M.tech Project Report

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction:
M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
Page 1
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Although wind energy is abundantly available in nature using and controlling it with respect to turbine parameters to obtain maximum efficient electric power output is a challenging task. Also, the production of electricity by a wind turbine generator at a specific site depends upon many factors. These factors include the mean wind speed of the site and more significantly, the speed characteristics of the wind turbine itself namely, cut-in, rated, and furling wind speeds including the hub height. Experience with the existing wind farms have shown that some of the wind power plants have failed completely or performed poorly especially in developing countries because the installed wind turbine systems do not match the site. There are many different models of wind turbine generators, commercially available, with same kW ratings. Each of these wind turbines has their own specifications and speed parameters. These speed parameters affect the capacity factor at a given specific site, and subsequently affect the choice of optimum wind turbine generator for the site.
1.1 Problem Definition, Objectives and Scope of the Proposed Work:

Wind power produced by turbines varies with time and the output of such turbines hence varies. A number of potential wind power sites are available all over the world. Experience with the existing wind farms have shown that some of the wind power plants have failed completely or performed poorly especially in developing countries because the installed wind turbine systems do not match the site. Hence there arises a need for a systematic approach towards the problem of optimum siting of wind turbine generators.
The site investigation procedure before the installation of Wind turbine (if some site is available for such a study).

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Calculation of the capacity factor using the Weibull statistical model and calculation of mean wind speeds for computation of monthly or annual capacity factor of the site. Calculation of power output and thrust coefficient values for a chosen turbine and obtaining the respective curves for the turbines. According to Karnataka Renewable Energy Policy (2009-2014), the green power options for Karnataka are as follows, 1. Wind power projects. 2. Mini, Micro and small Hydro power projects (upto 25 MW). 3. Co-generation in sugar and other industries. 4. Biomass and Biogas projects. Under the KARNATAKA RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICY, 2009-2014, it is proposed to develop additionally 2969 MW of wind power projects during the five years up to 2014. This would involve a total investment of Rs 15,680 crores. To facilitate successful expeditious commissioning of the targeted wind projects the various statutory clearances will be cleared through single window mechanism.
The government waste lands in windy locations identified for industrial development will be offered to set up wind projects. The capacity of the earlier commissioned wind projects which are more than 10 years old will be considered for augmentation by replacing with efficient higher capacity wind turbine generators.
Earlier allotments not commissioned beyond time period will be reviewed. Small wind energy generators will be promoted up to 10 KW for stand-alone systems. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Table 1.0: Year wise proposed capacity addition (Source: KREP 2009-2014)
Renewable energy source
Target MW 09-10
Year wise proposed capacity addition
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
Likely total investment (Rs croresat current prices) 15680 2700
Wind Power Mini and Small Hydro Cogeneration in Sugar Industry Biomass/Biogas Waste to energy Total
2969 600
630 100
680 100
530 150
530 150
599 100
281
56
56
56
56
57
1120
300
60
60
60
60
60
2100
50
10
10
10
10
10
400
4200
856
906
806
806
826
22000

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.0 Literature Review:

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software [1] Suresh H. Jangamshetti , V. Guruprasada Rau , Optimum Siting Of Wind
Turbine Generators, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONSERVATION, VOL. 16, NO. 1, MARCH 2001. Number of potential wind power sites are available all over the world. Of these, not all the sites have wind turbine generators installed. Experience with the existing wind farms have shown that some of the wind power plants have failed completely or performed poorly especially in developing countries because the installed wind turbine systems do not match the site. Hence there arises a need for a systematic approach toward the problem of optimum siting of wind turbine generators. The production of electricity by a wind turbine generator at a specific site depends upon many factors. These factors include the mean wind speed of the site and more significantly, the speed characteristics of the wind turbine itself namely, cut-in, rated, and furling wind speeds including the hub height. There are many different models of wind turbine generators, commercially available, with same kW ratings. Each of these wind turbines has their own specifications and speed parameters. These speed parameters affect the capacity factor at a given specific site, and subsequently affect the choice of optimum wind turbine generator for the site. [2] Albadi.M.H, El-Saadany.E.F ,Wind Turbines Capacity Factor ModelingA Novel Approach, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 24, NO. 3, AUGUST 2009. Due to wind speed variability, a wind turbine is rarely operating at its rated output. Therefore, the capacity factor (CF) of a turbine is commonly used to estimate the average energy production, which in turn can be used for the economic appraisal of wind power projects. Moreover, CF models are used by manufacturers and wind power project developers for optimum turbine-site matching.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software The amount of energy produced by a turbine depends on the characteristics of both wind speed at the site and the turbines power performance curve. Wind speed at potential wind project sites is characterized by the parameters of the Weibull probability distribution function (pdf). The turbines power performance curve can be described by three parameters: the cut-in, rated, and cut-out speeds. This letter presents a novel approach to estimate the CF of variable speed wind turbines using the turbines power curve and the Weibull parameters of wind speed at any potential site. The advantage of the proposed model over the existing one is illustrated by a turbine-site selection case study. A new formulation for CF modeling using the site wind speed and the turbine power curve parameters is presented. When compared to the previous model, the proposed CF model is simpler and more accurate. The simulation results show when using the proposed model for optimum turbine-site matching, the energy yield can be increased by 5%. [3] Radwan .H Abdel-Hamid, Maged A. Abu Adma, Ashraf A. Fahmy, and Sherief F. Abdel Samed , Optimization of Wind Farm Power Generation Using New Unit Matching Technique ,2009 7th IEEE International Conference on Industrial Informatics (INDIN 2009). This paper presents a novel method for matching the wind farm with wind turbine generating units from the view point of site data and generator parameters. The paper focuses on selecting wind generator turbine parameters in order to optimize the generated energy while maximizing the utilization of the wind power available at the location. The study presents an improvement to the site performance by identifying the best turbine parameters that should be erected at the selected site to maximize the power generation.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software [4] Prasad.R.D, Bansal.R.C, Sauturaga.M, Some of the design and methodology considerations in wind resource assessment , IET Renewable Power Generation Received on 12th June 2007 Revised on 1st August 2008. Owing to the increasing power demand and the environmental concerns of the conventional power sources, power generation from wind is receiving due attention from majority of power planners. Since wind is an intermittent energy source and to find the economic viability of wind project, a proper wind resource assessment (WRA) and analysis of the data collected is very important. An extensive literature survey on WRA is carried out and the different techniques of WRA are discussed. The methodology includes discussions on preliminary wind survey to choose the best site for installing wind data instruments, selecting the optimum wind turbine suitable for a site and the uncertainties involved in estimating the wind speed using the different WRA techniques. Wind power plants consist of single wind machines to wind farms at different locations in the world. In the recent years, there have been lots of advancement in the wind power technologies due to political advancement and the policy framework, which has lead to a cost-competitive gridconnected wind farms in many parts of the world. The small-scale stand alone and off-grid hybrid energy systems are mostly used for energy supply in remote locations. With nearly 90% of all the life cycle costs of a wind power plant being upfront, the financial and economic viability of electricity generation from wind energy is dependent on the level and extent of energy content in winds prevalent at a particular site and also on the payment expected for power generated. Prevalent wind at any location is both site-specific and very much dependent on the terrain and topographic features around the location. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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For proper and beneficial development of wind power at any site, wind data analysis and accurate wind energy potential assessment are the key requirements. An accurate wind resource assessment (WRA) is an important and critical factor to be well understood for harnessing the power of the wind. The reason is that an error of 1% in wind speed measurement leads to a 3% error in energy output since energy is proportional to the cube of wind speed. It is well known that wind resource is seldom consistent and it varies with the time of the day, season of the year, height above the ground, type of terrain and from year to year. All of these factors lead to the reason why WRA and analysis should be done carefully and completely. The surface roughness and the obstacle in the vicinity of wind measuring tower are also important factors to be considered for WRA.
2.1.1 State-of-the art literature review on WRA:

Researchers recommend the following steps for site selection for a small wind turbine generator installation:
Survey of available meteorological information: These are generally available from the national weather station and may be biased towards airport sites.
Inspection and selection of candidate sites: During the inspection of potential sites, the exposure of the sites to all wind directions should be noted. Sites which are sheltered by other features and trees should be avoided. Also wind speed should be estimated and compared with wind speeds in the immediate neighbourhood.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Simple and sophisticated numerical terrain models: In simple terrain models, roughness coefficient and turbulence intensity are calculated. If more detail is required on the wind flow in complex terrain near proposed wind turbine sites, then the use of more sophisticated models may be appropriate. Some of the numerical models described by are Mason-King model D, MSFD and NOABL, WAsP (Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program) and FLOWSTAR.
Other evaluation technique: This includes the measure correlate predict (MCP) methods, where estimate of long-term mean wind speed is based on short-term measurements and long-term data from a reference site in the vicinity and may also include wind tunnel studies.
Wind measurement programme: This includes short-term wind speed recording and using MCP or wind speed and direction are recorded for long term.
These steps are in the ascending order of complexity and cost. They also progress from general regions to specific sites. One would start from a range of potential sites and eliminate sites after each step; finally, one site would be only left to carry out a wind measurement programme. A good wind site survey considers two aspects, that is, wind resource and wind machine, which means that to carry out wind site survey one should look at the wind conditions that would affect the wind energy output from the site and also non-wind conditions such as soil type, building and structures and so on that would affect the choice of wind turbine. A number of research papers present WRA of a site using wind speed data using the wind speed frequency distributions. Using of wind energy in large-scale for electric power generation is a relatively recent development. Wind was used for hundreds of years to power sailing vessels, drive

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software windmills, and pump water. Wind has many benefits that make it an attractive source of power for both utility-scale and small distributed power generation applications. The beneficial characteristics of wind power include clean and inexhaustible fuel, local economic development, modular and scalable technology, energy price stability, and reduced reliance on imported fuels. Electricity generated using wind power plays an important factor nowadays due to shortage of natural resources. It also provides clean power that doesnt harm the environment through emitting gases such as carbon and sulfur dioxides. Today, wind turbines have to compete with many other energy sources. So that it is important to be cost effective and should be able to meet load variations and produce energy at a minimum cost per dollar of investment. Production of Electricity using wind turbine generator at a specific site depends on many factors. These factors include the mean wind speed of the site and more significantly, the speed characteristics of the wind turbine itself namely, cut-in (Vc), rated (Vr), and furling (Vf) wind speeds at the hub height. There are many different models of wind turbine generators with the same kW ratings. Each of these wind turbines generators has its own specifications and speed parameters. These speed parameters affect the capacity factor at a given specific site, and subsequently affect the choice of the optimum wind turbine generator for that site.
Site matching techniques are based on identifying optimum turbine speed parameters that produces high energy at high capacity factor. Wind speeds are normally parameterized using mean cube root method and statistically modeled using Weibull probability density function. The Weibull distribution gives good match when used with experimental data. This distribution is characterized by two parameters: the shape parameter k (dimensionless) and scale parameter c (m/s).
2.1.2 Selecting a Wind Turbine Site:

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Wind Conditions :
Looking at nature itself is usually an excellent guide to finding a suitable wind turbine site. If there are trees and shrubs in the area, you may get a good clue about the prevailing wind direction.
Look for a view:

To have as wide and open a view as possible in the prevailing wind direction, and we would like to have as few obstacles and as low a roughness as possible in that same direction.
Grid Connection :
Obviously, large wind turbines have to be connected to the electrical grid. For smaller projects, it is therefore essential to be reasonably close to a 10-30 kilovolt power line if the costs of extending the electrical grid are not to be prohibitively high. The generators in large, modern wind turbines generally produce electricity at 690 volts. A transformer located next to the turbine, or inside the turbine tower, converts the electricity to high voltage (usually 10-30 kilovolts).
Grid Reinforcement :
The electrical grid near the wind turbine(s) should be able to receive the electricity coming from the turbine. If there are already many turbines connected to the grid, the grid may need reinforcement, i.e. a larger cable, perhaps connected closer to a higher voltage transformer station.
Soil Conditions :
Both the feasibility of building foundations of the turbines, and road construction to reach the site with heavy trucks must be taken into account with any wind turbine project. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Pitfalls in Using Meteorology Data :

Meteorologists already collect wind data for weather forecasts and aviation, and that information is often used to assess the general wind conditions for wind energy in an area. Precision measurement of wind speeds, and thus wind energy is not nearly as important for weather forecasting as it is for wind energy planning, however. Wind speeds are heavily influenced by the surface roughness of the surrounding area, of nearby obstacles (such as trees, lighthouses or other buildings), and by the contours of the local terrain. Unless during calculations which compensate for the local conditions under which the meteorology measurements were made, it is difficult to estimate wind conditions at a nearby site. In most cases using meteorology data directly will underestimate the true wind energy potential in an area.
Roughness Class terrain and Wind Shear :

Earth surface with its vegetation and buildings is the main factor reducing the wind speed. This is sometimes described as roughness of the terrain. As you move away from the earths surface, roughness decreases and the laminar flow of air increases. Expressed another way, increased height means greater wind speeds. High above ground level, at a height of about 1 kilometre, the wind is hardly influenced by the surface of the earth at all. In the lower layers of the atmosphere, however, wind speeds are affected by the friction against the surface of the earth. In the wind industry one distinguishes between the roughness of the terrain, the influence from obstacles, and the influence from the terrain contours, which is also called the orography of the area. For the wind power utilisation it means the higher the roughness of the earths surface, the more the wind will be slowed down. Wind speed is slowed down M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software considerably by forests and large cities, while plains like water surfaces or airports will only slow the wind down a little. Buildings, forests and other obstacles are not only reducing the wind speed but they often create turbulence in their neighbourhood. The lowest influences on the wind speed have the water surfaces. When people in the wind industry evaluate wind conditions in a landscape they describe it by roughness class. Higher roughness class means more obstacles in terrain and larger wind speed reduction. Sea surface is described as roughness class 0.
Roughness Class and Landscape Type:

0 = Water surface 0.5 = Completely open terrain with a smooth surface, e.g. runways in airports, mowed grass, etc. 1 = Open agricultural area without fences and hedgerows and very scattered buildings. Only softly rounded hills 1.5 = Agricultural land with some houses and 8 metre tall sheltering hedgerows with a distance of approx. 1250 metres 2 = Agricultural land with some houses and 8 metre tall sheltering hedgerows with a distance of approx. 500 metres 2.5 = Agricultural land with many houses, shrubs and plants, or 8 metre tall sheltering hedgerows with a distance of approx. 250 metres 3 = Villages, small towns, agricultural land with many or tall sheltering hedgerows, forests and very rough and uneven terrain 3.5 = Larger cities with tall buildings 4 = Very large cities with tall buildings and skyscrapers In the industry also the term wind shear is used. It describe the fact that
the wind profile is twisted towards a lower speed as we move closer to ground level. Wind shear may also be important when designing wind turbines. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Here large rotor diameter and only a few meter higher tower could mean that the wind is blowing with higher speed when the tip of the blade is in its uppermost position, and with much lower speed when the tip is in the bottom position.
The Wind Rose :
Fig 2.1.0 Wind rose for Brest, on the Atlantic coast of France It is seen that strong winds usually come from a particular direction. To show the information about the distributions of wind speeds, and the frequency of the varying wind directions, one may draw a so-called wind rose on the basis of meteorological observations of wind speeds and wind directions. The picture shows the wind rose for Brest, on the Atlantic coast of France. The compass is divided into 12 sectors, one for each 30 degrees of the horizon. (A wind rose may also be drawn for 8 or 16 sectors, but 12 sectors tend to be the standard set by the European Wind Atlas, from which this image was taken). The radius of the 12 outermost, wide wedges gives the relative frequency of each of the 12 wind directions, i.e. how many per cent of the time is the wind blowing from that direction. The second wedge gives the same information, but multiplied by the average wind speed in each particular direction. The result is then normalised to add up to 100 M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software per cent. This tells you how much each sector contributes to the average wind speed at our particular location. The innermost (red) wedge gives the same information as the first, but multiplied by the cube of the wind speed in each particular location. The result is then normalised to add up to 100 per cent. This tells you how much each sector contributes to the energy content of the wind at our particular location. Since the energy content of the wind varies with the cube of the wind speed, so the red wedges are really the most interesting ones. They tell us where to find the most power to drive our wind turbines. In this case we can see that the prevailing wind direction is Southwest.A wind rose gives you information on the relative wind speeds in different directions, i.e.each of the three sets of data (frequency, mean wind speed, and mean cube of wind speed) has been multiplied by a number which ensures that the largest wedge in the set exactly matches the radius of the outermost circle in the diagram.
Variable winds:
The wind speed is always fluctuating, and thus the energy content of the wind is always changing. Exactly how large the variation is depends both on the weather and on local surface conditions and obstacles. Energy output from a wind turbine will vary as the wind varies, although the most rapid variations will to some extent be compensated for by the inertia of the wind turbine rotor.
Turbulence:
Hailstorms or thunderstorms in particular, are associated with frequent gusts of wind which both change speed and direction. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software In areas with a very uneven terrain surface, and behind obstacles such as buildings there is similarly created a lot of turbulence, with very irregular wind flows, often in whirls or vortexes in the neighbourhood. Turbulence decreases the possibility of using the energy in the wind effectively for a wind turbine. It also imposes more tear and wear on the wind turbine. Towers for wind turbines are usually made tall enough to avoid turbulence from the wind close to ground level. Atmospheric turbulence is known to be anisotropic and is a function of surface roughness atmospheric stability and distance above the ground.
Turbulence intensity I is defined by,
(2.1.0) Where is the standard deviation of the wind velocity in the average wind direction, and is the magnitude of the average wind velocity. In principle the intensity is different for each wind direction.
Wind obstacles:
Obstacles will decrease the wind speed downstream from the obstacle. The decrease in wind speed depends on the porosity of the obstacle, i.e. how "open" the obstacle is. (Porosity is defined as the open area divided by the total area of the object facing the wind). A building is obviously solid, and has no porosity, whereas a fairly open tree in winter (with no leaves) may let more than half of the wind through. In summer, however, the foliage may be very dense, so as to make the porosity less than, say one third. The slowdown effect on the wind from an obstacle increases with the height and length of the obstacle. The effect is obviously more pronounced close to the obstacle, and close to the ground. When manufacturers or developers calculate the energy production for wind turbines, they always take obstacles into account if they are close to the turbine say, less than 1 kilometre away in one of the more important wind directions.

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Wake Effect :
Fig
2.1.1
Meandering
wake
behind
an
ENERCON
E-66
wind
turbine.
Blue represents high wind speed, and white represents low speed. Since a wind turbine generates electricity from the energy in the wind, the wind leaving the turbine must have lower energy content than the wind arriving in front of the turbine. This follows directly from the fact that energy can neither be created nor consumed. A wind turbine will always cast a wind shade in the downwind direction. In fact, there will be a wake behind the turbine, i.e. a long trail of wind which is quite turbulent and slowed down, when compared to the wind arriving in front of the turbine. You can actually see the wake trailing behind a wind turbine, if you add smoke to the air passing through the turbine. Wind turbines in parks are usually spaced at least three rotor diameters from one another in order to avoid too much turbulence around the turbines downstream. In the prevailing wind direction turbines are usually spaced even farther apart.
Extreme wind speeds :

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Certain wind project sites may experience extreme wind speeds caused by a severe weather situation, such as a hurricane or tornado. Since extreme wind events may result in mechanical load levels that can lead to damage or failure of wind turbine components. All the wind turbines are designed to withstand a certain level of loading caused by an extreme wind event. As defined in the IEC 61400-1 wind turbine design/safety standard, the largest wind speed to be considered is the maximum gust over a 50-year return period for a specified averaging time period.
Park effect:
Each wind turbine will slow down the wind behind it as it pulls energy out of the wind and converts it to electricity. Ideally, it is preferred to space turbines as far apart as possible in the prevailing wind direction. But, on the other hand, land use and the cost of connecting wind turbines to the electrical grid would tell us to space them closer together.
Park Layout :

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Fig 2.1.2 Wind farm park layout As a rule of thumb, turbines in wind parks are usually spaced somewhere between 5 and 9 rotor diameters apart in the prevailing wind direction, and between 3 and 5 diameters apart in the direction perpendicular to the prevailing winds. In this picture the placement has three rows of five turbines each in a fairly typical pattern. The turbines (the white dots) are placed 7 diameters apart in the prevailing wind direction, and 4 diameters apart in the direction perpendicular to the prevailing winds. Energy Loss from the Park Effect With knowledge of the wind turbine rotor, the wind rose, the Weibull distribution and the roughness in the different directions manufacturers or developers can calculate the energy loss due to wind turbines shading one another. Typically, the energy loss will be somewhere around 5 per cent.
The tunnel effect:

The air becomes compressed on the windy side of the buildings or mountains, and its speed increases considerably between the obstacles to the wind. This is known as a "tunnel effect". So, even if the general wind speed in open terrain may be, say, 6 metres per second, it can easily reach 9 metres per second in a natural "tunnel".

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Placing a wind turbine in such a tunnel is one clever way of obtaining higher wind speeds than in the surrounding areas. To obtain a good tunnel effect the tunnel should be "softly" embedded in the landscape. In case the hills are very rough and uneven, there may be lots of turbulence in the area, i.e. the wind will be whirling in a lot of different (and rapidly changing) directions. If there is much turbulence it may negate the wind speed advantage completely, and the changing winds may inflict a lot of useless tear and wear on the wind turbine.
The hill effect:

A common way of siting wind turbines is to place them on hills or ridges overlooking the surrounding landscape. In particular, it is always an advantage to have as wide a view as possible in the prevailing wind direction in the area. On hills, one may also experience that wind speeds are higher than in the surrounding area. Once again, this is due to the fact that the wind becomes compressed on the windy side of the hill, and once the air reaches the ridge it can expand again as its soars down into the low pressure area on the lee side of the hill.
Fig 2.1.3 Diagram indicating the wind tunnel effect You may notice that the wind in the picture starts bending some time before it reaches the hill, because the high pressure area actually extends quite some distance out in front of the hill. Also, you may notice that the wind becomes very irregular, once it passes through the wind turbine rotor. As before, if the hill is steep or has an uneven surface, one M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software may get significant amounts of turbulence, which may negate the advantage of higher wind speeds.
2.1.3 Turbine design: Tower height:

The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the drag of the surface (sea or land) and the viscosity of the air. The variation in velocity with altitude, called wind shear, is most dramatic near the surface. Typically, in daytime the variation follows the 1/7th power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the expected wind speeds by 10% and the expected power by 34%. Doubling the tower height generally requires doubling the diameter as well, increasing the amount of material by a factor of eight. At night time, or when the atmosphere becomes stable, wind speed close to the ground usually subsides whereas at turbine hub altitude it does not decrease that much or may even increase. As a result the wind speed is higher and a turbine will produce more power than expected from the 1/7th power law: doubling the altitude may increase wind speed by 20% to 60%. A stable atmosphere is caused by radiative cooling of the surface and is common in a temperate climate: it usually occurs when there is a (partly) clear sky at night. When the (high altitude) wind is strong (a 10-meter (33 ft) wind speed higher than approximately 6 to 7 m/s (20-23 ft/s)) the stable atmosphere is disrupted because of friction turbulence and the atmosphere will turn neutral. A daytime atmosphere is either neutral (no net radiation; usually with strong winds and/or heavy clouding) or unstable (rising air because of ground heating by the sun). Here again the 1/7th power law applies or is at least a good approximation of the wind profile.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software For HAWTs, tower heights approximately two to three times the blade length have been found to balance material costs of the tower against better utilisation of the more expensive active components.
Tower Stiffness:
A key consideration in wind turbine design is the avoidance of resonant tower oscillations excited by rotor thrust fluctuations at rotational or bladepassing frequency. The damping ratio may be only 23 percent for tower fore -aft oscillations and an order of magnitude less for side-to-side motion, so unacceptably large stresses and deflections could develop if the blade-passing frequency and tower natural frequency were to coincide. Rotational frequency is less of a concern, because cyclic loadings at this frequency only arise if there are geometrical differences between blades. Wind-turbine towers are customarily categorized according to the relationship between the tower natural frequency and the exciting frequencies. Towers with a natural frequency greater than the blade-passing frequency are said to be stiff, while those with a natural frequency lying between rotational frequency and blade passing frequency are said to be soft. If the natural frequency is less than rotational frequency, the tower is described as softsoft. If the tower is designed to meet strength requirements and no more, its frequency category is primarily determined by the ratio of tower height to turbine diameter, with the higher ratios producing the softer towers. The principal benefits of stiff towers are modest they allow the turbine to run up to speed without passing through resonance, and tend to radiate less sound. However, since stiff towers usually require the provision of extra material not otherwise required for strength, soft towers are generally preferred.
Personnel Safety and Access Issues:

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An integral part of wind-turbine design is the inclusion of the necessary safety provisions for operation and maintenance staff. Minimum requirements include the following: ladder access to the nacelle this needs to be fitted with a fall-arrest device, unless ladder runs are short and protected by intermediate landings; careful attention needs to be paid to the route between the tower top and nacelle to avoid hazards arising from sudden yawing movements; an alternative means of egress from the nacelle, for use in case of fire in the tower this can take the form of an inertia-reel device, enabling personnel to lower themselves through a hatch in the nacelle floor; locking devices for immobilizing the rotor and the yawing mechanism rotor brakes and yaw brakes are not considered sufficient, because of the risk of accidental release and the occasional need to deactivate them for maintenance purposes; the rotor locking device should act on the low-speed shaft, so that its effectiveness is not dependent on the integrity of the gearbox typically the device consists of a pin mounted in a fixed housing, which can be engaged in a hole in a shaft-mounted disc. Guards to shield any rotating parts within the nacelle. Suitable fixtures for the attachment of safety harnesses for personnel working outside the nacelle. The designer needs to assess the requirement for all-weather access to the nacelle at an early stage. Lattice towers afford no protection from the weather when climbing, so the number of days on which access for maintenance is possible will be restricted. Similar restrictions will arise if the nacelle cover has to be opened to the elements in order to provide space for personnel to enter.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Consideration also needs to be given to the means of raising and lowering tools and spares. If the interior of the tower is interrupted by intermediate platforms, these operations have to be performed outside, with consequent weather limitations. Standard rules for electrical safety apply to all electrical equipment. However, particular care must be taken with the routing of electrical cables between tower and nacelle, in order to avoid potential damage due to chafing when they twist. If the power transformer is located in the tower base or nacelle instead of in a separate enclosure at ground level, it should be partitioned off to minimize the fire risk to personnel.
Blade count:
The determination of the number of blades involves design considerations of aerodynamic efficiency, component costs, system reliability, and aesthetics. Noise emissions are affected by the location of the blades upwind or downwind of the tower and the speed of the rotor. Typically one bladed rotors will operate at higher tip speed ratios. Given that the noise emissions vary by the 7th power of blade speed, a small increase in speed can make a big difference. Wind turbines developed over the last 50 years have almost universally used either two or three blades. Aerodynamic efficiency increases with number of blades but with diminishing return. Increasing the number of blades from one to two yields a six percent increase in aerodynamic efficiency, whereas increasing the blade count from two to three yields only an additional three percent in efficiency. Further increasing the blade count yields minimal improvements in aerodynamic efficiency and sacrifices too much in blade stiffness as the blades become thinner. Component costs that are affected by blade count are primarily for materials and manufacturing of the turbine rotor and drive train. Generally, the fewer the number of blades, the lower the material and manufacturing costs will be. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software In addition, the fewer the number of blades, the higher the rotational speed will be. This is because blade stiffness requirements to avoid interference with the tower limit how thin the blades can be. Fewer blades with higher rotational speeds reduce peak torques in the drive train, resulting in lower gearbox and generator costs. System reliability is affected by blade count primarily through the dynamic loading of the rotor into the drive train and tower systems. While aligning the wind turbine to changes in wind direction (yawing), each blade experiences a cyclic load at its root end depending on blade position. This is true of one, two, three blades or more. However, these cyclic loads when combined together at the drive train shaft are symmetrically balanced for three blades, yielding smoother operation during turbine yaw. Turbines with one or two blades can use a pivoting teetered hub to also nearly eliminate the cyclic loads into the drive shaft and system during yawing. Finally, aesthetics can be considered a factor in that some people find that the three-bladed rotor is more pleasing to look at than a one- or two-bladed rotor.
Rotation control:
Tip speed ratio :

