25

Network Theorems
UNIT 2 NETWORK THEOREMS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Networks
2.2.1 Sign Convention
2.2.2 Active and Passive Elements
2.2.3 Unilateral/Bilateral Elements
2.2.4 Lumped and Distributed Networks
2.2.5 Linear and Non-Linear Elements
2.3 Superposition Theorem
2.3.1 Statement
2.3.2 Explanation of the Theorem
2.4 Thevenins Theorem
2.5 Nortons Theorem
2.5.1 Statement
2.5.2 Explanation of the Theorem
2.6 Reciprocity Theorem
2.6.1 Statement and Explanation
2.6.2 Explanation of the Theorem
2.7 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem (MPTT)
2.7.1 Statement
2.7.2 Proof of the Theorem
2.7.3 Limitation of MPTT
2.8 Star and Delta Transformation
2.9 Theorems in AC Circuits
2.10 Summary
2.11 Answers to SAQs
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have studied about various circuit elements and circuit
simplification methods. In this unit, you will learn different terms and definitions which are
useful in network analysis. We will discuss different types of network theorem and their
applicability in networks. At the end, we will consider the star and delta transformation.
The objective of analyzing a particular circuit is to determine the various responses such
as current, voltage etc. which are produced in the circuit by the presence of active
elements.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
give the elementary description of network terms and definitions,
explain the superposition theorem, reciprocating theorem and maximum
power transfer theorem,
describe the Thevenins and Nortons theorems, and
explain star delta transformation.


26
Electrical Technology
2.2 NETWORKS
We can define a network as a complex form or an electric circuit which consist of a
number of inter-connected single circuit elements. A network consists of different
elements. The elements are represented by network branches and the different junctions
can be treated as nodes.
In Figure 2.1, there is a network which consists of four nodes and three branches
containing different elements like resistances, inductance, etc.
D
L
1
R
2
R
1
B
C A

Figure 2.1 : A Typical Network
In electrical circuits, we can classify the elements in two parts : elements like resistor,
inductor and capacitor as passive elements and voltage & current source as active
elements.
These circuits will generally contain at least one voltage or current source. The
arrangement of elements result in a new set of constraints between the current and
voltages.
2.2.1 Sign Convention
An electrical element having two terminal P and Q, known as a two-terminal element, is
shown in Figure 2.2. Current I flows in the direction shown from P to Q. In a passive
element Voltage V drops from P to Q, i.e. P is at higher potential than Q. Hence P is
marked positive (+) and Q is negative ().
+
I
Q P

Figure 2.2 : Sign Convention
We can define the various terms of a network.
2.2.2 Active and Passive Elements
Elements which supply the energy to the circuit are known as active elements. A network
which contains active elements are known as active networks. Elements which absorb the
energy are known as passive elements. A network containing only passive elements is
known as passive network.
2.2.3 Unilateral/Bilateral Elements
Elements, like semiconductor diode, which allow the current to pass through them only in
one direction are known as unilateral elements. Passive elements that allow the current to
pass through them in both directions are known as bilateral elements.
2.2.4 Lumped and Distributed Networks
Networks consisting of physically separated elements are known as lumped networks.
Networks, like transmission lines, having inseparable elements are known as distributed
networks.
2.2.5 Linear and Non-Linear Elements

27

Network Theorems
The output and input relation of linear element always follows superposition and
homogeneity principles. The element that which does not follow these is known as a non-
linear element.
2.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
It states that in an active, linear, bilateral network consisting of active and passive
elements with more than one source, the overall response (voltage or current) is equal to
the sum of the responses due to each of the sources acting independently.
2.3.1 Statement
In any linear network, if a number of voltage or current sources are acting simultaneously,
the voltage across or the current through any branch can be calculated by adding
algebraically all the individual voltages or currents caused by each independent source
acting alone, with all other independent voltage sources replaced by short circuits and all
other independent current sources replaced by open circuit.
2.3.2 Explanation of the Theorem
In other words, if there are a number of voltages and current sources in a circuit, the
current flowing through (or the voltage across) a resistor, is equal to the resultant
(algebraic sum) of the current contributions in that particular branch by each of the source
acting alone with all other sources suppressed.
An ideal voltage source is replaced by a short circuit. An ideal current source is replaced
with an open circuit. If the sources are non-ideal ones, their effective resistances or
impedances are placed instead.
Figure 2.3 illustrated the property of homogenity.
System y
1
x
1
System y
2
x
2
System y = y + y
1 2
x
1
x
2

