PROJECT REPORT ON IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION IN SPORTS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement of PGDM (IB) Batch 2012-2014

Submitted to: SEEMA AGARWAL Associate Professor

Submitted by: RISHABH BATRA 65/PGDM(IB)

JAGANNATH INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT SCHOOL KALKAJI

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CONTENTS S. no 1 2 3 4 5 DESCRIPTION Acknowledgement Certificate of completion Students Declaration Executive summary Chapter-1 Introduction - Introduction of globalization - Introduction of globalization in sports 6 Chapter-2 Objective of the project 7 Chapter-3 Research Methodology 8 Chapter-4 Analysis and Findings - Historical background - Current state of the field - Impact of Globalization in sports - Related Examples 26-82 21-25 20 10-19 Page no. 4 5 6 7-9

9 10
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Recommendations and Limitations Conclusion Appendices

83 84-86
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to my guide Seema Agarwal for her exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this thesis. The blessing, help and guidance given by her time to time shall carry me a long way in the journey of life on which I am about to embark. I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to Company, Shelly Chopra (External Mentor), for her cordial support, valuable information and guidance, which helped me in completing this task through various stages. Lastly, I thank almighty, my parents, brother, sisters and friends for their constant encouragement without which this assignment would not be possible.

RISHABH BATRA

CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION

This is to certify that Mr. RISHABH BATRA, pursuing PGDM (IB) from JIMS KALKAJI,

has completed his project on the topic IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION IN

SPORTS under my guidance.

His work is appreciable.

Project Guide: Seema Agarwal Associate Professor

STUDENTs DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report titled Impact of globalization in

Sports is my own work and has been carried out under the table guidance of

Seema Agarwal (Associate Professor at JIMS Kalkaji) and

Shelly Chopra (External Mentor) . All care has been taken to keep this project

error free and I sincerely regret for any unintended discrepancies that might have

crept into this report

Thank You (RISHABH BATRA) PGDM (IB) (2012-2014) Jagannath International Management School (KALKAJI) Date- 25/02/2013 Place-Delhi

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Globalization can

be

defined

as

the

process

of

change,

increasing

interconnectedness and interdependence among countries and economies, bringing the world closer through better world-wide communication, transport and trade links. This process is changing the world dramatically and quickly, affecting economic, social, political and cultural aspects of life. The process of globalization is an inevitable phenomenon in human history which has been bringing the world closer since the time of early trade and exploration, through the exchange of goods, products, information, jobs, knowledge and culture.

What is unique is the emergence of a modern form of globalization in recent decades, aided by the pace and scope of global integration resulting from unmatched advancements and reduction in the cost of communications, science, transport and industry. Markets have become more interwoven and the production process has been made more efficient by the option to create world products, i.e. products whose components are made in different locations around the world. Also, the ability to ship information and products easily and cheaply from one country to the next and to locate the manufacturing process where labour and work processes are less expensive has changed the pattern of production and consumption across the world. technology,

 Improved technology in transportation and telecommunications Movement of people and capital Rise of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Transnational Corporations (TNCs)

Nowadays, you see people from India wearing NFL hats, people from America wearing soccer jerseys with the names Messi or Henri, and people from France wearing basketball caps. How has this amazing internationalization of sports fanaticism occurred? The answer, I tell you, is globalization, or the integration of facets of life from different cultures into comprehensive proclivities. Before-hand, at the advent of modern sports, these sports were popular only in the nations they were created in. Basketball, football, and baseball were only popular in the US, soccer was only popular in international Spanish nations, and cricket was only popular in Britain. However, as time passed by and globalization mechanisms increased, the sports popularities increased. Cricket expanded to Australia and India, as well as many other Middle-Eastern countries. Basketball has spread to almost all countries around the world. In fact, with the new popularity of basketball all over the world, many NBA teams recruit from outside of the US now. Look at Yao Ming: this guy is one of the most dominant big men in the game, and he isnt from an American city, hes from China. Look at the big-man sharpshooter Dirk Nowitskifrom Germany. Hakeem the dream OlajuanNigeria. The list goes on and on.

Also, while America is still at the top of the basketball, other teams have reached the top of the basketball world. Teams like Germany, Lithuania, and even Argentina, who won the Olympic basketball tournament in 2004. The days of the Dream Team are long gone. Globalization has also occurred extensively in soccer: actually, it has probably had the most widespread globalization. Soccer has the most popularity out of any sport worldwide, as evidenced by the different international leagues, the recruitment of international players, and the World Cup for soccer that is held every four years.In baseball, Japan has gained ground and has become a baseball power.Tennis has also been globalized. Currently there is a tennis player on the professional circuit from every nation of the world, except Afghanistan. This truly shows the widespread popularity of tennis. Every year, there is the Davis Cup, which is like a World Cup for tennis that takes place every year. Now, foreign players win majors more than the hometown favorites. The last player to win Wimbledon, the British major, was Fred Perry, and he did it 76 years ago. Its part of the NFLs promise to have increased international participation. And the commissioner of the league says that soon there will be more international games played. Whereas beforehand there was no diversification of sports internationally, now the globalization of sports has caused more sports to be popular worldwide. And its not going to stop; there is an increasing amount of communication mechanisms out there right now. Theres email, theres the internet, and there will continue to be an increase in international communication.

Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION

Globalization can

be

defined

as

the

process

of

change,

increasing

interconnectedness and interdependence among countries and economies, bringing the world closer through better world-wide communication, transport and trade links. This process is changing the world dramatically and quickly, affecting economic, social, political and cultural aspects of life.

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The process of globalization is an inevitable phenomenon in human history which has been bringing the world closer since the time of early trade and exploration, through the exchange of goods, products, information, jobs, knowledge and culture. What is unique is the emergence of a modern form of globalization in recent decades, aided by the pace and scope of global integration resulting from unmatched advancements and reduction in the cost of technology,

communications, science, transport and industry. Markets have become more interwoven and the production process has been made more efficient by the option to create world products, i.e. products whose components are made in different locations around the world. Also, the ability to ship information and products easily and cheaply from one country to the next and to locate the manufacturing process where labour and work processes are less expensive has changed the pattern of production and consumption across the world.

Improved technology in transportation and telecommunications the cost of how people communicate and travel has drastically reduced in the last few decades, from cheaper air travel and high-speed rail to the rapid growth of the internet and mobile phones.

Movement of people and capital increasing numbers of people are now able to move in search of a new home, job, or to escape danger in their own country. Money is being moved globally through electronic transfer systems.
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Developing countries are becoming a more common place for international investment due to the huge potential for growth.

The lowering of trade barriers since the Second World War has been a major factor in the growth of world trade.

The World Trade Organization (WTO), formerly the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, has been responsible for negotiating reductions in tariffs and other barriers to trade in rounds of talks, the most recent of which was the Doha round.

Rise of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) as global awareness of certain issues has risen, so has the number of organizati ons that aim to deal with them. Many of these issues are not constrained by country boundaries, e.g. climate change.

Transnational Corporations (TNCs) accessing new markets across the world which are opening up in developing countries. Businesses are also encouraged to source workers globally, as some jobs can be done by foreign workers for a much lower cost than domestic workers, such as manufacturing jobs.

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 Benefits and disadvantages While globalization is a catalyst for human progress, it is also a chaotic process which offers both benefits and disadvantages to people across the world. Within Britain the benefits are often seen as unevenly distributed. Those that have been successful in opening up to the world economy, include countries such as China, India and Vietnam, who have significantly reduced poverty in their respective countries. The World Bank states that between 1990 and 2005, poverty rates in China fell from 60% to 16%, leaving 475 million fewer people in poverty. For consumers, globalization can mean a wider choice of goods at lower prices, for example, supermarkets now source produce from all over the world. Clothes shops are able to source cheaper clothing from overseas factories. The last decade has also seen an increase in the outsourcing of innovation, where research and development (R&D) is increasingly outsourced to cut costs and get products to new markets faster. Alex Steffan, co-founder of WorldChanging.com, discusses how we are affected by being so disconnected from the process of creating the things that we consume.

Positive

consequences in local

of productivity

globalization can promote

include: prosperity

improvements

the movement and sharing of information, knowledge and expertise the improvement of international standards for variables such as education and health
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 increases the variety of goods available to the world market and provides a bigger range of markets for internationally sourced products

Negative

consequences

of

globalization

include:

the loss of employment in manufacturing in developed countries such as Britain a drift towards a more homogenized culture and society internationally local economies may be more vulnerable to fast changes in the international economy

increased centralization of power in the hands of large transnational corporations the location of industry in less developed countries, for many reasons, often leads to environmental degradation

Globalization is often criticized on the basis that is has led to the exploitation of workers and the environment. With an increasing awareness of the environmental impact of what we buy. Consumers are increasingly aware of the distance produce has travelled before being sold to us (known as food miles). Similarly health and safety laws and regulations are often less demanding in developing countries.

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GLOBALIZATION IN SPORTS

In a few short centuries, primitive pasture games relying on balls of rocks, rags, feathers or hair transformed into global events with intricate rules, with television and the internet tracking cricket matches in Australia to soccer in Zaire. Any sport can now attract players or audiences in any part of the globe, and yet conventional wisdom suggests that as an activity takes on global stature, it becomes more controlled and competitive, disconnecting from local origins.
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But does the process of global growth necessarily eliminate local connections or fervor? Can innovation accompany tradition? And how do endeavors that require fierce competition reveal a common humanity? Editors Richard Giulianotti and Roland Robertson delve into such questions with Sport and Globalization, a compilation of essays written by sociologists and anthropologists.

