SYNTAX -The word syntax is derived from a Greek word meaning 'ordering together', 'systematic arrangement', or 'putting together'.

- It is the study of sentence-building, of the ways in which words are arranged together in order to make larger units. - A syntactic analysis is generally concerned with sentences and the constituents of sentences. Briefly speaking, syntax is the grammar of sentences; it is the science of sentence construction. - However, the chief concern of syntax is the sentence which is the maximal unit of grammatical analysis, and the minimal syntactic level is the morpheme. Sentence may be analysed segmentally in phonological units called phonemes and syllables; into morphological units called morphemes and words; and ito syntactic units called phrases and clauses. - At the same time, sentences may be described suprasegmentally in respect of the prosodemes of length, stress and pitch and intersegmentally in respect of the prosodeme of syllable transition or juncture. - Some linguists, notably of the school of Transformational-Generative Grammar are trying to study the maximal linguistic units through a fusion of all these approaches. They have closely inter-related all the components of language the phonological, syntactical or grammatical (fusing morphology and syntax together) and semantic. SEMANTICS SYNTAX PHONOLOGY

- Syntax, not only to the Transformational Grammarians but also to a number of other linguists, is the core, the centre of grammar. And the - The linguists are interested in two aspects of this structuring of language. a- First, they are interested in the patterns underlying the sentence and its constituents. b- Secondly, they are interested in that syntactic devices used to link the constituents together, and the rules that transform one structure into another (the deep structure into immediate/surface) structure. SYNTACTIC PROCESSES Some of the major syntactic processes are discussed below I- Discontinuous Constituents A common phenomenon in English is the occurrence of discontinuous constituents. The discontinuous elements do not create so important problems in syntax of languages of German and Latin. But they pose difficulties in the immediate constituent analysis in English, e.g. He Pulled The Thief Down 2- Recursion The grammatical property by which a constituent can contain within it a smaller constituent of the same kind. For example, a sentence may contain a sentence, a

noun phrase may contain a noun phrase, or a prepositional phrase may contain a prepositional phrase. The following example shows an NP containing an NP containing an NP [A BOOK ABOUT [ THE HISTORY OF [ THE DEVELOPMENT OF [PERSONAL COMPUTERS]]]]. Recursion is of crucial importance in language its presence allows a language with a finite number of constructions and a finite number of words to produce an infinite number of sentences. 3- Conjoining Conjoining occurs when elements are added (or joined) to other similar elements. It means combining two or more words, phrases or sentences in a coordinate structure. For example Tom, Harry and Clare will come can be represented in the following way - NP+NP+NP + VP Similarly larger units, sentences are also conjoined. For example, Kathy played cricket; and Neo played tennis; and Sarah went fishing; and Paula went on teasing them. - S = S + S+ S+ S 4- Embedding Any structure in which a constituent is contained within a larger constituent of the same kind is known as embedding. Conjoining is the phenomenon of the traditionally called coordinating. Embedding generally occurs in the cases where the subordinate clause is said to be embedded in the main clause. For example, The tiger that killed three men worried the people. The tiger That killed three men In theory, a sentence can have an indefinite number of sentences embedded in it. A good example of embedding is the old nursery rhyme This is the Cat. That killed the Rat. That ate the Malt. That lay in the House. That Jack Built. SYNTACTIC DEVICES worried the people

In the sentence The fierce tiger terrified the lady. How do we know that it is the lady who was frightened, not the tiger? How do we know that fierce refers to the tiger, not to the lady? Such matters are made clear by the use of syntactic devices such as word order, which is the device, used above to illustrate the relationship between various constituents. Another device found in English is the use of function words or content words. In English, concord occurs occasionally. In he goes there is a concord between he and the morpheme -es at the end of go. Sometimes syntactic features can be indicated by intonation. This is possible way of distinguishing between questions and statements in English. He's going home (statement) may be distinguished form He's going home? (question) purely by intonation as the voice often rises at the end of question. DEEP AND SURFACE STRUCTURES The surface structure is actually produced structure. It refers to the sentence as it is pronounced or written. So the surface structure is that which takes into account the transformation. It is the surface structure that shows how the speaker actually uses it in communication. The surface structure of S determines its phonetic form. The deep structure An abstract underlying representation of the grammatical structure of a sentence which is posited in order to allow the analyst to state certain generalizations more easily. The The deep structure is the abstract structure that allows a native speaker of the language to know what the sentence means. It is the deep structure of a sentence that tells us what the speaker means by the sentence. It may then be said that the deep structure expresses the semantic content of S. Surface Structure Visiting doctors can be a nuisance Deep Structure a- We visit doctors. It can be a nuisance. b- Doctors visit us. They can be nuisance. A crucial problem arises in stating the relationship of deep structure to surface structure or vice versa. The term 'transformation' will be used to refer to the relationship. The transformational relationship between deep and surface structures and the transformations which relate the two kings of structures can be illustrated by reference to the sentence like The old man fell down is derived from a deep structure presented as S = The man fell down The man was old.