Figure 2.3 : Illustration of Properly of Homogeneity
Important Points
This theorem is not applicable to power
if V = V
1
+ V
2
I = I
1
+ I
2

VI V
1
I
1
+ V
2
I
2

This theorem is equally applicable to DC and AC.
This theorem doesnt hold good when we have just dependent sources.
While applying, dependent sources will neither be changed to short or open
circuit.
Example 2.1
Prove superposition theorem by finding currents through branch R.


28
Electrical Technology
R
1
R
2
R E
2
E
1

Figure 2.4
Case 1
When E
1
is the active source and E
2
is short circuited. Let
1
I be the current through
R
1
in this case. (Figure 2.5(a))
The current
( )
2 2 1 1
1 2
2
2
1
1
1
RR R R R R
E R R
R R
RR
R
E
I
+ +
+
=
|
|

\
|
+
+
=

1
2
2
I
R R
R
I
+
=

2 2 1 1
1 2
RR R R RR
E R
I
+ +
= (2.1)
R
1
R
2
R E
1
I
I
1
'

Figure 2.5(a)
R
1
RR
2
/R + R
1 2
E
1

Figure 2.5(b)
Case 2
When E
2
source is active in the network and E
1
is short circuited.

29

Network Theorems R
1
R
2
R E
2
I
1
'' I
2
'
I'

Figure 2.6(a)
E
2
R
2
RR
1
R + R
1

Figure 2.6(b)

( )
2
1
1
I
R R
R
I
+
=

1
1
2
2
2
R R
RR
R
E
I
+
+
=

( )
1 2 1 2
2 1
2
RR R R RR
E R R
I
+ +
+
=

1 2 1 2
1 2
RR R R RR
R E
I
+ +
=
I and I are in same direction, so they get added up

2 1 1 2
1 2 1 2
R R RR RR
R E E R
I I I
+ +
+
= + =
Voltage = IR
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
1 2 2 1 1 2
2 1
R R E E R R E E R
R R R R R R R R
R R
R
+ +
= =
+ + | |
+ +
|
\

Use Mesh Analysis
R
1
R
2
R I
2
E
2
E
1
I
1

Figure 2.7
Using the mesh analysis


30
Electrical Technology

(
(

=
(
(

(
(

+
+
2
1
2
1
2
1
E
E
I
I
R R R
R R R


1 1
1
2 2 2
R R R E R
R R R E R R
+ ( (
= =
( (
+ +



(
(

+
=
2
1 1
2
E R
E R R

( ) ( )
2
2 1
R R R R R + + =

2 2
2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R = + + + = + +
( ) R E R R E
2 2 1 1
+ =
( )
2 1 2 1
R E E E R + =
( )
2 2 1 1
E R R E R = + +

= =
2 1
2 1
I I I
[By substituting
1 2
1 2
, I I

= =


or
1 2 2 1
1 2 1 2
E R E R
I
RR RR R R
+
=
+ +
, which is same as calculated by superposition theorem also.
SAQ 1

(a) Find the current through 10 resistor using superposition theorem.
5 10
15 5 2A
L R
25

Figure 2.8
(b) Find V
L
in the circuit of Figure 2.9 using superposition theorem.
1 1
2
+

