +
1
2
_

dt

E ( x, t)
_

d [ () 1] e
i(tt

)
Lastly, if we dene some new variable t t

then the above becomes:

D( x, t) =

E ( x, t) +
_

d

E ( x, t ) G() G()
1
2
_

d [ () 1] e
i
There are several restrictions on the kernel function G() which can be determined by this relation.
Requiring that causality hold, the displacement eld at some time t cannot be dependent on anything
occuring at time larger than t. Additionally, it is required that the integral above be nite. These
condition give:
G() = 0 for < 0 by causality
G() 0 for by convergence
Consider the solution for the permeability we generated for a single resonance,
() 1 = 4
Ne
2
Z
m
1

0
2

2
i
0
=

p
2

0
2

2
i
0
Taking the inverse transform for the above denition for G(), one nds that for such a resonance,
G() =
1
2
_

d [ () 1] e
i
=

p
2
2
_

d
e
i

0
2

2
i
0
This integral has poles located at:
=
i
0
2

_

0
2

0
2
4
the integral can then be determined by Residue analysis since these poles lie in the complex plane.
Consider the exponential for complex frequencies,
171
e
i
= e
iRe()+Im()
For < 0 the asymptotics of this require closing the path in the upper plane, which has no poles
and therefore gives the expected result of:
G() = 0 < 0
For > 0, the sum of the two residues give:
G() =

p
2
e

0
2
_

0
2

0
2
4
sin
_

0
2

0
2
4
_
Combining these results and consider multiple resonances, the nal form of the kernel is:
G() =

p
2
e

l
2
_

l
2

l
2
4
sin
_

l
2

l
2
4
_
()
Note that this solution decays at a rate described by
2

, physically this turns out to be on the order

of 10
7
to 10
9
seconds.
54.10.1 Kramer-Kronig Relations
Using a bit more complex analysis it is possible to determine some additional relations for the
permeability. Consider the permeability and its complex conjugate,
() = 1 +
_

0
dG() e
i

() = 1 +
_

0
dG

() e
i
however, because the kernel function must be real, this gives that:
Re [ ()] = Re [ ()] Im[ ()] = Im[ ()]
this shows that the real part of the permeability is an even function while the imaginary part is and
odd function. Because of this, must be analytic for Im() 0. Because of this, we can use the
Cauchy Integral formula to write:
(z) = 1 +
1
2i
_
C
(

) 1

z
d

In we choose the path to be along the real axis and a semicircle in the upper half complex plane,
and then separate the two sections, one nds:
172
(z) = 1 +
1
2i
_

) 1

z
+
1
2i
_

) 1

z
Then, if we consider expanding the numerator by integrating by parts,
() 1 =
_

0
dG() e
i
=
_

0
d
_
_
G() e
i
i
_

() e
i
i
_
Where the (. . .)

(. . .). This process can be repeated for the second term,

() 1 =
_

0
d
_
_
G() e
i
i
_

+
1
i
_
G

() e
i
i
_

+
G

() e
i
(i)
2
_
Evaluating the integral gives only contributions at = 0 and = infty. Since it was required
above that the kernel converge, the contributions at = are zero, this leaves:
1 =
1
i
G(0)
G

(0)

2
+. . .
Since these terms are constant they can be moved out of the integral, this leaves:
G() =
1
2
_

de
i
_

1
i
G(0)
1

2
G

(0) +. . .
_
The rst term must be zero for the kernel to be convergent, this means that to leading order
1

2
.
This shows that the contribution from the semicircle integral converges to zero. This leaves only
the integral along the real line. This can be evaluated except at the pole at

= z. We can avoid
this by integrating around it. Consider moving the pole o the real line by:
(z) = 1 +
1
2i
_

) 1

z i
Then, the integral can be written as:
(z) = 1 +
1
2i
P
_

) 1

z
+
1
2i
i (() 1)
Where the principle part of the integral represents:
P
_

(. . .) = lim
0
__
z

. . . +
_

z+
. . .
_
173
Replacing z with , we nd the relations between the imaginary and real parts of the permeability
are:
Re (()) = 1 +
1

P
_

Im((

))

Im(()) =
1

P
_

Re ((

)) 1

Multiplying numerator and denominator by

+ gives the simplied results:

Re (()) = 1 +
2

P
_

Im((

))

2
Im(()) =
2

P
_

Re ((

)) 1

2
174
Wednesday - 4/1
55 Geometric Optics
55.1 The Approximations and Assumptions of Geometric Optics
Recall that in the Lorentz Gauge, for a region without sources, Maxwells Equations are:
A

( x, t) = 0 =
2

1
c
2

2
t
2
In a medium with variations in the refractive index, the speed of propagation changes. This gives
v( x) =
c
n( x)
. Plugging this into the above for propagation in such a medium,
_

n
2
( x)
c
2

2
t
2
_
A

( x, t) = 0
If we assume that the solution has the form A

( x, t) = A

0
( x)e
it
then this becomes a problem
only in 3 spacial dimensions,
_

2
+

2
c
2
n
2
( x)
_
A

0
( x) =
_

2
+k
0
2
n
2
( x)
_
A

0
( x) = 0
Where weve dened k
0
=

c
. Note that in the case of constant index of refraction this is a Helmholtz
Equation and the plane wave solutions weve seen previously are the exact solution. In the case of
non-constant index, consider plugging in the form:
A

0
( x)

A( x)e
ik
0
S( x)
Note that weve reduced the notation from

A

0
to

A. Then the condition above becomes

2

A+ 2ik
0

A S +ik
0

A
2
S k
0
2

A(S)
2
+k
0
2
n
2

A = 0
Dividing by k
0
2
,
1
k
0
2

2

A+
2i
k
0

A S +
i
k
0

A
2
S

A(S)
2
+n
2

A = 0
And if we make the change of notation k
0
=

c
=
2

0
=
0
. If we assume that the variations in the
index of refraction are small, then it is possible to perform an expansion for
0
0. In this case,
the above can be broken into orders of
0
as:
(S) = n
2
( x)
175

A
2
S + 2

A S = 0

2

A = 0
The term of order
2
0
can be dropped entirely. The rst of the above describes the scalar function
S(x, y, z) and the vector eld S which we can dene to be along the unit vector u
s
. In this case
the above gives that
[S[ = n( x) S = n( x) u
s
Plugging this into the second equation gives:

A
2
S + 2n( x)

A u
s
= 0

A
2
S + 2n( x)

A
s
= 0
Here weve dened the derivative operator

s
to be the derivative along one of the curves S( x) =
[S](s). Dividing this result by 2n gives the second equation of geometric optics,

A
s
=

A
2n( x)

2
S
55.2 Consequences of Geometric Optics
Fermats Theorem and Generalization of Snells Law
Consider some region which has

A = 0. In this region there is no EM eld and from the above
equations it is clear that


A
s
is also zero and therefore the regions remains dark. If two such
regions exist, then in a third region between them, S denes a light ray and S( x) denes curves
of constant phase which are though of as wave fronts. The paths S are perpendicular to such
curves and therefore dene the geometric path of propagation. Note that in the simple case of
n( x) = constant, the ray propagate in straight lines and the wave fronts are planes (as expected).
Consider some ray path S(s) and additionally some second curve (s). The length of each curve
can be determined as:
S(s) =
_
p
2
p
1
n( x)ds (s

) =
_
p
2
p
1
n( x

)ds

Where weve denoted s and s

as the two paths. However, from the above denitions, this becomes:
_
p
2
p
1
n( x)ds =
_
p
2
p
1
S
s
ds = S(s)[
p
2
p
1
176
The travel time along each can then be dened as:
_
p
2
p
1
n( x)vdt = c [t(p
1
) t(p
2
)] t =
1
c
S
From this information we can compare the travel time between the two paths. One nds that:
_
p
2
p
1

ds

= (p
1
) (p
2
)
Because of this we can see that

s

= S u

[S[. That is,

n( x)
Comparing this with the above result for the travel time,
1
c
S
1
c
t
S
t

That is, the curve S(s) denes the shortest travel time for a light ray between two points p
1
and p
2
in the geometry dened by n( x). This result in known as Fermats Theorem.
Lastly, consider taking the derivative of the rst of the geometric optics equations along a ray,
d
ds
[S = n( x) u
s
]
The order of the operations on the left hand side can be reversed and u
s
can be written as
d r
ds
. This
gives the result:

dS
ds
=
d
ds
_
n( x)
d r
ds
_
n( x) =
d
ds
_
n( x)
d r
ds
_
This result describes how the unit vector u
s
changes given the changes in n( x). This is the gener-
alized result of Snells Law.
177
Friday - 4/3
55.3 Optical Fibers
From the generalized result for Snells law it is possible to determine the ray paths for light propa-
gating in any medium with variations in refractive index. Consider some optical ber:
n
0
= n
coating
n
1
= n
fiber
In order for total internal reection to occur the angle of incidence must be greater than some
critical angle
i0
= arcsin
_
n
0
n
1
_
. Since the angle of propagation is related to the incident angle by
=

2

i
the condition for total internal reection is

max
= arccos
_
n
0
n
1
_
Given this information, consider how many of the modes inside the ber actually propagate over
long axial distances. To do so, consider the denition:

n
1
2
n
0
2
2n
1
2
=
(n
1
+n
0
) (n
1
n
0
)
2n
1
2
Since n
1
and n
0
are roughly of the same order, it is useful to make the approximation,

n
1
n
0
n
1
= 1
n
0
n
1

n
0
n
1
1 0
For a typical ber, 10
2
and then using the above denition
max
5 10 degrees. To
determine the propagating modes, consider the transverse electric eld:

E
T
e
i

k
T
x
T
k
T
x
T
= k
x
x +k
y
y
Since we want only the end that propagates we require that the eld at the boundary of the ber
and coating vanish. This requires:
e
ik
T
a
= e
i2j
Where is j is some integer. This then requires:
j =
k
T
a
2
n =
#
length
=
j
a
=
k
T
2
178
the number density is then,
d
2
n =
d
2
k
T
(2)
2
and integrating over the cross-sectional area of the ber,
d
2
N = Area 2
d
2
k
T
(2)
2
Where weve inserted a factor of 2 to account for both polarizations. At this point, lets note that
k
T
= k sin k since the angles are so small. Then integrating this result over allowed values of
the wave vector gives the number of modes as:
N = 2a
2
1
(2)
2
_
d
2
k
T
=
2a
2
(2)
2
2
_
max
0
k
T
()dk
T
() =
1
2
(ak)
2

max
2
Using the relation derived above,
N =
1
2
_
ak

2
_
2
=
1
2
V
2
Where weve dened V as the ber parameter. Plugging in the approximations from above, this
result shows that there are approximately 300 modes which propagate for a maximum angle of
5 10 degrees. Lets compare this result to the total number of propagating modes. The above
derivation then becomes:
N = a
2
_
2
0
k
T
()dk
T
() = a
2
k
2
_
2
0
cos sind =
1
2
k
2
a
2
Noting that the factor of
max
2
is approximately .1 radians. This shows that only
1
100
of the possible
modes propagate.
Consider a ber with a radially varying index of refraction. Let the index decrease such that the rays
propagating are constantly refracted towards the middle of the ber. We can use the generalization
of Snells Law to write:
d
dx
n(x) =
d
ds
_
n(x)
d
ds
x
_
=
d
ds
(n(x) sin)
d
dz
n(x) =
d
ds
_
n(x)
d
ds
z
_
=
d
ds
(n(x) cos )
The assumption above gives the immediate result:
179
d
dz
n(x) = 0 n(x) cos = constant
We can dene this constant to be the maximum index which the ray reaches. This then gives:
n(x) cos = n
max

dz
ds
=
n
max
n(x)
Using this result, we can write the derivative
d
ds
=
dz
ds
d
dz
=
nmax
n(x)
d
dz
. Plugging this into the radial
equation gives:
dn
dx
=
d
ds
_
n(x)
dx
ds
_
=
n
max
n(x)
d
dz
_
n(x)
n
max
n(x)
dx
dz
_
=
n
max
2
n(x)
d
2
x
dz
2
n(x)
d
dx
n(x) =
1
2
d
dx
n
2
(x) = n
max
2
d
2
x
dz
2
Multiplying by
dx
dz
and then integrating:
_
_
1
2
dx
dz
d
dx
n
2
(x) =
1
2
n
max
2
d
dz
_
dx
dz
_
2
_
dz n
max
2
_
dx
dz
_
2
= n
2
(x) +constant
In the case of x = x
max
, the change in x is zero, this gives that the constant above is n
max
2
. So,
integrating again,
dx
dz
=

n
2
(x) n
max
2
n
max
2
dz =
n
max
_
n
2
(x) n
max
2
dx
z(x) =
_
x
0
n
max
_
n
2
(x) n
max
2
dx
From what we saw last time and the result above for
ds
dx
it is possible to write the travel time along
an optical path as:
T =
2
c
_
xmax
0
n(x)
ds
dx
dx =
2
c
_
xmax
0
n
2
(x)
_
n
2
(x) n
max
2
dx
Where the factor of 2 is due the integral only being over half the path of the ray.
Monday - 4/6
180
56 Wave Guides
Previously weve seen that geometric optics is a useful approximation in an optical ber. Consider
the case of propagation in a waveguide with wavelengths large enough that geometric optics is not
applicable. The full solutions of Maxwells Equations must then be determined. The resulting
problem can be solved by:
A

