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IGNEOUS ROCKS AND IGNEOUS PROCESSES

Introduction

Magma- Molten rock material composed mostly of _____________________. Magmas may also include dissolved gases and minor amounts of solid minerals.

Magma at Earth's Surface. United States Geological Survey image.

Magmas can occur deep within the Earth, or at Earth's surface.

Igneous rock- A silicate-rich rock that forms when magma solidifies.

There are two types of igneous rocks:

Intrusive/Plutonic- Igneous rock formed when magma solidifies deep underground (includes granites, the main rock of the continents). Extrusive/Volcanic- Igneous rock formed when magma solidifies at the Earths surface as lava (includes basalts, the main rock of ocean floors). Unlike extrusive volcanism, intrusive igneous activity has never directly witnessed! However, we can infer much about igneous processing based on indirect evidence. The Textures of Igneous Rocks Texture refers to the size, shape and arrangement of crystal grains within a rock. Under the microscope, the mineral grains of igneous rocks tend to display an interlocking texture that represents the growth of minerals from a melt.

A thin section of gabbro showing plagioclase, clinopyroxene and olivine (GNU Image by Siim Sepp, 2006). In igneous rocks, crystal size is primarily controlled by Extrusive/volcanic rocks cooled quickly at or near Earths surface, giving crystals little time to grow. These rocks tend to be fine-grained or aphanitic (most crystals <1 mm). In contrast, intrusive/plutonic rocks cooled slowly deep within the Earth and are coarse-grained or phaneritic (most crystals >1 mm)

Granite, an intrusive igneous rock.

Basalt, an extrusive igneous rock. Individual minerals are not easily seen in hand-specimen.

Individual minerals can be seen in hand-specimen.

These photos are from R. Welleror of Cochise College, 2008.

To classify igneous rocks, we will need to identify minerals in hand specimen. Let's review the rock forming minerals, and divide each mineral into "light" and "dark" categories based on color.

The Rock-Forming Minerals

Feldspar Alkali Feldspar: (K,Na)AlSi3O8

Feldspar Plagioclase Feldspar: NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8

Quartz: SiO2

Amphibole Hornblende: Ca2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH)2

Mica Muscovite: KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2

Mica Biotite: K(Fe,Mg)3AlSi3O10(F, OH)2

Olivine Fayalite: Fe2SiO4 Forsterite: Mg2Si2O4

Pyroxene Enstatite: Mg2Si2O6 Ferrosilite: Fe2Si2O6

These photos are from R. Welleror of Cochise College, 2008.

The Classification of Igneous Rocks by Color

Igneous rocks can be readily classified into three categories based on color: felsic, mafic, intermediate, and ultramafic. This color-based classification scheme may seem simplistic, but it turns out that a rock's color tells us much about its mineralogical makeup and overall composition.

Felsic rocks are rich in light-colored minerals (quartz, alkali feldspar, and some plagioclase feldspar). They are compositionally rich in Si, Na, Al, and K and poor in Fe and Mg (the dark-colored minerals biotite and amphibole are present, but only in minor amounts).

A felsic rock known as granite (R. Welleror of Cochise College, 2008).

Mafic rocks contain abundant dark-colored minerals (olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase). They are compositionally rich in Fe, Mg, and Ca.

A mafic rock known as basalt (R. Welleror of Cochise College, 2008).

Intermediate rocks contain roughly equal amounts of dark- and lightcolored minerals.

An intermediate rock known as andesite (R. Welleror of Cochise College, 2008).

Ultramafic rocks consist almost exclusively of Fe and Mg-rich minerals from the mantle (olivine and pyroxene, but no plagioclase). They are compositionally rich in Fe, Mg, and Ca, but poor in Si.

An ultramafic rock known as peridotite consisting chiefly of olivine (R. Welleror of Cochise College, 2008). The Classification of Igneous Rocks Based on Color, Texture, and Mineralogy The most useful system for classifying igneous rocks utilizes color, texture, and mineralogy.