V
L
5A
5A
1
2 V

Figure 2.9
2.4 THEVENINS THEOREM

31

Network Theorems
2.4.1 Statement and Explanation
In a linear, bilateral, active network consisting of active sources, passive elements and a
load resistor, R
L
, the current through the load can be calculated directly by the expression
L th
th
R R
V
I
+
= where V
th
(Thevenins voltage) is the open circuit voltage, across the
terminals where load R
L
is connected, after removal of the load and R
th
(Thevenin
resistance) is equal to the equivalent resistance looking back into the network after
rendering all the sources as passive (i.e. by replacing independent voltage sources by short
circuit and current sources by open circuit). Thus, if there is a network with above
characteristics one can find its Thevenin equivalent network. It is the series combination of
Thevenin voltage (V
th
) and Thevenin resistance (R
th
).
A
B
N
+

B
R
L R
L
V
th
R
th

Figure 2.10 : Thevenins Equivalent Network
This theorem is most extensively used in the network systems.
Example 2.2
Find the current through the load resistor for R
L
= 2 , 5 , 10 , 14 , 20 ,
25 and 30 . Find also the power through the load in each case.
R
1
= 5
R = 20
3
100V
R
2
= 10
R
L

Figure 2.11
Solution
Step 1
Calculate V
th
.
Remove R
L
and redraw the circuit.
V
OC
= 4 20 = 80 V
5
20 100V
4 A
10
A
B
V = Vth
oc

Figure 2.12(a)
Step 2
Calculation of R
th
Replace the voltage source by a short circuit.


32
Electrical Technology
R = 20
3
= 4
R = 5
1
R = 10
2

R
th
A
B
10
20 5
20 + 5

Figure 2.12(b)
R
th
= 10 + 4 = 14 .
Step 3
Thevenins equivalent circuit.
80 V
+

R
R = 14
th

L

Figure 2.12(c)

L th
th
L
R R
V
I
+
=
A 5
16
80
2 14
80
1
= =
+
= I

19
80
5 14
80
I
2
=
+
=

3
80
A
24
I =

4
80
A
28
I =

5
80
A
34
I =

6
80
A
39
I =

7
80
A
44
I =
R
L
R
th
+ R
L
I
L
Power = I
2
R
L

(1) 2 16 5 A 50 W
(2) 5 19 4.21 A 88.6 W
(3) 10 24 3.33 A 110.9 W
(4) 14 28 2.86 A 114.5 W
(5) 20 34 2.35 A 110.45
(6) 25 39 2.05 A 105.06 W
(7) 30 44 1.8 A 99.37 W

33

Network Theorems
SAQ 2
Find Thevenins voltage across a-b terminal in the circuit of Figure 2.13. Also find
the internal resistance across the open circuit a-b terminal. This find V
2
such that
current through r is zero.
R
1
V
1
+

R
2
a
r
V
2
+

b
V = 10V
1
R = 4
2

I = 2A

R = 5
1

r = 1

V= ?

I

Figure 2.13
2.5 NORTONS THEOREM
2.5.1 Statement
In a linear, active, bilateral network consisting of active sources, passive elements and a
load resistor R
L
, the circuit can be replaced by a single current source of magnitude I
N
and
a resistor R
N
parallel to the load, where I
N
is the short circuit current through the points
where the load is connected and R
N
is the equivalent resistance as seen from the terminal
where the load is connected.
2.5.2 Explanation of the Theorem
Nortons equivalent is a parallel combination of Nortons current source I
N
is parallel with
Nortons resistance R
N
as shown below.
Example 2.3
Determine Nortons equivalent circuit at terminals AB for the following circuit.
A
A
B
N
B
R
L R
L
R
N
I
N

Figure 2.14 : Nortons Equivalent Circuit
Solution
The complete circuit can be replaced by a current source parallel with a single
resistor, where I
N
is the current passing through the short circuit output terminals
AB and R
N
is the resistance as seen into the output terminals.
10
20V
10
20V
A
B