The nine essays largely assume global-local tensions, and yet also highlight the powerful role of sports in social and cultural change. As modern sport has become global in scope it has largely lost its playful character and its professional practice has become both a global media spectacle and a serious and financially significant global business, concludes sociologist Barry Stuart. Yet despite such global growth, agues political sociologist Chris Rumford, sport still emits a clarion call to the most rigid of characters, including the Taliban in Afghanistan, who anxiously sought International Cricket Council recognition for Afghanistan shortly before their ouster in 2001. The editors and other essayists in Globalization and Sport point to two forms of global growth, referring to the integration of local practices as glocal and the overwhelming of local ways as grobal. Some sporting formats adapt more readily than others and some impose more constraints, often through national or international regulatory boards. Local appropriation is seldom simply assimilating and imitating, notes William W. Kelly. Styles can emerge in sports that reflect and reinforce both local and national values.

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The local does not necessarily resist the global, and yet many researchers tend to privilege the local, much as audiences tend to cheer and admire the underdogs, explain David L. Andrews and George Ritzer. Sports purpose is no longer limited to entertainment, often intermingling with trade, business and politics. Talent, speed and innovation are recognized transnationally in business or sport, and Thomas Hylland Eriksens essay details reasons why some sport phenomena spread while others do not: The most popular cultural products whether books, food or sports tend to require little culturally specific knowledge, have an emotional, sensory or intellectual appeal that transcends local concerns; and can be effectively marketed across borders, particularly via television or the internet. In other words, he writes, low common denominators, a cheap entrance ticket and immediate gratification are factors facilitating global dissemination. For Eriksen, soccer is a hamburger, and speed skating is akin to ahusmanskost, or a Swedish fish meatball. Competition and its regulation need not be totally centralized.

Global sports such as golf and tennis manage without a world championship, instead competing with a set of world tournaments, with frequent upsets of even the most dominant players, explains Rumsford. Other sports, such as cricket, undergo post-Western transformation as former British colonies tussle with traditionalists over one-day versus multiple-day matches. Rumsford maintains that a global sport such as cricket lacks a single global modernity.

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Skill combined with simplicity in regulations, reduced time requirements and viewer friendliness are characteristics that can merge diverse cultures, Eriksen suggests. Likewise, in an essay about Dutch soccer style, Frank J. Lechner joins the editors in pointing out that Postmodern nations engage complex globalization to produce new identities, defining their particularity in relation to universal standards. The most intriguing parts of the book are where historical details of specific sports cricket, soccer, Gaelic football, hurling, speed skating, baseball are offered as evidence for the essayists arguments on how the local interacts with outside forces, whether protecting, mimicking or influencing. The United States, originator of many cultural trends, is almost an island until itself when it comes to team sports, notes Eriksen, as he rejects baseball, US football, basketball or ice hockey as sports with true global reach. The book is academic in tone, with too many parentheses and tion words, such as legitimization, annihilation, commodification and spectacularization. Still, the essays are provocative and far-reaching, and the book could discover a wide audience beyond sociologists. Anyone involved in the highly competitive, interdisciplinary and multicultural world of sport will want to understand globalizations influence and patterns. This student of globalization welcomed a set of essays addressing diverse sports, regions and issues, but would prefer a more specific overarching theme in future collections. One approach might be to compare the movement of sports around the globe with the promotion of governance or religion, pointing to similarities or differences. Another approach could center on economic issues. The book was

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published prior to widespread recognition of the global economic crisis now under way. Giulianotti and Robertson briefly point out that poverty, unemployment and forced migration in the developing world have disconnected large populations from their sporting facilities and outlets. Yet readers cant help but be curious about a recent abrupt shift in attitudes from widespread expectations that of rising global wealth to thriftiness and caution about investments and which sport traditions might endure the current downturn. Another intriguing approach might center in on conflicts among sports or even disdain for a sports culture. Indeed, the books closing essay, by Gary Armstrong, centers on the 2005 national election in Liberia when international soccer star George Weah lost to Harvard-educated grandmother Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, and offers a reminder of sports limited power. Gender concerns, economic troubles and diverse talents can outweigh the media attention directed at major figures in sports. Despite sports special appeal and symbolism, societies expect responsibility from organizers and individual players. Much of sports power is derived from the narratives of players and teams that emerge over time, and over-commercialization, rapid growth, intrusive nationalization, arrogant celebrity hierarchies as well as relentless quests for victory or profits that can taint those stories.

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Chapter-2

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

TO STUDY WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION, WAS IT INVOLVED IN SPORTS IN THE

EARLIER TIMES AND WHAT ALL TRENDS IT HAS DEVELOPED IN THE RECENT

YEARS, AND TO ANALYZE WHAT ARE ITS IMPACTS ON SPORTS.

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Chapter-3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Marketing research is the function which likes the consumers, customers & public to the marketer through information which is used to identify & define marketing opportunities & problems, generate, refine & evaluate marketing action; monitor marketing performances & improve understanding of marketing as a process.

It has following steps: I: II: III: IV: V: VI: PROBLEM DEFINITION DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM RESEARCH DESIGN FORMULATION FIELDWORK OR DATA COLLECTION DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS REPORT PREPRATION AND PRESENTATION

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2.1

RESEACH DESIGN: It is framework or blueprint for conducting the market research project. It

specifies the details of procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure and/or solve marketing research problem. Research design broadly classified into two parts : Exploratory Research Conclusive Research

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH: Exploratory research looks for hypothesis in well-established fields of study. Hypothesis usually comes from ideas developed in previous researches or are delivered from theory. Hypothesis is tentative answer to the question that serves as guide for most of the research projects It seeks to discover new relationships. All marketing research projects start with it. This is a preliminary phase & is absolutely essential in order to obtain a proper definition of problems at hand. The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas & insight.

CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH: Conclusive research provides information that helps the executive so that he can make a rational decision. This study has done well while attempting to arrive at a more clear description of an apparent problem.

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2.2 TARGET POPULATION: The collection of elements or object that possesses the information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made. Target population should be defined in term of Element and Sampling unit. ELEMENT: Object that possess the information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made. SAMPLING UNIT: The basic unit containing the elements of the population to be sampled. 2.3 SAMPLE SIZE: Sample size refers to the number of elements to be used in a study. 2.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: Sampling Techniques are of two types:

a) b)

Non probability (non random) Probability sampling (random sampling)

2.5

SCOPE OF STUDY: The scope of the study will be useful in future. Through this study we can

know what is the scenario of globalization in the recent years and what are the globalization factors that influence the business. Through this study we will find out the globalization effects on business.
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2.6 DATA COLLECTION METHOD: The data collection process can be relatively simple depending on the type of data collection tools required and used during the research. Data collection tools are instruments used to collect information for performance assessments, self-evaluations, and external evaluations. The data collection tools need to be strong enough to support what the evaluations find during research. Here are a few examples of data collection tools used within three main categories. Secondary participation: Postal mail Electronic mail Telephone Web-based surveys.

In-person observations In-person surveys used to gain general answers to basic questions Direct or participatory observations where the researcher is directly involved with the study group Interviews used to gain more in depth answers to complex questions Focus groups where certain sample groups are asked their opinion about a certain subject or theory.

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I.

Case Studies And Content Analysis:

Case studies and content analysis are data collection tools which are based upon pre-existing research or a search of recorded information which may be useful to the researcher in gaining the required information which fills in the blanks not found with the other two types during the data collection process. Some examples of this type of data collection tool would include: Expert opinions leaders in the field of study Case studies previous findings of other researchers Literature searches research articles and papers

RESEARCH

METHODLOGY

OF

THIS

PROJECT

REPORT:-

The ability to gather, analyze, evaluate, present and utilize information is therefore is a vital skill today.

1)

Data

Collection:-

The analysis will be done with the help Secondary data. The data is collected mainly from websites, annual reports, research reports, already conducted survey analysis, database available etc.

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Chapter-4 ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

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A brief history of globalization

Globalization involves the interplay of markets, technology and State, which are amongst the oldest and most distinctive human innovations. Exchange, the fundamental principle on which markets are organized, is known to exist in the most primitive human societies. Man is not the only living creature with the ability to store surpluses and live in complex societies controlled by chiefs consider the industrious ants and bees but he is unique in his ability to socially redistribute these surpluses through increasingly complex divisions of labour under the authority of the State. The saga of globalization is that of an unbound Prometheus, with surges in productivity and growth unparalleled in history as markets, technology and states are progressively freed from local demand and supply constraints. Although the term 'globalization' has gained currency only recently, the forces driving this trend can be traced back to the end of the middle Ages in Europe.

Pre-modern societies, however, were above all else defined by localism and decentralization. Most people remained at their place of birth right through their lives. Migration was a one-way street to resettle in virgin territory in response to conquest, calamity or local demographic pressure. Religious experience was mostly limited to the local parish, with wider pilgrimages limited to a select few. Empires meant mostly march of armies over land, and were never transcontinental, with the notable exception of North Africa adjoining the Mediterranean. State power was a coalition of local power elites owing allegiance to a monarch who never had access to centralized administrative machinery.
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With near universal poverty a structural constraint on demand, markets were neighborhood-trading places, with long distance trade mostly limited to luxury goods for the small power elite. New ideas, information and technology spread slowly since transportation and communication were based on animal traction. Four distinct phases of globalization can be discerned in modern history.

