Basic Computer Theory and Terms

Getting Started
Welcome to the Basic Computer Theory and Terms course. This course provides you with an overview of how computers work and the terms used to describe their components and operation.

Target Audience
This course is intended for technicians who support and service Apple products.

Prerequisite Courses
None

Time Required
60 minutes

Course Objectives
Describe basic computer components and processes. Define Mac-related technical terms including: Processor ATA Peripherals RAM Cache Software Drives System software Application software

Slots Reference release Software updates Software upgrades Identify normal and abnormal computer operations including: Startup Sleep Shut Down Kernel Panic Return to top Next: Basic HW Components-1

Basic Hardware Components - Part One

Introduction Processor Overview Intel Xeon and Core Duo Processors RAM Drives

Introduction
At the most simple level, a computer system consists of: input devices such as keyboards and mice output devices such a monitors and speakers a "box" containing the computer's Processor: The brain of the computer. The processor is located on the main logic board (MLB). This is where the operating system (OS) works, games render images, and spreadsheets calculate. Recent Apple computers use one of these two processors: Intel Xeon Intel Core Duo RAM: This is where the processor keeps information on which it works. Cache: Cache is made of RAM and works in a similar fashion but performs specific functions. Drives: Storage for all of the information you process and make on a Mac. There are three basic types of drives, magnetic, optical, and solid state. USB: One of the interconnect technologies used on the Mac to connect peripherals. USB is intended for slower, less demanding peripherals, such as keyboards and mice, although it can be used to connect disk drives and cameras. FireWire: The high-speed counterpart to USB. Also known as IEEE 1394 and iLink. Expansion Slots: No ones ever satisfied with their computer, right? Always wanting to add things, like a graphics card for another display. You can add cards in these slots to support

additional functionality. Well examine both types of slots in use today: PCI and AGP.

Processors Overview
Processors are silicon wafers made up of tens of thousands of tiny transistors, which, in a binary mode, can be turned either off or on. A clock synchronizes the processor signal and its speed is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). Microprocessors are differentiated by three key characteristics: Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute. Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction. Clock speed: Given in megahertz (Mhz) or gigahertz (GHz) determines how many millions or billions of instructions per second the processor can execute. The higher the value of both the bandwidth and clock speed, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32bit microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHz.

Intel Xeon and Core Duo Processors

Mac computers use either Intel Xeon or Intel Core Duo processors. These Intel processors have brought significant increases in performance while reducing heat output. These Intel processors uses Intels Core microarchitecture, which packs two execution cores on a single silicon chip, doubling the computational power in the same space as a single-core processor. The Core Duo line is capable of 32-bit processing, while the Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Extreme lines are capable of 64-bit processing.

RAM

Processor memory is known as dynamic random access memory (DRAM, or just RAM). With random

access, specific memory can be accessed directly, like choosing a specific track from a CD. Processor advances bring changes to the type of RAM used. Here are the different types of RAM used in Mac computers: DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module) SODIMM (Small Outline Dual Inline Memory Module) SDRAM (Synchronized Dynamic RAM) FB-DIMMS (Fully-Buffered Dual InLine Memory Modules) The specific RAM type for each Mac is listed on the Apple Specifications website. http://support.apple.com/specs/ Video cards in newer Mac computers incorporate DDR RAM (double-data-rate RAM) and use the names: VRAM (Video RAM) SGRAM (Synchronized Graphics RAM) DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate- Synchronous DRAM)

Cache

Cache is RAM or hard drive space used to store frequently used bits of code or data. Cache can be found on hard drives, CD recording drives and processors and is used primarily to speed up the computer. Once the hard drive has gone through the startup process and is running you can open a window instantly using cache memory. Level 1 Cache - is a small amount of RAM built into the processor that is used to store bits of frequently used code. Level 2 Cache - is located very close to the processor and has a higher speed connection than is available to other components Disk Cache - sets aside a bit of RAM to store frequently used data from the hard drive.