R
N
I
N
A
B
(a) (b)
Figure 2.15(a)
Since resistance at terminals AB is a parallel combination of 10 & 10


34
Electrical Technology
= =
+

= 5
20
100
10 10
10 10
N
R
Nortons equivalent circuit is as given in Figure 2.16.
10
20V
10
20V
A
B
I
N
5
A
B
4A
2A
2A

Figure 2.16
2.6 RECIPROCITY THEOREM
2.6.1 Statement and Explanation
The ratio of excitation to response remains invariant in a reciprocal network with respect
to an interchange between the points of application of excitation and measurement of
response.
2.6.2 Explanation of the Theorem
Example 2.4
Verify reciprocity theorem for the T-circuit.
Z
3
Z
1
Z
2

Figure 2.17
Case 1
Let us find response I
2
of voltage source E in the position shown in Figure
2.18.

1 3 2
) ( Z Z Z Z
eff
+ =

1
3 2
3 2
Z
Z Z
Z Z
+
+
=

3 2
1 3 2 1 3 2
Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
+
+ +
=

eff
Z
E
I =
1


1 3 3 2 2 1
3
3 2
3
1 2
.
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z E
Z Z
Z
I I
+ +
=
+
=

35

Network Theorems
I
2
Z
3
Z
1
Z
2
I
2
I
1
+

E

Figure 2.18
Case 2
When positions of source, i.e. E, and response, i.e. I are interchanged as
shown in Figure 2.19.

2 3 1
) ( Z Z Z Z
eff
+ =

3 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
+
+ +
=

eff
Z
E
I =
2


1 3 3 2 2 1
3
3 1
3
2 1
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z E
Z Z
Z
I I
+ +
=
+
=
Z
1
Z
2
I
1
'
+

I
2
'
I
1
'
Z
3 E

Figure 2.19
From the above, it can be seen that
1 2
I I = . Hence theorem is verified. The ratio
2
I E or
1
I E is called the transfer impedance and is given by

3
1 3 3 2 2 1
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z
T
+ +
=

|
|

\
|
+ + =
3
2 1
2 1
Z
Z Z
Z Z


36
Electrical Technology
SAQ 3
Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network shown in Figure 2.20 with source
and response positions being ab and cd. Also find transfer impedence of these two
positions.
2
20 V
+

2
2 2 2
a
b
c
d
Figure 2.20



2.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
(MPTT)
2.7.1 Statement
MPTT theorem which states that in an active, linear, bilateral network, maximum power is
delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance looking
back into the network from the terminals where the load is connected. The value of
maximum power is given by
L
R
V
4
2
. In simpler terms, maximum power is delivered from a
source to a load when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance, assuming that
the load resistance is a variable.
Applications
There are many examples of this kind of circuits which use the concept of maximum
power transfer theorem like speakers, a microphone, pre-amplifiers.
2.7.2 Proof of the Theorem
Let a variable load resistance R
L
be connected across the terminals ab of a voltage source
with internal series resistance R
S
.
+

V
s
R
L
a
b
R
s

Figure 2.21

37

Network Theorems
Current in the circuit is
( )
S
S L
V
I
R R
=
+

Power delivered to the
R
L
is ( )
2 2 2
L S L S L
R R R V R I P + = =
For determining the maximum power, we differentiate power with respect to R
L
:

(
(

+
=
L
L S
S
L L
R
R R
V
dR
d
dR
dP
2
2
) (


2
2
4
( ) (2 ) ( )
( )
S L L S L
S
S L
S R R R R R
V
R R
(
+ +
= (
+
(


and equate this derivative to zero
0 ) ( 2 ) (
2
= + +
L S L L S
R R R R R
0 2 2 2
2 2 2
= + +
L S L L S L S
R R R R R R R
This gives

L S
R R =
Thus, maximum power will be transferred when load resistance = source resistance and
maximum power is