The first phase began in the sixteenth century with the passing of pre-modern localism, improvements in maritime technology leading to the great age of maritime exploration, discovery and mercantilism, the European Renaissance, centralizing tendencies associated with absolute monarchy and the emergence of modern nation states following the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, and the spread of the ideals of the American and French Revolutions from the eighteenth century.

The second phase from the late eighteenth century was marked by the spread of the Industrial Revolution and vast improvements in human technology, inanimate traction, productivity and demand, which led to mass production and conveyance of merchandise goods and people, cross-border integration through bulk longdistance trade, colonial plunder, investment flows and empire during a phase of European imperial expansion which saw the flag follow trade across the globe. The Industrial Revolution opened up a rapidly widening income gap between Europe and America on the one hand, and the rest of the world on the other.

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History of globalization in Sports

Sports in American History: From Colonization to Globalization journeys from the early American past to the present to give students a compelling grasp of the historical evolution of American sporting practices.

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This text provides students with insights that will allow them to develop new and alternative perspectives, examine sport as a social and cultural phenomenon, generate a better understanding of current sport practices, and consider future developments in sport in American life. This expansive text is the most comprehensive resource on sport history, providing coverage of sport by historical periodsfrom the indigenous tribes of pre-modern America, through colonial societies, to the era of sport in the United States today. Unlike previous sport history texts, Sports in American History examines how women, minorities, and ethnic and religious groups have influenced U.S. sporting culture. This gives students a broader knowledge of the complexities of sport, health, and play in the American experience and how historical factors, such as gender, ethnicity, race, and religion, provide a more complete understanding of sports in American history.

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GLOBALIZATION IN RECENT YEARS

Yet, based on experiences throughout the world, several basic principles seem to underpin greater prosperity. These include investment (particularly foreign direct investment), the spread of technology, strong institutions, sound macroeconomic policies, an educated workforce, and the existence of a market economy. Furthermore, a common denominator which appears to link nearly all highgrowth countries together is their participation in, and integration with, the global economy.
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There is substantial evidence, from countries of different sizes and different regions, that as countries "globalize" their citizens benefit, in the form of access to a wider variety of goods and services, lower prices, more and better-paying jobs, improved health, and higher overall living standards. It is probably no mere coincidence that over the past 20 years, as a number of countries has become more open to global economic forces, the percentage of the developing world living in extreme povertydefined as living on less than $1 per dayhas been cut in half. As much as has been achieved in connection with globalization, there is much more to be done. Regional disparities persist: while poverty fell in East and South Asia, it actually rose in sub-Saharan Africa. The UN's Human Development Report notes there are still around 1 billion people surviving on less than $1 per daywith 2.6 billion living on less than $2 per day. Proponents of globalization argue that this is not because of too much globalization, but rather too little. And the biggest threat to continuing to raise living standards throughout the world is not that globalization will succeed but that it will fail. It is the people of developing economies who have the greatest need for globalization, as it provides them with the opportunities that come with being part of the world economy. These opportunities are not without riskssuch as those arising from volatile capital movements. The International Monetary Fund works to help economies manage or reduce these risks, through economic analysis and policy advice and through technical assistance in areas such as macroeconomic policy, financial sector sustainability, and the exchange-rate system.

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The risks are not a reason to reverse direction, but for all concernedin developing and advanced countries, among both investors and recipientsto embrace policy changes to build strong economies and a stronger world financial system that will produce more rapid growth and ensure that poverty is reduced. The following is a brief overview to help guide anyone interested in gaining a better understanding of the many issues associated with globalization.

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Globalization in Sports in Recent Years

Throughout the twenty-first century, globalization has spread across economy, political relations, people, and popular culture all over the planet. The world of sports has also been radically globalized during this same period of time.

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NBA and MLB are filled with players that reside from countries outside of the United States. The arrival of Yao Ming added thirty million Houston Rockets fans to a team that only has one million viewers in the US currently. With the rise of the US Soccer team, the World Cup has truly become a global competition. Regular season football and hockey games are now played abroad, while foreign soccer teams tour on American soil. How will the globalization of sports change the games we know and love today? Will these changes improve sports for the fans or only line the pockets of owners and corporations? To what extent will the relevancy and hierarchy of the established leagues be transformed by the pressures of global markets? In a six-part series, these and many other questions will be addressed and also explained how each of the major sports can best transition into this global society while maintaining its quality of play. The history of international sports, up to this point, has been sporadic. In 1896, the revival of the summer Olympics was the first truly global competition, but it was restricted to amateurs. The World Soccer Cup emerged in 1930 as the first global competition that allowed professional athletes.

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Soccer championships (such as the European Champion Clubs' Cup, which later evolved into the Champions League) would also arise throughout the world in the mid-twentieth century. Outside of soccer, globalization has been limited. American sports leagues have added Canadian franchises in Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal while the NHL expanded hockey to the United States. However, since the 1990s, globalization has excelled with the advancements of technology and the acceptance of professional athletes in the Olympic Games. The domination of the 1992 USA Dream Team basketball squad has inspired foreign youth to play American sports while the 1994 World Soccer Cup led to the AYSO (American Youth Soccer Organization) to supersede Little League. Today, players from across the world fill American sports leagues and European soccer clubs and these games, broadcasted on national television and the Internet, began the globalization of sports. What changes does globalization provide for professional sports leagues? The future of sports lies in the change from continental markets to global markets. Americans in the past five years have been seen regularly wearing Manchester United jerseys and Lakers fans can be found in China. Eventually, leagues will have multi-continental franchises and road trips will tire players even more. Franchises and the surrounding sports league will see greater profit as the global market provides limitless expansions of revenue.

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The percentage of international players will continue to grow along with the popularity of global competitions, such as the World Baseball Classic and the UEFA Champions League. It is not even unlikely that ESPN International will appear in some countries. These trends seem general, but different industries have different reactions to the global economy. For how each of the major sports is dealing with globalization and how it affects them, please read the rest of this series. The next edition will be released tomorrow, when I will discuss how NBA has made basketball the worlds most popular sport and what challenges does the League face with its international fan base.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SPORTS

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Impact of globalization and technology on professional sports Technological advances are bringing sporting events to more people than ever before. Mobile devices, net books, laptops and satellite televisions have increased international viewership of sporting events. For the 2010 World Cup, ESPN3 clocked nearly 7.4 million viewers, generating 15.7 million hours of viewing. The network's World Cup application was downloaded more than 2.5 million times and accessed by an average of one million users per day.

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Though the World Cup may be seen as an outlier in terms of revenue generated and number of viewers, the international fan base continues to groweven for smaller scaled local sporting eventswith the aid of ever-advancing technology. This is due in part to athletes playing abroad, which may generate interest in a player's native country, and in part to the relatively new ability to watch games taking place anywhere in the world through live web stream or satellite television. Cross-border deals are also part of the equation as foreigners increasingly purchase interests in local teams, such as Mikhail D. Prokhorov recently becoming the first foreign owner of an NBA team. The potential sale of Liverpool, a soccer team in the English Premier League, has drawn the interest of potential purchasers from across the globe. This influx of interest creates opportunities for local and foreign sponsors and advertisers. The

increased globalization of sports has also increased the value of many sport properties as evidenced recently by the $2 billion price tagdouble the previous contractfor overseas television rights for the next three years of Premier League games. Globalization of the NBA is not a new phenomenon, but technological advances are helping it continue. Today, the NBA finals are televised to more than 200 countries in over 40 languages. More than half of all NBA.com traffic comes from outside of the U.S. Due to its enormous popularity in China and because of highprofile players Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian, the number of Chinese sponsors and advertisers in the NBA is growing. Recently, the NBA announced a multi-year marketing partnership with the BBVA Group, a leading Spanish bank.

39

As part of the partnership, BBVA will serve as the official bank of the NBA, WNBA and the NBA D-League in the U.S., Spain and Puerto Rico. MLB is also seeing its brand grow. Thanks to players such as Ichiro Suzuki, a significant number of Japanese sponsors, including Nintendo, MasterCard Japan, Ajinomoto, Sanyo Electric and Hitachi, can be seen throughout MLB stadiums. The benefits of globalization are not limited to foreign companies; many U.S. companies are also getting in on the action. The NBA's popularity in China is a significant reason for Nike's revenue growth in that country, which rose 22% in 2009. Many sports are using advances in technology to expand, driving an

increase in opportunities for advertisers and sponsors. Because international games are so easily accessed, they reach more people in more countries than ever before. Sponsors and advertisers are no longer limited to local markets or traditional forms of advertising and should explore different markets and media to reach as many "local" sports fans as possible. Nowadays there is no doubt that sport and physical activity have become universal phenomena. All countries could find common points in their cultures and strengthen them. In the era of globalization, close cooperation among countries is more urgent than ever. This necessity has become more visible due to special world conditions and gradual growth of communication beginning in the late1950s and early 1960s. The international federations, international World Cup associations, and common wealth country competitions are examples of globalization in sport. Under such conditions, one could claim that every change in the vision of a nation could affect other nations too.
40

Additionally, it could be expected that social demand, ideas, interests and even world values are being manipulated and are beginning to resemble each other more day by day. Since even a tiny event can be seen live throughout the world, it is not difficult to predict peoples interactions during forthcoming years in the 21st century (EICHBERG, 2003). It is now obvious that planning for each and every phenomenon entails a global vision, and sport is not an exception to this trend. Globalization is a process of political, economical, social and cultural changes that Culminates in improvement of relations and more interaction and mingling in the world. Researchers claim that forming of a third universal culture, the combination of available cultures, is underway.