The following set of rules generates the above deep structure S = NP + VP ( VP = Be + adj (Was old) Vi + adv (fell down) NP = NP (Sub) D + N (The man) D = The N = Man Vi = fell Adj = old Adv = down Be = was SYSTEMS (THEORIES) OF SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS During the past fifty years modern linguistic has developed an impressive array of procedures, theories of linguistic or syntactic analysis. A brief discussion on various systems or methods of procedures of syntactic analysis known as 'syntactic models' is given IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS Immediate constituent analysis is one of the strong methods of analysing a sentence linguistically. It aims at finding out the ultimate constituents of a sentence and their relationship with one another. The term 'IC analysis' is commonly applied only in cases in which we do not bother to identify the type of each constituent with a label. The term was introduced by Bloomfiel in 1939, who illustrated the way in which it was possible to take a sentence (Poor John run away) and split it up into two immediate constituents (Poor John and Run Away), these being in turn analysable into further constituents (Poor and John, and ran and away). So a sentence is seen not as a sequence or a string of elements, Poor + John+ run+ away. So the IC analysis attempts to break down constituents into subparts that are in sense grammatically relevant like Poor, John, ran and away. these morphemes are the ultimate constituents of the sentence. The expression ultimate constituents implies that these elements are not further analysable at the syntactic level. Each human language has certain permissable ways or organising morphemes in its sentence. Each language has its linear structure. The sequential ordering of the ultimate constituents is called the linear of the sentence. Some of the constituents tend to go together. The morphemes (which are also indivisible words in this sentence) poor and john and ran and away are tied together. these groups of items which go together are called Phrases. Thus morphemes, words, phrases, and clauses are all constituents of sentence though all of them are not ultimate. The ultimate constituents are only morphemes. The principle was that we take a sentence and set it into two and then cut those parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the lowest unit the morphemes. Generally the division is binary. Quite the best method of display is to use the principle

of the family tree with the main branching showing the main division. In fact, the terms tree diagram and branching have become technical terms in IC analysis. Simple bracketting or tree diagrams do not show the nature and functions of the constituents. This inadequacy of the model was removed by introducing the notion of labelling. Labelled bracketting and trees with labelled nodes give us an insight into the syntactic function of the ultimate constituents of sentences. We will take the sentence The linguist will analyse a sentence This sentence is represented by the symbol S. It is composed of NP, which is further subdivided into article and noun, and a VP which is composed of a verb and a noun phrase. The verb will analyze is composed of an auxilliary and a main ver, and the second NP is composed of an article and a noun. The bracketing of these constituents with labels may be shown in the form of a tree diagram which is also known as Phrase Maker. The labels NP, VP, A, N, V, Aux show that the constituents represent different classes or categories. these labels are categorical functions. The two noung phrases in the sentence perform two different grammatical functions. The NP (The linguist) functions as a subject and the NP (a sentence) as the object of a verb. Thus any single class/category may serve several functions. In a tree diagram representation the lines that lead down from one point to the next lower point are called branches; and the point between which the lines run are called nodes. Nodes refer to the places at which classes branch into subclasses. Branching means analysis of a category into a sequence of categories, as when S is analysed into NP + Aux + VP. A symbol or a string is said to be dominated by S. PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMARS There are three distinct periods of development in the theory of constituent structure. Bloomfield only introduced notion and explained it by means of example. His followers, notably, Eugene Nida, Rulon Wells, Zells Harris, formulated the principles of constituent analysis in greater detail and replaced Bloomfield's somewhat vague reference to 'taking account of the meanings, with explicitly distributional criteria. Finally, in the last few years the theory of constituent structure has been formalized and subjected to mathematical rigour by Chomsky and other scholars and has been called 'Phrase Structure Grammar'. Once we start to use 'levels' we have clearly departed from simple analysis and are undertaking analysis somewhat similar to traditional phrasing, the division of sentences into already established grammatical elements. This kind of analysis is today usually called 'phrase structure grammar'. It shows some of the weaknesses of the simple IC analysis. There are sophisticated versions of phrase structure grammars. The three best known are 'Scale and Category Grammar' associated with the name of Michael Halliday in London University. Tagmemics associated with the name Kenneth Pike of Michigan, and 'Stratificational Grammar' associated with Sidney Lamb of Yale. Thus a PS grammar is an alternative way of expressing the information found in a tree diagram by means of rewrite rules. In this model the linguist formalizes the grammar by means of generative rules which explicitly assign the correct constituent structure to