= 0

E =
1
c

AA
0

B =

A
Applying these relation, we nd that the elds satisfy:

E = 0

B = 0
If we assume that the solutions are built out of planewaves, then the wave operator can be written:
=
1
v
2

2
t
2

2
=

2
v
2

2
Finally, using the relation v =
c

, the rst of our system of equations is:

_

2
+

2
c
2

_ _

B
_
= 0 with


B = 0

E = 0
Consider some geometry with a waveguide extending to innity. Denoting the axial direction as
z
,
the solution can be expanded in a Fourier transform in z,

E,

B e
ikzit
Then, breaking the dierential operator into axial and transverse components,
2
=
T
2
+

2
z
2
allows us to reduce the problem to 2 dimensions. This above then becomes:
_

T
2
+

2
c
2
k
2
_ _

B
_
= 0 (0)
Here we can write the elds in terms of axial and transverse components,

E =
_

E
T
, E
z
_
and the
same for the magnetic eld. Consider a few representations for the elds:

E =

E(x, y)e
ikzit
=

E
T
+

E
z
=

E
t
+E
z

z
=
_

z

E
_

z
+E
z

z

B =

B(x, y)e
ikzit
=

B
T
+

B
z
=

B
t
+B
z

z
=
_

z

B
_

z
+B
z

z
Using these relations, Maxwells Equations give 6 additional requirements on the above:
181

E = 0
T


E
T
=
E
z
z
(1)

B = 0
T


B
T
=
B
z
z
(2)
_

E
1
c

B = 0
_ _

_

z

_
_
_
_

T


E
T
_

z
=
i
c
B
z
(3)

T
E
z

E
T
=
i
c

z

B
T
(4)
_
_
_
_

B

c

E = 0
_ _

_

z

_
_
_
_

T


B
T
_

z
=
i
c
E
z
(5)

T
B
z

B
T
=
i
c

z

E
T
(6)
_
_
_
56.0.1 Zero-Transverse Solution
Consider the solution of the above set of equations in the special case of no transverse eld. Plugging
in E
z
= B
z
= 0 in the above gives the result:

T


E
T
= 0
T


B
T
= 0

T


E
T
= 0

z

E
T
=
i
c
_

z

B
T
_

T


B
T
= 0

z

B
T
=
i
c

_

z

E
T
_
This reduces to a problem in 2 dimensional electrostatics. The fourth and sixth of the above give the
relation between

E
T
and

B
T
so all that is necessary is to determine

E
T
from remaining conditions.
Solving for the relation between the electric and magnetic elds is simple if we recall the axial
dependence,
ik

B
T
=
i
c

_

z

E
T
_
Solving for

B
T
gives a factor

kc
. However, note that v =
c

k
. Combining this with the
conditions on electric eld:

T


E
T
= 0
T


E
T
= 0

B
T
=

E
T
These solutions are known as TEM Modes of the waveguide since they are Transverse Electric
and Magnetic waves. In the more general case we can break the solution into transverse electric
and transverse magnetic modes.
182
56.1 General Solution
Consider the general solution for the wave guide. It is necessary to decouple the six equations above.
Consider the fourth equation, dierentiating with respect to the axial variable allows combination
with equation (6).

z
_

T
E
z

E
T
=
i
c

z

B
T
_

T
E
z
z


2
z
2

E
T
=
i
c

z

B
T
z

T
E
z
z


2
z
2

E
T
=
i
c

z

T
B
z
+
i
c

_

z

E
T

_
Evaluating all of the axial derivatives:
ik
T
E
z
+k
2

E
T
=
i
c

z

T
B
z
+
i
c

_

z

E
T

_
Solving for the transverse electric eld gives:

E
T
=
i

2
c
2
k
2
_
k
T
E
z

c

z

T
B
z
_
Repeating this for the magnetic eld one nds the similar relation:

B
T
=
i

2
c
2
k
2
_
k
T
B
z

c
[
z

T
E
z
]
_
To determine the whole solution one nds a solution to the wave equation (0) from above. Those
solutions must also satisfy equations (1) and (2) above. Finally, equations (3) - (6) are contained
in the two above results.
Alternately, one can build a solution of linear combinations of TE and TM modes. This done
by assuming that B
z
and E
z
are zero respectively. Then the remaining components are easily
determined from the above.
56.1.1 Boundary Conditions
Consider the boundary conditions on the surface of the waveguide. In general, we require,
n

E = 0 n

B = 0
The rst of these is satised by:
183
det

x

y

z
n
x
n
y
0
E
x
E
y
E
z

= 0
n
y
E
z

x
n
x
E
z

y
+ (n
x
E
y
n
y
E
x
)
z
= 0
n

E
T
[
V
= 0 E
z
[
V
= 0
The second boundary condition requires:
B
z
n
[
V
= 0
For the choice of TM waves, the solutions already satisfy the conditions on E
z
and B
z
. Therefore
only the condition on n

E
T
must be applied. Alternately, for TE waves, only the condition on B
z
needs to be applied. In either case, one can solve equation (0) for either E
z
or B
z
and determine
an expansion for the solutions quickly.
184
Wednesday - 4/8
56.2 Solving problems in a waveguide
Consider how to solve a problem involving propagation through a waveguide. The general solution
will consist of a linear combination of TE modes and TM modes. Lets consider some alternate
denitions for the elds in either case:
TM MODES:
H
z
= 0 E
z
=
E
e
ikz

E
T
=
ik

E
Boundary Condition:

E
[
V
= 0
TE MODES:
H
z
=
H
e
ikz
E
z
= 0

H
T
=
ik

H
Boundary Condition:

H
[
V
= 0
Along with some connection relations between the two cases:
_

T
2
+
2
_

E,H
= 0

H
T
=
4
cZ

z

E
z

2
=

2
c
2
k
2
Where weve introduced the quantity Z which is the impedance. In either case the impedance has
the form:
Z
TE
=
4
c
2
k
Z
TM
=
4k

In order to solve problems one rst determines the appropriate eigenfunctions for the Helmholtz
operator above. Then, selecting either TE or TM modes, the appropriate boundary conditions
are applied to generate the exact form of
H
or
E
. Using this result, either

E
T
or

H
T
can be
determined. From that, the remaining two components of the elds can be found as well.
Consider also, the denition above for . Solving this for the coecient k gives:
k =
_

2
c
2

2
If the quantity inside the square root is negative, then k is pure imaginary and there is no propagation
along the axial direction. The corresponding frequency for which k transitions from real to imaginary
is the so-called cut-o frequency and can be written:
185

Here the value of

can be determined from the solutions of the Helmholtz operator. Lets consider
an example:
56.2.1 Example - Rectangular Wave Guide
Consider a rectangular wave guide bounded by planar surfaces at x = 0, x = a, y = 0, and y = b.
Lets determine the TE modes of such a wave guide. In this case we immediately can write:
E
z
= 0
_

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
+
2
_

H
= 0
Given the geometry, the best choice for the general solution is:

H
=
x
(x)
y
(y) = (
1x
cos (Ax) +
2x
sin(Ax))
_

1y
cos (By) +
2y
sin(By)
_
The boundary condition for TE modes requires that the rst derivative goes to zero on the bound-
aries. That is,

x
[
0,a
= 0

y

y
[
0,y
= 0
This means that only the cosine terms above will remain. This gives the function
H
as:

H
(x, y) =
H
0
cos
_
m
a
x
_
cos
_
n
b
y
_

2
=
2
_
m
2
a
2
+
n
2
b
2
_
Where the indices n and m can be any combination of positive integers. The lowest eigenvalue
corresponds to either n = 0, m = 1 or n = 1, m = 0 depending on the exact geometry of the wave
guide (That is, if a < b or a > b). From the function above, one can determine the eld by:

H
T
=
ik

H

H
T
=
4
cZ

z

E
T
56.3 Energy Flow in a Wave Guide
Consider the energy owing through a waveguide. We can take the Poynting vector along the axial
direction to determine the ux of energy in the guide. Assuming we are working with TM modes,
the Poynting vector in the guide can be written as:
186

S =
c
8

E

H

=
c
8

x

y

z
E
x
E
y
E
z
H
x

H
y

S =
c
8
[
x
E
z
H
y

y
E
z
H
x

+
z
(E
x
H
y

E
y
H
x

)]
So then the ux through the waveguide is:
=

S
z
=
c
8

E
T


H
T

The power can be determined by integrating this over the cross-sectional area of the waveguide.
This gives:
P =
c
8
_
A
T

E
T


H
T

d
2
x
Since we are working in the case of TM modes, the above quantities have the forms:

E
T
=
i

E

H
T
=
4
cZ

z

E
T
A little algebra leads to:
P =
4k
2

2
cZ
_
A
T
dA[
E
[
2
Consider only the integral factor of this result:
_
A
T
dA(
T

E
) (
T

) =
_
A
T
dA
_

T
(
E

E
)
E

=
_
A
T
dl
E

_
A
T

E
Due to the boundary conditions, this rst term is zero. The second term can be evaluated using
the Helmholtz operator above to give
T
2

E
=
2

E
. This leaves:
P
TM
=
k
8
2
_
A
T
dA[
E
[
2
=
c
8
_

_
2
_
1

2
_
A
T
dA[
E
[
2
Repeating the above for the TE modes, one nds the simple change of:
187
P
TE
=
c
8
_

_
2
_
1

2
_
A
T
dA[
E
[
2
In order to determine the energy per unit length, the above result can be divided by the group
velocity of the propagating waves. That is:
P =
energy
time

P
v
g
=
energy
time
length
time
=
energy
length
= u
The group velocity is given by:
v
g
=
d
dk
=
c

_
k
2

2
v
g
=
c

_
1

2
This combined with the above give:
u
TM
=
1
8
_

_
2

_
A
T
[[
2
dA u
EM
=
1
8
_

_
2

_
A
T
[[
2
dA
188
Monday - 4/13
56.4 Resonant Cavities
Consider a waveguide which does not extend to innity in both directions. If the ends of the wave
guide are located at z = 0 and z = d, then our treatment from previous lectures is still viable, but
with the added boundary conditions at the ends:
TM MODES:
H
z
= 0 E
z
=
E
e
ikz

E
T
=
ik

E
Boundary Conditions:

E
[
V
T
= 0

n
E
z
[
Vz
=

E
T
[
Vz
= 0
Resulting eld for cavity of length d:
E
z
=
E
(x, y) cos
_
p
d
z
_
p = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .
TE MODES:
H
z
=
H
e
ikz
E
z
= 0

H
T
=
ik

H
Boundary Condition:

H
[
V
T
= 0 H
z
[
Vz
= 0
Resulting eld for cavity of length d:
H
z
=
H
(x, y) sin
_
p
d
z
_
p = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .
Where weve introduced the notation of V
T
as the boundary along the wave guide and V
z
for the
boundary on the end caps if the waveguide is turned into a cavity. The connection relations remain
the same:
_

T
2
+
2
_

E,H
= 0

H
T
=
4
cZ

z

E
z

2
=

2
c
k
2
=

2
c

p
2

2
d
2
189
57 Solutions with Sources
Up until now, weve considered general solutions without sources. Recall the general solution we
derived:
A

(x) = A

Hom
(x) +
4
c
_
d
4
x

D
_
x x

_
j

(x

)
A

Hom
(x) = 0 A

(x) =
4
c
j

(x)

x
D
_
x x

_
=
(4)
_
x x

_
We derived the retarded Greens function to preserve causality,
D
_
x x

_
=
1
4

_
x
0
x
0
_
__
x
0
x
0
_
+[ x x

[ x x

[
Consider the simple case of a single point-like charge moving along some trajectory in spacetime.
We can assume there are no additional contributions of the eld (that is, A

Hom
= 0) and only the
Green function term will contribute to the eld. The solution is then dependent on j

(x) for the

charge moving along the trajectory. We can write this in terms of the familiar charge and current
densities,
j

(x) = (c,

j)
= q
(3)
_
x x

()
_

j = q v()
_
x x

()
_
Also, it is convenient to use the properties of the delta function and write:
D
R
(x, x

) =
1
2

_
x
0
x
0
_

_
_
x x

_
2
_
Lastly, j

should be invariant, so the above relations must be rewritten as:

= q
_
dx
0

_
x
0
x
0
_

(3)
_
x x

_
= q
_
dx
0

(4)
_
x x

_
And using the relation c
2
d
2
= dx
0
2
d x
2
= dx
0
2
1

2
, we can write the dierential dx
0
= cd =
u
0
d. Then the charge density is:
= q
_
d u
0

(4)
_
x x

_
And repeating for the current density,
190

j = q
_
dx
0
v

(4)
_
x x

_
= qc
_
d v

(4)
_
x x

j = qc
_
d u

()
_
x x

()
_
And combining these results,
j

= qc
_
d u

()
(4)
_
x x

()
_
So, plugging this into the general solution,
A

(x) =
4
c
_
d
4
x

D
R
_
x, x

_
j

(x

)
=
4
c
_
d
4
x

_
1
2

_
x
0
x
0
_

_
_
x x

_
2
_
_ _
qc
_
d u

_
x

()