According to Hall (1990) globalization is not equal to the breaking down and substitution of cultures but it is a kind of minor renovation of conventional cultures. However, some other researchers see it as a kind of Americanization. Emergence of various amenities such as the internet, e-mail, satellite communication and so on, plays an important role in the development of organizations. In most cases, the emergence of such amenities increases the information transfer and exchange in a less expensive manner. The incurred cost recoveries due to these amenities, in terms of transportation, manpower and other resources makes the role of globalization and communications even more plausible. Therefore, in most countries of the world, the increasing investment is occurring for purpose of developing communication facilities and improving information systems in sport organizations. The main reason for this should be sought in the impact of information technology and communication in all organizations
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including sport organizations. Globalization and information technology are considered the determinants of social demand and its harmonization. Apart from the negative aspects of globalization, it should be emphasized that the same change is happening in sport; therefore, we are seeking the answer for this question: -What is the role of globalization in future

Strategies of the country? Experts in a particular field are the most reliable and authenticated groups that could provide beneficial information about the policies and strategies for the same field. Unfortunately, the viewpoints of experts have not been exerted, in a widely and planned manner, in sport policy development so far. Therefore, this study is likely to apply the experts' ideas in sport policy development. The goal of this study is to determine the role of globalization in future strategies of the countrys sport.

METHODS
-Subjects Subjects of this study were 169 active academic staffs in physical education departments, from all over Iran. Subjects held either M.S. or PhD degrees. They ranged in age from 32 to 61years. They were contacted and asked to review the questionnaire to be sent to all faculties of departments specializing in sport studies working at universities in Iran.

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- Procedures The protocol was done in two steps. In Step 1, a panel of five sport management faculty with an aggregate of 31 years of experience in the field consensually identified the five most important factors effecting sport strategies. In Step 2, the panel was asked to name the physical education scholars they felt should be included in the Delphi panel. Four of the five responded, yielding a list of 19 potential panelists. The purpose of the study was explained, the timetable for the study was presented, and each was asked whether he or she would participate. All agreed to participate. The panel consisted of Ten men and four women, all from universities of Iran. The Delphi technique consists of iterated rounds of survey questions, with each round building on the preceding round. Findings from each round are fed back to the panelists who then respond. Responses can be both qualitative and quantitative. In successive rounds, panelists are encouraged to explain their responses and to indicate the bases for agreement or disagreement with other panelists. Research indicates that three iterations are typically sufficient to identify points of consensus and systematic points of difference, and that more iteration can bore panelists, thus reducing the validity of findings. The purpose of the first round was to elicit respondents views about the ability of the questionnaire to reach to the goals of study. The experts were faculties of large Iranian university sport management schools who had extensive experience in planning and management.

In the first phase, the focus and intent of the questions were determined. In the second phase, the appropriate sequence for questions was identified.

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In order to check the appropriateness of the questions for the research goals, the questions were then submitted to the faculty members who had participated in steps 1 and 3 of the selection of Delphi panelists. The faculty members approved the questions. The questions were then e-mailed to each of the 14 panelists, who were asked to provide detailed responses to each question. Their responses were collated and the content was analyzed independently by an analyst using the procedures described by Weber. Once the independent analyses had been completed, the analysts met in order to compare the themes each had identified. Initial agreement ranged from 8492%, depending on the question being analyzed. Disagreements were resolved

through consensual discussion. Eleven to 16 themes were identified for each question. Likert -type scales were used in order for the Delphi Panel members to refine their responses. For all questions panelists were asked to rate the importance of each theme on a five point scale ranging from no importance to critical importance. They then specified their estimate of the probability that the ideal quality represented by the theme would occur. All qualitative comments and explanations panelists provided for each theme under each question were provided as well. Panelists were also reminded of their own rating for each item. After completing the questionnaire it was sent to all faculties mentioned before. - Statistics This study was conducted in descriptive way and the data were gathered via questionnaires with their validity approved by Chronbachs alpha. In the data analysis, to determine the concomitant weight of each variables internal factor, the method of Factor Analysis was adopted.
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To ascertain the difference among the educational background of subjects and their comments the MANOVA method was applied.

The Sport and Identity Paradox Sports events and their outcomes become most meaningful and powerful and so most amenable to capital accumulation and political exploitation where there can be an extrapolation of socio-cultural significance from the action on and around the field of play. This split discourse of sport is produced in the interplay of tensions between noble universalism and base partisanship. Sports reliance on passionate national differentiation and celebrity is so thoroughgoing as to question its suitability as an exemplar of global culture. In this sense, sport is rather less sympathetic to globalization than other cultural forms, such as music (Rowe, 1995) or film, which may be more easily communicated as universal in nature and, even when deeply connected to notions of identity, do not necessarily foreground the idea of hierarchically based, competitive national performance. The history of sport in modernity is conventionally written as a process of cultural diffusion from Victorian Britain, with rationalized and regulated physical play either directly exported as part of the apparatus of imperialism and/or absorbed through the unfolding process of colonialism. The co modification of sport, perfected in the United States, then produced second and successive waves of sports diffusion, as much through appropriation and advocacy by the state as by the market.

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The development of the apparatus of sport in each country varies according to the specific character of its historical social formation, but there are few sports that have not either voluntarily or under duress been aligned with some conception of nation. This is because international sporting competition functions so effortlessly as metaphor for the state of the nation at the popular political level, while at the level of cultural economy indigenous sports are less tradable within the burgeoning media sports cultural complex in all but the largest and most affluent sports markets. In fact, despite the success of sport in the institutionalized diffusion of the framework for regulated, competitive physical play, the record of the actual export of national sports is much less impressive. Truly international sport consists only of a relatively small set of games that are regularly and readily translatable as the Esperanto of mediatized entertainment.

Nonetheless, any sport can claim to be international even where contested by a limited set of territories marked by geopolitical and/or sporting systems of governance (for example, rugby league), or where it is dominated by one country while attracting overseas fan interest and foreign labour (as in the case of US baseball and its domestic World Series). This structural importance of the nation persists despite the increasing circulation of sportspeople around the globe as part of the new international division of cultural labour. For example, more association football players operate outside their countries of origin than ever before, and their clubs complain of the loss of, and potential damage to, their labour power caused by international demands.

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Football more than any sport can lay claim to be the global game. Yet the clubs still retain a national brand irrespective of the composition of their playing and coaching staff and of their shareholder register, and their players are still expected to return to home base in their respective continents for peak international sports tournaments like the World Cup.

Furthermore, as Patrick McGovern (2002) has recently noted in analyzing patterns of recruitment of foreign players2 to the English football leagues between 1946 and 1995, labour-market trends have been international rather than global in nature, and the range of supply countries highly limited. His study (albeit one that stops just before the crucial 1996 Bosman European Court of Justice ruling that deregulated footballer movement within the European Union)3 shows that: In particular, a preference is shown for players who socially, culturally and linguistically resemble those who are hiring them a case of homosocial reproduction (Kanter, 1997).

The nation, therefore, is never far below the surface of sports discourse, always threatening to assert itself and to circumscribe the free circulation of sports personnel and the meanings that can be derived from its operation (e.g. Duke and Crolley, 1996; Stevenson, 2002). As Dayan and Katz (1992) note, media sports events generate contest narrative forms that are perfectly suited to articulations of nation. Sports dependency on the nation, therefore, always reinserts the restrictive framework of modernity into the fluid workings of post modernity.

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In so doing and in a highly emotional manner sport operates as a perpetual reminder of the social limits to the reconfiguration of endlessly mutable identities and identifications. This does not have to be the literal invocation of the nation state. As noted above, the sporting nation is not coterminous with the sovereign, legal nation. In events like the football World Cup, the non-existent English nation, as symbolized by the flag of St George, can materialize in international sporting competition just as Catalan nationalists strategically capitalized on the opportunities afforded by the 1992 Barcelona Olympics (Hargreaves, 2000). International sport can, then, be a key marker of national fantasy or aspiration, but above all it is generative of a symbolic entity that comes into being by affixing a notion of identity that is likely to be an impediment to the free-floating cosmopolitanism so crucial to the ethos of globalization. It could be objected that, in an adaptation of a classical Marxist economic basecultural superstructure model, sports fixation on the nation functions as cover for more profound changes occurring at the political economic level. Sport can, therefore, be seen as a sop to sovereignty and difference, masking the creeping control of global institutions. On screen, the world secular religion of football might appear to fuse with branded transnational capitalist consumption, leading the football teams of nations to resemble just so many niches in a global market. Mega-media sports events do, indeed, reflect the domination of the North AmericaEuropeJapan triad in trade and foreign direct investment.