sentences. Such systems are called simple 'phrase structure grammars'. This model of grammar shows not only the terminal elements or constituents of a linear structure but also specifies the subunits and the level at which these units form natural groups. So, the linguist here is interested (1) in the patterns underlying the sentence and its constituents; and (2) in the syntactic devices used to link the constituents together, and the ways in which various parts relate to one another. Without the axiom, there are bound to be an unlimited number of rules. This implies that we can neither formulate nor write down such rules in one lifetime which rules out the possibility of someone using this grammar to master a language. The fact that we learn a language by the time we are three or four refutes such an implication and compels us to believe that the rules of a grammar have got to be finite and not infinite. Phrase Structure rules of the generative grammar are an amalgamation of the SubjectPredicate and parsing systems of the traditional grammars and the IC analysis of the structural grammar. They are framed to derive a kernel sentence (in the Syntactic Structures) (Chomsky, 1957), or underlying (deep) strings (in the Aspects) (Chomsky, 1965). these rules define basic grammatical relations that function in the deep structure, categorize the various constituents of a deep structure, determine the ordering (organization) of elements in the deep structure. They also make explicit the domination of constituent over the other. In short, they make explicit the universal conditions that define "human language". How do Phrase Structure Grammar Work? 1- First we write down the initial symbol S. 2- Then we search for the Phrase Structure Rule (also known as constituent Structure Rule, Branching Rule) which instructs us what to do with the initial symbol I.e Rule 1 S = A + B Phrase Structure Expansion rules rewrite one symbol into another (from left to right) until we reach the ultimate constituents beyond which we have left nothing on the right hand to expand. For example, we can derive the deep or underlying string of the following sentence by framing following PS rules Sentence The boy admires sincerity S VP NP Aux Det N Tense Article The Sentence is S NP + VP Aux + v + NP (Det) N Tense Article Boy, sincerity Present the (Rule No. 1) (Rule No. 2) (Rule No. 3) (Rule No. 4) (Rule No. 5) (Rule No. 6) (Rule No. 7) (Rule No. 8)

The string we get is

S [The + boy + pres + admire + sincerity] S This grammar enables us to decide the following 1- The boy admires sincerity is a grammatical sentence of the English language. 2- The boy and sincerity are noun phrases. 3- Admires sincerity is a verb phrase. 4- admires is a verb the verb is in the present tense. 5- boy and sincerity are nouns (singular) 6- the is a determiner (article) 7- The Phrase marker represents the derivation diagrammatically. 8-S is a string (sentence) 9- NP and VP are substring (phrases) 10- S dominates NP and VP. That is, S is a higher unit than NP or VP. That is, S is a higher unit than NP or VP. Similarly, NP dominated Det and N. VP dominates V and NP. N dominated boy V dominates admire, and so on. NP, VP, Aux, V, Det, n, etc. are the nodes of the tree. They all are constituents. 11- The derivation shows us the elements, the operation and the resulting relation. 12- It is all explicit - nothing is left to the reader's intution. 13- It is all explicit - nothing is left to the reader's intution. 14- If one knows how to play the rules of grammar, one does not have to know the language to produce grammatical sentences of the language a guarantee no other grammar can provide. 15- Traditional "parsing" and IC analysis are formalised by this grammar. 16- This grammar is different from other grammars in that it is a formal system with axioms, rules of inference, theorems (sentences) and mathematical proof derivation. The grammar given above claims that a grammar allows for certain choices and that these choices are of two kinds the brackets represent an obligatory choice, and the parentheses represent an optional choice. Such context free grammars are very successful at accounting for most of the syntactic structures observed in natural languages. Context - sensitive Grammars The chief defect of the rules above is that they are not context sensitive. On their basis one can construct unacceptable sentence like The tree ate the elephant. That is why it is needed to impose contextual restrictions upon the operation of the rules. A grammar that includes one or more context sensitive rules is called a context sensitive phrase structure Grammar. LIMITATION OF PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMARS A phrase structure grammar is essentially a grammar of segmentation and categorization it is a taxonomic model I-e a Grammar of lists, an inventory of elements, of sequence of elements, and of class of sequences of elements. Although it is very stron in giving structural description of the language, yet it is deficient in generative capacity. It is

incapable of accounting for all the intuitions of native speakers. It fails to disambiguate and understand all the synonymities. "A phrase structure grammar accounts for intasentence constituent relations like active-passive, declarative- interrogative, affirmativeinterrogative, etc. A PS grammar runs into difficulties in describing syntactic structures of Questions, Negatives, Passives easily. It fails to capture the deep meaning. It cannot discover the crucial notions, nor can it prevent the assignment of false, ungrammatical structure. TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR What is transformational generative grammar The name "Transformational Generative' suggests that there are two aspects of the theory. The grammar it provides is both "transformational" and "generative". these two aspects are not logically dependent upon each other, though the theory gains plausibility from the interaction of the two. Hence it is necessary to understand these two terms. Transformational It is because of the shortcomings of phrase structure grammar and because of other reasons that Noam Chomsky came to the view that 'notions of phrase structure are quite adequate for a small part of the language and that the rest of the language can be derived by repeated application of a rather simple set of transformations to the strings given by the phrase structure grammar to cover the entire language directly, we would lose the simplicity of the limited phrase structure grammar and of the transformational development. Simply speaking a transformation can be thought of as transforming one sentence into another, the deep structure into surface structure. Whereas active sentences are "Kernel sentences", passives are the transforms. According to R.H.Robins, "Essentially transformation is a method of stating how the structures of many sentences in languages can be generated or explained formally as the result of specific transformations applied to certain basic sentence structures. these basic sentence types or structures are not necessarily basic or minimal from the point of view of immediate constituent analysis, the transformational syntax presupposes a certain amount of