The ratio between the speed of the wind and the speed of the tip of the blade of a wind turbine. High efficiency 3-blade-turbines have tip speed/wind speed ratios of 6 to 7. Modern wind turbines are designed to spin at varying speeds (a consequence of their generator design). Use of aluminum and composites in their blades has contributed to low rotational inertia, which means that newer wind turbines can accelerate quickly if the winds pick up, keeping the tip speed ratio more nearly constant. Operating closer to their optimal tip speed ratio during energetic gusts of wind allows wind turbines to improve energy capture from sudden gusts that are typical in urban settings.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software In contrast, older style wind turbines were designed with heavier steel blades, which have higher inertia, and rotated at speeds governed by the AC frequency of the power lines. The high inertia buffered the changes in rotation speed and thus made power output more stable. The speed and torque at which a wind turbine rotates must be controlled for several reasons:

To optimize the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor in light winds. To keep the generator within its speed and torque limits. To keep the rotor and hub within their centripetal force limits. The centripetal force from the spinning rotors increases as the square of the rotation speed, which makes this structure sensitive to overspeed.
To keep the rotor and tower within their strength limits. Because the power of the wind increases as the cube of the wind speed, turbines have to be built to survive much higher wind loads (such as gusts of wind) than those from which they can practically generate power. Since the blades generate more downwind force (and thus put far greater stress on the tower) when they are producing torque, most wind turbines have ways of reducing torque in high winds.
To enable maintenance; because it is dangerous to have people working on a wind turbine while it is active, it is sometimes necessary to bring a turbine to a full stop.
To reduce noise; As a rule of thumb, the noise from a wind turbine increases with the fifth power of the relative wind speed (as seen from the moving tip of the blades). In noise-sensitive environments, the tip speed can be limited to approximately 60 m/s (200 ft/s). Overspeed control is exerted in two main ways: aerodynamic stalling or
furling and mechanical braking. Furling is the preferred method of slowing wind turbines.

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Stalling and furling:

Stalling works by increasing the angle at which the relative wind strikes the blades (angle of attack), and it reduces the induced drag (drag associated with lift). Stalling is simple because it can be made to happen passively (it increases automatically when the winds speed up), but it increases the cross-section of the blade face-on to the wind, and thus the ordinary drag. A fully stalled turbine blade, when stopped, has the flat side of the blade facing directly into the wind. Furling works by decreasing the angle of attack, which reduces the induced drag from the lift of the rotor, as well as the cross-section. One major problem in designing wind turbines is getting the blades to stall or furl quickly enough should a gust of wind cause sudden acceleration. A fully furled turbine blade, when stopped, has the edge of the blade facing into the wind. A fixed-speed HAWT inherently increases its angle of attack at higher wind speed as the blades speed up. A natural strategy, then, is to allow the blade to stall when the wind speed increases. This technique was successfully used on many early HAWTs. However, on some of these blade sets, it was observed that the degree of blade pitch tended to increase audible noise levels. Standard modern turbines all furl the blades in high winds. Since furling requires acting against the torque on the blade, it requires some form of pitch angle control. Many turbines use hydraulic systems. These systems are usually spring loaded, so that if hydraulic power fails, the blades automatically furl. Other turbines use an electric servomotor for every rotor blade. They have a small batteryreserve in case of an electric-grid breakdown. Small wind turbines (under 50 kW) with variable-pitching generally use systems operated by centrifugal force, either by flyweights or geometric design, and employ no electric or hydraulic controls.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software The variable wind speed wind turbine uses furling as its main method of rotation control. The wind turbines have three modes of operation:

Below rated wind speed operation Around rated wind speed operation Above rated wind speed operation At above rated wind speed the rotors furl at an angle to maintain the
torque. This is also known as feathering.
Electrical braking:
Fig 2.1.4
Dynamic braking resistor for wind turbine.
Braking of a turbine can also be done by dumping energy from the generator into a resistor bank, converting the kinetic energy of the turbine rotation into heat. This method is useful if the kinetic load on the generator is suddenly reduced or is too small to keep the turbine speed within its allowed limit.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Cyclically braking causes the blades to slow down, which increases the stalling effect, reducing the efficiency of the blades. This way, the turbine's rotation can be kept at a safe speed in faster winds while maintaining (nominal) power output.
Mechanical braking:
A mechanical drum brake or disk brake is used to hold the turbine at rest for maintenance. Such brakes are usually applied only after blade furling and electromagnetic braking have reduced the turbine speed, as the mechanical brakes would wear quickly if used to stop the turbine from full speed. There can also be a stick brake.
Turbine size:
Fig 2.1.5 A person standing beside medium size modern turbine blades. For a given survivable wind speed, the mass of a turbine is approximately proportional to the cube of its blade-length. Wind power intercepted by the turbine is proportional to the square of its blade-length. The maximum blade-length of a turbine is limited by both the strength and stiffness of its material. Labour and maintenance costs increase only gradually with increasing turbine size, so to minimize costs, wind farm turbines are basically limited by the strength of materials, and siting requirements. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Typical modern wind turbines have diameters of 40 to 90 meters (130-300 ft) and are rated between 500 KW and 2 MW.
Materials:
One of the strongest and stiffest construction materials available for wind turbine blades is carbon-fibre in an epoxy resin matrix. However, this is very expensive and can only be used by some blade manufactures for highly loaded parts of the rotor blades - when stiffness is critical. Modern rotor blades (up to 126 m (413 ft) diameter) are made of lightweight glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) with an epoxy or polyester resin matrix. Smaller blades can sometimes be made from aluminium, however GRP is the most common material for modern wind turbine blades. In sum, wind turbine blades can be made from a wide variety of materials, though some are more effective than others. Wood and canvas sails were originally used on early windmills due to being cheap and easily manufactured. Unfortunately, they require much maintenance over their service life. Also, they have a relatively high drag (low aerodynamic efficiency) for the force they capture. For these reasons they were superseded with solid airfoils.
Generating electricity:
For large, commercial size horizontal-axis wind turbines, the generator is mounted in a nacelle at the top of a tower, behind the hub of the turbine rotor. Typically wind turbines generate electricity through asynchronous machines that are directly connected with the electricity grid. Usually the rotational speed of the wind turbine is slower than the equivalent rotation speed of the electrical network - typical rotation speeds for a wind generators are 5-20 rpm while a directly connected machine will have an electrical speed between 750-3600 rpm. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Therefore, a gearbox is inserted between the rotor hub and the generator. This also reduces the generator cost and weight. Commercial size generators have a rotor carrying a field winding so that a rotating magnetic field is produced inside a set of windings called the stator. While the rotating field winding consumes a fraction of a percent of the generator output, adjustment of the field current allows good control over the generator output voltage. Very small wind generators (a few watts to perhaps a kilowatt in output) may use permanent magnets but these are too costly to use in large machines and do not allow convenient regulation of the generator voltage. Electrical generators inherently produce AC power. Older style wind generators rotate at a constant speed, to match power line frequency, which allowed the use of less costly induction generators. Newer wind turbines often turn at whatever speed generates electricity most efficiently. This can be solved using multiple technologies such as doubly fed induction generators or full-effect converters where the variable frequency current produced is converted to DC and then back to AC, matching the line frequency and voltage. Although such alternatives require costly equipment and cause power loss, the turbine can capture a significantly larger fraction of the wind energy. In some cases, especially when turbines are sited offshore, the DC energy will be transmitted from the turbine to a central (onshore) inverter for connection to the grid.
2.1.4 Wind class classification:

Table 2.1.0 WIND CLASS (Source: http://rredc.nrel.gov)

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Wind power class 10 m (33 ft) Wind Power Density (W/m2) 0 100 2 150 3 200 4 250 5 300 6 400 7 1000 9.4(21.1) 2000 11.9(26.6) 7.0(15.7) 800 8.8(19.7) 6.4(14.3) 600 8.0(17.9) 6.0(13.4) 500 7.5(16.8) 5.6(12.5) 400 7.0(15.7) 5.1(11.5) 300 6.4(14.3) Speed m/s (mph) 0 4.4(9.8) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Power Density (W/m2) 0 200 Speed m/s (mph) 0 5.6(12.5)
(a) Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law. (b) Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equivalent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the same power density, speed increases 3%/1000m (5%/5000) elevation. Note: Each wind power class should span two power densities. For example, wind power class =3 represents the Wind Power Density range between 150 W/m 2 and 200 W/m2. The offset cells in the first column attempt to illustrate this concept.
2.1.5 Fatigue Loads (Forces) :

Wind turbines are subject to fluctuating winds, and hence fluctuating forces. This is particularly the case if they are located in a very turbulent wind M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software climate. Components which are subject to repeated bending, such as rotor blades, may eventually develop cracks which ultimately may make the component break. A historical example is the huge German Growian machine (100 m rotor diameter) which had to be taken out of service after less than three weeks of operation. Metal fatigue is a well known problem in many industries. Metal is therefore generally not favoured as a material for rotor blades. When designing a wind turbine it is extremely important to calculate in advance how the different components will vibrate, both individually, and jointly. It is also important to calculate the forces involved in each bending or stretching of a component.
2.1.6 Extreme wind speeds :

Certain wind project sites may experience extreme wind speeds caused by a severe weather situation, such as a hurricane or tornado. Since extreme wind events may result in mechanical load levels that can lead to damage or failure of wind turbine components. All the wind turbines are designed to withstand a certain level of loading caused by an extreme wind event. As defined in the IEC 61400-1 wind turbine design/safety standard, the largest wind speed to be considered is the maximum gust over a 50-year return period for a specified averaging time period. Wind turbine component damage or failure can occur when extreme wind produces forces on the wind turbine plant buildings/machines above the wind turbine design limit. Failures may not only prohibit the operation of the wind turbine, but could also lead to third party risk. Natural disasters such as hurricanes and tornadoes are well documented and the areas they affect are well defined, but their occurrence and behaviour are not well anticipated. Furthermore, other natural storming wind producers such as

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software but not limited tosquall lines, microburst, or extra-tropical cyclones can occur at anytime, regardless of the location on the globe. With todays meteorological knowledge, predicting the maximum wind speed from a storm is unrealistic in most cases. The mode of failure of a wind turbine due to an extreme wind event cannot be generalized and depends on the turbine type and configuration, as well as the specifics of the extreme wind event and site conditions. Examples of possible failure scenarios include blade failure or a tower buckling or overturning. When winds are above the cut-out speed, the wind turbine should have its blades idling in a position creating minimal torque on the rotor. This is the only safety mechanism other than the yaw control. If a grid failure were to occur in conjunction with an extreme wind eventwhich is a likely scenariothe yaw control will become inactive. The loss of yaw control could increase the likelihood of damage/failure in the case of an extreme wind event. Also, the grid components/structures could also be part of the potential windborne debris. At this time, there is less modelling capability in place that can predict the impact made to a wind plant if an extreme wind event occurs. The decision to build a wind site and to protect the public from negative impacts of an extreme wind event is the responsibility of the project developer/owner. For some types of wind eventssuch as tropical cyclonesthere is meteorological expertise/data to quantify the probability of occurrence of a wind gust above the design limit of the wind turbine that is being considered for a particular area. Based upon recognized industry practices, it is generally suggested that the following actions can be considered when siting turbines in order to mitigate risk resulting from extreme wind speed events: Turbine Siting: For sites located in well-known storm areas, where winds could lead to extreme damaging gusts, a good approach is to assess the remoteness of M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software the potential wind plant. As mentioned before, some natural disasters could lead to extreme wind speeds above the design limit of any wind turbines. Remote areas usually tend to reduce the potential for collateral damage in the event of storming winds; however the risk to wind turbine equipment is independent of the remoteness of the site. Physical and Visual Warnings : Should a customer decide to build on a site with extreme wind risk, it is recommended that the site be made private by using a fence and visual warning signs at the boundary of every siteregardless of its location.
Turbine Deactivation: Ensure that equipment is in good working order and that turbine control systems designed to protect equipment in the event of an extreme wind speed occurrence are operational.
Operator Safety: Restrict access to the wind plant by site personnel while extreme wind speed conditions exist. If site personnel must access the site while extreme wind speed conditions either exist or are probable, safety precautions may include remotely shutting down the turbine, yawing to place the turbine rotor on the opposite side of the tower access door, and parking vehicles at a safe distance from the tower. Operating a wind turbine that has experienced an extreme wind event may not be safe and the wind turbine should be thoroughly inspected before normal operation is resumed.
2.1.7 Potential Wind Damages According to Wind Speed Distribution:
Table 2.1.1 Potential wind damages according to wind speed distribution