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Of the 15 partners of the Korea/Japan 2002 World Cup, 14 came from the Triad , with the remaining partner coming from co-host Korea, in a tournament organized by FIFA (the acronym for the Federation International de Football Association), the historically Francophile peak governing body . Of course, the restricted scope of globalization in such examples provides its own questioning of the globalization thesis, but even if global power were to be more widely dispersed, a left functionalist perspective reduces sports complex workings within the popular socio-cultural sphere to that of a mechanical effect of capitalist ideology. While the potential for ideological manipulation of sport and the tendency towards conservatism of sporting organizations and personnel is readily apparent, the ideological complexion of the institution of sport cannot be so neatly classified, just as expressions of nationalism do not in all instances operate as ideological cement preserving the unity of class-ridden societies for the benefit of their ruling class. Here globalization might be said to have its progressive side as a counterweight to ultra-nationalism. The rhetoric of globalization does, however, in practice predominantly reflect the drive of global capital to extend and deepen its dominion. But even if its dynamic impulses were more benign, sports constant evocation of the nation as its anchor point and rallying cry makes for an uneasy relation to globalization advocacy. It is improbable that sport can be reconfigured as postnational and substantially stripped of its productive capacity to promote the forms of identity because these are, simultaneously, the source of its affective power and the potentially activated resistive impediments to the globalization process. This paradox was evident in global sports most recent and spectacular festival.
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Reflections on the Korea/Japan World Cup, 2002

Observation of the recent Korea/Japan World Cup from three different vantage points illustrates how the nation, imagined or real, is so central to sport as to present a constant potential interruption to the smooth passage of globalization. This was not a rigorous methodological exercise, but an attempt to trace elements of national cultural formations during a mega-media global sports event. La Coupe du Monde, as the peak spectacle of the self-described world game, generating massive broadcast rights fees and recruiting major corporate partners, seems to represent globalization in and through sport par excellence. But there are limits even to the cultural portability of association football. In countries where it is known as soccer, like Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the US, the linguistic marker signifies that it is not the dominant code of football. This word choice may also have an explicitly political edge, as in the case of the Irish nationalist preference for the term soccer to demarcate it more effectively from indigenous Gaelic football. Korea/Japan 2002, it could be argued, nonetheless represented a substantial step towards the globalization of football with the appearance for the first time of China, the worlds most populous nation. Chinas involvement, however, also raised the stakes of the nationalist rivalry in east Asia that was so starkly revealed in the difficult relationship between the cohosts, whose deep historical enmity is well known, and between whom there is continuing tension over the Japanese educational erasure of culpability for Second World War atrocities, and reluctance to make reparation.

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Ironically, furthermore, as Korea met Turkey in the play-off for third place, North Korea and its southern neighbor were involved in a naval engagement resulting in several fatalities on both sides, and placing the militaries of both nations on full alert. This failure of the World Cups equivalent of the Pax Olympia dramatically revealed the limitations of sport as a global pacifier and, in this case, the potential of the World Cup to exacerbate regional national resentment. Mega-media sports events like the World Cup and the Olympics take place at particular sites, and what occurs is relayed to differentiated audiences in customized fashion. Watching the World Cup from the vantage point of three countries with different historical and contemporary experiences of football demonstrated how the same spectacle mutates according to national context and viewing position. The main focus here is on the UK, where interest in the event was more intense, with brief observations of contrasting national cultural milieu. In Australia, the World Cup could be watched on television in prime time as the tournament was taking place in the Asia-Pacific region for the first time. Australia, however, has only once qualified for the World Cup (in 1974), and failed to do so again in 2002. This meant that football spectators in Australia had a wider repertoire of viewing positions than those of participating nations. These included the universalist appreciation of the world game; adoption of a favourite team (on some grounds of affinity, glamour and so on); the finding of Australian connections (such as an Italian player who had lived in the country as a child) and (as would have often occurred irrespective of Australias involvement) support for a team of the viewers national-ethnic origin, such as Italy, England, Turkey, China and South Africa.

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In the case of Australia, therefore, the absence of direct national representation opened up more diverse viewing spaces than would have been possible had the national team qualified, which would have immediately mobilized an intense, nationalist discourse. The nation, present or absent, is then still crucial to the experience of the World Cup. The location, geopolitical position, history and demography of the nation will, in turn, condition responses to the event at the various points of intersection with global forces. This observation was borne out in a different country visited briefly during the World Cup (not counting the credit card advertisements and screened games in the quasi-postnational space of the airport transit lounge). Holland, unlike Australia, usually reaches the World Cup but also did not qualify for Korea/Japan 2002. Association football is the dominant winter sport in that country (rather than the poor cousin as it is in Australia), thereby seeming to create greater resentment at non-participation. Far distant from the site of the tournament, Europeanness came to the fore in Holland, with a greater concentration on and identification with Dutch- and Europe-based players and teams. Some supportersof the Dutch team were able to express negative identification in the form of the teams that they didnt want to win (and, contra European unity, this seemed mainly to be France or Germany).

In cabled European televisual space, however, British, German, Belgian, French and other nations viewers could watch their team as presented by their own national broadcasters.

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Touristic spaces were created for viewing the World Cup, some of which had the quality of postmodern pastiche, as in the cases of the English and Irish theme pubs promising All World Cup Games Live. At a time when the most conspicuous political issue in the European Union (signalled by a turn to the right in France, Italy, Denmark, Austria and Holland itself) was immigration and asylum seekers, there was visible support on Dutch streets for the various nations of origin that comprise the contemporary Netherlands, such as Tunisia, Brazil and Nigeria. As might be expected of viewers of an international tournament, the emblems of nation were everywhere to the fore, and few seemed to take the opportunity to adopt a position of neutrality in the role of global cultural citizen. This role was even less visible in the next nation state visited the UK and, within it, the sporting nation of England. Britishness had been much fore grounded during recent golden jubilee celebrations of the reign of Queen Elizabeth II as a constitutional monarch, although the flag of St George, as an emblem of England, supplemented and often replaced the Union Jack (the sign of the nation state in a now post-Scots, Welsh and Northern Irish devolution Britain) in bedroom and shop windows, and other publicly visible sites. The World Cup offered an even more compelling opportunity for the aggressive assertion of Englishness through the flag of St George and licensed a temporary, symbolic secession from Great Britain (mirrored, it might be noted, in pre-tournament debates in Scotland concerning the traitorous tendency there to support any team playing against England).

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As in earlier tournaments (e.g. Carrington and McDonald, 2001, and Garland and Rowe, 1999, on jingoism during Euro 96), the participation of a team, extracted from the nation state and invested with a specific national character for the purposes of sport, activated conceptions of the nation that were the antithesis of progressive global cosmopolitanism. While it is necessary to be cautious in naively ascribing cultural and ideological representativeness to the tabloid press, the popular media amplified strong, nostalgic and inevitably fantastical myths of nation in and through football. To take a small number of examples, The Sun opened its front-page text with the anticipatory statement that All of England will get up for the Cup tomorrow to see our heroes tackle Nigeria . . . at half past Sven [the given name of the Englands Swedish-born manager+, while the back-page headline recorded the Beckham Battle-Cry to FINISH THE JOB LADS. For the next game, The Sun promised that, ENGLANDS soccer heroes will inflict pain on the Danes today by booting them out of the World Cup. As a game against Brazil approached, the wrap-around front and back page consisted of only player and manager headshots and the headline YOU CAN DO IT LADS, while inside stories included One Flies Flag for the Lads carrying a fake internet photograph of the Queen in an England shirt with her face painted with the flag of St George. The story BEAT EM FOR MY GRANDAD, Says Bobby Moores *the late, World Cup winning England captain+ grandson was one of many nostalgic references to Englands solitary World Cup tournament win in 1966. The Daily Mirror, for example, on the same day listed 12 reasons WHY WELL WIN on its front page, adding that these were all precedents from 1966.

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On the day of the game, the front page of the Daily Mirror consisted of white space, a small flag of St George and the small, centered headline, This page is cancelled. Nothing else matters. Its World Cup supplement noted that, while the loyalties of Japanese fans were split: The whole of England has been brought together with a dream of victory. We want it, we need it, we crave it. The country is speaking with one voice: DO IT FOR US!.

The next day, after Englands loss, the Daily Mirrors black wrap-around carried a front-page picture focusing on distraught England goalkeeper David Seaman, accompanied by the headline Anyone for tennis, while the back page carried an image of a controversial German victory in the same round with the statement AND JUST WHEN YOU THOUGHT IT COULDNT GET ANY WORSE . . . Within a few days, The Sun rearticulated football and monarchy with the emphasis on the latter, carrying a prominent front-page image of Prince William in jeans juggling a football. This brief snapshot of English tabloid media discourse during the 2002 World Cup illustrates the ways in which international sport compulsively reactivates and recalculates long-standing and emergent myths of nation. Constant homage were paid to our lads and our heroes, with frequent crossreferences to serving military personnel in Afghanistan such as the Royal Marines, who were hunting Taliban while monitoring the progress of the World Cup during their tour of duty. Interpellations of the national us (despite the fact that the national we is an effect of sporting governmentality and incorporates citizens who are not football supporters of any kind) constitute the kind of discourse that is inimical to globalization rhetorics.
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For example, in Britain, confronted with the prospect of a referendum on the replacement of the national currency (sterling) in favour of the multinational Euro, the World Cup fostered a political and cultural climate that was unlikely to be favourable to changes seeming to infringe national sovereignty by replacing the heavily symbolic pound in the name of cross-border exchange rate efficiency. The cultural atmosphere in early 21st-century England was close to the kind of discourse reflected in much earlier representations of sport and nationhood, such as Geoffrey Greens famous reflections in the London Times on the significance of the English national teams first home defeat at Wembley Stadium by communist Hungary in 1953: England at last beaten by the foreign invader on solid English soil. During the 2002 World Cup, the English nationalist fetishization of David Beckhams hair and left foot, and of Michael Owens groin; the continuing reference to the Falklands/Malvinas War on the eve of its 20th anniversary in the lead-up to the game against Argentina; and the anxiety about a possible German tournament win, were all examples of the foregrounding of local, idiosyncratic rivalries and identifications.