Felsic Granite Coarsegrained/ Phaneritic (Intrusive)

Intermediate Diorite

Mafic

Ultramafic

Gabbro

Peridotite

Basalt Finegrained/ Aphanitic (Extrusive) Rhyolite Andesite

Komatiite

(Not Pictured)

Quartz Content Alkali Feldspar

High

Intermediate

None

High

Low

None

Content (Na, K) Plagioclase Content (Al, Ca) As we go from left to right (from felsic to ultramafic): Color darkens. Mg and Fe increases. K and Na decreases. The above photos are by R. Welleror of Cochise College, 2008. Special Textures in Igneous Rocks Xenolith: A fragment of rock within an igneous rock that differs compositionally from the host rock. The host rock and zenolith inclusions formed from different magmas. Vesicule: A bubble or hole formed by escaping gas (common in basalts). Low Intermediate High None

Olivine xenolith in vesicular basalt, Dr. Richard Busch

Pegmatite: A very coarse grained igneous rock (crystal sizes > 5 cm) in which crystal growth was enhanced by the presence of fluids.

Pegmatite, Marli Miller

Porphyritic: Igneous rock with large crystals (called phenocrysts) in a finegrained matrix. Porphyritic rocks may represent a two-state cooling history: 1) slow cooling at depth followed by... 2) rapid uplift and fast cooling near Earth's surface.

Porphyritic rock, Dr. Richard Busch How Does Magma Form?

1) The temperature of the Earth increases from crust to core at approximately 30 C/km (this is called the geothermal gradient). The core temperature is > 5000 C, and heat moves upward from the very hot core (where temperatures exceed 5000C) and melts the upper mantle and crust. 2) Melting can also result from a decrease in pressure. Since pressure favors solids, mineral melting points decrease with decreasing pressure. This decompression melting occurs when hot mantle rock moves upward.

3) The presence of water vapor reduces the melting point of rock. Wet magma (magma with water vapor) melts at a lower temperature than dry magma (magma with no water vapor). For example, wet granite melts at 700C whereas dry granite melts at 900C. 4) Mixtures of minerals always have lower melting points than the pure minerals would. For example, Quartz melts at ~1650C and KFeldspar melts at ~1300C. However, a 50/50 mixture of these two minerals will melt at ~1150C.

Magma Crystallization and Melting Sequence

Minerals crystallize in a predictable order over a large temperature range (and melt in the reverse order). This sequence of mineral crystallization is described by Bowens Reaction Series, named after N.L. Bowen who used laboratory experiments to determine the sequence of mineral crystallization.

Lessons from Bowens Reaction Series:

1) The chemistry of a magma will determine the type of rock that can form from it.

2) For a given magma composition, the first magmas to solidify will be mafic (rich in Fe, Mg, Ca) such as a basalt or gabbro.

3) Later, more evolved felsic magmas (rich in K, Na, Si, and quartz) will produce rhyolites and basalts.

4) During heating, the order of mineral melting will be reversed from the order of crystallization.

Magma Evolution

Magmas that solidify close to their source rock will be the most like the source rock, whereas magmas that solidify far from the source rock will be changed or evolved. Magma evolution (called magma differentiation) can occur by 4 different processes:

1) Partial melting produces magmas less mafic than their source rocks, because the first minerals to melt will be felsic in composition.

2) Fractional crystallization involves the changing of magma composition by the removal of denser early-formed ferromagnesian minerals by crystal settling. The remaining magma becomes more felsic.

3) Assimilation occurs when a hot magma melts and incorporates surrounding country rock. If mafic magma assimilates more felsic continental crust an intermediate rock will result.

4) Magma mixing involves the mixing of more and less mafic magmas to produce a magma of intermediate composition.

Intrusive Rock Bodies

Intrusive rocks exist in intrusions that penetrate or cut through preexisting country rock.

Intrusive bodies are given names based on their size, shape and geometric relationship to the country rock.