Drives

Disk drives can retain their stored files and applications when the computer is shut down and power is removed. There are two basic types of disk drives: magnetic and optical. Magnetic Drives

Hard drives, floppy drives, and zip drives encode data as magnetic magnetized needles on the disk's surface. You can record and erase data on a magnetic disk any number of times. Most hard drives also contain a cache. Considerable time can be saved if data can be retrieved from the cache rather than the platters. Optical Drives Optical drives use lasers to read data on optical discs (CDs and DVDs for example.) CD-R and DVD-R drives use a laser to both read and to write (burn) data on the discs. Optical drives are significantly slower than magnetic drives. Solid State Drives The MacBook Airs Solid-State Drive (SSD) uses solid-state memory to provide high performance storage with no moving parts. Disk Formatting Formatting a hard disk prepares it to contain data. Return to top Next: Basic Computer Hardware - Part Two

Basic Hardware Components - Part Two

Connecting Peripherals USB, FireWire, Slots and PCI

Connecting Peripherals
You can attach peripherals to most Mac computers through either of two buses, USB and FireWire. USB is generally used for slower devices like keyboards, mice, etc. FireWire is used for high-speed devices such as hard drives, digital camcorders, and the like. While USB is standard, only select Mac computers come equipped with FireWire.

USB, FireWire, Slots, and PCI

Peripherals such as printers, external hard drives, video cameras etc. use either USB or FireWire buses to connect to Mac computers. FireWire is Apples trademarked name for the IEEE 1394 technology it invented. USB 2.0 and FireWire 400

transfer data at roughly the same speed, but FireWire 800 is twice as fast. Some desktop Mac computers have expansion slots built in. These slots let you add more memory, or additional hard drives. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is one of the main busses of the computer, used to communicate between the processor, all expansion slots, and the USB, Bluetooth, and AirPort ports. Return to top Next: Basic Software Components

Basic Software Components

Firmware Software System Software Application Software Reference Release, Software Update, and Software Upgrades

Firmware
Firmware is a combination of software and hardware. A computer chip that has software instructions recorded on it is known as firmware. For example, ROMs (read-only memory.)

Software
Software is data (information), made up of instructions used to accomplish a task, and can be divided into two primary categories: system software and application software.

System Software

System software is software used to manage computer hardware. System software also provides a graphical user interface or GUI (pronounced goo-ee) to display items on the screen. System software includes the operating system (Mac OS), software drivers (for example, to display video or read a CD-ROM), and software needed to interact with the user (for example the software that understands function key assignments). The terms system software and operating system are interchangeable for most users. Apple releases system software online or through retail outlets for existing Apple hardware. Apple also releases system software bundled (included) with new computers.

Application Software

Application software processes data for a user. Applications run the gamut of functionality and creativity from spreadsheets to word processors to multimedia programs. Application software generally relies on the operating system for compatibility with hardware and is released individually or bundled with computers. For example, iDVD is bundled with new Mac computers and DVD Studio Pro is released as a stand alone. When new versions of software become available Apple releases the changes through either a software update or software upgrade, and sometimes both. Software is distributed as a reference release, software upgrade or software update.

Reference Releases, Software Updates and Software Upgrades

Reference Release Reference releases are major releases with new features or features that resolve outstanding issues with older software. A reference release is considered to be a critical point at which the software can be identified by its features. For example, the reference release of Mac OSX introduced the Aqua interface and the Dock. Software Upgrade An upgrade may be available when most parts of the software have changed and require a full reinstall of the software. Software upgrades generally do not require that a previous version already be installed, but may require earlier software to be installed to verify ownership. Software Update An update may be available as a single release, or in the form of independent releases as is the case when using the software updates feature of Mac OS X. Version Numbers Version numbers are used to describe software changes and can be defined generally as "reference.upgrade.update." There are fewer changes between a Mac OS X v10.5.1 and Mac OS X v10.5.2 release as there would be between a Mac OS X v10.5 and Mac OS X v10.6 release. Apple has named Mac OS X versions after big cats- Cheetah, Puma, Jaguar Panther, Tiger, Leopard, and Snow Leopard. Return to top Next: Startup-Shut Down

Startup - Shutdown
Startup Process Overview

Startup Stages and Cues for Mac OS X v10.6 Shutdown Process

Startup Process Overview

When a computer is first powered on, it is designed to look for resources that will eventually lead to a graphical user interface. The GUI is the visual environment users interact with to make the computer perform tasks. The activity of looking for resources and reading those resources with the goal of presenting an environment the user can interact with is called the startup process. The word boot, short for bootstrap, is sometimes used to refer to the process the computer uses to reach a running state. The use of the word boot comes from the phrase, pull yourself up by your bootstraps.