(4)
_
x

()
_
_
A

(x) = 2q
_
d
4
x

_
d
_
x
0
x
0
_

_
_
x x

_
2
_
u

_
x

()

(4)
_
x

()
_
The integral in d
4
x and the 4-d delta function collapse one integral, this leaves:
A

(x) = 2q
_
d u

_
x

()

_
x
0
x
0
_

_
_
x x

_
2
_
If we change notation so that the observer is located at x
0
, x and the source at location r
0
() , r (),
then the above can be written more simply as:
A

(x) = 2q
_
d u

()
_
x
0
r
0
()
_

_
(x r ())
2
_
Note the behavior of this integral. It only takes values when (x r())
2
= 0. That means there is
some proper time =
0
which satises the equation:
x
0
r
0
(
0
) = [ x r (
0
) [
191
Wednesday - 4/15 This result can be solved for x
0
to show that the time at which the observer
sees the potential in terms of the time and location it the source caused it can be described by:
x
0
= r
0
(
0
) [ x r(
0
)[ t
x
= t
s

1
c
[ x r
s
[
Next, by modifying the delta function remaining in the integral, it is possible to derive an alternate
expression for A

_
(x r())
2
_
= [(x

) (x

)]
And by the delta relation:
[f(x)] =

i
(x x
i
)
[

x
f(x)[
x
i
This can be written instead as:
[(x

) (x

)] =
(
0
)
[
d
d
(x

) (x

) [

0
=
(
0
)
[2 (x

)
d
d
(x

) [

0
=
(
0
)
[2 (x

) u

0
The delta function collapses the integral over and the factor of 2 cancels. This leaves:
A

= q
u

(
0
)
[[x

(
0
)] u

(
0
)[
Expanding the term in the denominator gives
[x

(
0
)] u

(
0
) = [x
0
r
0
(
0
)] u
0
[ x r(
0
)] u(
0
)
If we dene the vector from x to r to be

R = R n, then the above can be written as:
(x
0
r
0
(
0
)) u
0
( x r(
0
)) u(
0
) = Rc R n v = Rc
_
1 n

_
And so nally,
A

(x) = q
u

cR
_
1 n

Ret. time
Where the result is evaluated at the retarded time =
0
. Using the denitions for u

, the actual
components of the potential can be determined as:
192
A
0
(x) = (x) =
q
R
_
1 n

=
0

A(x) =
q

R
_
1 n

=
0
As a special case, Jackson works out the potentials and elds for a point charge moving in a straight
line. This can be found in chapter 14 of Jackson.
Consider the eld from a moving source. We have previously determined that the electric and
magnetic elds can be written as:
F

The dependence which requires evaluation of the partial derivatives

and

have been hidden in

the above procedures, so the evaluation of these terms can problematic. Consider:
A

= q
u

(x

= q
_
1
u(x r)

+u

_
1
u(x r)
__
Where weve shortened the notation of u

(x

) u(x r). If the dierential

can be turned
into a derivative with respect to then the above will be much easier to deal with. Consider making
the change:

= q
_
u

u(x r)

+u

_
1
u(x r)
_

_
Where we can dene:
x

= u

= u

= (u

)
1
=
(x r)

u(x r)
=

and then plugging this result in,

= q
_
u

(x r)

[u(x r)]
2
+u

_
1
u(x r)
_
(x r)

u(x r)
_
= q
1
u(x r)
_
u

(x r)

u(x r)
+u

(x r)

_
1
u(x r)
_
_
Using the relation that

(x r)

= u

, we can write that:

(x r)

_
(x r)

_
u

(x r)

_
(x r)

_
+u

193
Then,

= q
1
u(x r)
_
1
u(x r)
_

_
(x r)

_
+u

_
+u

(x r)

_
1
u(x r)
__
The rst and third terms combine to give the total derivative and thus nally we have that:

= q
1
u(x r)
_

_
(x r)

u(x r)
_
+
u

u(x r)
_
changing the indices, we immediately write that:

= q
1
u(x r)
_

_
(x r)

u(x r)
_
+
u

u(x r)
_
And combining them, the symmetric term drops and leaves the eld tensor as:
F

= q
1
u(x r)
_

_
(x r)

(x r)

u(x r)
__

0
194
Friday - 4/17
57.1 Deriving the Electric and Magnetic Field for Relativistic Particles
Using the above result we can write the components of the electric and magnetic elds in a more
usable form. Recall that the components of the electric eld are represented as E
i
= F
0i
. Using
the above,
E
i
=
q
u(x r)
d
d
_
_
x
0
r
0
_
u
i
(x r)
i
u
0
u(x r)
_

0
Using previous notation,
x
0
r
0
= R (x r)
i
= Rn
i
u(x r) = cR
_
1

n
_
Then, the electric eld can be written as:
E
i
=
q
cR
_
1

n
_
d
d
_
Rv
i
Rn
i
c
cR
_
1

n
_
_

0
=
q
cR
_
1

n
_
d
d
_

i
n
i
1

n
_

E =
q
cR
_
1

n
_
d
d
_
n

1

n
_

0
Distributing the dierential,

E =
q
cR
_
1

n
_
_
d n
d

d

d
1

n

n

_
1

n
_
2
d
d
_
1

n
_
_

0
Evaluating the derivatives,
d

d
=
dt
d
d

dt
=
d

dt
x r = R n
d r
d
= n
dR
d
+R
d n
d
d n
d
=
1
R
_
d r
d
+ n
dR
d
_
=
1
R
_
u + n
d
d
_
x
0
r
0
_
_
=
1
R
_
v + n
_
u
0
__
d n
d
=
c
R
_
n

_
195
d
d
_

n
_
=


d n
d
+ n
d

d
=


_

c
R
_
n

_
_
+ n
d

dt
d
d
_

n
_
=
c
R
_
[

[
2

n
_
+ n
d

dt
Plugging these in gives the result:

E =
_
_
q
n

2
R
2
_
1

n
_
3
+
q
c
n
_
_
n

_
R
_
1

n
_
3
_
_

0
The magnetic eld can be determined in the same manner and after some manipulation one nds
the expected result

B =
_
n

E

0
Lets consider what the physics of these results are. In the case of

= 0, the electric eld reduces
to:

E = q
n
R
2
this is just the Coulomb eld weve seen many times. Next, if we consider the case of

= 0 but

,= 0, then we are left with:

E = q
_
n

2
R
2
_
1

0
n
_
3
_

0
This is just a static Coulomb eld undergone a boost of

0
evaluated at the retarded time. From
these results we can note the contributions of each term in the electric eld. The rst term (the
non-zero term in these two cases) describes the contribution of a static eld undergone some boost.
The second term must then describe the remaining contributions (the radiation). Lets consider
this radiation term more closely. Well start by writing the pointing vector,

S =
c
4

E

B =
c
4

2
n
However, using the above result, we can easily see that [

E[
2
will have the form:
[

E[
2
=

R
2
+

R
3
+

R
4
If this result is integrated on all space, then the terms only the rst term will contribute. That is,
196
lim
R
_
[

E[
2
R
2
d =
_
d
This shows that only a particle moving with

,= 0 will radiate EM waves. We can determine the

value of this ux by solving for this scalar quantity .

E
rad
=
q
c
_
_
n
_
_
n

_
R
_
1

n
_
3
_
_

0
And using the relation

=
d

d
=

c
a, then,

E
rad
=
q
c
_
n
__
n
v
c
_

c
a

R
_
1
1
c
v n
_
3
_

0
We will solve this more exactly in the next lecture, but rst consider the non-relativistic case. In
the limit of [ v[ c, the elds reduce to:

E
rad

q
c
2
n ( n a)
R

B
rad
n

E
rad
Then, in this case we can write:

S
c
4
n

E
rad
[
2
=
q
2
4c
3
n

[ n ( n a)[
2
R
2
=
q
2
4c
3
n

[( n a) n a[
2
R
2
Where n

is some new unit vector in a direction which an observer is measuring the ux. Using
this result, we can determine the power density as:
P = lim
R
_
_

S n

_
R
2
d
dP
d
= lim
R
_

S n

_
R
2
So, simplifying the vector term, [( n a) n a[
2
= a
2
sin
2
, the power can be written as:
dP
d
=
q
2
4c
3
a
2
sin
2

P =
q
2
a
2
4c
3
2
_

0
sin
2
d =
2
3
q
2
a
2
c
3
This result gives the total power radiated by a charged particle moving with acceleration a at non-
relativistic speeds. This result is known as Larmors Formula. As stated above, well derive the
197
relativistic relation next time.
Monday - 4/20
Last time we determined the non-relativistic power loss of a charged particle. This was given by:
dP
d
=
q
2
a
2
4c
3
sin
2
=
q
2
4m
2
c
3

d p
dt

2
sin
2

This can be generalized for relativistic motion and the result gives:
P =
2q
2
3c

6
_
_
d

dt
_
2

dt
_
2
_

0
57.2 Interesting Cases - Linear and Circular Motion
From this result, one can determine power loss for two general cases of motion. Any motion can be
broken into a linear and angular component. Well consider rst linear motion:
57.2.1 Linear Motion
For linear motion in the non-relativistic limit,
Energy loss
unit distance
=
W
x
=
dW
vdt
And using the non-relativistic relation for energy and momentum, W =
p
2
2m
dW =
p dp
m
, the
above can be written as:
Energy loss
unit distance
=
dW m
p dt
=
dp
dt
This then gives the non-relativistic energy loss as:
P
2q
2
3c
3
m
2
_
dW
dx
_
2
[ v[ c
In the relativistic limit, the above changes by a factor
6
, however the relation between
d p
dt
and
dW
dx
remains the same, therefore the relativistic relation is simply:
P =
2q
2
3c
3

6
a
2
198
57.2.2 Circular Motion
In the case of circular motion, the change in momentum is a change in direction ( since the magnitude
of p remains constant). Thus,
p
t
=
p d
d
= p
d
dt
= p
this then gives the loss as:
P =
2q
2
3c
3
m
2

2
p
2
In the non-relativistic limit the above simplies as 1, p mv = mR. Thus the non-relativistic
limit goes as:
P
2q
2
3c
3

4
R
2
=
2q
2
3
c
4
R
2
[ v[ c
The exact relation can be written instead as:
P =
2q
2
c
3R
2

4

4
The change in the number of factors is from the form of
_
d

dt
_
2

dt
_
2
which expands to
gives something of the form

dt

2 _
1
2
_
=

dt

2
.
57.3 Power Loss Per Unit Frequency
Weve found a result for the power loss radiated per solid angle, lets consider nding a relation
for the loss per frequency by Fourier transforming the results so far. Recall that the radiated eld
looks like

E
rad
=
q
c
_
_
n
_
_
n

d
dt
_
R
_
1 n

_
3
_
_

B
rad
=
_

E
rad
n

0
So then the ux given by
_

S n

gives that the radiated energy per unit solid angle per unit time
is:
dW
ddt
=
c
4
q
2
c
2

n
_
_
n

d
dt
_
_
1 n

_
3

0
199
Evaluating this instead at the emission time requires writing
dW
ddt
as
dW
ddtem
dtem
dt
. Where t =
t
em
+
1
c
[

R[ (t
em
). This can be evaluated as:
dt
dt
em
= 1 +
1
c
d
dt
em

R(t
em
)

R = R n = x r (t
em
)
d

R
dt
em
= v
em
= c

em
Therefore,
dt
em
dt
= 1 +
1
c
dR
dt
em
= 1

em
n
And then nally,
dW
ddt
em
=
q
2
4c
_

n
_
_
n

d
dt
_

2
_
1 n

_
5
_

_
tem
From this we can immediately write:
dP
d
=
q
2
4c

n
_
_
n

d
dt
_

2
_
1 n

_
5
[

A(t)[
2
=
c
4
[

E
rad
[
2
R
2

A(t)
_
c
4
R

E
rad
So then the energy per solid angle over all time can be found by integrating this result:
dP
dall time
=
_

A(t)[
2
dt
Then, writing

A as its fourier transform,
dP
dall time
=
_

dt
1

2
_

d
1

2
_

e
i(+

)t

A()

()
Noting the Dirac delta form of the time integral, two of the integrals can be evaluated immediately,
this leaves:
dP
dall time
=
_

A()

2
d =
_

0
_

A()

2
+

A()

2
_
d
200
Because

A must be real, the second term can be transformed as

A() =

(). This leaves:

d
2
I
dd
= 2

A()