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2.1.8 GRID INTEGRATION:

It has been proven that wind power can be successfully integrated with the power grid. The degree of this success and the level of wind penetration varies largely on: M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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The design limits of the tie-linethe key design parameters being: Voltage levels Capacity Voltage Regulation Tie-line Stability Interface standardsmainly related to power quality, which in turn determines the renewable capacity limit. Power Quality issues are: Harmonic Distortion Voltage Transients and Sags Voltage Flicker Step Load Voltage The firm capacity of the windfarm and the associated wind power dispatch issues. Load following Scheduling Reserve Response to abnormal conditions: Voltage disturbances Faults
2.1.9 Wind turbine control and Generator control:

The wind turbine generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. Wind turbine generators are a bit unusual, compared to other generating units you ordinarily find attached to the electrical grid. One reason is that the generator has to work

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software with a power source (the wind turbine rotor) which supplies very fluctuating mechanical power (torque).
Fig 2.1.6 Wind turbine generator
Generating Voltage (tension) :

On large wind turbines (above 100-150 kW) the voltage (tension) generated by the turbine is usually 690 V three-phase alternating current (AC). The current is subsequently sent through a transformer next to the wind turbine (or inside the tower) to raise the voltage to somewhere between 10,000 and 30,000 volts, depending on the standard in the local electrical grid. Large manufacturers will supply both 50 Hz wind turbine models (for the electrical grids in most of the world) and 60 Hz models (for the electrical grid in America).
Cooling System :
Generators need cooling while they work. On most turbines this is accomplished by encapsulating the generator in a duct, using a large fan for air cooling, M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software but a few manufacturers use water cooled generators. Water cooled generators may be built more compactly, which also gives some electrical efficiency advantages, but they require a radiator in the nacelle to get rid of the heat from the liquid cooling system.
Starting and Stopping the Generator :

If you connected (or disconnected) a large wind turbine generator to the grid by flicking an ordinary switch, you would be quite likely to damage both the generator, the gearbox and the current in the grid in the neighbourhood.
Design Choices in Generators and Grid Connection :

Wind turbines may be designed with either synchronous or asynchronous generators, and with various forms of direct or indirect grid connection of the generator. Direct grid connection mean that the generator is connected directly to the (usually 3-phase) alternating current grid. Indirect grid connection means that the current from the turbine passes through a series of electric devices which adjust the current to match that of the grid. With an asynchronous generator this occurs automatically.
Synchronous Generators :
The synchronous machine is one in which a.c flows in the armature winding and D.C. is applied to the field winding. The armature winding is usually on the stator. Synchronous generators are usually rated in terms of the maximum kVA loads at the specified voltage and power factor, which they carry continuously without overheating. The main steady-state operating characteristics are: M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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I. Field current versus armature current II. Terminal voltage versus armature current. Consider a synchronous generator delivering power at constant frequency to a unity power factor (i.e. resistive) load. The curve showing the field current required to maintain rated terminal voltage as the constant power factor load is varied is known as the compounding curve. The compounding curve at any other power factor can also be determined. If the field current is held constant while the load varies, the terminal voltage will vary. Characteristic curves of terminal voltage can be plotted against armature current for any constant power factor load. The curve can be drawn for one value of field current which is usually the value required to give rated terminal voltage at rated armature current. The variation of terminal voltage with load is due to the influence of armature reaction. When the power factor of the load is unity, the fall in voltage with increase of load is comparatively small. With an inductive load, the demagnetising effect of armature e reaction causes the terminal voltage to fall much more rapidly. In many industrial installations, fluctuations of load are heavy. Due to rapid variations of load from instant to instant, the voltage also fluctuates considerably, because of the varying voltage drop in the armature circuit. To overcome this unsatisfactory feature, automatic voltage regulators are usually provided to maintain the generator voltage reasonably constant in spite of the fluctuating load. The voltage is increased when the load is high and decreased when the load comes down.

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3-Phase Generator (or Motor) Principles :
Fig 2.1.7 All 3-phase generators (or motors) use a rotating magnetic field.
In the picture to the left we have installed three electromagnets around a circle. Each of the three magnets is connected to its own phase in the three phase electrical grid. As you can see, each of the three electromagnets alternate between producing a South pole and a North pole towards the centre. The letters are shown in black when the magnetism is strong, and in light grey when the magnetism is weak. The fluctuation in magnetism corresponds exactly to the fluctuation in voltage of each phase. When one phase is at its peak, the other two have the current running in the opposite direction, at half the voltage. Since the timing of current in the three magnets is one third of a cycle apart, the magnetic field will make one complete revolution per cycle.
Synchronous Motor Operation :

The compass needle (with the North pole painted red) will follow the magnetic field exactly, and make one revolution per cycle. With a 50 Hz

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software grid, the needle will make 50 revolutions per second, i.e. 50 times 60 = 3000 rpm (revolutions per minute). In the picture above, we have in fact managed to build what is called a 2-pole permanent magnet synchronous motor. The reason why it is called a synchronous motor, is that the magnet in the centre will rotate at a constant speed which is synchronous with (running exactly like the cycle in) the rotation of the magnetic field. The reason why it is called a 2-pole motor is that it has one North and one South pole. It may look like three poles to you, but in fact the compass needle feels the pull from the sum of the magnetic fields around its own magnetic field. So, if the magnet at the top is a strong South pole, the two magnets at the bottom will add up to a strong North pole. The reason why it is called a permanent magnet motor is that the compass needle in the centre is a permanent magnet, not an electromagnet. (You could make a real motor by replacing the compass needle by a powerful permanent magnet, or an electromagnet which maintains its magnetism through a coil (wound around an iron core) which is fed with direct current). The setup with the three electromagnets is called the stator in the motor, because this part of the motor remains static (in the same place). The compass needle in the centre is called the rotor, obviously because it rotates.
Synchronous Generator Operation :

If you start forcing the magnet around (instead of letting the current from the grid move it), you will discover that it works like a generator, sending alternating current back into the grid. (You should have a more powerful magnet to produce much electricity). The more force (torque) you apply, the more electricity you generate, but the generator will still run at the same speed dictated by the frequency of the electrical grid.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software You may disconnect the generator completely from the grid, and start your own private 3-phase electricity grid, hooking your lamps up to the three coils around the electromagnets. If you disconnect the generator from the main grid, however, you will have to crank it at a constant rotational speed in order to produce alternating current with a constant frequency. Consequently, with this type of generator you will normally want to use an indirect grid connection of the generator. In practice, permanent magnet synchronous generators are not used very much. There are several reasons for this. One reason is that permanent magnets tend to become demagnetised by working in the powerful magnetic fields inside a generator. Another reason is that powerful magnets (made of rare earth metals, e.g. Neodynium) are quite expensive, even if prices have dropped lately.
Wind Turbines With Synchronous Generators :

Wind turbines which use synchronous generators normally use electromagnets in the rotor which are fed by direct current from the electrical grid. Since the grid supplies alternating current, they first have to convert alternating current to direct current before sending it into the coil windings around the electromagnets in the rotor. The rotor electromagnets are connected to the current by using brushes and slip rings on the axle (shaft) of the generator.
Changing Generator Rotational Speed : A Four Pole Generator :

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Fig 2.1.8 A four pole generator
The speed of a generator (or motor) which is directly connected to a three-phase grid is constant, and dictated by the frequency of the grid, as we learned on the previous page. If you double the number of magnets in the stator however, you can ensure that the magnetic field rotates at half the speed. In the picture to the left, you see how the magnetic field now moves clockwise for half a revolution before it reaches the same magnetic pole as before. We have simply connected the six magnets to the three phases in a clockwise order. This generator (or motor) has four poles at all times, two South and two North. Since a four pole generator will only take half a revolution per cycle, it will obviously make 25 revolutions per second on a 50 Hz grid, or 1500 revolutions per minute (rpm). When we double the number of poles in the stator of a synchronous generator we will have to double the number of magnets in the rotor as you see on the picture. Otherwise the poles will not match.
Numbers of Poles :
Obviously, we could repeat what we just did, and introduce another pair of poles, by adding 3 more electromagnets to the stator. With 9 magnets we M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software get a 6 pole machine, which will run at 1000 rpm on a 50 Hz grid. The general result is the following:
Synchronous Generator Speeds (rpm) :

Table 2.1.2 Values of rpm for different pole number
Pole number 2 4 6 8 10 12 Rpm (for 50 Hertz) 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500 Rpm (For 60 Hertz) 3600 1800 1200 900 720 600
The term "synchronous generator speed" thus refers to the speed of the generator when it is running synchronously with the grid frequency. It applies to all sorts of generators, however, In the case of asynchronous (induction) generators it is equivalent to the idle speed of the generator.
High or low speed generators :

Most wind turbines use generators with four or six poles. The reasons for using these relatively high-speed generators are savings on size and cost. The maximum force (torque) a generator can handle depends on the rotor volume. For a given power output you then have the choice between a slow-moving, large (expensive) generator, or a high-speed (cheaper) smaller generator.
Asynchronous (Induction) Generators:

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Fig 2.1.9 Asynchronous (Induction) Generators Most wind turbines in the world use a so-called three phase asynchronous (cage wound) generator, also called an induction generator to generate alternating current. This type of generator is not widely used outside the wind turbine industry, and in small hydropower units, but the world has a lot of experience in dealing with it anyway: The curious thing about this type of generator is that it was really originally designed as an electric motor. In fact, one third of the world's electricity consumption is used for running induction motors driving machinery in factories, pumps, fans, compressors, elevators, and other applications where you need to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. One reason for choosing this type of generator is that it is very reliable, and tends to be comparatively inexpensive. The generator also has some mechanical properties which are useful for wind turbines. (Generator slip and a certain overload capability).
The Cage Rotor:

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Fig 2.2.0 Figure of a cage rotor The rotor that makes the asynchronous generator different from the synchronous generator. The rotor consists of a number of copper or aluminium bars which are connected electrically by aluminium end rings. In the picture at the top of the page you see how the rotor is provided with an "iron" core, using a stack of thin insulated steel laminations, with holes punched for the conducting aluminium bars. The rotor is placed in the middle of the stator, which in this case, once again, is a 4-pole stator which is directly connected to the three phases of the electrical grid.
Motor Operation :
When the current is connected, the machine will start turning like a motor at a speed which is just slightly below the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field from the stator. Now, what is happening?
Fig 2.2.1 Figure indicating motor operation

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software If we look at the rotor bars from above (in the picture to the right) we have a magnetic field which moves relative to the rotor. This induces a very strong current in the rotor bars which offer very little resistance to the current, since they are short circuited by the end rings. The rotor then develops its own magnetic poles, which in turn become dragged along by the electromagnetic force from the rotating magnetic field in the stator.
Generator Operation :
Now, what happens if we manually crank this rotor around at exactly the synchronous speed of the generator, e.g. 1500 rpm (revolutions per minute), as we saw for the 4-pole synchronous generator on the previous page? The answer is: Nothing. Since the magnetic field rotates at exactly the same speed as the rotor, we see no induction phenomena in the rotor, and it will not interact with the stator. But what if we increase speed above 1500 rpm? In that case the rotor moves faster than the rotating magnetic field from the stator , which means that once again the stator induces a strong current in the rotor. The harder you crank the rotor, the more power will be transferred as an electromagnetic force to the stator, and in turn converted to electricity which is fed into the electrical grid.
Generator Slip :
The speed of the asynchronous generator will vary with the turning force (moment, or torque) applied to it. In practice, the difference between the rotational speed at peak power and at idle is very small, about 1 per cent. This difference in per cent of the synchronous speed , is called the generator's slip. Thus a 4-pole generator will run idle at 1500 rpm if it is attached to a grid with a 50 Hz current. If the generator is producing at its maximum power, it will be running at 1515 rpm. It is a very useful mechanical property that the generator will increase or decrease its speed slightly if the torque varies. This means that there will be less tear and wear on the gearbox. (Lower peak torque). This is one of the most important reasons for M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software using an asynchronous generator rather than a synchronous generator on a wind turbine which is directly connected to the electrical grid.
Automatic Pole Adjustment of the Rotor :

It can be notice that we did not specify the number of poles in the stator when we described the rotor? The clever thing about the cage rotor is that it adapts itself to the number of poles in the stator automatically. The same rotor can therefore be used with a wide variety of pole numbers.
Grid Connection Required :

An asynchronous generator is different, because it requires the stator to be magnetised from the grid before it works. You can run an asynchronous generator in a stand alone system, however, if it is provided with capacitors which supply the necessary magnetisation current. It also requires that there be some remanence in the rotor iron, i.e. some leftover magnetism when you start the turbine. Otherwise you will need a battery and power electronics, or a small diesel generator to start the system).
Changing the Number of Generator Poles :

Generators (and motors) are usually made with a very large number of stator magnets anyway, as you see in the picture. (We have not yet added the stator coil windings on the iron). The reason for this stator arrangement is that we wish to minimise the air gap between the rotor and the stator. At the the same time we need to provide cooling of the magnets. The stator iron in reality consists of a large number of thin (0.5 mm) insulated steel sheets which are stacked to form the stator iron. This M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software layering is done to prevent current eddies in the stator iron from decreasing the efficiency of the generator. The problem of providing more generator poles on an asynchronous cage wound generator then really boils down to connecting the neighbouring magnets differently: Either we take a bunch of magnets at a time, connecting them to the same phase as we move around the stator, or else we change to the next phase every time we get to the next magnet.
Two Speed, Pole Changing Generators :