2 2
2
2
4 4
( )
s s L
m s
L S
L L
V V R
P V
R R
R R
= = =
+

2.7.3 Limitation of MPTT
MPTT though provides the condition for maximum power through the load, the amount of
loss which takes place in the internal resistance of the network under conditions of
maximum power is considerable. Half of the power is actually wasted in the resistance and
efficiency is reduced to 50%.
Therefore, we cannot use this theorem for any practical determination of load in a circuit.
SAQ 4
Determine the maximum power delivered to the load in the circuit shown in Figure
2.22.
5 2
5 2
R
L
+

3V

Figure 2.22






38
Electrical Technology
2.8 STAR AND DELTA TRANSFORMATION
In reduction of networks, sometimes we have difficulty to solve the network in exact form.
There is a need to transform the network in another shape. A three terminal network can be
represented as T (Star) or (Delta). Using different values of network elements the
equivalent of star in delta or vice-versa can be found by using this technique.
A
B C R
C
R
B
R
A
C B
A
R
1
R
2
R
3
(Delta) (Star)

Figure 2.23 : Star-Delta Network
The equivalent resistance of above two circuits from the terminals AB, BC and CA are
equal.
For Star For Delta
R
AB
= R
A
+ R
B

3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
) (
) (
R R R
R R R
R R R R
AB
+ +
+
= + =
R
BC
= R
B
+ R
C

3 2 1
2 1 3
2 1 3
) (
) (
R R R
R R R
R R R R
BC
+ +
+
= + =
R
CA
= R
C
+ R
A

3 2 1
3 1 2
3 1 2
) (
) (
R R R
R R R
R R R R
CA
+ +
+
= + =
If we equate these resistances, then

3 2 1
3 2 1
) (
R R R
R R R
R R
B A
+ +
+
= + . . . (A)

3 2 1
2 1 3
) (
R R R
R R R
R R
C B
+ +
+
= + . . . (B)

3 2 1
3 1 2
) (
R R R
R R R
R R
A C
+ +
+
= + . . . (C)
Subtracting Eq. (B) from (A) and adding with (C), we get

3 2 1
2 1
R R R
R R
R
A
+ +
= . . . (D)

3 2 1
3 1
R R R
R R
R
B
+ +
= . . . (E)
and
3 2 1
3 2
R R R
R R
R
C
+ +
= . . . (F)

39

Network Theorems
So the delta connection of R
1
, R
2
and R
3
can be replaced in star of R
A
, R
B
and R
C
. Add the
multiple of DE, EF and FD, we get

( )
2
3 2 1
3 1
2
2 2 1
2
3 3 2
2
1
R R R
R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R
A C C B B A
+ +
+ +
= + +
or
1 2 3
1 2 3
( )
A B B C C A
R R R
R R R R R R
R R R
+ + =
+ +
. . . (G)
Divide Eq. (G) by D, E and F using LHS and RHS, we get

C
A C C B B A
R
R R R R R R
R
+ +
=
1


B
A C C B B A
R
R R R R R R
R
+ +
=
2

and
A
A C C B B A
R
R R R R R R
R
+ +
=
3

Using above relation, a star with R
A
, R
B
and R
C
can be transformed in delta of R
1
, R
2

and R
3
.
Example 2.5
Find delta equivalent circuit of the Figure 2.24
R
=
1
C

R = 1
A

R = 1
B

B C
A
R
BC
R
CA
R
AB
A
C B

Figure 2.24
From equations, the numerator of delta equivalent values is sum of multiple of R
A

R
B
, R
B
R
C
and R
C
R
A
. The denominator is resistance in star opposite to delta branch.
=
+ +
= 3
1
1 1 1
AB
R
=
+ +
= 3
1
1 1 1
BC
R
=
+ +
= 3
1
1 1 1
CA
R
Example 2.6
Find star equivalent circuit of the delta circuit, in Figure 2.25.