Two basic types of intrusions are:

A. Shallow intrusions (formed < 2 km beneath Earths surface). These cool and solidify fairly quickly resulting in fine-grained rocks.

Dike: Tabular structure that cuts across the layering in the country rock.

Igneous intrusions at Alaska's Glacier Bay National Park Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics.

Sill: Tabular structure that parallels layering in the country rock.

Basaltic sill near Logan Pass in Montana's Glacier National Park. Larry Fellows.

Volcanic Neck: Shallow intrusion formed when magma solidifies in the throat of a volcano (i.e., Ship Rock, New Mexico).

The volcanic neck, Shiprock. Copyright Louis Maher

B. Deep intrusions (formed > 2 km beneath Earth's surface). These cool and solidify slowly resulting in coarse-grained rocks.

Plutons are large, blob-shaped intrusive bodies formed when rising blobs of magma (diapirs) get trapped within the crust (commonly granite

Summit of Harney Peak in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics.

Small plutons (exposed over <100 km2) are called stocks, whereas large plutons (exposed over >100 km2) are called batholiths.

The interface between instrusions and country rock are called contacts.

Rapid cooling of igneous rock near the contact (called a chill zone) often results in a smaller crystal size near the contact.

The Link Between Igneous Activity and Plate Tectonics

Igneous activity occurs mainly at or near tectonic plate boundaries.

Mafic igneous rocks commonly form at divergent boundaries. Here, the low overburden pressure (decompression) contributes to the formation of mafic magmas formed by partial melting of the asthenosphere (upper mantle).

Intermediate igneous rocks commonly form at convergent boundaries. Partial melting of subducted asthenosphere produces basaltic magma which evolves into intermediate magma by differentiation, assimilation, and magma mixing.

Felsic igneous rocks are also common adjacent to convergent boundaries. Hot mafic magmas produced near the subducting slab may induce partial melting and assimilation of continental (granitic) crust.

Some ingneous rocks form within plates (not at a plate boundary). Rising mantle plumes (of controversial origin) can produce localized hotspots and volcanoes as they rise through continental or oceanic crust.

2. Igneous Rocks
Posted on 31/12/2008 by Vitor Pacheco

2.1 Origin and Composition

Convection cells must have developed in the Earths Mantle at a very early stage, consequently initiating the differentiation of the elements composing the original magma. The less dense elements, silicon rich, accumulated at the top of the up flow side of the convection cells, just as foam in a boiling pot. Thus, this lighter material concentrated at the surface and consolidated forming the continents which are therefore silicon rich rocks containing an abundance of quartz and are classified as oversaturated (acid). They encompass the granite family, of which the volcanic equivalent is rhyolite. Of the remaining magma, the most common member and the one which forms the oceanic floors, does not have enough silicon for quartz to form, is classified as saturated, and its most common rock family is the gabbro, with basalt as its volcanic equivalent. The rocks with least silicon content are classified as undersaturated (alkaline), and one of its rock types is peridotite. It is easy to understand that along crustal plate diverging boundaries numerous cracks will form through which the fluid magma from the mantle can flow. Thus, igneous rocks associated with diverging boundaries, if within an ocean and forming its ridge, like the one along the centre of the Atlantic Ocean, will have a basaltic composition since its source is also basaltic. If the divergence is within a continent breaking up like the Rift Valley in Africa, the igneous rocks will be basaltic, but only if the magma being tapped is from the mantle.

Along converging boundaries, where the rock masses are under compression, it is not so straight forward, especially since either the two plates are compressing against each other, or the heavier density plate is being subducted under the other one. So, I think that in the majority of cases the igneous rocks originate from the melting of the local rocks due to the incredibly high temperatures and pressures caused by the friction developed during compression. Thus, their composition will differ in accordance to their relative location, with basic rocks for the sector close to the subduction trench because they will be fed by oceanic floor rocks. Within continental masses, acidic rocks will predominate.
2.2 Type of Occurrence
2.2.1 Volcanic Rocks

Molten magma is continuously being spewed from the mantle through all sorts of existing fractures. If ejected into the atmosphere, it is known as lava, and the ducts through which the lava pours are the volcanos. Further, because the surrounding atmospheric temperature is markedly lower, the lava will cool very rapidly and the resulting rock will tend to be fine grained. Nowadays volcanos typically have pipe like structures through which the magma flows and as it cools, it creates the well known conic shapes (fig. 1).