Some manufacturers fit their turbines with two generators, a small one for periods of low winds, and a large one for periods of high winds. A more common design on newer machines is pole changing generators, i.e. generators which (depending on how their stator magnets are connected) may run with a different number of poles, and thus a different rotational speed. Some electrical generators are custom built as two-in-one, i.e. they are able to run as e.g. either 400 kW or 2000 kW generators, and at two different speeds. This design has become ever more widespread throughout the industry. Whether it is worthwhile to use a double generator or a higher number of poles for low winds depend on the local wind speed distribution, and the extra cost of the pole changing generator compared to the price the turbine owner gets for the electricity. (It should keep in mind that the energy content of low winds is very small). A good reason for having a dual generator system, however, is that you may run your turbine at a lower rotational speed at low wind speeds. This is both more efficient (aerodynamically), and it means less noise from the rotor blades (which is usually only a problem at low wind speeds). Incidentally, you may have a few pole changing motors in your house without even knowing it: Washing machines which can also spin dry clothes usually have M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software pole changing motors which are able to run at low speed for washing and at high speed for spinning. Similarly, exhaust fans in your kitchen may be built for two or three different speeds. (In the latter case with a variable speed fan, you can use what you have learned about the energy in the wind : If you want to move twice as much air out of your house per minute using the same fan, it will cost you eight times as much electricity).
Variable Slip Generators for Wind Turbines :

Manufacturers of electric motors have for many years been faced with the problem that their motors can only run at certain almost fixed speeds determined by the number of poles in the motor. As we learned on the previous page, the motor (or generator) slip in an asynchronous (induction) machine is usually very small for reasons of efficiency, so the rotational speed will vary with around 1 per cent between idle and full load. The slip, however is a function of the (DC) resistance (measured in ohms) in the rotor windings of the generator. The higher resistance,the higher the slip, so one way of varying the slip is to vary the resistance in the rotor. In this way one may increase generator slip to e.g. 10 per cent. On motors, this is usually done by having a wound rotor, i.e. a rotor with copper wire windings which are connected in a star and connected with external variable resistors, plus an electronic control system to operate the resistors. The connection has usually been done with brushes and slip rings, which is a clear drawback over the elegantly simple technical design of an cage wound rotor machine. It also introduces parts which wear down in the generator, and thus the generator requires extra maintenance.
Opti Slip:
An interesting variation of the variable slip induction generator avoids the problem of introducing slip rings, brushes, external resistors, and maintenance altogether. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software By mounting the external resistors on the rotor itself, and mounting the electronic control system on the rotor as well, you still have the problem of how to communicate the amount of slip you need to the rotor. This communication can be done very elegantly, however, using optical fibre communications, and sending the signal across to the rotor electronics each time it passes a stationary optical fibre.
Running a Pitch Controlled Turbine at Variable Speed :

One good reason for wanting to be able to run a turbine partially at variable speed is the fact that pitch control (controlling the torque in order not to overload the gearbox and generator by pitching the wind turbine blades) is a mechanical process. This means that the reaction time for the pitch mechanism becomes a critical factor in turbine design. If you have a variable slip generator, however, you may start increasing its slip once you are close to the rated power of the turbine. The control strategy applied in a widely used Danish turbine design is to run the generator at half of its maximum slip when the turbine is operating near the rated power. When a wind gust occurs, the control mechanism signals to increase generator slip to allow the rotor to run a bit faster while the pitch mechanism begins to cope with the situation by pitching the blades more out of the wind. Once the pitch mechanism has done its work, the slip is decreased again. In case the wind suddenly drops, the process is applied in reverse. Although these concepts may sound simple, it is quite a technical challenge to ensure that the two power control mechanisms co-operate efficiently.
Improving Power Quality :

The running a generator at high slip releases more heat from the generator, which runs less efficiently. That is not a problem in itself, however, since the M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software only alternative is to waste the excess wind energy by pitching the rotor blades out of the wind. One of the real benefits of using the control strategy mentioned here is that you get a better power quality, since the fluctuations in power output are "eaten up" or "topped up" by varying the generator slip and storing or releasing part of the energy as rotational energy in the wind turbine rotor.
Indirect Grid Connection of Wind Turbines:
Fig 2.2.2 Indirect grid connection of wind turbines
Generating Alternating Current (AC) at Variable Frequency :

Most wind turbines run at almost constant speed with direct grid connection. With indirect grid connection, however, the wind turbine generator runs in its own, separate mini AC-grid, as illustrated in the graphic. This grid is controlled electronically (using an inverter), so that the frequency of the alternating current in the stator of the generator may be varied. In this way it is possible to run the turbine at variable rotational speed. Thus the turbine will generate alternating current at exactly the variable frequency applied to the stator. The generator may be either a synchronous generator or an asynchronous generator, and the turbine may have a gearbox or run without a gearbox if the generator has many poles.
Conversion to Direct Current (DC) :

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software AC current with a variable frequency cannot be handled by the public electrical grid. We therefore start by rectifying it, i.e. we convert it into direct current, DC. The conversion from variable frequency AC to DC can be done using thyristors or large power transistors.
Conversion to Fixed Frequency AC :

The (fluctuating) direct current is converted to an alternating current (using an inverter) with exactly the same frequency as the public electrical grid. This conversion to AC in the inverter can also be done using either thyristors or transistors. Thyristors or power transistors are large semiconductor switches that operate without mechanical parts. The kind of alternating current one gets out of an inverter looks quite ugly at first sight - nothing like the smooth sinusoidal curve we learned about when studying alternating current. Instead, we get a series of sudden jumps in the voltage and current, as you saw in the animation above.
Filtering the AC :
The rectangular shaped waves can be smoothed out, however, using appropriate inductances and capacitors, in a so-called AC filter mechanism. The somewhat jagged appearance of the voltage does not disappear completely, however, as explained below.
Advantages of Indirect Grid Connection: Variable Speed :

The advantage of indirect grid connection is that it is possible to run the wind turbine at variable speed. The primary advantage is that gusts of wind can be allowed to make the rotor turn faster, thus storing part of the excess energy as rotational energy until the gust is over. Obviously, this requires an intelligent control strategy, since we have to be able to differentiate between gusts and higher wind speed in general.

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Thus it is possible to reduce the peak torque (reducing wear on the gearbox and generator), and we may also reduce the fatigue loads on the tower and rotor blades. The secondary advantage is that with power electronics one may control reactive power (i.e. the phase shifting of current relative to voltage in the AC grid), so as to improve the power quality in the electrical grid. This may be useful, particularly if a turbine is running on a weak electrical grid. Theoretically, variable speed may also give a slight advantage in terms of annual production, since it is possible to run the machine at an optimal rotational speed, depending on the wind speed. From an economic point of view that advantage is so small, however, that it is hardly worth mentioning.
Disadvantages of Indirect Grid Connection :

The basic disadvantage of indirect grid connection is cost. As we just learned, the turbine will need a rectifier and two inverters, one to control the stator current, and another to generate the output current. Presently, it seems that the cost of power electronics exceeds the gains to be made in building lighter turbines, but that may change as the cost of power electronics decreases. Looking at operating statistics from wind turbines using power electronics (published by the the German ISET Institute), it also seems that availability rates for these machines tend to be somewhat lower than conventional machines, due to failures in the power electronics. Other disadvantages are the energy lost in the AC-DC-AC conversion process, and the fact that power electronics may introduce harmonic distortion of the alternating current in the electrical grid, thus reducing power quality. The problem of harmonic distortion arises because the filtering process mentioned above is not perfect, and it may leave some "overtones" (multiples of the grid frequency) in the output current.
Gearboxes for Wind Turbines :

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Why Use a Gearbox?
Fig 2.2.3 Figure of gearbox arrangement The power from the rotation of the wind turbine rotor is transferred to the generator through the power train, i.e. through the main shaft, the gearbox and the high speed shaft, as we saw on the page with the Components of a Wind Turbine. But why use a gearbox? Couldn't we just drive the generator directly with the power from the main shaft? If we used an ordinary generator, directly connected to a 50 Hz AC ( alternating current ) three phase grid with two, four, or six poles, we would have to have an extremely high speed turbine with between 1000 and 3000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Another possibility is to build a slow-moving AC generator with many poles. But if you wanted to connect the generator directly to the grid, you would end up with a 200 pole generator (i.e. 300 magnets) to arrive at a reasonable rotational speed of 30 rpm. Another problem is, that the mass of the rotor of the generator has to be roughly proportional to the amount of torque (moment, or turning force) it has to handle. So a directly driven generator will be very heavy (and expensive) in any case.
Less Torque, More Speed :

The practical solution, which is used in the opposite direction in lots of industrial machinery, and in connection with car engines is to use a gearbox. With a

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software gearbox you convert between slowly rotating, high torque power which you get from the wind turbine rotor - and high speed, low torque power, which you use for the generator. The gearbox in a wind turbine does not "change gears". It normally has a single gear ratio between the rotation of the rotor and the generator. For a 600 or 750 kW machine, the gear ratio is typically approximately 1 to 50. The picture below shows a 1.5 MW gearbox for a wind turbine. This particular gearbox is somewhat unusual, since it has flanges for two generators on the high speed side (to the right). The orange gadgets just below the generator attachments to the right are the hydraulically operated emergency disc brakes. In the background you see the lower part of a nacelle for a 1.5 MW turbine.
Fig 2.2.4 Gearbox of a wind turbine of 1.5 MW rating
Mechanical Sources of Sound Emission:

Mechanical noise, i.e. metal components moving or knocking against each other may originate in the gearbox, in the drive train (the shafts), and in the generator of a wind turbine. Machines from the early 1980s or before do emit some mechanical noise, which may be heard in the immediate surroundings of the turbine, in the worst cases even up to a distance of 200 m (600 ft.)

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software A survey on research and development priorities of wind turbine manufacturers conducted in 1995, however, showed that no manufacturer considered mechanical noise as a problem any longer, and therefore no further research in the area was considered necessary. The reason was, that within three years noise emissions had dropped to half their previous level due to better engineering practices.
Quieting Wind Turbine Gearboxes:

Gearboxes for wind turbines are no longer standard industrial gearboxes, but they have been adapted specifically for quiet operation of wind turbines. One way of doing this is to ensure that the steel wheels of the gearbox have a semi soft, flexible core, but a hard surface to ensure strength and long time wear. The way this is done is basically to heat the gear wheels after their teeth have been ground, and then let them cool off slowly while they are packed in a special high carbon-content powder. The carbon will then migrate into the surface of the metal. This ensures a high carbon content and high durability in the surface of the metal, while the steel alloy in the interior remains softer and more flexible.
The Electronic Wind Turbine Controller :

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Fig 2.2.5 Picture of a wind turbine controller box The wind turbine controller consists of a number of computers which continuously monitor the condition of the wind turbine and collect statistics on its operation. As the name implies, the controller also controls a large number of switches, hydraulic pumps, valves, and motors within the wind turbine. As wind turbine sizes increase to megawatt machines, it becomes even more important that they have a high availability rate, i.e. that they function reliably all the time.
Communicating with the Outside World :

The controller communicates with the owner or operator of the wind turbine via a communications link, e.g. sending alarms or requests for service over the telephone or a radio link. It is also possible to call the wind turbine to collect statistics, and check its present status. In wind parks one of the turbines will usually be equipped

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software with a PC from which it is possible to control and collect data from the rest of the wind turbines in the park. This PC can be called over a telephone line or a radio link.
Internal Communications :
. Fig 2.2.6 Figure of a internal communication circuit There is usually a controller both at the bottom of the tower and in the nacelle. On recent wind turbine models, the communication between the controllers is usually done using fibre optics. The image to the right shows a fibre optics communications unit. On some recent models, there is a third controller placed in the hub of the rotor. That unit usually communicates with the nacelle unit using serial communications through a cable connected with slip rings and brushes on the main shaft.
Fail Safe Mechanisms and Redundancy :

Computers and sensors are usually duplicated (redundant) in all safety or operation sensitive areas of newer, large machines. The controller continuously compares M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software the readings from measurements throughout the wind turbine to ensure that both the sensors and the computers themselves are OK. The picture at the top of the page shows the controller of a megawatt machine, and has two central computers. (We removed the cover on one of the two computers to show the electronics).
Other factors Monitored :

It is possible to monitor or set somewhere between 100 and 500 parameter values in a modern wind turbine. The controller may e.g. check the rotational speed of the rotor, the generator, its voltage and current. In addition, lightning strikes and their charge may be registered. Furthermore measurements may be made of outside air temperature, temperature in the electronic cabinets, oil temperature in the gearbox, the temperature of the generator windings, the temperature in the gearbox bearings, hydraulic pressure, the pitch angle of each rotor blade (for pitch controlled or active stall controlled machines), the yaw angle (by counting the number of teeth on yaw wheel), the number of power cable twists, wind direction, wind speed from the anemometer, the size and frequency of vibrations in the nacelle and the rotor blades, the thickness of the brake linings, whether the tower door is open or closed (alarm system).
Control Strategies :
Many of the business secrets of the wind turbine manufacturers are to be found in the way the controller interacts with the wind turbine components. Improved control strategies are responsible for an important part of the increase in wind turbine productivity in recent years. An interesting strategy pursued by some manufacturers is to adapt the operational strategy to the local wind climate. In this way it may e.g. be possible to minimise uneconomic tear and wear on the machine during (rare) periods of rough weather. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Controlling Power Quality from Wind Turbines :
Fig 2.2.7 Power quality controller box Most people think of the controller as the unit which runs the wind turbine, for example yaws it against the wind, checks that the safety systems are OK, and starts the turbine. The controller does indeed do all these things, but it also looks after the power quality of the current generated by the wind turbine.
Grid Connection and Power Quality :

In the section about power quality you will learn how electricity companies require that wind turbines connect "softly" to the grid, and how they have

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software certain requirements that the alternating current and voltage move in step with one another. The image to the right shows the high voltage section of a controller for a megawatt machine. This part of the controller operates e.g. the thyristors which ensure soft coupling to the electrical grid.
Reactive Power Control :
Fig 2.2.8 Reactive power control box Voltage and current are typically measured 128 times per alternating current cycle, (i.e. 50 x 128 times per second or 60 x 128 times per second, depending on the electrical grid frequency). On this basis, a so called DSP processor calculates the stability of the grid frequency and the active and reactive power of the turbine. (The reactive power component is basically a question of whether the voltage and the current are in phase or not). In order to ensure the proper power quality, the controller may switch on or switch off a large number of electrical capacitors which adjust the reactive power, (i.e. the phase angle between the voltage and the current). M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) :
Fig 2.2.9 Electromagnetic compatibility equipment There are very powerful electromagnetic fields around power cables and generators in a wind turbine. This means that the electronics in the controller system has to be insensitive to electromagnetic fields. Conversely, the electronics should not emit electromagnetic radiation which can inhibit the functioning of other electronic equipment. The image to the left shows a radiation free room with metal walls in the laboratory of one of the largest wind turbine controller manufacturers. The equipment in the room is used to measure electromagnetic emissions from the components of the controllers.