40
Electrical Technology
R
2
B C
A
2
A
C B
R
1
R
3
2 2

Figure 2.25
From equations, the denominator gives the sum of all delta resistances and
numerator is multiple of two resistances of delta in between of them the star branch
exists.

1
2 2 4 2
2 2 2 6 3
R

= = =
+ +


2
2
3
R =
and
3
2
3
R = .
SAQ 5
In a network, shown in Figure 2.26, find the resistance between the points A
and B.
A
D
B
C
5

3.25
2
.
5

11.5
4
.7
5

5
1
1
.
5

E
F

Figure 2.26







41

Network Theorems
2.9 THEOREMS IN AC CIRCUITS
In the previous section, the network theorems have been explained in terms of the DC
circuits. Here, we explain the importance of network theorems in AC circuits. The
elements in the AC circuits are Resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C) which
affect the circuit when a sinusoidal emf is applied. Complex quantities of AC circuits can
be reduced into simpler quantities using the network theorems. All the theorems explained
in the previous section are also applicable in AC circuits.
Example 2.7
Calculate current in Impedance Z
3
using superposition theorem.
1 + j1 1 j1
1 + j2 Z
3
Z
1
Z
2
V
1
V
2
20 60 20 0

Figure 2.27
Solution
Step 1
First consider V
1
alone, replacing V
2
by short circuit.
Z
3
I
3
Z
1
Z
2
V
1
+
20 0

I
1

Figure 2.28
Z
2
and Z
3
are parallel and in series with Z
1
.
Then
1 3 2
) ( Z Z Z Z
eq
+ =
1 1
1 2
) 2 1 ( ) 1 1 (
j
j
j j
+ +
+
+
=
8 . 0 4 . 2 j Z
eq
+ =
5 . 2 5 . 7
8 . 0 4 . 2
0 20
1
j
j
j
Z
V
I
eq
=
+
+
= =


42
Electrical Technology
Now current in Z
3


1 2
) 1 1 ( ) 5 . 2 5 . 7 (
3 2
2 1
3
j
j j
Z Z
Z I
I
+

=
+
=
A. 5
3
j I =
Step 2
Consider V
2
alone
Z
3
Z
1
Z
2
V
2
20 60
I
2
I
3

Figure 2.29
Now Z
1
is in parallel with Z
3
and Z
2
is in series with that combination.
Then
2 3 1
) ( Z Z Z Z
eq
+ =
1 1
3 2
) 2 1 ( ) 1 1 (
j
j
j j
+
+
+ +
=
31 . 0 54 . 1 j =
Now current
o
2
20 60
1.54 0.31
eq
V
I
Z j

= =

8.42 9.5 j =

2 1
3
1 3
(8.42 9.55) (1 1)
2 3
I Z j j
I
Z Z j
+
= =
+ +


3
2.50 4.32 I j =
Thus, current in Z
3
is

3 3 3
I I I + =
5 2.5 4.32 j j = +
2.5 9.32 j =

3
9.65 75 I =
Example 2.8
Find current in Z
3
using Thevenins theorem in above network.
Solution
Remove Z
3
and find V
Th
across terminals AB.

43

Network Theorems
Z
1
Z
2
V
2
20 60
V
1
B
A
20 0
I

Figure 2.30
Now
1 1 1 1
60 20 20
2 1
2 1
j j Z Z
V V
I
+ +

=
+

=
=
+
= 60 10
2
32 . 17 10 20 j

Now
1 1
IZ V V
AB
=

o
20 0 10 60 2 45 =
20 3.66 13.64 27.30 30 j = + =
27.32 30
Th AB
V V = =
Now Z
Th
can be calculated by replacing V
1
and V
2
by short circuits
Z
1
B
A
Z
2

Figure 2.31
so
2 1
Z Z Z
Th
=

+

=
2
45 2 45 2
Th
Z
= 0 1
Th
Z
Thus, Thevenins equivalent CKT is


44
Electrical Technology
Z
Th
A
h
B
h
V
Th
Z
3
I
3

Figure 2.32
and
3
3
Z Z
V
I
Th
Th
+
=

27.32 30
1 1 2 j

=
+ +


3
9.65 75 I =
Example 2.9
Find I
3
in above problem using Nortons theorem.
Solution
First we find Nortons current source replacing Z
3
by a short circuit.