Figure 1 The top of the Teide volcanic cone (Tenerife, Canarias Archipelago). Also, they frequently develop lateral vents (fig. 2). However, magma may also outpour along fissures as presently in Iceland and in the past, for example during the Karroo volcanicity (Jurassic), in South Africa.

Figure 2 lateral volcanic vent of the Teide (Tenerife, Canarias Archipelago).

Lava flows will enlarge the volcanic cone and spread in a fan shape at the base. In the example shown on figure 3 in Tenerife, the fan actually entered into the sea, and that is where the town of Garuchio was built.

Figure 3 Town built on a lava flow fan into the sea (Garuchio, Tenerife). Volcanic exhalations may be gentle and fairly continuous, in which case it takes the form of a very plastic fluid termed lava flow, as for example the upper dark layer of figure 4. Or, like the lower layer of the same figure, the out pour may take the form of ash, termed pyroclastic, with small fragments predominating, but larger clasts may also be common and in the present case they are easily identified because of their much darker colour.

Figure 4 Layer of volcanic ash (pyroclasts) overlain by basalt (view approximately 6 m high) (Tenerife, Canarias Archipelago). These pyroclastic explosive bursts are due to the magma high gas content, as well as the stage of consolidation of the lava being spewed out. In extreme cases we will have volcanic breccias (fig. 4B)

Figure 4B Volcanic breccia (Barberton Mountain Land, S. Africa) The appearance of the consolidated lava will also be affected by: its degree of plasticity, which, when very high gives a very contorted appearance (fig. 5);

Figure 5 Contorted appearance of a very plastic lava flow (view approximately 1 m high) (Tenerife, Canarias Archipelago). the rate of cooling which, when very rapid, yields volcanic glass, obsidian (fig. 6);

Figure 6 Lava field with abundant obsidian (black), (Tenerife, Canarias Archipelago).

 high fluidity as well as gaseous content, will cause the lava to be very porous, pumice stone, and the porosity will make these rocks very light (fig. 7).

Figure 7 Demonstration on how light the pumice stone is (Tenerife, Canarias Archipelago). Further, this porosity will allow water to flow through the hollows and, with time, the diluted substances will precipitate and fill the holes, giving rise to what is known as amygdaloidal lava (fig. 8).

Figure 8 Amygdaloidal lava (Ventersdorp lavas, Carletonville, S. Africa). When the size of those hollows is sufficiently large we have the formation of the famous agates and geodes (fig. 9), which will tend to broadly have a spherical shape but may reach quite a considerable size and present a huge variety of internal shapes. The term agate is used when the precipitate is not crystalline, and geode when it is.

Figure 9 Agates/geodes from the Karroo lavas (Lebombo Mountains, Mozambique). Lava that flows into the sea freezes as it tumbles in and forms very characteristic spherical units, termed pillows. As these pillows fall on top of of those already settled and if the lava is still sufficiently plastic, its lower portion will become sort of squeezed between the ones more solid below (fig. 10).

Figure 10 Outcrop of pillow lavas (Barberton, S. Africa). If, on the other hand the pillows fall on soft ground, their spherical shapes are preserved and they squeeze the paleosol below (fig. 11).

Figure 11 Pillow lavas overlying VCR (East Driefontein Mine, Carletonville, S. Africa).

 Lava cooling on land often develop a very characteristic hexagonal jointing, columnar. This occurs both with basalt (fig. 12).

Figure 12B Volcanic plug basalt showing columnar jointing (view approximately 6 m high) (Mafra region, Portugal) as well as rhyolite (figs. 13).