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CHAPTER 3
PREREQUISITES FOR THE PROJECT
3.0 Prerequisites and Progress in Meeting the Prerequisites: 3.1 :SCILAB - 5.3.0:
Scilab is a scientific software package for numerical computations providing a powerful open computing environment for engineering and scientific applications. Developed since M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software 1990 by researchers from INRIA (French National Institute for Research in Computer Science and Control, http://www.inria.fr/index.en.html) and ENPC (National School of Bridges and Roads, http://www.enpc.fr/english/int_index.htm), it is now maintained and developed by Scilab Consortium (http://scilabsoft.inria.fr/consortium/consortium.html) since its creation in May 2003. Distributed freely and open source through the Internet since 1994, Scilab is currently being used in educational and industrial environments around the world. Scilab includes hundreds of mathematical functions with the possibility to add interactively programs from various languages (C, Fortran...). It has sophisticated data structures (including lists, polynomials, rational functions, linear systems...), an interpreter and a high level programming language. Scilab has been designed to be an open system where the user can define new data types and operations on these data types by using overloading. A number of toolboxes are available with the system: 2-D and 3-D graphics, animation Linear algebra, sparse matrices Polynomials and rational functions Simulation: ODE solver and DAE solver Scicos: a hybrid dynamic systems modeler and simulator Classic and robust control, LMI optimization Differentiable and non-differentiable optimization Signal processing Metanet: graphs and networks Parallel Scilab using PVM Statistics Interface with Computer Algebra (Maple, MuPAD) Interface with Tcl/Tk And a large number of contributions for various domains. Scilab works on most Unix systems including GNU/Linux and on Windows 9X/NT/2000/XP. It comes with source code, on-line help and English user manuals. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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3.2 Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program, WAsP Turbine Editor Version 9.3.0.19:
WAsP is a PC program for predicting wind climates, wind resources and power productions from wind turbines and wind farms. The predictions are based on wind data measured at stations in the same region. The program includes a complex terrain flow model, a roughness change model and a model for sheltering obstacles. WAsP is developed and distributed by the Wind Energy Division at Ris DTU, Denmark. There are currently more than 3000 users in over 110 countries and territories who use WAsP for:

Wind farm production Wind farm efficiency Micro-siting of wind turbines Power production of WTGs Wind resource mapping Wind climate estimation Wind atlas generation Wind data analysis Map digitisation & editing Power and thrust curve editing

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CHAPTER 4
ABOUT ENERCON
4.1.0 About Enercon:

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4.1.1 Introduction about the company:

ENERCON began its road to economical / ecological success when graduate engineer Aloys Wobben founded the company in 1984. A small team of engineers developed the first E-15 / 16 wind turbine with a rated power of 55 kW. To start with, ENERCON systems still featured gearboxes. However in 1992, the changeover to gearless technology came about with the first ENERCON E-40 / 500 kW. This innovative drive system with few rotating components ensures nearly friction-free energy flow providing outstanding performance and reliability. Mechanical stress, operating and maintenance costs are reduced, and the systems service life is increased. Today, all ENERCON wind energy converters are based on the companys tried and tested turbine concept. Over the past years, new system generations have evolved through constant sophistication of existing components, providing customers with state-of-the-art products. One example of the latest technological innovation is the new rotor blade geometry introduced in 2004. It significantly increases revenue, minimises noise emission while considerably reducing load impact on the wind energy converter. All ENERCON systems feature a grid connection system which fulfils current grid connection requirements and can thus be easily integrated in any supply and distribution structure. ENERCONs concept not only offers solutions for normal operation such as reactive power management and voltage control but also for critical situations resulting from network short-circuits or bottlenecks. ENERCON has been setting new standards in technological design for more than 25 years now. With more than 16,000 wind turbines installed in over 30 countries, ENERCON is also recognized as one of the leading manufacturers at the international level. Research and development, as well as production and sales are

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software constantly evolving. The companys objective for 2010 is an export share of more than 60 %, gradually increasing over the years to come.
4.1.2 Rotor blade concept:

When it comes to yield, noise emission and stress minimisation, ENERCONs rotor blade concept sets new standards in the wind energy sector. Because of their modified shape, the blades not only draw energy from the outer edges but also use the inner radius of the swept area, considerably increasing power output. The new rotor blades are also less susceptible to turbulence and provide an even flow along the entire length of the blade profile. In addition to the new design, the blade tips have also been improved to reduce noise emission and increase power output. Turbulence at the blade tips due to overpressure and underpressure is effectively eliminated in the rotor plane. The entire length of the blade is therefore utilised without any loss of energy caused by turbulence. The blades high efficiency is reflected in power curves taken on all ENERCON wind turbines where power coefficients (Cp) of more than 0.5 are achieved. In order to efficiently protect the rotor blade surface against weather elements such as wind and water, UV radiation, as well as erosion and bending loads, the rotor blades protective finish is composed of gel coat, filler, edge protection and top coat using only solvent-free two-component polyurethane compounds in the entire system. To efficiently withstand wind loads over the entire usage period, ENERCON rotor blades have an extremely large flange diameter. The double-row bolt connection specially developed by ENERCON for large wind turbines also provides additional strength by creating even load distribution. This is an important factor, particularly in extreme wind locations with considerable stress fluctuations. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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4.1.3 Direct drive:

The drive system for ENERCON wind energy converters is based on a simple principle: fewer rotating components reduce mechanical stress while at the same time increasing the equipments technical service life. Wind turbine maintenance and service costs are reduced (fewer wearing parts, no gear oil change, etc.) and operating expenses lowered. The rotor hub and annular generator are directly interconnected to form one gearless unit. This rotor unit is then mounted on a fixed axis, the so-called axle pin. Compared to conventional geared systems with a large number of bearing points in a moving drive train, ENERCONs drive system only requires two slow-moving roller bearings due to its low direct drive speed. A few years ago only the rotor hub was made of cast steel. However, today, with the use of modern spheroidal graphite cast iron, it is possible to manufacture other major components such as blade adapters, axle pins and main carriers with this process. ENERCON carries out advanced development of its cast components in close collaboration with the foundries. All cast components are drawn with a 3D CAD system and calculated using the finite element method to check for strain increases at critical points. During the entire prototype phase, the designer tests and optimises performance. In order to guarantee the identification and traceability of each cast component when the goods are received at ENERCON, each part is given its own specific barcode from which the serial number can be obtained in the event of quality issues for example. Cast components are only released to the next stages in ENERCONs manufacturing process once comprehensive quality testing has taken place, thus M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software guaranteeing high ENERCON quality standards in the cast component supply sector. Since mid-2009, ENERCON has had its own exclusive manufacturing facilities for the cast components of its wind turbines. ENERCONs quality testing procedures for cast components Structural inspection on component Ultrasonic testing X-ray test
4.1.4 Annular generator:

Amongst other features, the annular generator is a key component in ENERCONs gearless wind generator design. Combined with the rotor hub, it provides an almost frictionless flow of energy, while a smaller number of moving components assure minimal material wear. Unlike conventional fast-running generators, ENERCONs annular generator is subjected to little technical wear, making it ideal for particularly heavy loads and a long service life. ENERCONs annular generator is a low-speed synchronous generator with no direct grid coupling. Output voltage and frequency vary with the speed and are converted for output to the grid via a DC link and an inverter which allow for high speed variability. The magnetic field of the stator winding is excited via so-called pole shoes. These are located on the rotor, the mobile part of the ENERCON annular generator. Since the shape and position of the pole shoes have a decisive influence on the generators noise emission, ENERCONs Research & Development department has devoted particular attention to this aspect. The result is that the pole shoes are ideally adapted to the slow rotation of ENERCONs annular generator making it completely silent. Advantages of ENERCONs annular generator: M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software ~ No gear ~ Low wear due to slow machine rotation ~ Low machine stress due to high level of speed variability ~ Yield-optimised control ~ High power quality
4.1.5 Stator and rotor:

According to ENERCONs service life requirements, the copper winding in the stator (the stationary part of the annular generator) known as closed, single-layer basket winding is produced in insulation class F (155 C). It consists of individual round wires gathered in bundles and varnish insulated. At ENERCON, the copper winding is exclusively done manually. In spite of increasing automation in other manufacturing areas, in this case preference has been given to manual labour for good reason. It ensures that all materials used are fully inspected. Furthermore, a special work process allows continuous windings to be produced. Each wire strand is continuous from start to end. Advantages of continuous winding: ~ Eliminates errors when making electrical connections ~ Maintains high-quality copper wire insulating system ~ No contact resistance ~ No weak points susceptible to corrosion or material fatigue
4.1.6 Temperature behaviour:

ENERCONs annular generator features optimised temperature control. The hottest areas in the generator are constantly monitored by numerous temperature sensors. The sensors activation temperature is considerably lower than the temperature resistance of the insulating materials used in the generator. This prevents temperature overload.

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4.1.7 Quality assurance:

In order to guarantee ENERCONs high quality, all annular generators are manufactured in the companys own production facilities. Superior quality materials are always used. Close collaboration with supplier companies has proven to be the most reliable way of providing maximum material quality. For example, the varnished copper wires are subjected to more testing than is specified in the standard and samples are archived, while surge voltage tests are performed on the pole shoes and chokes and then documented in the computer system. Control system ENERCON wind turbines are equipped with stateof-the-art microelectronic control technology developed in house. The MPU (main processing unit), the central element of ENERCONs control system, constantly registers information from the peripheral control elements, such as the yaw control and active pitch control systems. Its function is to adjust the individual system parameters to ensure that ENERCON wind turbines achieve maximum output under all weather conditions.
4.1.8 ENERCON control system:

~ Constant evaluation of measurement data from wind sensor to adapt nacelle yaw control ~ Variable speed for maximum wind turbine efficiency at all wind speeds, and elimination of undesirable output peaks and high operating load. ~ Active pitch control system to obtain ideal angle of flow on the rotor blades ensures maximum output and stress reduction on the entire wind turbine. ~ ENERCON brake system for maximum turbine reliability by means of three independently operated pitch mechanisms with standby power supply (batteries) in case of a mains failure. ~ Tower and generator monitoring by means of vibration and acceleration sensors to check tower oscillation. ~ Temperature and air gap sensors between rotor and stator ensure dependable annular generator operation. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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4.1.9 Monitoring grid connection:

Ensuring proper power feed from ENERCON wind turbines into the grid requires grid connection monitoring. Grid parameters such as voltage, current and frequency are measured on the low-voltage side between the ENERCON inverter and the system transformer. The measured values are continuously transmitted to the control system, enabling the turbine to react immediately to changes in grid voltage or frequency. If the defined limit values for system or grid protection are exceeded, the wind turbine is safely shut down and the service teams are informed. As soon as voltage and frequency return within the permissible tolerance range, the turbine is automatically started up again. Prolonged downtimes are thus avoided. 4.2.0 ENERCON storm control: ENERCON wind turbines run with a special storm control feature. Storm control enables reduced wind turbine operation in the event of extremely high wind speeds, and prevents typical shutdowns which cause considerable yield losses. The wind turbine usually stops at a defined cut-out wind speed . The reason is that a specified maximum wind speed has been exceeded. In wind turbines without storm control, this occurs, for example, at a wind speed of 25 m / s within a 20second mean. The wind turbine only starts up again when the average wind speed drops below the cut-out wind speed or an even lower restart speed. In gusty wind conditions there may be a longer delay, which means that considerable yield losses are incurred. At high wind speeds, ENERCON wind turbines work on a different principle. They are equipped with special storm control software which prevents unnecessary abrupt shutdowns. The power curve diagram showing operation with M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software ENERCON storm control demonstrates clearly that the wind turbine does not shut down automatically when a certain wind speed Vstorm is exceeded, but merely reduces power output by slowing down the rotational speed. This is achieved by slightly pitching the rotor blades out of the wind. Once the wind speed drops, the blades turn back into the wind and the turbine immediately resumes operation at full power. This prevents yield-reducing shutdown and start-up procedures. ENERCONs storm control feature also offers the grid substantial security benefits. At extremely high wind speeds there is no risk of major disturbances caused by longer feed-in interruptions which could have the same effect as simultaneous shutdowns of several conventional power plants.
4.2.1 ENERCON annular generator and grid management system:

Amongst other features, the annular generator is a key component in ENERCONs gearless wind generator design. This low-speed synchronous generator is directly connected to the rotor. Generator output voltage and frequency vary with the speed and are converted via the ENERCON Grid Management System to be fed into the grid. This allows rotational speed control to be optimised; the annular generator is thus perfectly independent of the grid. By adjusting or pitching the blades and through electrical excitation via the turbine control system, rotational speed and power output are constantly monitored and optimised. The electrical power produced by the annular generator passes into the ENERCON Grid Management System which comprises a rectifier, the so-called DC Link and a modular inverter system. The inverter system defines the essential performance characteristics for output to the grid and ensures that the power output corresponds to grid specifications. Here in the inverter system, voltage, frequency and M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software power are converted accordingly. Via the transformer, inverter voltage (400 V) is stepped up to the appropriate medium voltage required by the grid or the wind farm network. ENERCON wind turbines are equipped with a Grid Management System designed to meet the latest grid connection requirements. This facilitates integration in any transmission and distribution network. The Grid Management System offers numerous performance features e. g. reactive power management and optimum contribution to maintaining voltage levels. Essentially, ENERCON wind farms behave very much like power stations or in some aspects even exceed their performance. ENERCON is the first manufacturer worldwide to have received certification confirming these power plant properties. These product and unit certificates as well as validated simulation models will in future be used as a basis for the wind farm certificates required by the German Association of Energy and Water Industries guidelines and the latest Renewable Energy Sources Act.
4.2.2 Electrical grid compatibility:

Due to their control and operating mode, our wind turbines offer maximum power quality. Certificates from independent institutes confirm these qualities according to IEC Standards and FGW guidelines. The idea behind the Grid Management System is to control and regulate power feed without power peaks. During normal operation, the wind turbine actually requires no reactive power. Flickers and harmonic oscillations are negligible. Due to the Grid Management Systems power electronics there is no inrush current.
4.2.3 Wide voltage and frequency ranges:

ENERCONs Grid Management System allows the wind turbine to have a very wide operating range. Depending on the grid, the Grid

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Management System can be flexibly parameterised for 50 Hz or 60 Hz rated grid frequency. In grid systems with heavily fluctuating voltage or frequency, the Grid Management Systems stability provides for reliable and continuous operation, even at full rated power.
4.2.4 Co-ordinated grid feed in network:

In order to provide reliable economical grid operation, power feedin timing has to be regulated. To ensure that this takes place, variable setpoint values for maximum permitted power gradients can be specified for the ENERCON Grid Management System. For example, when the wind turbine or wind farm is started up, power feed can be controlled according to grid operator requirements. This allows the grid operator to optimise load flow and grid voltage stability as well as to enhance the interaction between utilities and consumers.
4.2.5 Power frequency control:

Grid frequency control is essential to ensure reliable and stable grid operation as well as to attain the necessary power supply quality. ENERCON wind turbines can contribute to the stabilisation of the grid by adapting power feed-in according to the actual grid frequency. If a grid fault leads to temporary overfrequency in the grid, ENERCON WECs reduce their output according to the grid operators specifications. As soon as grid frequency has been stabilised, ENERCON WECs continue normal power feed-in. The characteristics of this control system can be easily adapted to different specifications.
4.2.6 Reactive power management:

In order to maintain reliable and efficient transmission and distribution grids, reactive power regulation is indispensable. This feature is not only necessary to compensate transmission equipment such as cables and transformers but also to maintain voltage stability. ENERCON wind turbines have a vast operating range for M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
Page 79
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software reactive power exchange which can be provided to the grid as a highly flexible system service. Since turbine configuration is flexible, wind farm projects can be optimised to suit the particular requirements. In many regions around the world, conventional power plants alone do not suffice to meet highly complex requirements for stable grid operation. In these cases, dynamic reactive power sources such as SVC or STATCOM (Static Compensator) must be integrated into the grid to guarantee adequate power supply quality to the consumer. As an option, ENERCON wind turbines are able to provide the grid performance properties of a STATCOM. With the STATCOM option, an ENERCON wind turbine combines power plant properties with STATCOM properties. Irrespective of the active power feed-in, the entire reactive power range is at the disposal of the grid operator even if active power is not being fed into the grid. These STATCOM properties are essential to provide the grid with an efficient means of connecting weak and heavily loaded networks operating at the limit of stability.
4.2.7 Staying connected when grid problems occur:

Most transmission networks and ever more distribution grids require wind energy converters to remain connected to the grid in the event of grid short circuits. Like conventional power plants, wind turbines are not allowed to suddenly disconnect from the grid during voltage dips or overvoltage caused by grid problems. ENERCON wind turbines with the optional ENERCON UVRT feature have this capacity. No matter what type of short circuit occurs, ENERCON wind turbines can ride through faults for several seconds, even if they were operating at rated power before the fault. This is also possible if the wind turbine voltage completely breaks down as a result of a power system failure. These outstanding power plant properties have been certified by independent institutes during actual grid fault testing. Flexible setting M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
Page 80
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software options offer maximum performance according to the respective grid operators specifications or to the projects framework conditions. Depending on the selected parameters, the wind turbine can feed in either mainly active or reactive power to maintain grid voltage. If necessary, voltagedependent reactive current can even be supplied to the grid; this current can be maximum rated current as stipulated by the latest German grid code. If desired or required, fault ride-through is also possible without power feed-in. The ENERCON wind turbine remains in operation during the fault. After the grid problem has been resolved and grid voltage has been restored, the wind turbine can immediately resume power feed-in. Thus the ENERCON Undervoltage Ride-Through feature facilitates adaptable settings in order to meet grid standards (e. g. of the German Association of Energy and Water Industries) and to maximise the amount of installable wind farm power.
4.2.8 ENERCON SCADA:

For remote wind farm control and monitoring, ENERCON SCADA has been a proven system for many years and is also an important element of ENERCONs service and maintenance program. It offers a number of optional functions and communication interfaces to connect ENERCON wind farms to the grid while meeting stringent grid connection regulations. Due to its modular design ENERCON SCADA is flexible and can be easily adapted or expanded to customer- specific applications.
4.2.9 Generation management power regulation for maximum yield:

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software If the cumulative (rated) output of a wind farm is greater than the grid connection capacity at the point of common coupling, ENERCON wind farm power regulation ensures that the grid connection capacity is always used to the fullest. If one turbine in the wind farm generates less power, the other turbines are accordingly adjusted to run at a higher capacity. Optional generation management in the ENERCON SCADA system handles this automatically.
4.3.0 Bottleneck management maximum output during bottlenecks:

Not all regions have sufficient transmission capacity available to manage each low-load and strong wind situation. However, with ENERCONs bottleneck management it is possible to connect wind farms to this type of grid. Constant online data exchange between the wind farm and the grid operator ensures that the highest possible amount of wind farm output is adapted to the transmission capacity. Yield loss, along with complicated re-dispatches for load distribution within the wind farm is minimised.

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CHAPTER 5
METHODOLOGY
5.1.0 Methodology:
DUE to wind speed variability, a wind turbine is rarely operating at its rated output. Therefore, the capacity factor (CF) of a turbine is commonly used to estimate the average energy production, which in turn can be used for the economic appraisal of wind power projects. Moreover, CF models are used by manufacturers and wind power project developers for optimum turbine-site matching. The amount of energy produced by a turbine depends on the characteristics of both wind speed at the site and the turbines power performance curve. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
Page 83
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Wind speed at potential wind project sites is characterized by the parameters of the Weibull probability distribution function (pdf). The turbines power performance curve can be described by three parameters: the cut-in, rated, and cut-out speeds. Cubic mean of wind speeds and Weibull statistical model parameterize the continuously changing wind speed distributions. The power output developed by the turbine for wind speed `v,
(5.1.1)
Where Vc, is cut-in speed , Vr, is rated wind speed, Vf, is furling wind speed, Cp, is the coefficient of performance, m, is the mechanical efficiency of transmission gear g, is the electrical generator efficiency , is the air density in kg/m3 A, is the sweep area in m2
5.1.1 Methodology for calculating power output and power coefficient :

I. A typical method for obtaining the power of wind turbine :
Pe = 0
(v < Vc)
(5.1.2)

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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Pe = a + ( b*vk ) (Vc v Vr) (5.1.3)
Pe = Per
(Vr < v Vf)
(5.1.4)
Pe = 0
(v > Vf)
(5.1.5)
where , a = (Per * Vck ) / (Vck - Vrk ) (5.1.6)
b = (Per) / (Vrk - Vck)
(5.1.7)
II.
Power Coefficient :
Cp= Pe / (0.5 * * A * V3)
(5.1.8)
Using above equations for calculating power and power coefficient for VESTAS (V82) 1650 kw the below figures show the same obtained using scilab.
5.1.2 Power curve and power coefficient curve:

Page 85
Fig 5.1.1 Power curve and power coefficient curve for Vestas 1.65MW turbine
5.1.3 Average power output of a turbine:

The average power produced by a wind turbine can then be calculated by integrating the power curve multiplied by the probability density function.
(5.1.9)
Where , f(v) is Probability distribution function. The most important issue effecting wind power availability in a certain area is the variability of wind. It is imperative to be able to quantify the relationship of power output as a function of speed, and variations of speed as a function of time. The power output as a function of wind speed going through the rotor can be seen in a power curve. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
Page 86
Fig 5.1.2 Power and coefficient curve of ENERCON [E-126-7500KW]
5.1.4 Wind thrust:

The blade of a propeller acts like a wing, which is inclined with a pitch angle to a plane of rotation and with a certain angle of attack aoa to the apparent direction of the incoming flow (relative wind), which depends on the rotational velocity of the propeller and the forward speed. Increasing the rotational velocity with the same pitch, increases the aoa and increasing the forward speed decreases the aoa. A propeller blade acting like a wing gives lift L counted perpendicular to the incoming flow and drag D in the direction of the incoming flow as indicated in the figure below. The component of L in the forward direction (minus a component from drag D) gives thrust. The transversal components of Land D create torsion on the propeller axis which needs to be balanced. The lift/drag ratio L/D is crucial for the performance of the propeller, since L is crucial for thrust and D for turbulent losses. M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
Page 87
Fig 5.1.3 Wind passing through blades indicating lift and drag force Where, H -high, L- low pressure
5.1.5 Thrust coeffecient curves:

Thrust is generally a reaction force. The coefficient of reaction force which is also known as thrust force is the Thrust coefficient. Generally the thrust coefficient values will be higher than 1 at wind speeds near the cut in speed of the wind turbine. These values should be normalized to limit within value of unity. Here, the expression used for obtaining thrust coefficient will be as shown below,
Ct = Cp /
Where is tip speed ratio & Cpis the power coefficient.
(5.2.0)

Page 88
Fig 5.1.4 Power and power coefficient values and curves observed in Wasp software Table5.1.1 Thrust coefficient (Ct)
Fig 5.1.5 E82 thrust curve obtained using scilab 5.3.0
5.1.6 Wind-Speed Statistics:

Page 89
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Monthly means and standard deviations of wind speed distributions are computed using the following equations.
(5.2.1)
Where,
= mean wind velocity,

i = actual wind speed in m/s, N = number of different values of wind speeds observed, fi = the numbers of observations of a specific wind speed vi n = 3 for cubic mean cube root. The wind speed frequency curve is modelled by continuous mathematical function, called the probability density function f (v). The mean value of the wind speed is given by:
(5.2.2)
5.1.7 Weibull distribution function:

Page 90
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software A function which describes the variation of the wind velocity at a location . This distribution function includes two parameters namely scale factor c and shape factor k. Scale factor is expressed in metre per second whereas shape factor is dimensionless. Data collected at many locations around the world can be reasonably well described by the Weibull density function if the time period is not too short. Periods of an hour or two or even a day or two may have wind data which are not well fitted by a Weibull or any other statistical function. But for periods of several weeks to a year or more, the Weibull usually fits the observed data reasonably well. The scale factor decides the value of the most occurring wind velocity and also its magnitude. The scale parameter c can scale the curves to fit different wind speed regimes. For k greater than unity, f(v) becomes zero at zero wind speed. The Weibull density function thus cannot fit a wind speed frequency curve at zero speed because the frequency of calms is always greater than zero. This is not a serious problem because a wind turbines output would be zero below some cut-in speed anyway. What is needed is a curve which will fit the observed data above some minimum speed. The Weibull density function is a suitable curve for this task.
Wind speed variations can be described by the 2-parameter Weibull distribution function shown in the following formula:
(5.2.3)

Page 91
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Where, f(v) = Weibull density function , is the wind speed in m/s; k , is a shape factor; c, is a scale factor.
The mean wind speed of Weibull density function, after simplification, is given by:
(5.2.4) Where is the Gamma function.
There are several methods available for determining the Weibull parameters c and k . If the mean and variance of the wind speed are known, then from above equations it can be solved for c and k directly. At first glance, this would seem impossible because k is buried in the argument of a gamma function. However, researchers have determined that an acceptable approximation for k to obtain the shape parameter is:
(5.2.5)

Page 92
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software This is a reasonably good approximation over the range 1 k 10. Once k has been determined, it also can be solved for c:
(5.2.6) The variance of a histogram of wind speeds is not difficult to find from equations, so this method yields the parameters c and k rather easily. The method can even be used when the variance is not known, by simply estimating k. Some researchers examined the wind speed distributions at 140 sites across the continental United States measured at heights near 10 m, and found that k appears to be proportional to the square root of the mean wind speed.
k = d1 u
(5.2.7)
The proportionality constant d1 is a site specific constant with an average value of 0.94 when the mean wind speed u is given in meters per second. The constant d1 is between 0.73 and 1.05 for 80 % of the sites. The average value of d1 is normally adequate for wind power calculations, but if more accuracy is desired, several months of wind data can be collected and analyzed in more detail to compute c and k. These values of k can be plotted versusu on log-log paper, a line drawn through the points, and d1 determined from the slope of the line. The process is somewhat of an art and there may be more than one procedure which will yield a satisfactory result. Whether the result is satisfactory or not has to be judged by the agreement between the Weibull curve and the raw data, particularly as it is used in wind power computations.