20 60
o
20 0
o
Z
1
Z
2
I
2
I
1
A
B
Figure 2.33

o o
1 2
1 2
20 0 20 60
N SC
I I I I
Z Z

= = + = +

1 1
32 . 17 10
1 1
20
j
j
j
I
N

+
+
=
27.32
N
I = 30
The Nortons resistance is same as Z
Th

= = 0 1
Th N
Z Z
so Nortons equivalent CKT is

45

Network Theorems
27.3 30
N

B
Z = (1 + j2)
3

1 0

Figure 2.34

3
3
.
Z Z
Z I
I
N
N N
+
=

27.32 30 1 0
2 2 j

=
+


3
9.65 75 I =
2.10 SUMMARY
In this unit, network analysis with various new terms and definitions are explained. You
have learnt different network theorems and their applicability in daily life. In particular,
you learnt the
(a) Superposition theorem and its use to find the current in any branch and
voltage at any node of a network.
(b) Thevenins theorem to find current in a branch which contains the variable
load. Also, you learnt its dual as Nortons theorem.
(c) Star and delta transformation and its use in network reduction.
2.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs
SAQ 1
(a) With only 25 V source, 1 I A = direction ( ) L R
with only 2A source,
8
15
I A = direction ( ) R L
Applying superposition theorem,
8 7
1
15 15
I A = = direction ( ) L R
(b)
1
1
1
2
+

V
L
5A
5A
2V

Figure 2.35


46
Electrical Technology
With only 2V source and other sources replaced by their internal resistances
the circuit becomes as shown in Figure 2.35(a).

1
2
1
2 2
1
2 2
i A = =

+
+
,
1
1 1 1 V V = =
1 1
2
+

r
L
= 1
+

V
1
I
1
2V

Figure 2.35(a)
With only one 5A source, the circuit reduced to that shown in
Figure 2.35(b).
( ) ( ) A i
8
15
8
3
5
3
2
1 1
1
5
2
= =
+ +
=
[as 2 resistance is effectively in parallel with r
L
]
A i
4
5
3
2
8
15
2 1
2
8
15
3
= |

\
|
|

\
|
=
+
|

\
|
=
V V 1
4
5
2
= V 4 / 5 =
1 1
2
r
L
+

V
2
1
5A
A
B
I
a
I
b
I
2
I
3

Figure 2.35(b)
With only other 5 A source, the circuit reduces to that shown in
Figure 2.35(c).

3
2
1
1 1
3
2
5
4

(
(
(
(

+ +
= i
A 4 / 5 =
V V 4 / 5 1 4 / 5
3
= =

47

Network Theorems
V V V V V 1
3 2 1
= + + =
1 1
2
+

1
5A
I
4
V
3

Figure 2.35(c)
SAQ 2
Thevenins theorem
+

I = 2A
V = unknown
2
V = 10V
1
r = 1
R = 5
1
R = 4
2

+

a
b
Figure 2.36
Let the terminals ab be open circuited. No current flows through r.
+

V
1
R
2
R
1
+
V
ab

R
2
R
1
R
th
a a
b
b
5
2
5
4 4

(a) (b)
+
+

V
th V
2
a
b
r
R
th

(c)


48
Electrical Technology Figure 2.36
= + = + = 9 4 5
2 1
R R R
th

10 5 2 10 10 20 , 9
th th
V V R = + = + = =
The current through r is zero when

2
0
th
th
V V
I
R r

= =
+

or
2
0
th
V V =
or
2
20
th
V V r = =
SAQ 3
Verify reciprocity theorem
Total resistance of the circuit { } [ ] ) 2 2 ( 2 2 2 + + =
= 5 / 16