2
= 2

1
2
_

dte
it
_
c
4
R

E
rad

2
Changing this integration variable to the emission time,
d
2
I
dd
=
q
2
4
2
c

dt

e
i(t

1
c
n r(t

))
n
_
n

dt

_
1

n
_
2

2
Wednesday - 4/22
To simplify this result, we can note that the vector term can be written as:
n
_
n

_
1

n
_
2
=

t
_
n
_
n

_
1

n
_
this means that the above is:
d
2
I
dd
=
q
2
4
2
c

dt

e
i(t

1
c
n r(t

))

t

_
n
_
n

_
1

n
_

2
This can be evaluated by integrating by parts. The boundary terms are negligible (we assume at
t

= there was no motion) and we can note that

t

_
t

1
c
n r (t

)
_
= 1

n. This leaves:
d
2
I
dd
=
q
2

2
4
2
c

dt

e
i[t

1
c
n r(t

)]
_
n
_
n

2
Consider the behavior of this result. It can be shown that this function has a peak value at a
frequency thats approximated by
peak

q
2

c
. At relativistic speeds, the factor becomes large
and the peak output frequency becomes large as well. Further, it can be shown that the function
behaves as:
d
2
I
dd
e

c

c
=
3
2

3
_
c
R
_
Further, because electromagnetism is a linear theory, for a system of N particles, the result would
be written as:
d
2
I
dd
=
N

l=1
q
2
l

2
4
2
c

dt

e
i[t

1
c
n r
l
(t

)]
_
n
_
n

l
_

2
201
And in the limit of continuous media, the summation becomes an integral over all space and the
terms q
l

l
become a current,
d
2
I
dd
=

2
4
2
c
3

dt

_
V
d
3
x e
i[t

1
c
n x]
[ n ( n

j)]

2
57.4 Application - Scattering
We can apply these results to scattering phenomena and determine energy ux of the scattered
particles. Consider as an example non-relativistic Thomson Scattering. We have shown that the
energy lost per solid angle can be written as:
dP
d
=
c
4

R

E

2
=
q
2
4c

n
_
n

2
And in the non-relativistic limit,

=

t
. Consider some single polarization of light. The outgoing
eld can then be written as:

E = E
In this case, the energy loss is:
dP
d
=
q
2
4c

_
n
_
n

__

2
=
q
2
4c
3
[

v[
2
Then, the time averaged result would be given by:
_
dP
d
_
=
q
2
8c
3
[

v[
2
Given some incoming electric eld

E
in
, the force on the particle can easily be written as q

E
in
. So,
for a eld of the form:

E
in
=
in
E
in
e
i(

k
in
xt)

v =
q
m
E
in

in
e
i(

k
in
xt)
Plugging this result into the above gives that the time averaged power loss is:
_
dP
d
_
=
_
q
2
mc
2
_
2
c
8
[E
in
[
2
[

in
[
2
It is useful to instead of considering the power loss per unit solid angle, to consider the dierential
cross section. This quantity can be written as:
202
d
d

energy radiated
time solid angle
energy incident
area time
=

dP
d
_

S n
So, plugging in our values from above,
d
d
=
_
q
2
mc
2
_
2
[

in
[
2
If we consider some incident eld with wave vector

k
in
along the z direction, then the polarization
lies in the xy plane. That gives:

in
= a x +b y
The outgoing eld will then have some wave vector making an angle with the z axis and (well
suppose) some angle with the x axis. This means that
out
= in the above will have components
in a plane perpendicular to

k
out
which can be written as:
= c
1
+d
2

1
= z sin + cos ( xcos + y sin)
2
= xsin + y cos
In order to get the dierential cross section, each component of the outgoing wave is considered
and then summed over, while (if there are multiples) the incoming polarizations are averaged. This
results in:
[
in

out
[
2
=
1
2
_
1 + cos
2

_
Which gives the dierential and total cross sections as:
d
d
=
1
2
_
q
2
mc
2
_
2
_
1 + cos
2

_
=
_
d
d
d
=
8
3
_
q
2
mc
2
_
2
This is the familiar Thomson cross section which is the expected result. It can be shown that this
same result holds for the relativistic case.
203
Friday - 4/24
57.5 Back Reaction
Consider a point-like charged particle moving in a electromagnetic eld. As the particle is acceler-
ated, it radiates energy o into the eld. In the case of a static (innitely stable) external eld, the
dynamics of the system are not altered by this radiation. However, in the case that the radiated
energy is of the same order as the energy in the eld, the dynamics will be altered by what is called
the back reaction. Consider the non-relativistic case of energy loss through radiation:
P =
2q
2
3c
3

d v
dt

2
W = Pt
The change in kinetic energy can be written as:
W
kin

= m
_
v
2
_
= m
_
v
t
_
2
t
2
Thus, if the variation of energy is on the scale of:
t

=
2q
2
3mc
3
Then back reaction will alter the dynamics of the system. From this result, one can modify the
Lorenz Equation to include these eects. Consider the Lorenz equation:
m u

= m
du

d
= qF

ext
u

We can add a term (some function f

) to this to account for back reaction. Consider a few

characteristics of such a term:
In the non-relativistic case, we expect to recover
dW
dt
from above. That is:
dW
dt

= mc
du
0
dt
=
2q
2
3mc
3

d v
dt

2
f
0

=
2q
2
3mc
3

d v
dt

2
non relativistic
By contracting the above equation, we nd that:
[m u

= qF

ext
u

] u
mu
= 0 since u

= 0
f

= 0
204
Because we dont want the physics to change or depend on new quantities. The only constants
allowed in the form of this additional term will be q, m, and c.
A form which meets all three above requirements is:
f

( u

) u

Which then gives the modied Lorenz Equation as:

m u

= qF

ext
u

+
2q
2
3
[ u

( u

) u

]
Consider the energy term of this equation:
m u
0
= qF
0
ext
u

+
2q
2
3
_
u
0
( u

) u
0

= qF
0
ext
u

+
2q
2
3
( u)
2
u
0
+m
0
u
0
Where weve dened
0

2q
2
3mc
3
and used the relation u

+ u
2
= 0. The momentum terms can be
written as:
m(

v
0

v) =

F
ext
However, by consider two special cases it becomes clear that this result generates many non-physical
and problematic solutions.
Zero Field Solution
Consider the above for

F
ext
= 0. The solutions lead to:

v =
1

v

v = e
t

0
This gives an innite acceleration for the solution. Clearly this is non-physical.
Integral Solution Form
Consider the integral form:
m

v =
_

0
ds e
s

F
ext
[t +
0
s, x(t +
0
s)]
By expanding in orders of
0
it can be shown that this is a solution of the above since:
m

v =

F
ext
(t, x(t)) +
0
d

F
ext
dt
+. . .
However, this integral for generates problematic solutions for some cases. If a eld is turned
on at a given time, the above becomes:
205
m

v =
_

0
ds e
s

F
0
(t +
0
s)
Making a substitution of the integration variable leads to:
m

v =

F
0
_

0
1

dye

yt

0
(y) =

F
0
e
t

0
This result gives non-zero acceleration before the eld was turned on!
While this section will not be included in tests, homework, etc., the results are important to under-
stand. The theory of classical electromagnetism begins to breakdown at certain limits. This case
of a point-like particle moving with back reaction is one such case.
58 Localized Sources
We spent much of last semester solving electro- and magneto- statics problems. Lets consider the
general case of solving for the

E and

B elds from a localized source. We can begin by writing the
familiar solution:
A

= A

hom
+
4
c
_
d
4
x

D
R
_
x x

_
j

_
x

_
and making the adjustments that A

hom
is zero and now j

is some distribution of charges. From

these assumptions, we can write the general solution for the vector potential as:

A =
4
c
_
d
3
x

_
c dt

j
_
x

, t

_
1
4
1
c

_
t

t +
| x x

|
c
_
[ x x

[
by assuming that

j and therefore also

A have monochromatic time dependence, we can write this
as:

A =
1
c
_
d
3
x

j ( x

)
[ x x

[
e
ik| x x

|
=
1
c
_
d
3
x

( x

)
[ x x

[
e
ik| x x

|
however, because we can compute the elds as:

H =

A

E =
i
k

H
We only need to nd the vector potential of the above.
Monday - 4/27
Weve seen that we can determine the electric and magnetic elds from only knowing the vector
potential,

A which we dened from:
206

A( x) =
1
c
_
d
3
x

j ( x

)
[ x x

[
2
e
ik| x x

|
There is no analytical solution of this for general

j, however by expanding for special values of
the scale of the problem, a few approximations can be determined. Two scales determine the
approximation we take. First, the size of the source d will determine the range of values x

will take
in the integration. Second, the wavelength of the emitted wave will determine the behavior of the
exponential term. Comparing these values to the observers distance from the source [ x x

[ = r,
one can determine three cases which have approximate solutions.
58.1 The Near (Static) Zone
In the case of d r , an approximation of kr 1 is appropriate. In this case we can expand
the vector potential rst as:

A
1
c
_
d
3
x

j ( x

)
[ x x

[
_
1 +kr +
1
2
k
2
r
2
+. . .
_
Keeping only the rst order term, we can then expand the remaining vector term in spherical
harmonics:

A
1
c
_
d
3
x

j ( x

)
[ x x

[
=
1
c
_
d
3
x

j
_
x

l,m
4
2l + 1
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
Y

l,m
() Y
l,m
_

_
58.2 The Intermediate Zone
In the intermediate zone, we have d r . There are no appropriate expansion methods in this
case and most analysis leads to complications. One possible method is to use a WKB type method
to connect the asymptotics of the Near Zone and Far Zone and call those solutions the Intermediate
Zone solution.
58.3 The Far Zone
The Far Zone is dened as d r. In this case the exponential term is not small, and therefore
we expand the
1
| x x

|
term rst. This is done easily by rst writing the approximate form:

x x

r n x

Plugging this in, we nd:

207

A
1
c
_
d
3
x

j ( x)
r
_
1
n x

r
_e
ikr
e
ik n x

=
e
ikr
cr
_
d
3
x

j ( x)
1
n x

r
e
ik n x

58.3.1 Zeroth Order Term

We can now expand in orders of
1
r
and get

A =

A
0
+

A
1
+ . . . and determine the form of the rst
few terms. We can write this rst term as:

A
0
=
e
ikr
cr
_
d
3
x

j ( x) e
ik n x

Next, assuming n x

is small, we can expand:

A
0

e
ikr
cr

l
(ik)
l
l!
_
d
3
x

j
_
x

_ _
n x

_
l
Taking only the l = 0 term,

A
0,0
=
e
ikr
cr
_
d
3
x

j
_
x

_
We saw this integral in magnetostatics and found that it was zero (no magnetic monopoles). Now
that we are not assuming static systems, we can use the same change of form to write:
j
i
= (x
i

j) x
i

j
Then, the i
th
component of the above approximation is written as:
A
(i)
0,0
=
e
ikr
cr
_
d
3
x

j
i
_
x

_
=
e
ikr
cr
_
d
3
x

_
x

j
_
x

The boundary term is zero again. However, since we are no longer dealing with a static case, we
have:

j +

t
= 0
And since we are assuming harmonic dependence, e
it
. This gives:

j i = 0
So, the i
th
component of the vector potential approximation is:
208
A
(i)
0,0
=
i
c
e
ikr
r
_
d
3
x

_
x

_
but this integral is just the electric dipole. Thus:

A
0,0
= ik
e
ikr
r
p
The resulting elds are dened as:

H =

A =
k
2
e
ikr
r
_
1
1
ikr
_
n p

E =
i
k

H = k
2
( n p) n
e
ikr
r
+ [3 n( n p) p]
_
1
r
3

ik
r
2
_
e
ikr
Considering the power emitted, only the terms of order
1
r
are relevant. This leaves:

H
rad
=
k
2
r
e
ikr
( n p)

E
rad
=
k
2
r
e
ikr
( n p) n =

H
rad
n
Then, the time averaged power emitted per solid angle and the total power emitted are:
_
dP
d
_
time
=
c
8
k
4
[( n p) n[
2
=
c
8
k
4
[ p[
2
sin
2

P)
time
=
ck
4
3
[ p[
2
Note two important characteristics of this result. First, at observation angle = 0, there is no
radiation emitted. Second, the radiated energy is polarized to n and p. Lets consider an example
of this result in a dipole antenna.
58.3.2 Example - Dipole Antenna
If we have an antenna of length d with cross-sectional area A carrying current I(z)e
P
it =
I
0
_
1
2|z|
d
_
e
it
, then the current in the antenna has the form:

j =
I(z)e
it
A
=
I
0
A
_
1 2
[z[
d
_
e
it
z
Plugging this result into the continuity equation,
209

j =

t
=
1
i

z
j
z
=
2i
d
I
0
A
z
[z[
Plugging this into the integral form above:
p =
_
d
3
x

_
x

_
=
1
A
_
dxdy
_
dz
2i
d
I
0
z
[z[
p
x
= 0, p
y
= 0, p
z
=
iI
0
d
2
Plugging in:
_
dP
d
_
time
=
c
8
k
4
I
2
0
d
2
4
4
sin
2

P)
time
=
ck
4
3
I
2
0
d
2
4
4
=
I
2
0
(kd)
2
12c
210
Wednesday - 4/29
58.3.3 First Order Term
Taking the second order terms of our vector potential

A
e
ikr
cr
_
d
3
x

j ( x)
1
n x

r
e
ik n x

A
1
=
1
c
e
ikr
r
_
1
r
ik
_ _
d
3
x

j
_
x

_ _
n x

_
The vector term in the integral can be expressed alternately as:
_
x

j
_
n =
_
x

n
_

j
_
x

j
_
n
This allows us to write this rst order term as:

A
1
=
1
c
e
ikr
r
_
1
r
ik
_ _
d
3
x

_
1
2
_
x

j
_
x

__
n +
1
2
__
x

j
_
x

__
n +
_
x

n
_

j
_
x

_
_
Recalling the denition m
1
2
_
d
3
x

[ x

j ( x

)], and simplifying the remaining terms with the

relation previously used in the zeroth order analysis, we can write this as:

A
1
( x)
ik
r
_
1
1
ikr
__
n m
ick
2
_
d
3
x

_
n x

_
x

_
_
From this result we can compute the elds

E
1
and

H
1
. Taking only the rst term in the integral,
this gives:

E
(1)
1
=
k
2
c
( n m)
e
ikr
r
_
1
1
ikr
_

H
(1)
1
=
1
c
_
k
2
( n m) n
e
ikr
r
+e
ikr
[3 n( n m) m]
_
1
r
3

ik
r
__
note that if only the rst order terms are considered (that is, the radiation terms), this result gives
the same form as the zeroth order elds only with p m and an additional factor of
1
c
. The second
term gives Addison contributions which can be written as:

H
(2)
1
=
ik
3
6
e
ikr
r
n

Q

Q = Q

, = 1, 2, 3
Q

= Q

_
3
_
x

r
2

,
_
( x) d
3
x
211
Using this, we nd that the power contribution can be written as:
_
d
d
_
=
k
6
c
288

_
n

Q
_
n

2
From the above results we can summarize the behavior of the rst order term in the expansion by
its dependence on the magnetic dipole and the electric quadrupole.
58.3.4 Second Order and Higher Contributions
Without any further analytical work, we can immediately claim that the second order term will be
dependent on the magnetic quadrupole and the electric octopole. The higher order terms continue
this behavior. However, to get the radiation eld, only the zeroth and rst order results are of
interest in most cases.
59 Scattering
Consider some incident wave dened as:

E
in
=
0
E
0
e
it+i

k n
0
H
in
= n
0

E
in
The scattered eld can then be written as:

E
sc
=
k
2
r
e
ikrit
_
( n p) n
1
c
n m
_

H
sc
= n

E
sc
Where p and m are the electric and magnetic dipole moments of the scattering body respectively.
From these denitions we can dene the dierential cross-section of the scatterer.
d
d

Energy Scattered/Time/Solid Angle
Energy Incident/Time/Area
=

S
sc

2
r
2

S
in

2
Plugging in elds from above gives the incident and scattered Poynting vectors.
d
d
=
c
8
k
4

_
( n p) n
1
c
n m

2
c
8

E
in

2
And noting that n = 0 this simplies to:
d
d
=
k
4
E
2
0

p + ( n

)
1
c
m

2
212
Note that if we recall that k =

c
this is Rayleighs Law since for increasing the scattering cross
section gets larger.
59.0.5 Example - Dielectric Sphere
A simple example using this result can be made using a dielectric sphere of radius a. Recall that
for such a sphere in a uniform electric eld:
p =
1
+ 2
a
3

E
in
m = 0
Plugging this into the above immediately gives the scattering cross section as:
d
d
= k
4
a
6

1
+ 2

2
[

0
[
2
If we again average on the incident polarizations and sum over the scattered polarizations, this
gives:
d
d
= k
4
a
6

1
+ 2

2
1
2
_
1 + cos
2

_
59.0.6 Generalization for Multiple Scatterers
Consider a system made up of several scattering bodies. We can transform our result to account
for this by writing:
d
d
=
k
4
E
2
0

p
i
+ ( n

)
1
c
m
i
_
e
i q
i
x
i

2
Where weve introduced the notation of:
q
i
= k n
0
k n x = scatterer position
Also, we can separate terms for each polarization (instead of summing over outgoing polarizations)
and get the polarization of the outgoing eld:
=
d
d

d
d

d
d

+
d
d

For the dielectric sphere example above, this result is:

213
() =
sin
2

1 + cos
2

Friday - 5/1
59.1 Oscillating Scatterers
Consider some particle bound in a simple harmonic oscillator potential with an electromagnetic
eld incident on it. If we can determine the dipole moment p for this oscillating particle, we can
determine the scattering from it as well. The motion can be described as:

F = m
2
0
x +e

E
in

x +

x +
2
0
x =
e
m

E
in
If we assume harmonic behavior, then x(t) e
it
and the equation of motion gives:
x(t) =
e
m

in
e
it

2
0

2
i
Where weve separated the incident eld as

E
in
=

E

in
e
it
. We can then get the dipole moment as:
p =
_
d
3
x

_
x

_
x

=
_
d
3
x

e
_
x x

_
x

= e x(t)
So, plugging in our result from above:
p =
e
2
m

in
e
it

2
0

2
i
Then, plugging this into the equation for the dierential cross section (and noting that [

in
[ = E
0
),
d
d
=
k
4
e
4
m
2

2
0

2
i

2
[

0
[
So, this can be alternately written as:
d
d
=
_
e
2
mc
2
_
2

4
_

2
0

2
_
2
+
2

2
1
2
_
1 + cos
2

_
214
And integrating to get the whole cross section,
=
8
3
_
e
2
mc
2
_
2

4
_

2
0

2
_
2
+
2

2
59.2 Scattering In A Medium - Diraction
Consider electromagnetic waves incident on a medium. In this case, it would be possible to use
the summation of all the scattering bodies, but the number of terms would be very large. Instead,
we can make what is known as the Born Approximation. However, well rst need to set up the
problem. Recall Maxwells Equations in a medium:

B = 0

D = 0

E =
1
c

B
t


H =
1
c

D
t
So, we can then combine these to build an equation for

D as:

D = 0
_

D
_
+
2

D = 0
1
c

t
_

H =
1
c

D
t
_

1
c

H
t
=
1
c
2

2

D
t
2
Combining these results gives:
_

1
c
2

2
t
2
_

D =
_

D
_

1
c

H
t
The last term can be expanded as:

D =
_

D
_

1
c

t
_

H

B
_

1
c

B
t
And using Maxwells Equations,

D =
_

D
_

1
c

t
_

H

B
_
+
_

E
_
Collecting terms, this gives:

D =
_

E

D
_

1
c

t
_

H

B
_
215
The righthand side is like a diraction source since the case of

E =

D and

H =

B it vanishes and
we are left with

E = 0. Next, if we assume that the source is monochromatic, we can write this

as:
_

2
+k
2
0

D =

j
diff

j
diff
=
_

E

D
_
+ik
0

H

B
_
And then, we can simply write this as we have previously done for elds with sources,

D =

D
incident

1
4
_
d
3
x

j
diff
_
x

_
e
ik| x x

|
[ x x

[
Where weve taken only the homogeneous solutions which correspond to an incident plane wave and
the Greens Function term is the outgoing scattered wave. In the limit of [ x x

[ /gg1, this can be

approximated as:

D =

D
in

1
4
e
ikr
r

A
sc

A
sc

_
d
3
x

j
diff
_
x

_
e
ik n x

+. . .
_
This can be evaluated by integrating by parts. The terms are similar in structure, so well work out
one in detail.
_
d
3
x

e
ik n x

H

B
_
=
_
d
3
x

_
e
ik n x

H

B
_
_
+ike
i

k x

B

H
_
_
The boundary terms can be dropped since we assume

E =

D and

B =

H at large distances from
the scatterer. This gives the result of:

A
sc
=
k
2
4
_
d
3
x

e
ik n x

__
n
_

D

E
_
n n
_

B

H
__
The cross section is then:
d
d
=

A
sc

D
in

2
This is the point where the Born Approximation is used. Consider if the material in the scatterer
can be described by some small and . In this case, we can write the elds in the medium as:

D =

E
in
+

E
in

B =

H
in
+

H
in
Then, the scattering cross section simplies to:
_
d
d
_
Born
=
_
k
2
4
_
2

_
d
3
x

e
i q x

[()

0
+ () ( n

) ( n
0
)]

2
216
If we recall that the magnetic dipole contribution is scaled by
1
c
then we can neglect it and nd
that the approximate dierential cross section is:
_
d
d
_
Born

=
_
k
2
4
_
2

_
d
3
x

e
i q x

[()

0
]

2
For a spherical scattering body of radius a, this can be approximated as:
_
d
d
_
Born

=
k
4
6q
[[
2
[

0
[
2
sin(qa) qacos (qa)
2
And in the limit of q 0 (that is, k k

), this reduces to:

_
d
d
_
Born,q0

= k
4
a
6

2
[

0
[
2
217
Part VI
Summary of Semester I
Friday - 11/21
Maxwell Equations in vacuum:

E =

0
;

B = 0

E +


B
t
= 0;

B =
0

j +
1
c
2

E
t

t
+

j = 0;

F = q
_

E + v

B
_
Transition to Media:

D =

D(

E,

B);

H =

H(

E,

B)
If the media is linear then these can be written in terms of matrices. In the case that the medium
is linear and isotropic (at least piecewise) then the above reduce to:

D =

E;

H =
1

B
And, in the medium, the Maxwell equations are:

D =

B = 0

E +


B
t
= 0

H =

j +


D
t
Polarization and Magnetization:

D =
0

e

P;

P =
0

e

E =
0
(1 +
e
)

H =
1

B

M;

B =
0

M

M =
0
(1 +
M
)
Boundary Conditions:
_

D
2

D
1
_
n =
_

B
2

B
1
_
n = 0
_

E
2

E
1
_
n = 0
_

H
2

H
1
_
n =

K
218
Energy Density w and Energy Flux (Poynting Vector) s:
w =
1
2
_

D

E +

H

B
_
s =

E

H
60 Electrostatics
60.1 Equations
Assume


E
t
=


B
t
= 0 and resulting equation(s) to solve are:

E =
2
=

0
If there is a medium which is isotropic and is at least piecewise constant, then the above becomes:

D =

E =
2
=

Solution of the above: Greens Formula

( x) =
1
4
0
_
V
( x

)G( x x

)d
3
x

+
1
4
_
V
_
G( x x

n
( x

)
G
n
_
d
2
x

Use reference pages for Greens Function forms.

Energy:
Self Energy:
w =
1
2
( x)( x)
Energy of distribution in external potential:
w = ( x)
ext
( x)
In both cases, the total energy is simply the integral over all space:
W =
_
V
d
3
xw( x)
219
60.2 Methods for Working Problems
NO CHARGES:
1) 2-D Solutions from Complex Plane
F(z) = U(x, y) +iV (x, y)
Solutions U(x, y) = c and V (x, y) = c

are solutions of Poissons Equation. But there is no way to

tell what geometry will result from a given function F(z).
2) 2-D and 3-D Solutions via Series Expansion
Expansions for the potential are listed on Reference Pages
SYSTEM WITH CHARGES:
For exact solutions, use Greens Formula Solution or Method of Images
For approximate solutions, use Multipole expansion methods.
ELECTROSTATICS IN MEDIA:
Boundary conditions gives relations for potential in dierent media
Polarization induce between materials with dierent values:

induced
=
_

P
2

P
1
_
n[
V
=

P
61 Magnetostatics
61.1 Equations
Assume


E
t
=


B
t
= 0 and resulting equation(s) for magnetostatics are:

B = 0;

B =
0

j
or in a medium:

B = 0;

H =

j
Where for linear materials

B =
0
_

M +

H
_
and for paramagnetics and diamagnetics specically

B =

H. The resulting equations to solve depend on the problem given.
61.2 Methods for Working Problems
The rst equation above gives the result that

B can be written as the vector potential

A where

B =

A and choosing the gauge in which

A = 0, we are left with the equation
2

A =
0

j.
220
The solution for this problem is:

A( x) =

0
4
_
V
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ x x

[
+

A
Hom.
Where the additional solution is that of the homogeneous problem. In the case of localized current
densities, this term can be neglected. The method above works well for problems with a given

j.
However, if a problem gives

j = 0 in some region, then the equations above reduce to:

H = 0

H =
M
;
2

M
= 0
Lastly, in the case that a region contains no current density, but some magnetization

M then we
can refer to the denition above to write the equations:

B =
0
_

M +

H
_
;

H =
M

2

M
=

M
Taking into account boundary terms as well, this becomes:

M
( x) =
1
4
_
V
d
3
x

M( x

)
[ x x

[
+
1
4
_
V
d
2
x

n

M( x

)
[ x x

[
If we instead want to merely approximate the eld at some point, we can use the multipole expansion
we derived previously, The leading order term is m, the magnetic dipole contribution. We have
dened it to be:
m =
1
2
_
d
3
x

j( x

)
[ m[ = I A
Where the magnitude is proportional to the current times the area of the distribution. We can then
write the approximation for the vector potential and the magnetic scalar potential as:

M
=
m x
[ x[
3
+. . .