On a wider stage, the victory of first-time participants Senegal over world champions France in the opening match was open to colonial interpretation, just as the first-time hosting of the World Cup in Asia provoked interpretive narratives of the rising nations of the Orient challenging the established hegemony of the Occident. Spectacular expressions of South Korean nationalism and the more general carnivalesque presentations of national culture that football generates problematize the meanings and effects of sport.
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The sport carnivals turning of the world upside down by celebrating the nation may be interpreted in functionalist terms as a safety valve for resistance to globalization. But, less automatically, it can clearly operate as a force that provides considerable cultural reinforcement for those who wish to preserve older structures and boundaries and, indeed, to (re)construct new ones.

DISCUSSION

In this study the loading of globalization was relatively high and its impact on sport strategies was significant. In addition, the most significant impact of globalization should be sought in harmony with the values and needs of different countries. This issue is confirmed by other researchers as well. Any shift in the visions and values of a society affects other societies and these values interact strongly with each other. There are multiple reasons including, products, air pollution, and difficulty in making decisions for space, the seas and a special area health, education and so on. The globalizing flow that connects the countries together indicates that could build the wall around them and protect themselves from this flow. Fishman (1996) considers globalization as a process in which geographical limitations in social and cultural compositions are being abolished. Some researchers are pessimistic about these changes and do not consider them helpful for world community. Mannington (2001) sees the globalization as a form of imperialism or cultural empire building in which receivers of these universal cultures become the new workforce and consumers of its market products.

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The process of globalization does penetrate into native cultures. The native culture could survive subjectively but the competition between these two cultures is not fair. Although the subjects of this study did not believe the abovementioned idea, they did not suppose that this process would culminate in destruction of native culture. They regard the introduction of new sports helpful, in part, for native culture. Various amenities such as the internet, e-mail, satellite communication and so forth play an important role in developing these structures and in many cases presence of such amenities pave the way for transferring large amounts of information inexpensively and utilizing a minimum of the existing workforce. In the current study, the significance of congruence of large scale planning with developed countries was emphasized and to a lesser degree, the congruence with developing countries. It goes without saying that the governing process in place in the developed countries is the source of innovations and creation of new ideas. The reason for such comments probably lies in the subjects' interest in moving forward.

Considering that all routine activities including sport are affected heavily by communication technology, how could we neglect the scientific organizations? There is some evidence that the more we move forward the greater will be the gap between developed and developing countries in terms of talking of phenomena. Some research finds commonalities between the European community and African countries in terms of sanitary priorities. Sport for all is going to become more common among developed and developing countries .

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The final result of this process, namely emergence of harmony, but not in an imperialistic form, could reflect the peoples demand and commitment . On the other hand, in many developing countries sport is given lower priorities. In Kenya even the most elementary sport facilities are not provided (MONNINGTON, 2001) and generally speaking economic and social problems hinder the investment in sports in these countries. Some other developing countries like Malaysia, Singapore, India, Pakistan and Hong Kong meticulously try to improve their industrial and technical capabilities. It seems that the first priority in such countries is not developing elite sports. Rather, they should try to enhance health and community sports among the people in their nations. The respondents to the questionnaire not only emphasized protecting native culture against any damage but also focused on the congruence of sport strategies with globalization. This comment is concordant with previous studies. Even the most pessimistic

researchers against globalization see it as indispensable and numerous sources, confirm the shifting of peoples vision toward sport and its ever increasing development in the world. Instead of various visions on globalization, the incurred impacts could not be denied in all areas including sport. Therefore, it is necessary to be aware of the ways of exploitation from amenities instead of adopting the irrational policies. The results of the current study also emphasize the necessity to pay attention to globalization. Globalization is an indispensable process and successful managers are those who understand strategic opportunities. Social demand is strongly affected by globalization. Therefore, when developing strategies, the social demands should be taken in to account.

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How Globalization Is Making Sports Better

Nowadays, you see people from India wearing NFL hats, people from America wearing soccer jerseys with the names Messi or Henri, and people from France wearing basketball caps. How has this amazing internationalization of sports fanaticism occurred? The answer, I tell you, is globalization, or the integration of facets of life from different cultures into comprehensive proclivities. Before-hand, at the advent of modern sports, these sports were popular only in the nations they were created in. Basketball, football, and baseball were only popular in the US, soccer was only popular in international Spanish nations, and cricket was only popular in Britain. However, as time passed by and globalization mechanisms increased, the sports popularities increased. Cricket expanded to Australia and India, as well as many other Middle-Eastern countries. Basketball has spread to almost all countries around the world. In fact, with the new popularity of basketball all over the world, many NBA teams recruit from outside of the US now. Look at Yao Ming: this guy is one of the most dominant big men in the game, and he isnt from an American city, hes from China. Look at the big-man sharpshooter Dirk Nowitskifrom Germany. Hakeem the dream OlajuanNigeria. The list goes on and on. Also, while America is still at the top of the basketball, other teams have reached the top of the basketball world. Teams like Germany, Lithuania, and even Argentina, who won the Olympic basketball tournament in 2004. The days of the Dream Team are long gone.

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Globalization has also occurred extensively in soccer: actually, it has probably had the most widespread globalization. Soccer has the most popularity out of any sport worldwide, as evidenced by the different international leagues, the recruitment of international players, and the World Cup for soccer that is held every four years. In baseball, Japan has gained ground and has become a baseball power. Tennis has also been globalized. Currently there is a tennis player on the professional circuit from every nation of the world, except Afghanistan. This truly shows the widespread popularity of tennis. Every year, there is the Davis Cup, which is like a World Cup for tennis that takes place every year. Now, foreign players win majors more than the hometown favorites. The last player to win Wimbledon, the British major, was Fred Perry, and he did it 76 years ago. The same with golf. You may think that Tiger Woods is the only dominant golfer out there, but this simply isnt the case anymore. There are so many great golfers from all around the world now. Last but not least is football. This sport has long been called Americas Game. The cheerleaders, the tailgating, the game itself; If you like football, you must be an American right? WRONG. It is true that American football hasnt globalized as fast as many of the other sports out there, it is well on its way in the right direction. Real-time example: right now the New England Patriots have traveled to Old England to play a football game. The Tampa Bay Buccaneers also made the long journey to play.

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Its part of the NFLs promise to have increased international participation. And the commissioner of the league says that soon there will be more international games played. Whereas beforehand there was no diversification of sports internationally, now the globalization of sports has caused more sports to be popular worldwide. And its not going to stop; there is an increasing amount of communication mechanisms out there right now. Theres email, theres the internet, and there will continue to be an increase in international communication.

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 The Global Flows of International Professional Baseball System

Abstract This paper employs concepts drawn from a five-phase model of globalization adapted from the work of Maguire et al. in 2002, which aids in developing an understanding of the global phenomenon of professional baseball. It reports that the five flows of globalization, namely, migrant dimension, technology dimension, economic dimension, media dimension, and ideological dimension are shaping the outcomes of various local professional baseball cultures within the global context and vice versa. The paper concludes that Major League Baseball (MLB) in
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the U.S. is confirmed as the core economy within world professional baseball; and the global forces, the power of MLB in particular, have been impacting and shaping the outcomes of different local professional baseball cultures with a particular focus on the relationships between the above five flows.

Introduction During the past generation, especially from the 1980s to the present, the world has experienced fundamental changes, and globalization has emerged as one of the foremost discourses (Jackson & Hokowhitu, 2002). According to Bramham and Spink (2001), such dramatic changes can be thought of in six separate dimensions. First, there has been a growing awareness of

the ecological environment and the global impact of human activities upon a fragile and interdependent biosphere. Second, social action groups and political movements have tended to transcend the local and to make common cause at a transnational scale. Some of this activity has been facilitated by a revolution of global technology. Third, there has been a cultural transformation, particularly in terms of the decline of tradition. Cultural values can no longer be contained and constrained within a single nation state. Boundaries become increasingly porous as they experience growing flows of people, culture, information, goods, and services. Fourth, social transformations are taking place that loosen the constraints of traditional institutions and local communities on individuals. Fifth, in relation to political change, the growing importance of transnational institutions and agencies, such as the European Union (EU) has become

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increasingly apparent. Finally, there are economic factors changing global patterns of investment, production, distribution and consumption (Bauman, 1998). The global development of sport has also accelerated from the 1980s. For example, one can find the flows from country to country of sporting goods, equipment, and landscapes that have grown such as the development of the media-sport production complex and project images to global audiences. In the academic field, the subjects of growth of internationalization or globalization have received much attention from numbers of academics (cf. Chiba, 2004; Lawet al., 2002; Magnusson, 2001; Maguire et al., 2002; Takahashi & Horne, 2004). In this paper, the authors employ concepts drawn from a five-phase model of globalization approach, adapted from the work of Maguire et al. in 2002, with a focus on understanding the global phenomenon of professional baseball. They seek to report how the five flows of globalization: migrant dimension, technology dimension, economic dimension, media dimension, and ideological dimension are shaping the outcomes of various local professional baseball cultures within the global context and vice versa.

