1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION This thesis presents genetic based cluster algorithm application, including design and development,

, to mitigate the most complex power system problem taken as, Optimal Power Flow (OPF) problem. The algorithm takes care of all the benefits of mathematical and intelligent methods and also eliminates the disadvantages. Efficient mathematical methods for OPF problem can take care of large number of constraints but finds various difficulties such as complexity in coding, implementation and large CPU time. Intelligent methods such as Genetic Algorithms have advantages such as easiness in coding, implementation but have limitations in consideration of large number of constraints while in its implementation. Local and Global minima is another problem during the time of optimizing any objective functions. This problem is also resolved while developing the algorithm. The algorithm develops a small search space typically a high density cluster with feasible promising solutions. The proposed new

methodology named as GSHDC provides a solution to OPF at the minimum generation cost compared to other methods considered. Also, a Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm, based on the theory of Pareto- Optimal (non-inferior) is presented to get an optimal solution for OPF that includes two objectives namely fuel cost of generation and total system power losses. Algorithm is tested with standard IEEE Test systems such as the 14- Bus, 30- Bus, 57- Bus and 118- Bus

2 systems and the results of the proposed algorithm are compared with the existing popular methods, in a judicious way. Exhaustive test results are presented in Tables to substantiate the efficacy of the proposed algorithm. 1.1 Optimal Power Flow Problem The OPF Problem has been discussed since its introduction by Carpentier in 1962 [1]. As the OPF is a very large, non-linear mathematical programming problem, it has taken decades to develop efficient algorithm for its solution. Many different mathematical techniques have been employed for its solution. The problem can be stated as [2]: OPF has been applied to regulate generator active power outputs and voltages, shunt capacitors/reactors, transformer tap settings and other controllable variables to minimize the fuel cost, network active power loss, while keeping the load bus voltages, generators reactive power outputs, network power flows and all other state variables in the power system in their operational and secure limits. Mathematical representation of optimal power flow problem: The OPF problem can be formulated as an optimization problem and is as follows [2]: Minimization of Generation cost function F (PG ) Min F (PG ) Subject to satisfaction of Equality Constraints:

g (x , u ) 0
and Inequality Constraints:

h (x , u ) 0
Section 3.1 in Chapter 3 presents complete information regarding the objective function and various constraints considered while

minimizing the objective function. 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF OPF PROBLEM The OPF problem deals with the following goals [3]: By considering the maximum / minimum outputs of generator, maximum MVA flows on transmission lines and transformers and bus voltages at their specified values, the primary goal of OPF is to minimize the generation cost for a particular given load demand. The secondary goal or another importance of OPF problem is the determination of marginal cost data. The marginal cost data deals with pricing MW transactions, cost of auxiliary equipment that are required for reactive power (MVAr) for voltage support. The third goal of OPF is to monitor system security issues and also carry out necessary corrective actions. 1.3 OPF SOLUTION METHODOLOGIES The solution methodologies can be broadly grouped into two namely: 1. Conventional (classical) methods and 2. Intelligent methods. The conventional methods are based on mathematical

programming approaches and used to solve different size of OPF problems. To meet the requirements of different objective functions, types of application and nature of constraints, the popular

conventional methods are further sub divided into the following[2 5]:

4 (a) Gradient Method (b) Newton Method (c) Linear Programming Method (d) Quadratic Programming Method (e) Interior Point Method The OPF programs based on mathematical programming are generally based on sensitivity analysis and gradient-based

optimization algorithms. The optimization process is based on linearizing the objective function and the system constraints around an operating point. A problem of OPF is highly nonlinear and multimodal optimization problem. Local optimization techniques are not suitable for such problems. Moreover there is no criterion to decide whether a local solution is also the global solution. Section 3.3 in Chapter 3 provides a detailed discussion on limitations of conventional methods. However, some salient limitations in the conventional methods, advantages and disadvantages of intelligent methods while

implementation to OPF problems are presented below: Limitations of Conventional Methods: No guarantee for convergence to the global optimum of the general non convex OPF problem. No consideration of first and second derivatives of the objective functions and their constraint equations as search direction. The search space is nonlinear and has discontinuities.

5 They may not be able to provide the global optimal solution and usually getting stuck at local optimum. These methods are based on the assumption of continuity and differentiability of the objective function, which is not true in a practical system. All these methods cannot be applied with discrete variables such as transformer tap positions, phase shifter angle positions etc. Therefore these conventional techniques are difficult to solve, with a slow convergence ratio and always converge to a sub optimal solution. The Intelligent methods based on Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques developed in the recent past can eliminate the above draw backs. These methods can be classified or divided into the following [4, 6]: a) Artificial Neural Networks (ANN). b) Genetic Algorithms (GA). c)

Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). d) Ant Colony Algorithm. It may be observed these methods have following general advantages [4]: Advantages of Intelligent Methods: They are relatively versatile in handling various qualitative constraints. Multiple objectives can be obtained in single run. Adaptability to large size power system problems and nonlinear mathematical problems. Solution for OPF by GA method has gained popularity in recent times because of its robustness. In general, GA is a typical heuristic