A =

0
4
m x
[ x[
3
Lastly, there are several useful relations which are necessary for working some problems:
Amperes Law:
_
S

B d

l =
0
I;
_
S

H d

l = I
221
Biot-Savart Law:
d

B =

0
4
I
d

l r
[ r[
3
And Faradays Law:
=
d
dt
222
Part VII
Summary of Semester II
62 Special Relativity
The transform between inertia frames can be generalized as:
t

=
_
t
1
c

x
_
x

= x +
1

2
_

x
_

ct
In the case that

is directed only along a single axis (lets say x), then this simplies to:
ct

= (ct x)
x

= (x ct)
y

= y z

= z
The invariant line element is dened as:
c
2
d
2
= c
2
dt
2
[d x[
2
= c
2
dt
2

d x

2
An object moving with velocity u in a frame described by is seen as having velocity u

:
u

=
u c
1
beta
c
u
63 Tensors and Lorentz Invariant Forms
In tensor notation, we dened:

_
1
c

t
,
_

_
1
c

t
,
_
A

_
,

A
_
j

(c,

j)
F

F
0i
= E
i
F
ij
=
ijk
B
k
223
Which lead to the tensor equations:

=
4
c
j

=
4
c
j

Using the Lorentz transform from the special relativity section, we derived the transformations of
the electric and magnetic elds:

=
_

E +



B
_

2
+ 1
_

E
_

=
_

B



E
_

2
+ 1
_

B
_

64 Hamiltonian Dynamics in Electromagnetism

We dened the tensors:
u

_
c
dt
d
,
d x
d
_
= (c, u)
p

_
1
c
E, p
_
= (mc, m v) = mu

Using these tensor forms, the equation of motion for a charged particle in an electromagnetic eld
was written:
d
d
p

=
q
c
F

_
_
_
dE
kin
dt
= e

E v
d p
dt
= e

E +
e
c
v

H
_
_
_
With,
E
2
= c
2
[ p[
2
+m
2
c
4
p = m v E
kin
= mc
2
v =
pc
2
E
kin
The relativistic doppler shift was determined by introducing k

_
,

k
_
,

obs

emit
=
1

1
1 cos
The Stress-Energy tensor was derived using Noethers Theorem:
224
d
dt
_
L
q
q +Lt f(q(t), t)
_
= 0
in the case of elds, this becomes:

= 0 j

=

(

i
)

i
+ x

Which generates the Stress Energy tensor:

T

=

(

)
(

) + g

=
1
4
F

+
1
16
g

65 Special Cases
65.1 Plane Waves
Under the assumption that the generated plane waves are monochromatic, Maxwells Equations
allow solutions of:

E =

E
c
e
i(ct

kc x)

B =

B
c
e
i(ct

kc x)

B
c
=
c

k
c

E
c
The polarization of the electric component can be written as:

E =

E
c
_

1
e
i(ct

kc x)
+
2
Re
i(ct

kc x)
_
Two general cases are known:
Circular Polarization - When R = 1 and =

2
the electric and magnetic components oscillate
around each other.
Linear Polarization - when R = 1 and = 0 the components are separated.
For propagation through media, the following changes are made:
c v =
c

E B
1

B
0
=
c

k

E
0

n

E
0
with =
kc

The energy in a plane wave can be determined by the Poynting vector,

225

S = Re
_
c
8

E

B

_
=
c
8

2
n ( n along

k)
And in media,

S =
c
8
_

2
n
For boundaries between materials with dierent refractive indices n =
c
v
=

, denoting the
incident quantities i, reected quantities R, and refracted quantities r.

i
=
R
n
1
sin
i
= n
2
sin
r

B
= arctan
_
n
2
n
1
_

E
r
= 0
i0
= arcsin
_
n
2
n
1
_

E
r
= 0
And in general for propagation perpendicular and parallel to the plane of incidence,
_
E

0
E
0
_

=
2n
1
cos
i
n
1
cos
i
+n
2

2
cos
r
= Transmitted Field
_
E

0
E
0
_

=
n
1
cos
i
n
2

2
cos
r
n
1
cos
i
+n
2

2
cos
r
= Reflected Field
_
E

0
E
0
_

=
2n
1
n
2
cos
i

2
n
2
2
cos
i
+n
1
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2

i
= Transmitted Field
_
E

0
E
0
_

2
n
2
2
cos
i
n
1
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2

2
n
2
2
cos
i
+n
1
_
n
2
2
n
2
1
sin
2

i
= Reflected Field
For wave packets, as long as (k) (k
0
) +
d
dk
[
k
0
(k k
0
) +. . . is a valid approximation, the group
velocity and modulation envelope are given by:
v
g
=
d
dk
[
k
0
[A

(x, t)[ =

_
x
d
dk
[
k
0
t, 0
_

Alternately, since (k) =

ck
n(k)
,
v
g
=
d
dk
[
k
0
=
c
n() +
dn
d
It is possible to model the refractive index as a summation of harmonic oscillators (f
l
of which have
=
l
), this gives:
226
n() =
_
() () = 1 +
4Ne
2
m

l
f
l

2
l

2
i
l
For conductors this can be separated for bound electrons and free electrons:

cond
=
b
+
4iNe
2
m
f
0
(
0
i)
and for plasmas, >>
1
and >>
l
, so we can approximate the above as:

plasma
1

2
p

2

p

Ne
2
Z
m
Lastly, the Kramer Kronig relations give the real and imaginary parts of in terms of the other,
Re (()) = 1 +
2

P
_

Im((

))

2
Im(()) =
2

P
_

Re ((

)) 1

2
65.2 Geometric Optics and Wave Guides
For geometric optics, the propagation is described by:
_

n( x)
c
2

2
t
2
_
A

( x, t) = 0
And we make the assumption that:
A

( x, t) =
_

( x)e
ik
0
S( x)
_
e
it
This results in a generalization of Snells Law:
n( x) =
d
ds
_
n( x)
d r
ds
_
We also derived Fermats Principle that for any generic curve , the relation:
t
S
t

is true. This means that the ray paths dened here are dened by curves with the smallest proper
time between points. The paths are dened by:
227
z(x) =
_
x
0
n
max

n
2
x

n
max
2
dx

Travel time is then:

T =
2
c
_
xmax
0
n
2
(x)

n
2
x

n
max
2
dx

For waveguides, we found that:

TM MODES:
H
z
= 0 E
z
=
E
e
ikz

E
T
=
ik

E
Boundary Conditions:

E
[
V
T
= 0

n
E
z
[
Vz
=

E
T
[
Vz
= 0
Resulting eld for cavity of length d:
E
z
=
E
(x, y) cos
_
p
d
z
_
p = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .
TE MODES:
H
z
=
H
e
ikz
E
z
= 0

H
T
=
ik

H
Boundary Condition:

H
[
V
T
= 0 H
z
[
Vz
= 0
Resulting eld for cavity of length d:
H
z
=
H
(x, y) sin
_
p
d
z
_
p = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .
Where weve introduced the notation of V
T
as the boundary along the wave guide and V
z
for the
boundary on the end caps if the waveguide is turned into a cavity. The connection relations remain
the same:
_

T
2
+
2
_

E,H
= 0

H
T
=
4
cZ

z

E
z

2
=

2
c
k
2
=

2
c

p
2

2
d
2
65.3 Solutions with Sources (Radiation)
Solving Maxwells Equations with sources, we found:
j

= qc
_
du

()
(4)
_
x x

()
_
A

(x) =
q
c
_
u

R
_
1 n

_
_
=
0
228
F

=
q
u(x r)
_

_
(x r)

(x r)

u(x r)
__
=
0
Where the results are evaluated at the retarded time
0
. Taking only the
1
R
terms which contribute
to radiation,

E
rad
=
q
c
_
_
n
_
_
n

_
R
_
1 n

_
3
_
_

B
rad
= n

E
rad
And in the non-relativistic case, we can make the simplication,

E
rad

q
c
2
n ( n a)
R

B
rad
= n

E
rad
Using these results, we get the power radiated away per solid angle by a moving particle. In the
non-relativistic limit, Larmors Formula is found:
dP
d

q
2
4c
3
[ a[
2
sin
2
P =
2q
2
3c
3
[ a[
2
In general, the power radiated is:
P =
2q
2
3c

6
_
_
d

dt
_
2

dt
_
2
_

0
For specic motions:
Linear P =
2q
2
3c
3

6
a
2
Circular P =
2q
2
c
3R
2

4

4
Further, we found the radiated power per unit frequency and solid angle for moving point charges
or a given current,
d
2
I
dd
=
q
2

2
4
2
c

dt

e
i[t

1
c
n r(t

)]
_
n
_
n

2
=

2
4
2
c
3

dt

_
V
d
3
x e
i[t

1
c
n x]
[ n ( n

j)]

2
We then determined that the scattering cross section of an object could be written as:
d
d
=

dP
d
_

S n
=
_
q
2
mc
2
_
2
[

in
[
2
=
1
2
_
q
2
mc
2
_
2
_
1 + cos
2

_
229
=
8
3
_
q
2
mc
2
_
2
For localized sources, we determined solutions to the vector potential in the near and far eld:

A
near

1
c
_
d
3
x

j
_
x

l,m
4
2l + 1
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
Y

l,m
(, ) Y
l,m
_

_
In the far eld, we considered only the radiation terms:

E
far
=
k
2
r
e
ikr
_
( n p) n
1
c
( n m)
_
+O
_
1
r
2
_

H
far
= n

E
far
because of the factor of
1
c
, the main contribution to the radiated eld is the dipole moment of the
source.
Lastly, we can use this result to get some general forms for scattering cross sections. Consider the
incident and scattered elds:

E
in
=
0
E
0
e
iti

k
0
n
0
H
in
= n
0

E
in

E
sc
=
k
2
r
e
ikr
_
( n p) n
1
c
( n m)
_

E
sc
= n

E
sc
The dierential cross section is then given by:
d
d
=

S
sc

2
r
2

S
in

2
=
k
4
E
0

p +
1
c
( n

) m

2
230
Part VIII
Greens Functions and Reference Equations
66 Greens Functions for Nabla Squared
66.1 Free Space Greens Functions
G( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

[
For azimuthal symmetry:
1
[ x x

[
=

l=0
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
P
l
(cos )P
l
(cos

)
And in general:
1
[ x x

[
=

l=0
l

m=l
4
2l + 1
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
Y

l,m
(

)Y
l,m
(, )
1
[ x x

[
=
2

m=
_

0
dk e
im(

)
cos
_
k
_
z z

_
I
m
(k
<
) K
m
(k
>
)
66.2 Unique Geometries
Conducting Plane (located at z = 0):
G
D
( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

[

1
[ x x

[
x

= (x

, y

, z

); x

= (x

, y

, z

)
Conducting Sphere (of radius a):
G
D
( x
>
, x
<
) =
1
[ x
>
x
<
[

a
[ x
<
[
1
[ x
>

a
2
| x<|
2
x
<
[
Expansion form:
G
D
( x,

x

) = 4

l=0
l

m=l
1
2l + 1
_
r
l
<
r
l+1
>
_
1
1
a
_
a
2
r
>
r
<
_
l+1
__
Y

lm
(

)Y
lm
(, )
G
D
n
[
x a
=
1
a
a
2
x
2
(a
2
+x
2
2ax

cos())
3/2
=
1
a
2
1
x
2
a
2
_
1 +
x
2
a
2
2
x

a
cos()
_
3/2
231
G
D
n

[
x

a
=
1
a
x
2
a
2
(x
2
+a
2
2axcos())
3/2
=
1
ax
1
a
2
x
2
_
1 +
a
2
x
2
2
a
x
cos()
_
3/2
Conducting concentric spheres of radii a and b (a r b )
G
D
(r, , , r

) = 4

l=0
l

m=l
Y

lm
(

)Y
lm
(, )
(2l + 1)
_
1
_
a
b
_
2l+1
_
_
r
l
<

a
2l+1
r
l+1
<
__
1
r
l+1
>

r
l
>
b
2l+1
_
Conducting Plane With Hemisphere Bulge of Radius a
G
D
( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

[

1
[ x x

[

a
[ x

[
1
[ x
a
2
| x

|
2
x

[
+
a
[ x

[
1
[ x
a
2
| x

|
2
x

[
x

= (x

, y

, z

); x

= (x

, y

, z

)
L-Shaped Wedge Along x > 0 and y > 0 from z = 0 to .
G
D
( x, x

) =
1
[ x x

0
[

1
[ x x

1
[

1
[ x x

2
[
+
1
[ x x

3
[
x

0
= (x

, y

, z

); x

1
= (x

, y

, z

); x

2
= (x

, y

, z

); x

3
= (x

, y

, z

)
Parallel Conducting Plates at z = 0 and z = a
G
D
( x, x

) =

n=
1
[ x x

n
[

1
[ x x

n
[
x

n
= (x

, y

, 2an +z

); x

n
= (x

, y

, 2an z

)
67 Greens Function for the Helmholtz Operator
_

2
k
2
_
G
_
x, x

_
=
e
ik| x x

|
[ x x

[
232
68 Expansions
Given on some surface V :
(x, y, z) =
_

d
3
k A(k
1
, k
2
, k
3
)e
ik
1
x
e
ik
2
y
e
ik
3
z
(r, ) =

l=0
_
A
l
r
l
+B
l
r
(l+1)
_
P
l
(cos )
(r, , ) =

l=0
l

m=l
_
A
l,m
r
l
+B
l,m
r
(l+1)
_
Y
l,m
(, )
(, , z) =

n=0
_
dk (A
n
(k)J
n
(k) +B
n
(k)Y
n
(k))
_
C
n
(k)e
in
+D
n
(k)e
in
_
_
E(k)e
kz
+F(k)e
kz
_
233
Part IX
Homework Assignments (Problems only)
69 Semester 1
69.1 Homework 1
69.1.1 Problem 1
Using the denition of the Dirac Delta function, prove the following properties:
(x) = (x) x (x) = 0
[y(x)] =

i
(x x
i
)
_
dy
dx
_
1
x=xi
where y(x
i
) = 0
69.1.2 Problem 2
Show that the one dimensional integral representation of the Dirac Delta function given by:
(x) =
1
2
_

dke
ikx
can be written as the distribution lim
n
nG(x) where G(x) = e
x
2
.
69.1.3 Problem 3
Using Dirac delta functions in the appropriate coordinates, express the following charge distributions as three
dimensional charge densities ( x).
1. Total charge Q distributed evenly over a spherical shell of radius R.
2. Charge of per unit length distributed over an innitely long cylindrical shell of radius R.
3. Total charge Q distributed evenly over a disc of radius R and negligible thickness.
4. Square loop with negligible radius, side length L and total charge Q.
234
69.2 Homework 2
69.2.1 Problem 1
The Greens function in two dimensions is dened by the equation:

G( x, x

) = 2
(2)
( x x

)
Where

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
.
1. Find the Greens function G( x, x

).
2. Using the result of part (a), write the solution of the Poisson Equation
2
=
1
0
( x) in two
dimensions with no boundary conditions.
69.2.2 Problem 2
Show by derivation (not by substitution!) that the Greens Function for the one-dimensional operator
L =
_
d
2
dx
2
+k
2
_
, LG(x, x

) = (x x

)
with boundary conditions G(0, x

) =
dG
dx
(1, x

) = 0 is:
G(x, x

) =
sin(kx) cos [k (1 x

)]
k cos k
(x

x)
sin(kx

) cos [k (1 x)]
k cos k
(x x

)
69.2.3 Problem 3
Show that for a region V bounded by conductors (not necessarily grounded), the following relation holds:
_
V
[
1

1
] dV =

n
[Q
2
V
1
Q
1
V
2
]
n
where Q and V represent the net charge and voltage on each conductor, the sum is then over all conductors
and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to tow dierent cases of charge distribution and the resulting potential
with the same geometry for the conductors. Use the above result to prove that the potential of a neutral
conducting sphere of radius a due to a point charge at a distance d > a is V =
q
d
.
235
69.3 Homework 3
69.3.1 Problem 1
Show that the potential outside of a sphere with radius a with two conducting hemispheres held at constant
potential V
0
and separated by a thing insulating ring can be written as:
(r, , ) =
3V
0
a
2
2r
2
_
cos
7a
2
12r
2
_
5
2
cos
3

3
2
cos
_
+. . .
_
for r >> a and is the angle between the positive pole and the observation point.
69.3.2 Problem 2
Using the method of images, discuss the problem of a point charge q inside a thin hollow grounded sphere of
radius a. Determine:
1. The potential inside and outside the sphere.
2. the induced surface charge density and the total induced charge.
3. the magnitude and directions of the force acting on the point charge.
69.3.3 Problem 3
The insulating oor of a laboratory is covered with thin at circular metal tiles of radius a, held at nite
potential. Assume that the surface of the laboratory is much larger than any measuring device.
1. Write the appropriate Green Function for the lab.
2. If a tile is held at constant potential = V
0
, while all others are grounded, use an integral expression
to write the potential at a generic point in the lab.
3. Show that along the axis of the tile,
(z) = V
0
_
1
z

a
2
z
2
_
4. Show that at large distances (
2
+z
2
>> a
2
), the potential is approximately:

V
0
a
2
2
z
(
2
+z
2
)
3
2
_
1
3a
2
4 (
2
+z
2
)
+
5
_
3
2
a
2
+a
4
_
8 (
2
+z
2
)
2
+. . .
_
236
69.4 Homework 4
69.4.1 Problem 1
A grounded conductor has the shape of an innite plane except for a hemispherical bulge of radius a. If a
charge q is placed above the center of the bulge at a distance d(> a) above the plane.
1. Find the potential in the region above the conductor.
2. Find the total induced charge on the conductor.
3. nd the Dirichlet Greens function.
69.4.2 Problem 2
A charge q is placed near the inner corner of a grounded, semi-innite L-shaped conductor a distance d from
both arms.
1. Determine the potential in the region containing the point charge.
2. Determine the Dirichlet Greens Function.
3. Determine the potential in the outer region if the conductor is held at constant potential V
0
.
69.4.3 Problem 3
Consider a pair of innitely long parallel-plate conductors separated by a distance a. If a point charge is
placed a distance a from the top plate (a d from the bottom plate):
1. Using the method of images, compute the potential generated by this conguration.
2. Write the Dirichlet Greens function.
3. Compute the induced surface charge distribution.
237
69.5 Homework 5
69.5.1 Problem 1
A sphere of radius a has a charge uniformly distributed over its surface with charge density Q
_
4a
2
_
1
,
except for a spherical cap at the north pole dened by the cone = . This cone is kept at zero potential.
Show that the potential outside the sphere is:
(r, ) =
Q
8
0
a

l=0
P
l+1
(cos ) P
l1
(cos )
2l + 1
_
a
r
_
l+1
P
l
(cos )
Where P
1
(cos ) is dened to be equal to 1. Discuss the limiting form of the potential as the cap becomes
very large or very small.
Hint: The relation (2l + 1) P
l
(x) = P

l+1
(x) P

l1
(x) is necessary to solve this problem.
69.5.2 Problem 2
A thin at conducting disc of radius a is maintained at constant potential V
0
. If the surface charge density
is proportional to
_
a
2

2
_

1
2
,
1. Show that the potential for r > a is:
=
2V a
r

l=0
(1)
l
2l + 1
_
a
r
_
2l
P
2l
(cos )
2. Find the potential for r < a.
3. Find the capacitance of the disc.
69.5.3 Problem 3
A at conducting ring of innitesimal thickness, inner radius a, and outer radius b is uniformly charged with
total charge Q.
1. Write the 3-dimensional charge distribution density in cylindrical coordinates.
2. Find the potential inside the ring.
238
69.6 Homework 6
69.6.1 Problem 1
Show that the Greens Function for a at 2-dimensional circular wedge of angle and radius a is:
G(,

, ,

) =

n=1
4
n

+

_

+
a
_n

_
sin
_
n

_
sin
_
n

_
69.6.2 Problem 2
A hollow thin cylinder of length L and radius a has the end faces kept at zero potential. The potentials on
the other surface is described by (a, , z) = V (, z). Using the cylindrical coordinates with the end faces at
z = 0, L, determine the series solution for the potential inside. How does this series simplify for a constant
potential V (, z) = V
0
?
69.6.3 Problem 3
An innite thin at sheet of conducting material has a circular thing cut of radius a. The part of the
conducting sheet inside the cut is kept at constant potential V
0
, while the sheet outside the cut is grounded
(zero potential).
1. Show that the potential at any point above the sheet is:
(, , z) =
_

0
dk e
kz
_
1
2
B
0
J
0
(k) +

n=1
J
n
(k) (A
n
(k) sin(n) +B
n
(k) cos (n))
_
where,
_
A
n
(k)
B
n
(k)
_
=
kV
0

_

0
d
_
2
0
dJ
n
(k)
_
sin(n)
cos(n)
_
2. Using the limit 0 of this result, nd the potential along the axis of the inner part of the sheet.
3. Show that the potential above the cut is:
(, z) = V a
_

0
dk e
kz
J
0
(ka) J
1
(ka)
239
69.7 Homework 7
69.7.1 Problem 1
A nucleus with quadrupole moment Q is placed in external electric eld

E = (E
x
, E
y
, E
z
). Show that the
quadrupole contribution to the energy is:
W
(4)
=
e
4
Q[
z
E
z
]
x=0
(For notations, see discussion in Jackson Section 4.2)
69.7.2 Problem 2
Write the multipole expansion for the three dimensional localized charge distribution:
( x) =
1
64
r
2
e
r
sin
how many non-vanishing multipoles does the expansion have? Find the exact potential outside the charge
distribution.
69.7.3 Problem 3
Compute the multipole momenta and the potential multipole expansion for an axial molecule H O H,
where the distance between H and O is a = 0.95718

A, and H and O are modeled by point charges [e[ and

2[e[ respectively. (note: this is not the correct description of the water molecule. In reality, the molecule is
not axial, but makes an angle of 104.474
o
)
240
69.8 Homework 8
69.8.1 Problem 1
Two concentric spheres of radii a and b carry charge Q and +Q respectively. Half of the cavity between
the spheres is lled with a dielectric material with dielectric constant . Find:
1. The electric eld between the spheres.
2. The surface charge distribution on the outer surface of the inner sphere.
3. The polarization charge density induced on the surface of the dielectric at r = a.
69.8.2 Problem 2 - Jackson 4.8 parts (a) and (c)
A long, right cylindrical shell of dielectric has constant

0
and inner and outer radii a and b. The medium
outside the dielectric has

0
= 1. If the cylinder is placed in an external uniform electric eld perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder.
a) Determine and

E in all three regions.
c) Discuss the limiting cases of a 0 and b .
69.8.3 Problem 3
Consider a at face dielectric with a point charge q at a distance d from the face.
1. Find the polarization charge density and total charge on the face.
2. Find the force exerted on the dielectric by the point charge.
241
69.9 Homework 9
69.9.1 Problem 1
Show that the magnetic induction

B on the axis of a circular solenoid of length L, radius a, carrying a
righthanded current I is:
B
z
=

0
nI
2
_
_
_
_
1
_
1 +
a
2
z
2
+
1
_
1 +
_
a
Lz
_
2
_
_
_
_
Where n >> 1 is the number of turns per unit length.
69.9.2 Problem 2
A spherical conducting shell of radius a and surface charge rotates with constant angular velocity =
(0, 0, ). Compute the magnetic induction of the eld

B inside and outside the spherical shell.
69.9.3 Problem 3- Jackson 5.15 (a) and (b)
Consider a pair of long straight wires carrying current in the z direction of I and I. Describe the magnetic
eld

H in terms of
M
;

H =
M
.
(a) If the wires are located at x =
d
2
, y = 0 show that for d >> , the potential is that of a 2-dimensional
dipole:

M
=
Id
2
sin

+O
_
d
2

2
_
(b) Closely placed wires are enclosed in a centered cylinder of radii a and b with =
r

0
. Determine
M
for < a, a < < b, and b < . Show that the eld outside is the 2-dimensional dipole as in part (a), only
with a scaling factor of:
F =
4
r
b
2
(
2
r
+ 1) b
2
(
2
r
1)
2
a
2
242
69.10 Homework 10
69.10.1 Problem 1 - Jackson 5.3
Right-circular solenoid of length L, radius a, and N turns per unit length carries current I. Show that the
axial magnetic inductance can be written as:
B
z
=

0
NI
2
(cos
1
+ cos
2
)
In the limit of NL . The angles are dened by vectors from a point z along the axis to the edges of the
solenoid.
69.10.2 Problem 2 - Jackson 5.8
A region contains

j = j(r, )

. The distribution is hollow, meaning that j(r 0) = 0.