Startup Stages and Cues for Mac OS X v10.6

The table below summarizes the Hardware (A), Startup (B), and Login (C) stages for Mac OS X v10.6 (Snow Leopard): What Happens A1 Computer sends power to logic board, power-on self test (POST) A2 Open Firmware (PPC) or EFI (Intel) loads boot loader. What You See Black screen Notes - Chime if successful - Series of beeps if not successful

Blank gray screen Gray apple - found boot.efi Circle with Slash - could not load boot.efi, or some other issue Flashing globe - looking for booter/kernel on netboot server Gray Apple with spinning earth below - found booter/kernel on netboot server Broken Folder that blinks - no bootable device has been found

B1 Boot loader (BootX (PPC) or boot.efi (Intel)) loads kernel + boot-required kexts

B2 Kernel looks for root device and its driver, checks disk Gray apple + gear directory, and runs launchd B3 Loginwindow starts, which requires WindowServer; other Blue screen launchd jobs and processes run, mostly in parallel B3.5 Previous versions of Mac

OS X display a progress window B4 Login Window starts C1 Finder, Dock, and other background processes load C2 Login items run

Leopard does not display a progress window. If automatic login is disabled, you see the Login window Desktop, Dock, menu bar Item-specific onscreen elements Some login items do not display onscreen elements

Shutdown Process
In comparison to starting up, the process of logging out or shutting down is simpler. After a user selects Log Out, Restart, or Shut Down and confirms the action, loginwindow quits all of the users applications, and if appropriate, resets hardware and restarts or shuts down the computer.

Return to top Next: Sleep

Sleep
Sleep Basics

Sleep Basics
Here is what happens when a computer goes to sleep. On all computers: The microprocessor goes into a low-power mode Video output is turned off, and the connected display may turn off as well, or enter its own idle state Apple-supplied hard disks spin down Third-party hard disks may spin down On PowerBooks, iBooks, MacBooks, and MacBook Pro portable computers:

The Ethernet port turns off Expansion card slots (such as PCMCIA) turn off The built-in modem (if present) turns off An AirPort card, if present, turns off The USB connection only responds to the power key on an external keyboard The optical media drive spins down Audio input and output turns off Keyboard illumination, if a feature of your portable computer, turns off Understanding how sleep operates will enable you to successfully troubleshoot customer issues. A more detailed description of how sleep operates can be found in Energy Saver: About sleep and idle modes in Mac OS X. Next: Kernel Panic

Kernel Panic
Kernel Panic Basics

Kernel Panic Basics

A kernel panic is a type of error that occurs when the core (kernel) of an operating system receives an instruction in an unexpected format, or that it fails to handle properly. A kernel panic may also follow when the operating system is not able to recover from a different type of error. A kernel panic can be caused by damaged or incompatible software or, more rarely, damaged or incompatible hardware. Kernel panics in Mac OS should not be confused with an application freeze. Instead of just one application no longer functioning, the entire system is no longer operable. Here you see the onscreen dialog a Mac running Mac OS X 10.2 or later displays.

For more detailed information on kernel panics, review "About 'You need to restart your computer' (kernel panic) messages". Next: Course Test

Course Test
Print this page and answer the following questions. 1. Which THREE of the following constitute a basic computer system? USB printer monitor CPU FireWire Hard Drive slots keyboard and mouse or trackpad 2. What is a processor? the brain of the computer storage for all the information you process an interconnect technology an expansion slot an execution unit 3. Slots used to plug in external data transfer devices such as iPods are called