6 method. The method is based on one hand on heuristic gradient ascension method (selection and crossover) and in another hand on a semi random exploration method (mutations). 1.4 HIGH DENSITY CLUSTER AND DBSCAN ALGORITHM Cluster Analysis divides data into groups or Clusters that are meaningful and useful. The analysis is sometimes useful [7] as it provides a starting point for other purposes, such as data

summarization. The clusters are classified into Well-separated, Prototype, Graph-based, Conceptual type and Density based. A Density based is a cluster with dense region of objects that is surrounded by a region of data points of similar kind or with low density difference. With reference to OPF, a data point is a sub optimal solution derived from any of the conventional methods like Lambda Iteration, Gradient, Newton, Linear Programming, Quadratic Programming, Interior Point, etc., as listed earlier. DBSCAN Algorithm is helpful in forming a high density cluster. Section 2.1 in Chapter- 2 provides complete details of formation of High Density cluster and DBSCAN Algorithm. 1.5 GENETIC ALGORITHM The Genetic Algorithms (GA) is a part of the evolutionary algorithms family, which are computational models, inspired in the nature [8]. Genetic algorithms are powerful stochastic search

algorithms based on the mechanism of natural selection and natural genetics. The method has its roots from Darwins survival of the fittest hypothesis. In a GA, candidate solutions to a problem are analogous to individual animals in a population. Even though the initial

7 population can be a random collection of bizarre individuals, the individuals will interact and breed to form new generations. Stronger individuals will reproduce stronger off springs very often than will weaker individuals. This results in the population to get collectively stronger as generations pass and weaker individuals will die out. The quantitative application of these basic ideas has resulted to the birth / emergence of Genetic Algorithm and its application to various domains including optimum power flow in the power system domain. Section 2.2 in Chapter 2 provides necessary handy information of GA. Limitations of GA Method [9]: The solution deteriorates with the increase of chromosome length. Hence to limit its size, limitations are imposed in consideration of number of control variables. Careless representation in any of the schemes that are used in the formation of chromosomes shall nullify the effectiveness of mutation and crossover operators. The use is restricted for small problems such as those handling less variables, constraints etc. Higher computational time. In this thesis, binary coded chromosomes are replaced with continuous data chromosomes [10] which fit the original power generations and constraints. These modified newly defined

chromosomes have the advantages of fitting the exact power system information. This avoids complexities in coding and decoding of chromosomes.

8 1.6 PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION The Particle Swarm Optimisation (PSO) introduced by Kennedy and Eberhart in 1995 [11] as an alternative to GAs. The PSO technique has turned out to be a competitor in the field of numerical optimisation ever since. Similar to GA, PSO consists of a population refining its knowledge of the given search space. PSO is a swarm intelligence algorithm inspired by social dynamics and an emergent behavior that arises in socially organized colonies. The PSO algorithm exploits a population of individuals to probe promising regions of search space. In this context, the population is called swarm and the individuals are called particles or agents. The individuals in a PSO then have their own positions and velocities. These individuals are denoted as particles. Traditionally, PSO has no cross over between individuals and has no mutation and particles are never substituted by other individuals during the run. Instead, the PSO refines its search by attracting the particles to positions with good solutions. Each particle remembers its own best position found so far in the exploration. This position is called the personal best position. Among these best position particles, there is only one particle called the global best. In recent years various PSO algorithms have been successfully applied in many power engineering problems including OPF [3, 4]. Section 2.3 in Chapter 2 provides details of PSO.

9 Limitations of PSO Method: Limited capabilities in handling large-scale power system problems. They become too slow if the variables are large in number. CPU execution time was found rapidly increasing with increase in size of power system. Slow Convergence. 1.7 INTERIOR POINT METHOD It has been found that, the Interior Point (IP) method has salient features [2, 5, 12]. To improve convergence properties, Karmakar in his work [2, 5, 6] has proposed IP method. This method is characterized by significant speed advantages for large problems reported to be as much as 12:1 [5] when compared to the simplex method [5]. Further, this method has a polynomial bound on worstcase running time that is better than the ellipsoid algorithms. Karmarkars algorithm is significantly different from Dantzigs simplex method. Karmarkars interior point rarely visits too many extreme points before an optimal point is found. In addition, the IP method stays in the interior of the polytope and tries to position a current solution as the center of the universe in finding a better direction for the next move. By properly choosing the step lengths, an optimal solution is achieved after a number of iterations. Although this IP approach requires more computational time in finding a moving direction than the traditional simplex method, better moving direction is achieved resulting in less iterations. In this way, the IP approach has become a major rival of the simplex method and has attracted

10 attention in the optimization community. Section 2.4 in Chapter 2 presents complete information of IP method. Limitations of IP Method [3, 4]: They are not guaranteed to converge to global optimum of the general non convex problems like OPF, the methods may satisfy necessary conditions but not all the sufficient conditions. Also they are weak in handling qualitative constraints. Inconsistency in the final results due to approximations made while linearising some of the nonlinear objective functions and constraints. Consideration of certain equality or inequality constraints makes difficulty in obtaining the solution. 1.8 FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM Inspired by the results of IP, GA and PSO methods and to overcome the general difficulties, a novel method is proposed in this thesis [9]. The method uses high density cluster DBSCAN and GA algorithms. This new method for the solution of OPF based on Genetic Search from a High Density Cluster named as in short form GSHDC is proposed in this work. The objective of GSHDC is to retain advantages in all the methods and also to avoid the difficulties in these methods. Proposed GSHDC has three stages for Single Objective OPF solution and has four stages for Multi-Objective OPF solution. Stages 1 and 2 are common for both.