(a) Show that:
A

(r, ) =

0
4

l
m
l
r
l
P

l
(cos ) r inside hollow
A

(r, ) =

0
4

l
n
l
r
(l+1)
P

l
(cos ) r outside hollow
69.10.3 Problem 3 - Jackson 5.20
(a) Starting from the relation:

F =
_
d
3
x

j ( x)

B
ext
( x)
where

B
ext
is some external eld and given that

M inside of a region bounded by a surface S is equivalent
to a surface current and volume current described as:

M
=

M n

j
M
=

M
show that the total magnetic force in the absence of macroscopic conductive currents is:

F =
_
V
_

M
_

B
ext
d
3
x +
_
V
_

M n
_

B
ext
d
2
x
(b) Consider a sphere of radius R with uniform magnetization

M located at r = 0 with magnetization along
some generic direction
0
,
0
. If the external eld is:

B
ext
=
_
B
0
(1 +y)
B
0
(1 +x)
_
Calculate the components of the force on the sphere.
243
69.11 Homework 11
69.11.1 Problem 1- Jackson 6.20 (a) and (b)
A dipole source ashes at t = 0,
( x, t) = (x)(y)

(z)(t)

j = (x)(y)(z)

(t)
Where

(a) =

a
(a).
a) Show that the instantaneous Coulomb potential is
( x, t) =
1
4
0
(t)
z
r
3
b) Show that the transverse current

j
t
is given by:

j
t
( x, t) =

(t)
_
2
3

3
( x)

3
4r
3
+
3
4r
3
n(
3
n)
_
69.11.2 Problem 2 - Jackson 6.8
A dielectric sphere (dielectric constant , radius a, centered at origin) has a uniform electric eld

E = E
0
x
applied. If the sphere rotates about z with angular velocity , show that there is a magnetic eld

H =
M
where:

M
=
3
5
_

0
+ 2
0
_

0
E
0

_
a
r
>
_
5
xz
where r
>
is the larger of (a, r).
69.11.3 Problem 3
A localized electric charge distribution produces an electrostatic eld

E. Into this eld is placed a small
localized time-independent current density

j.
(a) Show that the total momentum of the EM eld is:
p =
1
c
2
_
d
3
x

j
where is the potential of the localized charge distribution, provided the product

H falls o rapidly enough
at large distances.
(b) Assuming that the current is localized to a small region (compared to scale of eld variation), expand
the electrostatic potential in Taylor series and show that:
p =
1
c
2

E(0) m m =
1
2
_
d
3
x x

j ( x)
244
70 Semester 2
70.1 Homework 1
70.1.1 Problem 1
1. Show that the Lie Algebra of the orthogonal group O(n) is the set of all real skew-symmetric real
matrices. Show that the dimension of the group is
n(n1)
2
.
2. Show that the Lie Algebra of the SU(n) is the set of all complex matrices A that satisfy A
T
= A and
trA = 0. (Hint: use the relation det
_
e
i
A
_
= e
itr(A)
). Show that the dimension of the group is n
2
1.
70.1.2 Problem 2 - Jackson 11.5
A frame K

moves with velocity v relative to another frame K. If a particle has velocity and acceleration u

and a

in K

, show that in K,
a

=
_
1
v
2
c
2
_3
2
_
1 +
v
2
c
2
_
3
a

=
1
v
2
c
2
_
1 +
v
2
c
2
_
3
_
a

+
v
c
2
( a

)
_
70.1.3 Problem 3 - Jackson 11.6
A rocket leaves earth in 2100. One of a set of twins born in 2080 stays on Earth, the other rides the rocket.
If the rocket accelerates at g in rest frame along a straight-line path for 5 years, decelerates for 5 years and
then turns and repeats the trip, the twin in the rocket is 40 years older.
1. What year is it on earth?
2. How far from Earth did the rocket travel?
245
70.2 Homework 2
70.2.1 Problem 1
A runner carries a 20-m pole so fast in the direction of it length that it appears to be only 10 m long in a
rest frame. As the runner carries the pole through the front door of a barn 10 m long, just at the instant
the head of the pole reaches the closed rear door. Then the front door is closed, enclosing the pole in the
barn. The other door opens and the runner goes through. From the runners point of view, however, the
pole is 20 m long and the barn is only 5 m deep. Thus, the pole can never be enclosed in the barn. Explain
qualitatively and quantitatively this apparent paradox.
70.2.2 Problem 2
In an inertial frame, to events occur simultaneously at a distance of 3 m apart. In a frame moving with
respect to the inertial frame, one event occurs later than the other by a time dierence of 10
8
s. By what
spatial distance are the two events separated in the moving frame?
70.2.3 Problem 3 - Jackson 11.9
An innitesimal Lorentz transformation and its inverse can be written as:
x

=
_
g

_
x

=
_
g

_
x

where and

are innitesimal quantities.

1. Show that from the denition of inverse,

.
2. show that by preservation of the norm,

.
3. Write the transform in terms of contravariant components on both sides of the equation to show that

is equivalent to the matrix L in equation 11.93.

70.2.4 Problem 4
Compute explicitly the following quantities in terms of the electric and magnetic elds. Can you guess which
of them are zero before you compute them?
F

70.2.5 Problem 5
If S

and T

are tensors under Lorentz transformations, show explicitly that each of the following are also
tensors under Lorentz transformations:
1. W

2. X

3. Y

4. Z

246
70.2.6 Problem 6
Prove the following relations are true:

1
3!

1
2!

Where

is a Kronecker tensor and

1...n
1...n
is the complete antisymmetric product of n Kronecker tensors.
247
70.3 Homework 3
70.3.1 Problem 1
An observer measures

E and

B in a rest frame as:

E = E
0
n

B = 2E
0
n

A second observer sees the elds as parallel. Determine the relative velocity between the observers.
70.3.2 Problem 2
A particle of mass M at rest in a laboratory decays into a pair of particles with mass m
1
and m
2
. Show that
the total energy and kinetic energy of the rst particle in the lab frame are:
E
1
=
M
2
+m
2
1
m
2
2
2M
c
2
T = Qc
2
_
1
m
M

Q
2M
_
Q = M m
1
m
2
70.3.3 Problem 3
Consider some tensor T

that satises
m
uT

= 0. Show that:
d
2
dt
2
_
d
3
xT
00
x
i
x
j
= 2
_
d
3
xT
ij
where i, j = 1, 2, 3 and T

is localized in space (boundary terms can be neglected).

248
70.4 Homework 4
70.4.1 Problem 1 - Jackson 11.23
Two particles collide in a laboratory frame. Use center of momentum coordinates to solve the problem.
_
mass = m
1
p
1 int
= p
lab
, Energy = E
lab
mass = m
2
p
2 int
= 0
_

_
mass = m
3
p
3
at angle
3
mass = m
4
p
4
at angle
4
_
1. Use invariant scalar products to show that the total energy in the center of momentum frame and the
3 momentum are:
W
2
= m
2
1
+m
2
2
+ 2m
2
E
lab
p

=
m
2
W
p
lab
2. Show that the Lorentz transform to the center of mass coordinate are:

cm
=
p
cm
m
2
+E
lab

cm
=
m
2
+E
lab
W
3. Show that in the non-relativistic limit, the above results reduce to the familiar:
W m
1
+m
2
+
_
m
2
m
1
+m
2
_
p
2
lab
2m
1
p

m
2
m
1
+m
2
p
lab

cm

p
lab
m
1
+m
2
70.4.2 Problem 2 - Jackson 11.28 (a) and (b)
An electric dipole instantaneously at rest at the origin in frame K

has only electric eld and potentials

=
p r
| r|
3
;

A

= 0. If this frame moves with velocity v =

1
c

with respect to some other frame K,

1. Show that in K:
=
p

R
R
3

A =

p

R
R
3

R = x x
0
(t) with v =
d x
0
dt
2. Show explicitly that the potentials in K satisfy the Lorentz Condition (
n
uA

= 0).
70.4.3 Problem 3
A particle of mass m and charge e moves in a uniform, static, electric eld

E
0
.
1. Solve for the velocity and position of the particle as an explicit function of time, assuming that the
initial velocity v
0
is perpendicular to the electric eld.
2. Using the previous result, derive the trajectory of the particle. Discuss the shape of the trajectory for
short and long times (dene what short and long times are).
249
70.5 Homework 5
70.5.1 Problem 1 - Jackson 12.6
Static electric and magnetic elds make angle between them.
(a) By suitable choice of axes, solve for the motion of a particle with mass m and charge e in rectangular
coordinates.
(b) For parallel elds, show that the results above reduce to:
x = ARsin y = ARcos z =
R

_
1 +A
2
cosh() ct =
R

_
1 +A
2
sinh()
R =
mc
2
eB
A = arbitrary constant =
E
0
B
0
70.5.2 Problem 2
(a) Show that if the Lagrangian density for a set of elds is invariant under innitesimal coordinate trans-
formations x

, then

= 0 T

=

(

i
)

i
g

(b) Show that if the Lagrangian density for a set of elds is invariant under innitesimal coordinate trans-
formations x

where

, then

= 0 M

= (x

) +

(

i
)
(x

)
i
This quantity is the relativistic generalization of a classical quantity. which one? What kind of innitesimal
transformations are the above?
70.5.3 Problem 3 - Jackson 12.16
Starting with the Proca-Lagrangian, show that T

for the case of a massive photons is:

=
1
4
_
g

+
1
4
G

+
2
_
A

1
2
g

__
Show that for elds in interaction with some source j

, the dierential conservation laws take the form:

=
1
c
j

250
70.6 Homework 6
70.6.1 Problem 1
Two plane semi-innite slabs of the same uniform, isotropic, nonpermeable, lossless dielectric with index of
refraction n are parallel and separated by an air gap (n = 1) of width d. A plane EM wave of frequency is
incident on the gap from one of the slabs with an incident angle
i
. For linear polarization both parallel and
perpendicular to the plane of incidence, calculate the reection and transmission coecients for the whole
gap.
70.6.2 Problem 2
the time dependence of electric pulses in a good conductor is governed by the frequency-dependent conduc-
tivity,
=
f
0
Ne
2
m(
0
i)
Consider longitudinal electric elds in a conductor. Using Ohms law, Gauss Law, and the continuity
equation,
(a) Show that the time-Fourier transformed charge density satises the equation (in Gaussian units)
_
()
i
4
_
( x, ) = 0
(b) Using () =
0
1i
where
0
=

2
p

4
and is a damping time, show that the for the approximation

0
>> 1, any initial pulse will oscillate with the plasma frequency and decay in amplitude with a delay
constant = (2)
1
.
70.6.3 Problem 3
The ionosphere can be roughly approximated by a medium with dielectric constant = 1

2
p

2
, where

2
p
=
4NZe
2
m
, starting from a height of 300 km and extending to innity. (All are given in Gaussian units).
For waves with polarization both parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
(a) Show that for >
p
, reection toward the earth is total for angle of incidence greater than some critical
angle. Determine this critical angle.
(b) A radio amateur operating at = 21m can only receive stations at a distance of d > 1000km. Assuming
that the waves are reected by the lowest layer of the ionosphere, estimate the density of electrons in the
ionosphere.
251
70.7 Homework 7
70.7.1 Problem 1 - Jackson 7.19
An approximately monochromatic wave packet has the form u(x, 0) = f(x)e
ik0x
with f(x) the modulation
envelope. For each given form of f(x), calculate [A(k)[
2
, sketch both [u(x, 0)[
2
and [A(k)[
2
. Evaluate the
RMS derivations x, k normalized to the source functions and show that in each case xk
1
2
.
1. f(x) = Ne

2
|x|
2. f(x) = Ne

2
4
x
2
3. f(x) =
_
N (1 [x[) [x[ < 1
0 [x[ > 1
_
4. f(x) =
_
N < x <
0 else
_
70.7.2 Problem 2 - Jackson 7.20
A homogeneous, isotropic, nonpermeable dielectric is characterized by n() (possibly complex)
(a) Show that the general solution for plane waves in 1-dimensions can be written as:
u(x, t) =
1

2
_

de
it
_
A()e
i

c
n()x
+B()e
i

c
n()x
_
(b) Show that given u(0, t) and u

(0, t), the coecients above can be determined as:

_
A()
B()
_
=
1
2
1

2
_

dt e
it
_
u(0, t)
ic
n()
u

(0, t)
_
70.7.3 Problem 3 - Jackson 7.22
Use the Kramer-Kronig relations to determine the real part of given the imaginary part below. Sketch both
the real and imaginary parts for each case.
(a) Im() = [(
1
) (
2
)]
2
>
1
> 0
(b) Im() =

(
2
0

2
)
2
+
2

2
252
70.8 Homework 8
70.8.1 Problem 1
Consider a perfectly conducting waveguide with circular cross section of radius a.
1. Find the TE and TM propagating modes and their cuto frequencies.
2. The waveguide is turned into a coaxial cable by the introduction of a concentric cylindrical conductor
of radius b inside the waveguide. Compute the modes and frequencies when the dierence between the
radii is smaller compared to the average radius.
3. The waveguide (without the coaxial contribution) is turned into a cavity of length L by putting two
at end faces in the guide. Determine the resonant frequencies of the cavity.
70.8.2 Problem 2
Consider and innitesimally thin, perfectly conducting right-triangular waveguide with wall lengths a, a, and

2a.
1. By analytical extension, show that each triangular TM (TE) mode generates a TM (TE) mode of a
square waveguide of side length a.
2. Find the TM and TE modes of the triangular waveguide and their propagation frequencies.
70.8.3 Problem 3
Consider an optical ber with graded index of refraction for rays conned to the x z plane, n(x) =
n(0)sech(x).
1. For transverse coordinate x(z) of the ray, show that:
x = sinh
1
[sinh(x
0
) sin(z)]
where n(x
0
) = n(0) cos [(0)], and the origin in z is when the ray has x = 0.
2. Find the optical path and the half period of the ray.
253
70.9 Homework 9
70.9.1 Problem 1
Calculate the time-averaged power radiated per unit solid angle and the total power radiated for a non-
relativistic particle with charge e moving (a) along the z axis with displacement z(t) = z
0
sin(
0
t) and (b)
in a circle of radius (R) in the xy plane with constant angular frequency
0
.
70.9.2 Problem 2 - Jackson 14.11
A particle of charge Ze and mass m moves in external

E and

B elds. (a) Show that the classical relativistic
result for the instantaneous radiated energy per unit time is:
P =
2
3
Z
4
e
4
m
2
c
3

2
_
_

E +



B
_
2

E
_
2
_
Where

E and

B are evaluated at the particle and the factor is the particles instantaneous Lorentz factor.
(b) Show that the result of part (a) can be expressed as
P =
2Z
4
r
2
0
3m
2
c
F

r
0

e
2
mc
2
70.9.3 Problem 3
A non-relativistic particle of charge ze, mass m, and initial speed v
0
scatters on a xed nucleus of atomic
number Z at an impact parameter b. Assuming there is no deection, show that the total energy radiated is:
W =
z
4
Z
2
e
6
3m
2
c
3
v
0
b
3
254