Figure 13 Close up of columnar rhyolite (view approximately 2 m high) (Castro Verde, Portugal).
2.2.2. Hypabyssal Rocks

A significant proportion of the magma flowing through the tension cracks will actually consolidate along them. The resulting rocks are termed hypabyssal, that is, intermediate between plutonic and volcanic. The majority of the ducts through which magma flows are narrow and very long (fig. 14). As such, the magmas filling these fissures will cool quite fast and the resulting rocks will predominantly be fine to medium grained. If these intrusives are parallel to the surrounding strata they are termed sills and when cutting across, they are called dykes.

Figure 14 Aerial photo of a dyke outcrop on a peneplane (Central Angolan Plateau). Also, these fractures are a consequence of the breaking away of continental plates, and fracturing of non homogenous brittle materials usually have associated splitting, termed conjugate faulting. Thus dykes tend to occur in conjugate sets (fig. 15).

Figure 15 Set of conjugate dykes (Estoril beach, Potugal). Hypabysal rocks occasionally also have pipe like forms which may have considerably large diameters, hence taking longer to cool and becoming therefore more coarse grained. They are predominantly associated with rifting and if Im not mistaken, their magma source is very deep, as with carbonatites (fig. 16),

Figure 16 Aerial view of a large carbonatite plug outcrop on a peneplane (Central Angolan Plateau). kimberlites (fig. 17), and some others.

Figure 17 Kimberly diamond mine (South Africa). Volcanic breccias are moderately frequent (fig. 4B), but I think the Boula Igneous Complex in India is a rather unique example (fig. 18)

Figure 18 Ultramafic Igneous breccia (Boula, Orissa, India). In fact I put it here rather than with the volcanic rocks, because, according to Aug and Thierry, this breccia was caused by a violent explosion within the magma ducts with the clasts belonging to the intruded, rather than the intruding rock and it must have happened at a considerable depth since the intruding basalt is very coarse grained, often pegmatitic. However the brecciated wall-rock shows very little movement. For example, the position of the very large chromite clast shown in figure 19, is very close to its initial position relative to sector of the chromite lens unaffected by the explosive burst.

Figure 19 Igneous breccia containing chromite clasts (view approximately 16 m high) (Boula, Orissa, India). Other than the in situ shattering, what we had was the rotation of the clasts within a very hot chamber which partially melted the wall-rock (fig. 20).

Figure 20 Metasomatised igneous breccia clast showing roundness and concentric reaction rim due to partial melting (Boula, Orissa, India).
2.2.3 Plutonic Rocks

Plutonic rocks are formed by magmatic intrusions at great depths. Since we are dealing with a fluid intrusion, the contacts with the surrounding rocks tend to be irregular (fig. 21).

Figure Figure 21 Granite/limestone intrusive contact (Sintra Mountain, Portugal). Also, with the exception of the marginal areas of contact and the fact that they generally have very large volumes, this magma has a very long time to cool, allowing the development of coarse grained rocks. When the magma is rich in volatiles it often has associated hydrothermal pegmatitic (ultra coarse grained) veins, giving rise to magnificently well developed crystals (fig. 22).

Figure 22 Pegmatitic minerals: book of muscovite (back) (Perth, Canada); black tourmaline, red and green tourmaline and blue beryl (front) (Ligonha, Mozambique); Wolframite (Panasqueira, Portugal)
2.3 Magmatic Differentiation

Magmatic differentiation was already mentioned (item 2.1) but here Im just referring two rather unique examples, the Boula Igneous Complex in India and the Bushveld Igneous Complex (B.I.C.) in South Africa. Both these igneous lopoliths have a basic to ultrabasic composition, meaning that the intruding magma has already had a significant amount of chemical differentiation from the initial mantle magma. 2.3.1 Differential Crystal Settling While cooling within the intruded chamber, further differentiation took place due to the rate of settling of the

various minerals as they crystallised at the top, the coolest area, and slowly dropped to the bottom. The reason why these two cases are so spectacular is because both assemblages consist of a light coloured member, peridotite in India and anorthosite in South Africa, inter-layered with a black member, chromite. Also, the SG of the latter is far higher than either of the other two, thus allowing for a much more clear separation of the respective minerals (figs. 23 and 24).