Theoretical Background With the radical changes taking place in this global context, a major concern has been raised regarding the consequences of globalizing the sport field. Elite sport now occurs on a worldwide scale and is patterned along what academics term global flows (Maguire et al., 2002). In a set of flows in global processes, Maguire et al. propose an elementary framework for exploring such
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phenomenon, suggesting that there are five dimensions of global flows: migrant dimension, technology dimension, economic dimension, media dimension, and ideological dimension. According to Maguire et al. (2002), the migrant dimension involves the international movement of people such as tourists, exiles and guest workers and so on. This concept of migration refers to the make up of persons who have constituted the shifting world where guest workers, other moving groups, and persons constitute an essential feature of the world in general. In the sport arena, the global migration of sports personnel (e.g. players, coaches etc.) has been a pronounced and established feature of the sporting global village in recent decades (Maguire, 1999). For instance, the movement of player migration occurs in some sports, such as professional baseball, between North America, Latin America, and East Asia. The technology dimension, created by the flow between countries of the machinery and equipment produced the flow between countries by corporations and government agencies, (Maguire et al., 2002) making technology a shaping factor at the nexus of alternative global sport futures, and as such it is a pivotal driver of sports global evolution (Westerbeek & Smith, 2003: 153). Modern technology, such as the development of media, sport equipment etc., has created financial benefits and publicity for professional baseball. The economic dimension has been obviously concerned on the rapid flow of money and its equivalents around the world (Maguire et al., 2002). It is evident that the flow of finance in the global sports arena has come to focus on the

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international trade in personnel, prize money and endorsements, and the marketing of sport along specific lines. Some good examples are manifested in the transformation of sports such as USA basketball and baseball, Olympic Games, and Football World Cup etc. into global sports. Another factor that must be considered is the media dimension, entailing the flow between countries of information and images that are produced and distributed by newspapers, magazines, radio, film, television, video, satellite, cable and the World Wide Web (Maguire et al., 2002: 5). Currently, global and local media sport organizations have aligned a range of sporting events to meet the global audiences interests, of which spectacle, personality, and excitement are emphasized. The sport-related media continuously broadcasts images of sports to large global audiences. For example, consider worldwide audiences for the World Baseball Classic in 2006. The ideological dimension is linked to the flow of values centrally associated with the state or counter-state ideologies and movements (Maguire et al., 2002). In the professional baseball business, players are regarded as individual entrepreneurs with rights (e.g. negotiation) (Suzuki, 2000). Nevertheless, except for the MLB, the leagues seem to have different stories (Lee et al., 2006). Discussions Sports migration is bound up in a complex political economy that is itself embedded in a series of power struggles characterizing the global sports system (Maguire et al., 2002: 32). The U.S. is a central part of the global system. The most striking example of transnational power of sports organization is Major League
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Baseball (Rosentraub, 2000). Players from outside the United States are defined as guestworkers in this system. In MLB, many players have been recruited from Latin American countries, such as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela. Indeed, U.S. domination increasingly relies on Latin America talent, as illustrated by the professional sporting relations between the U.S. and Latin America (Klein, 1995). On the other hand, one could find that players came from Netherlands despite the fact that football is the most popular sport in Europe. There has been an influx of talented players from Latin America, Europe, and Australia because U.S. capital, technology, and media have provided rapid development related to professional baseball labor conditions. This, together with the infusion of Asian players (Takahashi & Horne, 2004) has fostered the exploitation of the North American professional baseball market over the past years. The baseball business is booming in Asia as a rapidly-swelling band of fans follow the exploits of home-grown players on the other side of the Pacific. The growing prominence of foreign born baseball players in MLB appears not only in the performances of foreign superstars such as Sammy Sosa but also in overall number of foreign players now on MLB rosters (Marcano & Fidler, 2000). By 2005, 242 overseas players, which occupied 29.2% of 829 Major League players, were featured from 15 countries together with Puerto Rico and the Virgin Island. The Dominican Republic leads all countries with 91 players; Venezuela is second with 46; and Puerto Rico is third with 34 (Major League Baseball, 2005). The import of MLB players from East Asia in this half decade has also shown a dramatic growth.

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Twenty-one Japanese, 9 Koreans, and 3 Taiwanese played in the U.S. during the 2001-05 period. These results indicate that most of the demand for major league players is focused on foreign-born players. Foreign players strive to play in the Major Leagues because that is the highest level. More importantly, this claim clearly implies the global migration of sports personnel has been a pronounced feature of recent decades and appears likely to continue in the future.

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EXAMPLES

1. Globalization Of Football

Football in one of the most popular sports of the world, and is often regarded as most globalized profession. Today, the best players and their services can be offered to clubs in different countries and whatever the price they want and the top players can make salaries of millions a year plus whatever additional
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endorsements they receive. The globalization in football has benefited many players and teams enabling them to find a wider support base outside their traditional local areas. Today, majority of the clubs have multiple foreign players, simply implying football as global sport. To be very precise, the game of football has now become a global sport where spectators from all over the world can enjoy variety of different leagues. The globalization of football has created international rivalries yet it has also the power to bring communities together. Simply referring FIFA World Cup, we can say the tournament brings the world of football together for an entire month. According to Franklin Foer, the national teams usually create a tribal sense of nationalisms amongst the football supporters and fans. He further explains that the nationalism is show in wearing football shirts, craves as well as flying flags for expressing pride. According to him, the tournaments including FIFA World Cup, the Africans Cup of Nations as well as the UEFA European Championship bring football supporters from different nations of the world and this naturally lead to the globalization of football game. We can simply say that different tournaments plays major role in making football as a global sport. However, the game of football brings players together form every part of the world. Besides players, the game also brings together football fans, coaches and clubs from every part of the world. For instance that game of football helps to unite the nation of Ghana and it gained independence from British imperial rule in 1957. Ghana has now become one of the most passionate football nations in both Africa and the world.
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2. The Effects of Globalization on Soccer in India

The nation of India supports over fifteen percent of the worlds population, making India the second most populous nation in the world. Interestingly, the median age in India is 25; India is one of the youngest nations among large economies. Indias history has been marked by numerous invasions from various
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cultures which have been absorbed and modified to create the current racial and culture synthesis India enjoys. India is home to many intense sporting fans. Indians are passionate about a variety of sports especially cricket, field hockey and soccer. Despite domestic passion for the previously mentioned sports India has not, yet, exported itself onto the worlds global sporting stage in the realm of the World Cup or the Olympics. It is worth mentioning that the Indian cricket team is considered one of the strongest teams in the world. At the Sydney Olympics of 2000, India won one bronze medal, which seems surprising considering Indias large population and the countys love of sports. To better understand the world of Indian sports it is helpful to look at some background information. For instance, 44 percent of Indians spend less than a dollar a day, which would seem to have a great effect on the training, recruiting and development of many sports within India. The technology boom of the 1990s created many technology driven industries within India. Likewise, the advent of relatively easy access to satellite television created a vast market within India for soccer, particularly European leagues such as the English Premier League (EPL). The popularity of foreign soccer leagues has had a positive effect on the development of soccer in India because it exposes many more Indians to the game. However, the high ratings for English soccer have not done a great deal to improve domestic interest. As in other countries, there is a disconnect in soccers popularity. Though many avidly watch the EPL and similar top-ranked leagues, fewer Indians have proven to actually follow their own local leagues. Watching televised international soccer stars continues to be more popular than attending or playing games locally. This lack of interest in Indian domestic soccer has hurt the national team-dropping it to an all-time low rank in the FIFA world rankings.
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Globalization has had a deep impact on India in many positive and negative ways. It creates technology-driven industries yet spurs the migration of Indians with technical skills to other countries, creating a brain-drain at home. Likewise, globalization has impacted the sporting culture in India, particular the sport of soccer. Soccer clubs such as Manchester United and AC Milan are household names in India, due to the effects of globalization. Soccer is basically viewed as a commodity created in Europe and then exported around the world to the masses. V. Krishnaswamy in his article, Football and Globalization, discusses the impact of teams from countries such as Senegal and Korea making the World Cup: But before you start clapping or dreaming of a Senegal or Korea up there on the top of the heap in 2010 or 2014, look at the other side. Globalization does not necessarily mean the gap between the first world (European and Latin American teams) and the Third World (Asia largely and to some extent Africa) in football is going to become narrower. Within Asia, only a handful of teams primarily South Korea, Japan and China are likely to rise further. And in Africa it will still be the same four to six countries Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal or Algeria. Add to that South Africa and in times to come, maybe Ghana or Sierra Leone. The globalization of world football may only mean more European and Latin American coaches in Asia and Africa and more talented Asian and African footballers in Europe not even Latin America, which is itself struggling from the lack of funds. Just when it seems it is helping perk up standards, it turns its face and moves

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away. It does enrich the world, but leaves its own home in tatters. Not even for a fleeting moment should one believe that the rise of Senegal in the world cup will raise the standard of football in that country. Just forget it. It has not happened, nor is it likely to happen. If anything, the domestic football scene in Senegal will be even more impoverished. This is an interesting and popular view of the impact of globalization on countries that are not as developed as the Western industrial democracies. This quote highlights the disconnect between the growth of the sport of soccer amount the population in terms of viewership of foreign leagues without the growth of the sport on the field. It is yet to be seen if the domestic league in India will gain support and be able to grow talented Indian soccer players to be able to qualify India for the World Cup in the future. It is now unclear what the future effects globalization will have on the sporting culture of India.