Page 93
Fig 5.1.6 Graph of Weibull distribution function versus wind speed The weibull probability distribution function is explained by the parameters k and c for increasing value of k and a given value of c the peak of the curve shifts towards the right as shown in the figure below :
Fig 5.1.7 Graph of Weibull distribution function for varying k versus wind speed

Page 94
5.1.8 Estimation of Capacity Factor:

Capacity factor is defined as, the ratio of average output power to the rated power output. It implies the percentage of electrical power, which a wind turbine generator can generate from the available wind at a site. The capacity factors are computed using:
(5.2.8) Also,
(5.2.9)
Graph of (Vc/Vr),(Vf/Vr) ratios versus capacity factor:
Fig 5.1.8 Turbine parameters (Vc,Vr,Vf) ratios vs Capacity factor M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
Page 95
5.1.9 Distribution of extreme wind:

Extreme winds are high velocity winds which pose problem to the operation of wind turbine. They are sometimes referred as annual fastest wind speed and are used for deciding the structural requirements of wind turbines.
5.2.0 Probability of extreme wind speed:

Fe (u) is the probability of the annual fastest mile of wind speed being less than u. The parameters and are characteristics of the site that must be estimated from the observed data .It is given by the expression as shown below,
Fe (u) = exp ( (u / )^
(5.3.0)
( )
5.2.1 Recurrence Period (Mr):

Recurrence period is defined as the time duration in years during which an extreme wind velocity occurs. It is given by the expression as shown below,
Mr
(5.3.1)
= 1 / (1- Fe (u))

Page 96
CHAPTER 6
SITE VISIT AND STUDY

Page 97
6.1.0 Chitradurga Site visit:

The site visited (where Enercon turbines are installed) as a part of partial completion of the project is nearly 40 - 45 kilometre by road from Chitradurga city. The name of the section of the chitradurga site visited is EP-2, Road-03. This section of the site has totally 17 number of Enercon: E-40 wind turbines which have been installed in the year 2002. These turbines operate up to wind speed of 25-30 m/s and then pitch out and then finally stop if wind speed exists still more than cut-off wind speed. Normally the overspeed limit given is between 46.0 - 47.0 rpm. The turbines are expected to generate annually 10-13 lakh KW. Already ,till now the the turbines have generated more than 1 crore KW till now. This section of the site has a very good wind speed availability to give an average annual Capacity factor of 16% - 20%. All the 17 E-40 wind turbines installed are of 600 KW rating with cut-in speed of 3m/s ,rated wind speed of 13m/s and cut-off wind speed of 25-30 m/s and having below mentioned parameters and specifications,
Table 6.1 Specifications for Enercon E-40 wind turbine

Company Type Rated power (KW) ENERCON E-40 600 Rotor diameter (m) 44 Tower type /Height(m) Tubular / Grid connection (Hz) 50 / 60 Variable 18 Generator Rpm (initial)

Page 98

44
6.1.1 Line diagram of the section EP-2 ROAD-3:
Fig 6.1.1 EP-2 ROAD-3 Line diagram
---------Turbine M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Page 99
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software --------Main VCB Yard & Metering Yard ---------House/Office
6.1.2 General plan of wind turbine power and control:

Page 100
Fig 6.1.2 Power and Control general plan of wind turbine
6.1.3 Wind vane & wind anemometer:

Page 101
Fig 6.1.3 Figure of a wind vane and wind anemometer Anemometers, instruments that measure wind speed, have been designed in great variety. Each type has advantages and disadvantages, as we shall see. Anemometer types include the propeller, cup, pressure plate, pressure tube, hot wire, Doppler acoustic radar, and laser. The propeller and cup anemometers depend on rotation of a small turbine for their output, while the others basically have no moving parts. Wind vane used for indicating wind direction is one of the oldest meteorological instruments. Basically, a wind vane is a body mounted unsymmetrical about a vertical axis, on which it turns freely. The end offering the greatest resistance to the wind goes downwind or to the leeward. The wind vane requires a minimum normal or perpendicular wind speed to initiate a turn. This minimum is called the starting threshold, and is typically between 0.5 and 1 m/s.

Page 102
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Some initial factors that are considered while selecting and deciding a site are discussed below.
6.1.4 The site:

1) Where actually is the proposed site situated, 2) Is the site well connected by road or other means to the nearby city, 3) Nearest airport, ship yard or railways.
It includes a careful assessment of existing land use and how best the wind farm may be integrated with, for example, agricultural operations. The ground conditions at the site also need to be investigated to ensure that the turbine foundations, access roads and construction areas can be provided at reasonable cost. Local ground conditions may influence the position of turbines in order to reduce foundation costs. It may also be important to undertake a hydrological study to determine whether spring water supplies are taken from the wind farm site and if the proposed foundations or cable trenches will cause disruption of the ground-water flow. More detailed investigations of the site access requirements will include assessment of bend radii, width, gradient and any weight restrictions on approach roads. Discussions are also likely to continue with the local electricity utility concerning the connection to the distribution network and the export of the wind farm power. The planning application will require the preparation of an Environmental Statement and the scope of this is generally agreed, in writing, with the civic authorities during the Project Feasibility Assessment.
6.1.5 Terrain and Topography:

Page 103
1) The actual elevation range of the proposed site, 2) The elevation of the site of nearby plain ,which can help in predicting the wind condition on the proposed site, 3) What type of vegetation is present near the site , which can generally bring some impact in wind conditions.
6.1.6 Climate:
Based on data collected the monthly average temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure and rainfall are obtained.
6.1.7 Wind Regime:

1) A wind mast at the proposed site is installed at specified height. 2) The data from wind mast for specified time are used for calculations.
6.1.8 Wind Profile: Figure below shows the monthly average wind speed recorded at 50m above ground level. It shows the general profile of wind pattern in this region. In India the general wind flow is governed by the monsoon season. The main wind season happens to be the southwest monsoon period and it begins to get momentum from the month of May and peaks in the month of July. The effect of the monsoon can be seen in the month of May to September. The monsoon retreat from the northeast shows its effect in the month of November and December. It may be noticed that from the month of May to September the site is experiencing high wind.

Page 104
Fig 6.1.4 Monthly wind profile at chitradurga
6.1.9 Wind speed distribution and Wind rose:

The wind data recorded will be used for calculations of wind speed distribution and Wind rose, which is done using Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program (WAsP). The wind rose and wind speed distribution graph clearly indicates the available intensity of wind speed and also the direction from which good wind is received by the site.
6.2.0 WAsP:
All the wind data is collected and somehow processed to a format which can generally be taken as input to WAsP. The roughness of the site is assigned based on the surface features and some reference guidelines. The program will be then then validated based on the recorded wind data and then run to generate the Wind Power Density (WPD) map for the proposed site.

Page 105
6.2.1 Micrositing:
In order to have a optimum wind turbine positioning, any of the optimization tool will be used in which the topographical features, WPD map and the technical details of the wind turbine will be loaded. The optimization process will then be carried out for achieving the maximum wind farm output.
6.2.2 Estimation Of Generation:

After the completion of optimization process, the estimation of annual generation is calculated.

Page 106
CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
7.1.0 Results and discussion:

A sample annual wind speed data of Central Asia Plains location is obtained from NREL website and Average annual mean wind speed (Vmean) , Scale factor (c) ,Shape factor (k) are results obtained and are shown below, Table 7.1 Wind parameters
Average annual mean wind Shape factor (k) Scale factor (c in m/s)

Page 107

speed (Vmean, m/s) 5.11
1.878
5.75
7.1.1 Weibull distribution curve for Cental Asia Plain:
Fig 7.1.1 Weibull distribution function versus wind speed for Central Asia Plain
The annual capacity factor of chosen site for E-40 (600 KW) with turbine parameters are shown below. Table 7.2 E40 wind turbine specifications Cut-in wind speed (Vc) 3 Rated wind speed (Vr) 13 Table 7.3 Annual capacity factor and energy production Annual Capacity Factor (C.F in %) 11.9 Annual Energy Production ( E in KWh) 6,20,208 Furling wind speed (Vf) 25

Page 108
7.1.2 Power curve and power coefficient curve for E-40 turbine:
Fig 7.1.2 Power curve and Power coefficient curve for E-40
7.1.3 Thrust coefficient curve for the calculated values :

Page 109
Fig 7.1.3 Thrust coefficient curve for obtained for E-40
7.1.4 Probability of extreme wind speed (Fe(u)) and Recurrence period ( Mr ):
Fig 7.1.4 Graph of Probability of extreme wind and recurrence period versus wind speed

Page 110
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
8.1 Conclusion:
Page 111
The Shape factor and scale factor is calculated for annual wind speed data of Central Asia Plain and based on this the calculation of capacity factor for a E-40 turbine is obtained and annual energy generation is calculated.
The power output and power coefficient values of E-40 based on the annual wind speed data of Central Asia Plain is calculated and respective graphs are obtained.
The thrust coefficient values for E-40 for different operating wind speeds are calculated and respective graphs are obtained.
A study on probability of distribution of extreme wind speeds and Recurrence period of these extreme wind speeds is done and for wind speed from 1-50 m/s the calculations are calculated and respective graphs are obtained.
As a part of partial completion of the project, Chitradurga, section turbines (E-40) is done for three days.
EP2 -
ROAD 3 of the site is visited and some general study on grid issues and wind
The main factor included in the analysis and calculation work is the interval of the wind speed being considered for 0.1 m/s which provides Weibull distribution curve, power output curve, thrust coefficient curve much clear and smooth curves than generally provided curves for all other general wind turbines. These calculations provide a clear thinking about what type of wind turbine should be used for a specific site ,so that, it gives maximum annual energy generation and thus improves quality of wind power generation.

Page 112
CHAPTER 9
REFERENCES
9.1 References:
[1] Radwan .H Abdel-Hamid, Maged A. Abu Adma, Ashraf A. Fahmy, and Sherief F. Abdel Samed , Optimization of Wind Farm Power Generation Using New Unit M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
Page 113
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Matching Technique, ,2009 7th IEEE International Conference on Industrial Informatics (INDIN 2009). [2] Prasad.R.D, Bansal.R.C, Sauturaga.M , Some of the design and methodology considerations in wind resource assessment, IET Renewable Power Generation Received on 12th June 2007 Revised on 1st August 2008. [3] Suresh H. Jangamshetti, Guruprasada Rau.V, Optimum Siting Of Wind Turbine Generators, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONSERVATION, VOL. 16, NO. 1, MARCH 2001. [4] Albadi,M.H, El-Saadany.E.F, Wind Turbines Capacity Factor ModelingA Novel Approach, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 24, NO. 3, AUGUST 2009. [5] Shyh-Jier Huang and Hsing-Ho Wan , Enhancement of Matching Turbine Generators With Wind Regime Using Capacity Factor Curves Strategy ,IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 24, NO. 2, JUNE 2009. [6] Dr. Gary Johnson.L , Wind Energy Systems , Electronic Edition. November 21, 2001. [7] Jake Badger ,Estimating annual wind farm energy Production, Wind Energy Course, Phuket, 2 11-15 Sept 2006. [8] Bhadra.S.N, Kastha.D, Banerjee.S . WIND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS,Oxford university press. [9] Rajat Gupta* and Agnimitra Biswas ,Wind data analysis of Silchar (Assam, India) by Rayleighs and Weibull methods , Journal of Mechanical Engineering Research, Vol. 2 (1) pp. 010-024, February 2010.
Annexure:

Page 114
Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software Table 1: Calculated Power output and power coefficient values for Vestas-1.65MW

Page 115
Table 11: Power output & Power coefficient values of the E-40 turbine of 600 KW rating
Table 12: Calculated thrust coefficient values foe E-40 Wind turbine M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11
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Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

1.1 Problem Definition, Objectives and Scope of the Proposed Work:

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

Renewable energy source

Year wise proposed capacity addition

Likely total investment (Rs croresat current prices) 15680 2700

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

2.1.0 Literature Review:

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

2.1.1 State-of-the art literature review on WRA:

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

2.1.2 Selecting a Wind Turbine Site:

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

Look for a view:

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

Pitfalls in Using Meteorology Data :

Roughness Class terrain and Wind Shear :

Roughness Class and Landscape Type:

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

Extreme wind speeds :

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

The tunnel effect:

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

The hill effect:

2.1.3 Turbine design: Tower height:

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Personnel Safety and Access Issues:

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Tip speed ratio :

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

Stalling and furling:

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

torque. This is also known as feathering.

Dynamic braking resistor for wind turbine.

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

2.1.4 Wind class classification:

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

2.1.5 Fatigue Loads (Forces) :

2.1.6 Extreme wind speeds :

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

2.1.7 Potential Wind Damages According to Wind Speed Distribution:

Table 2.1.1 Potential wind damages according to wind speed distribution

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

2.1.8 GRID INTEGRATION:

Optimum siting of wind turbine generators Using a simulation software

2.1.9 Wind turbine control and Generator control:

M.Tech,Energy Systems,BVBCET,HUBLI. 2010-11

Fig 2.1.6 Wind turbine generator

Generating Voltage (tension) :

Starting and Stopping the Generator :