Figure 23 Magmatic differentiation by crystal settling (view approximately 3020 cm) (Boula, Orissa, India).

Figure 24 Magmatic differentiation by crystal settling (Dwars River, South Africa). The similarity between a normal sedimentation process and the crystal settling in these two cases is remarkable. So much so, that initially a school of geology in South Africa believed the B. I. C. to be an assemblage of metamorphosed sediments. Take also the example shown in figure 25. I have never seen such perfect graded bedding in real sediments. In the present case we have granular magnetite forming the base of the sequence with feldspar crystals progressively increasing in quantity upwards, just like in sediments where the heavier clasts are the ones that reach the bottom first.

Figure 25 Graded bedding by crystal settling (view approximately 1 m high) (Dwars River, South Africa). Another example, still with close similarities with sedimentation, but now with igneous crystal settling characteristics more apparent, is the occurrence observed at the sector of this rock sequence where the locally termed pyroxenite boulder horizon occurs. This member of the succession is approximately 50cm above a very well defined and continuous pyroxenite band and consists of a layer of spotted anorthosite, containing scattered coarse grained pyroxenite nodules with an average diameter of 15 cm (fig. 25B).

Figure 25B Normal pyroxenite boulder horizon, about 50 cm above the distinct pyroxenite band (Bafokeng Mine, Rustemberg, South Africa). However, as shown in figure 26, one of the boulders, considerably larger than normal, appears to have fallen through the semi fluid mush of the already settled pyroxenite band. Note that the boulder was not entirely solid, since it looks as if it is rather frayed at the edges. Both these photos were taken along one of the mine adits, within 2 m of each other, and I think this example is rather useful in helping to understand the notion of a crystal settling environment.

Figure 26 Pyroxenite boulder falling through pyroxenite beds (Bafokeng Mine, Rustemberg, South Africa).
2.3.2 Pot Holes Within the Marensky Reef

The Marensky Reef (MR) is a platinum bearing, generaly conformable horizon of the B. I. C.. It is accepted that this band is the first layer after a new magma influx was injected into the settling chamber, bringing the platinum and also raising the environmental temperature. That is the reason why the MR has a pegmatitic texture with a much coarser grain size than that of the lower layers. This temperature rise also caused the development of convection currents within the settling chamber causing what are locally called potholes and for which a tentative explanation follows: Figure 27 was taken underground at the face of a MR stope. The right hand portion of the picture is a pegmatitic pyroxenite,

with practically a vertical contact, representing the edge of a MR pothole. On the left side of the ruler, we have a mottled anorthosite, filling in the centre of the pothole, with vague suggestions of normal horizontal layering, due to a latter period of crystal settling.

Figure 27 Marensky reef pothole edge (Bafokeng Mine, Rustemberg, South Africa). Figure 28 is an interpretative cross section along a diamond drill hole which intersected a different pothole, but I think helps to understand the situation. M3 and M2 are anorthosites that cover a normal MR, shown in pink at the upper section of the diagramme. Below that, the bore hole intersected another mottled anorthosite interpreted as the inner fill of the pothole. Next comes the MR horizon again, this time consisting of a very thin chromite seam. Following is a norite footwall below which we have the final segment of MR at the base of the pothole, and consisting of a rather thick chromite horizon very rich in platinum. Thus we have a situation indeed similar to an

ordinary river pot hole with irregularities close to the bottom, where the heavier materials concentrate. Very important as well is that, as logically expected, the footwall below the base of the pothole is not the same as the horizon under an ordinary MR, but rather a unit which is stratigraphically considerably lower. Some of these potholes actually cut down more than 5m through the presumably semi solid mush within the magma chamber.

Figure 28 Diagrammatic interpretation of a pothole edge intersected by a surface diamond drill prospecting hole (Maricana, South Africa).
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