11 Stages in GSHDC Algorithm for Single Objective OPF Solution: In the first stage a suboptimal solution for OPF problem is obtained by the conventional analytical method such as Interior Point method OR by PSO method that considers equality constraints, transmission loss B-Coefficients and penalty factors. This solution for OPF problem is treated as an approximate, owing to the limitations in the methods. However this solution shall give a better insight in to the exact solution as the OPF is solved with the regular proven methods. In the second stage, with the help of a newly proposed continuous data chromosome a population is formed

surrounding the suboptimal solution that is obtained in the first stage by GA and two individual high density clusters one for minimum fuel cost and another for minimum power loss are then created by DBSCAN algorithm. The high density cluster consists of several suboptimal solutions, one of which can be the exact one. In the third stage, a genetic search is carried out for finding the exact solution. The solution in the last stage is the exact one, as is confirmed by the best Fitness Value. The proposed GSHDC technique in contrast to GA method avoids the blind search, encountering with infeasible strings, and wastage of computational effort. Stages in GSHDC Algorithm for Multi- Objective OPF Solution: As mentioned earlier, the first two stages in single objective GSHDC algorithm are common in case of multi-objective OPF solution.

12 In these stages, two individual high density clusters are formed. They consist of number of high density core points which are having best fitness function values. In the third stage, each core point in each high density cluster is assigned a membership function value. In minimum fuel cost cluster, the OPF solution with minimum fuel cost amongst the others is assigned membership function value of 1 and relatively maximum fuel cost is assigned 0. The same procedure is followed for minimum power loss cluster points. In the final stage, a search is carried out for the exact multi objective optimal solution using Multi Objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) based on Pareto- Optimal. GSHDC Method is implemented for two Test cases: Test-1: Suboptimal Solution obtained through IP method Test-2: Suboptimal Solution obtained through PSO method Suboptimal solution is obtained for two individual objectives and one Multi-objective: Objective-1: Minimum Fuel Cost Objective-2: Minimum Power Loss Using the OPF solutions obtained through objective-1 &2 as parent chromosomes, population is generated for the multi-objective OPF problem. This is referred as: Objective-3: Multi-Objective which includes Objective-1 and Objective-2.

13 GSHDC is implemented for each Test case and each objective for three case studies that is, three standard IEEE Test systems. Case-1: IEEE 14-Bus System Case-2: IEEE 30-Bus System Case-3: IEEE 57-Bus System In addition to above two test cases, GSHDC is also implemented with suboptimal solution obtained through modified penalty factor method to test its effectiveness. This case is referred as Test-3. 1.9 ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION IN THE THESIS

The main investigations of the Ph.D work carried out are three folded: An exhaustive Microscopic Level of examination is carried out on with the existing OPF methodologies to determine their

drawbacks. Improvement is brought out in the conventional GAs as applied to OPF by replacing continuous data Chromosomes in place of Binary coded chromosomes. By retaining the advantages and by avoiding disadvantages in the existing methodologies, an alternative approach is presented for the most complex OPF solution. An effective and efficient alternate approach is presented for the solution of the most complex OPF problem, while retaining the advantages and avoiding/eliminating the disadvantages in the existing methodologies.

14 1.10 SCOPE OF WORK The current status of the research in OPF solution

methodologies is the implementation of efficient intelligent methods based on AI techniques. But their effectiveness needs to be tested for large size power system OPF problems such as 3000 bus power systems. In addition an efficient integrated OPF solution needs to be provided that integrates all requirements of different objective functions and constraints. 1.11 ORGANISATION OF THESIS The Thesis work is divided into seven chapters. Chapter-1

outlines the Introduction part to the thesis. Chapter-2 covers prerequisites to understand the Thesis work that includes cluster analysis, high density cluster definitions, Gas, PSO etc. Chapter-3 describes the state of art in OPF solution methodologies. Chapter-4 explores need for alternative methodologies for OPF Problem. Chapter5 presents design and development of proposed GSHDC algorithm for OPF problem. Chapter-6 furnishes simulation study results that include the results of GSHDC implementation on IEEE 14, 30, and 57 bus systems. It also provides comparison of GSHDC results with those of existing popular methodologies. conclusions. 1.12 CONCLUSIONS This introduction chapter presents OPF problem definition, limitations in existing OPF methodologies and the various stages in the proposed GSHDC approach to the solution of OPF problem. Finally Chapter-7 presents