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3. The globalization of cricket

The ICC seems quite serious about promoting cricket around the world even in countries without any serious tradition of the game. The recent discussion about 20/20 at the Olympics is part of that trend.
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There is no question that the format is quite well-suited to the Olympics and the presence of cricket there will promote the game globally.

So what are the prospects of cricket becoming more popular around the world? And how will it affect the balance between test cricket and 20/20?

Personally I seriously doubt that test cricket will ever catch on anywhere outside the existing countries; considering that its popularity is on the wane among several of the current test countries. If you haven't grown up watching test cricket, it's not a very accessible sport IMO.

OTOH I think 20/20 has huge potential in terms of global appeal. From the entertainment point of view 2-4 hours is probably the ideal length and it is the first cricket format which is down to that length. Its closest competitor is baseball and IMO 20/20 with its high scoring and greater variety of action is more accessible to someone who is new to both. Once you have an entertaining format, cricket has a lot of obvious advantages when it comes to spreading globally. It makes a lot of money already and will probably make even more in the near future. Its existing base is nicely spread across the world in five continents The bottom line is that I could see cricket becoming global but only for 20/20. The inevitable effect would be test cricket being overshadowed. Is that likely to happen? Is it a good thing? Obviously it will be sad for fans of test cricket but it will mean a lot more cricketers around the world able to make a living from cricket.

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4. The globalization of golf: A future Tiger Woods world golf tour?

The Globalization of golf is a must. The world is in a constant mode of change. There should be areas of commonality that all people can enjoy and participate. Gold is one of them, as the greens add to a community, and are a pleasant site. If we cannot choose the direction of world events, then we must realize that there does exist a choice. A choice to not simply sit back and complain while the world rolls along in its usual fashion. Conflict, pain, pre-determined destinies. Then the choice exists to find areas where all people can identify and strive toward a better life. Golf can do this, and perhaps bring about the realization of a dream for those who wish to be the next Tiger Woods.
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For some reason, when a nation pursues sports it generates much attention - not only for the athlete, but the very fabric of its social structure. True, most athletes are young, but the world is interested in how nations develop their young. There are some things that cannot be learned quickly, and time - which is all that most folks have or possess, is a costly commodity. Each nation, each citizen must return to its inhabitants a certain nominal percentage of what it harnesses in terms of achivement and knowledge to the next. From this vantage point it then takes its departure and perhaps claims its legacy. A Tiger Woods is, without his realizing, a Good Will Ambassador. This of course opens the door to the next question, which this writer prefers: Do nations or the global world need heroes? Particuliarly in sport? I think that the answer is evident. If a people desire freedom to the extent that they are willing to walk through a desert or paddle a leaky craft to freedom, then the globalization of golf will certainly offer an incentive to pursue a more democratic existence as democracy breeds opportunity, advantage, and the pursuit of pleasure. More demands more. And what of the impact on golf widows? Guess that will be addressed at the 19th hole after the first major golf tournament. After all, once a player always a player, as any golfer will attest to.

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5. Badminton Hand Signals

In any sports that we see today, participants and game supervisors use hand signals to communicate with each other, regulate the game and keep track of scores. The same is followed in badminton, which we may name as badminton hand signals.

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In this era of globalization, it is often difficult to communicate verbally during a game, particularly by the game supervisors. It is because the players' attention is primarily riveted to the game. Moreover the players come from different parts of the world. Some of them may not know the language used and others may have difficulty in following the accent, even if they know the language. Above all, when the crowd is excited, it is often difficult to adjust scores and manage the game properly if verbal communication alone is used to regulate the game and keep track of scores.

Badminton hand signals are used precisely to overcome this difficulty. In badminton, besides participating players, there is a Referee who is in overall charge of the game, an Umpire, a service judge and a line judge. All these people use badminton hand signals to regulate the game. Hand signals followed by the umpires are Raising his right hand straight above his head. When misconduct sufficient enough to apply rule 16.8 is reported about a player or the umpire witnesses it, he should call the player. The service judges are responsible for monitoring whether a player serves correctly as per rules. Hand signals followed by the service judges are Raising the right arm in front slightly, flexing the elbow and keeping the palm vertically facing the opposite direction. It is done to indicate that the shaft of the racket when hitting the shuttle was not below the level of the wrist holding the
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racket and/or the shaft of the racket was not facing downwards when hitting the shuttle during serving. Keeping the palm horizontally facing downwards at the level of the abdomen, followed by moving it to the left and right below the level of waist. It is done to convey that the shuttle, as a whole was not under the level of the waist while it was struck during serving. Extending the right leg and pointing the hand towards the foot. It is done to indicate that one or both feet were not in the service court or remains constant till the serve was completed. Resting the palm of the right hand on right side of the abdomen, keeping the palm facing the left side of the body, with fingers pointing downwards and pointing the fingers of the left hand to the palm of the right hand with the palm of the left hand facing the abdomen. It is done to show that the first point of contact with the shuttle was not the base of the shuttle.

Hand signals shown by line judges include Extending both hands horizontally to the sides of the body. It is to indicate the shuttle landed outside. Pointing the hand to the line. To show that the shuttle has fallen inside correctly. Closing both eyes with hands. To convey to the umpire that you are not sure where the shuttle landed.

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Chapter-5

RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

1.) Improvements in new technologies and strategies in sports can promote

prosperity.

2.) The movement and sharing of information, knowledge and expertise. 3.) The improvement of international standards for sports. 4.) Increases the variety of Games and countries which are interested in
getting involved into the sports.

5.) The loss of new talent in the games in developed countries such as Britain. 6.) A drift towards a more homogenized culture and society internationally. 7.) Under development countries may be more vulnerable to fast changes in
the internationally developed countries.

8.) Increased centralization of power in the hands of developed countries. 9.) Globalization is often criticized on the basis that is has led to the
exploitation of players and the playing environment.

10.)

Rights and safety of players laws and regulations are often less

demanding in developing countries.

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Chapter-6 CONCLUSION

Our paper has identified and described the emerging phenomenon of the globalization of sports, and has shown that existing management concepts are difficult to apply as the business parameters are different from those of any other business and not very well covered so far in existing research.

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Although sports is becoming commoditized, the business rules are still unclear off the pitch, offering a broad area for further research in international business. This paper has sought to highlight how commercialization and globalization has changed the worldwide picture of sports. As we can conclude a sport manager, in order to be competitive in the global marketplace and in order to be able to react to the changes of the international rules of commercialization have to be aware of the needs of the market and consumers-fans that address. According to Markle(1997), sports managers need to understand the nature of the business and the disposition of the consumer through demographics, psychographics, socioeconomics, etcsports managers need to built their business, the product and the perception of the product to be attractive and appealing to built relationships with sponsors, to learn their business needs and become an agency rather than a salesperson. They should under-promise and over-deliver Also we should always have in mind what Robert L. Boucher suggests : call me nave, but it is possible that todays promoters of commercialism in sport have become intoxicated by sponsorship revenues? is it right for a sport manager only to be conduit by which a sponsor can achieve greater market penetration? My contention is simply that in our quest for legitimation, we may have sold our souls to the interests of big business.

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It can be argued that much of what comprises the Sport Management domain is not related to business and producing entertainment for profit. In fact, a large percentage of sport enterprises in the global community are of an amateur nature where the motives of participants, spectators and administrators are of a more altruistic nature. Perhaps Chelladurais (1992) observation that there are really, in fact, two fields, that management of human services in sport and management of entertainment services through out sport, is entirely accurate. In any event, the need to return in a balance in orientation and to refocus has never been more pressing. In conclusion, sport program growth and development which pays attention to globalization could maintain the national values. It is suggested that in future planning after policy makers pay attention toward social needs, universal needs should also be taken in to consideration. The conducted studies showed that the 21st century is the century of approaching the worlds nations values and need for each other. In addition, establishing sport internet websites tends to play an important role in sport development. The ever-increasing trend of people using personal computers provides the appropriate opportunity for sport policymakers to transfer a variety of information to the community beyond applying conventional methods. In future planning for sport, special attention should be paid to new sport activities and providing the amenities necessary for those people at the recreational and non official levels, without any mention of damaging native sport and culture.

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Chapter-7

APPENDICES
- Maguire, J. (1999). Global sport. Identities, societies, civilizations Polity Press: Cambridge. - Maguire, J. (2005). Power and Global Sport: Zones of Prestige, Emulation and Resistance. Routledge: London - Maguire, J., Jarvie, G., Mansfield, L., & Bradley, J. (2002). Sport Worlds: A Sociological Perspective. Champaign: Human Kinetics. - BEYER, P. Religion and Globalization, London, Sage, 1994. - BOULTBEE, J. Expert for sport for all or elite sport? Professional coaching and management paper presented in the 9th world sport for all congressthe Netherlands, 2002. - COALLER, F. The mixed economy of leisure, In: Henry I. (editor) management and planning in the leisure Industries, London, McMillan, 1990. - DAVIS, B.; ROSS, B.; JAN, R.; DENNIS, R. Physical education and the study of sport- Mosby 11th edition, 2000. - DIETZ, T. Methods for analyzing data from Delphi panels: Some evidence from a forecasting study. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 31: 79-85, 1987. - EICHBERG, H.; JARIVIE, G.; MIDOL, N. Youth Body Culture and Identityreport to European Commission No. 98-10EET_0026-00, 1992.

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