ATA Optical Drives External Ports MegaHertz 4. To which form of memory must you save your work before the computer is turned off? 5. Microsoft Office and Keynote are examples of which?-Applications or System software? 6. When any Mac goes into sleep mode the first thing that happens is The backlit keyboard loses illumination ATA The microprocessor goes into a low-power mode The hard drive spins down 7. What has the computer failed if you hear a series of beeps at startup? 8. Once the hard drive has gone through the startup process and is running, you can open a window instantly using: Cache memory RAM memory ROM memory 9. How can customers obtain software from Apple? 10. How does Apple release software? 11. What stores the instructions for initiating the boot sequencing? 12. Fill in the blanks: FireWire _____________ is faster than USB at transferring digital data 13. What is missing: Cheetah, Puma, Jaguar Tiger, Leopard- and Snow Leopard 14. In terms of system software updates, versions numbers e.g. Mac OS X v10.6.1 indicate what? reference.upgrade.update update.reference.upgrade upgrade.update,reference 15. Use your Basic Terms knowledge to match the customer statement to the most likely issue:

1. I loaded 3 new video games and now my Mac is really slow 2. I cant get this DVD to eject when I shut down the computer 3. Ive been sent a Microsoft PowerPoint document but cant open it 4. I want Time Machine on my Mac- Im running Tiger why cant I find it? 5. My Mac wont start up- I just get an error message in different languages

A. Kernel panic B. MS PowerPoint application not installed C. Optical drive issue D. Insufficient RAM- more memory needed E. System Software - Time Machine runs on Mac OS X v10.5 - Leopard, not on Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger.

Next: Check your answers

Course Test Answer Key

Compare your answers to those shown here. Correct answers are in bold. 1. Which THREE of the following constitute a basic computer system? USB printer monitor CPU FireWire Hard Drive slots keyboard and mouse or trackpad 2. What is a processor? the brain of the computer storage for all the information you process an interconnect technology an expansion slot an execution unit 3. Slots used to plug in external data transfer devices such as iPods are called ATA Optical Drives External Ports

MegaHertz 4. To which form of memory must you save your work before the computer is turned off? Memory that doesn't require power, for example, a magnetic drive or an optical drive. 5. Microsoft Office and Keynote are examples of which?-Applications or System software? Applications 6. When any Mac goes into sleep mode the first thing that happens is The backlit keyboard loses illumination ATA The microprocessor goes into a low-power mode The hard drive spins down 7. What has the computer failed if you hear a series of beeps at startup? Power On Self Test 8. Once the hard drive has gone through the startup process and is running, you can open a window instantly using: Cache memory RAM memory ROM memory 9. How can customers obtain software from Apple? Software is released either standalone or bundled with a computer. Standalone software can be distributed online or in a box through retail channels. Bundled software is distributed with a computer and is usually pre-installed. 10. How does Apple release software? Software is released as a reference release - independent from previous versions; as an upgrade which delivers new features; and as an update - which delivers software improvements and bug fixes. 11. What stores the instructions for initiating the boot sequencing? Read Only Memory (ROM) 12. Fill in the blanks: FireWire _______800______ is faster than USB at transferring digital data 13. What is missing: Cheetah, Puma, Jaguar Tiger, Leopard- and Snow Leopard Panther 14. In terms of system software updates, versions numbers e.g. Mac OS X v10.6.1 indicate what?

reference.upgrade.update update.reference.upgrade upgrade.update,reference 15. Use your Basic Terms knowledge to match the customer statement to the most likely issue: 1. I loaded 3 new video games and now my Mac is really slow 2. I cant get this DVD to eject when I shut down the computer 3. Ive been sent a Microsoft PowerPoint document but cant open it 4. I want Time Machine on my Mac- Im running Tiger why cant I find it? 5. My Mac wont start up- I just get an error message in different languages 1D, 2C, 3B, 4E, 5A A. Kernel panic B. MS PowerPoint application not installed C. Optical drive issue D. Insufficient RAM- more memory needed E. System Software - Time Machine runs on Mac OS X v10.5 - Leopard, not on Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger.

Next: This concludes the Basic Computer Theory and Terms course. APPLE NEED-TO-KNOW CONFIDENTIAL: Do NOT forward, copy, or otherwise replicate or disseminate verbally, electronically, or in hardcopy (except to those individuals within your organization who have a legitimate business need to know the information, and who have agreed in writing, to keep it confidential), unless Apple has given prior written authorization. Copyright 2012 Apple Inc. All rights reserved.