5 / 16
20
=
T
I
A
4
25
=

3
2 25 2
. 2.5 A
2 (2 2 || 2) 4 5
T
I I = = =
+ +


3
1 3
2 2.5
. 1.25 A
2 2 2 2
I
I I = = = =
+

2 2
2 2 2
+

20 V
a
b
c
d
I
1
I
3
I
T

Figure 2.37
The current in 2 branched is I
1
= 1.25 A
Applying the reciprocity theorem by inter-changing the source and response
Total resistance in the circuit = 16/5
Total current drawn by the CKT
T
I = A
4
25

Proceeding in the same way as in precious case,
The current in the branch ab is I
2
= 1.25 A
Thus, I
1
= I
2
= 1.25 and the reciprocity theorem is very good.

49

Network Theorems
a
b
c
d
2 2 2 2
2

20V


Figure 2.38
If we compare the results in both cases, the ratio of input to response is the same
16
25 . 1
20
= = , which is the transfer impedance.
SAQ 4
Let us first find theorems equivalent of the network at terminals ab as shown in
Figure 2.39(b).
5 2
2 5
B
A
3V
R
th
I
1
I
2

+

Figure 2.39(a)
Internal resistance { } (5 5) 2 2
Th
R ( = = +



9 2 5 9 18
2 || 2 || 2
9
2 2 3
2
2

| |
= + = = =
|
\
+


1
3 3 27
A
5 4 5 5 || (2 2) 65
5
9
I = = =
+ +
+


2 1
5 29 5 3
. . A
9 65 9 13
I I = = =

2
6
2 V
13
th
V I = =
Thevenins equivalent of the circuit is
+

V
th
a
b
R
L
R
th
V
6
13
=
18
13

Figure 2.39(b)


50
Electrical Technology
Maximum power =
2
2
6
1 13
W
18
4 26
4
13
m
L
V
R
| |
|
\
= =

SAQ 5
In order to solve this network for the resistance between the points A and B, the
inner delta DEF is first transformed to its equivalent star connection.
=
+ +

= 75 . 0
1 5 . 2 5 . 1
5 . 2 5 . 1
a
R
=
+ +

= 3 . 0
5 . 2 1 5 . 1
1 5 . 1
b
R
=
+ +

= 5 . 0
5 . 1 5 . 2 1
5 . 2 1
c
R
The inner portion
B
4
.5

0
.5

O
E
R
b
R
a
R
e
A
4
.
7
5

0
.
3

F
C
3.25
0.75
Reduction of circuit
5
B
A
C
4
5.05
B A
R
1
R
3
R
2
C

Figure 2.40
Using star-delta transformation
=
+ +
= 09 . 13
5
05 . 5 5 5 4 4 05 . 5
1
R
=

+ + = 96 . 12
05 . 5
5 4
5 4
2
R
=

+ + = 36 . 16
4
05 . 5 5
05 . 5 5
3
R
Replacing this equivalent of inner circuit in main circuit, we get
5

5
16.36
1
2
.
9
6

1
3
.
0
9

Reduction of the network

B
B
A
3.62
3.61
3.83
A
C


51

Network Theorems Figure 2.41 : Reduction of the Network
The above conversion of the given network reduces to the circuit in which the
resistance across a branch are in parallel, hence:

5 13.09
3.62
5 13.09
AC
R

= =
+


5 12.96
3.61
5 12.96
BC
R

= =
+


5 16.36
3.83
5 16.36
AB
R

= =
+

Since R
AC
and R
BC
are in series and their series combination is in parallel with R
AB

the total resistance across AB is given by
Resistance across AB

(3.62 3.61) 3.83
2.5
(3.62 3.61) 3.83
R
+
= =
+ +

Thus, resistance between the two points AB = 2.5 .