Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Reading Problems
2-1 2-8 2-44, 2-48, 2-78, 2-100
Thermal Sciences
The thermal sciences involve the storage, transfer and conversion of energy.
We will study the basic laws and principles that govern the three disciplines of thermal sciences,
namely, thermodynamics, heat transfer and uid mechanics.
T
h
e
r
m
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s
H
e
a
t

T
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
FluidsMechanics
Thermal
Systems
Engineering
Thermodynamics
FluidMechanics
HeatTransfer
Conservationofmass
Conservationofenergy
Secondlawofthermodynamics
Properties
Fluidstatics
Conservationofmomentum
Mechanicalenergyequation
Modeling
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conjugate
1
Thermodynamic Systems
IsolatedBoundary
System
Surroundings
W
o
r
k
H
e
a
t
SystemBoundary
(realorimaginary
fixedordeformable)
System
-maybeassimple
asameltingicecube
-orascomplexasa
nuclearpowerplant
Surroundings
-everythingthatinteracts
withthesystem
SYSTEM:
any specied collection of matter under study.
thermodynamic systems are classied as either open or closed
Closed System: composed of a control (or xed) mass where heat and work can cross
the boundary but no mass crosses the boundary.
Open System: composed of a control volume (or region in space) where heat, work,
and mass can cross the boundary or the control surface
WORK & HEAT TRANSFER:
work and heat transfer are NOT properties they are the forms that energy takes to
cross the system boundary
2
Thermodynamic Properties of Systems
Basic Denitions
Thermodynamic Property: Any observable or measurable characteristic of a system. Any math-
ematical combination of the measurable characteristics of a system
Intensive Properties
Pressure P N/m
2
or Pa
Temperature T K
Extensive Properties
Volume V m
3
Mass m kg
Other Properties (Intensive and Extensive)
Specic Volume
A
V/m = v m
3
/kg
Density = 1/v = m/V kg/m
3
Total Energy
B
E/m = e J/kg
Internal Energy
B
U/m = u J/kg
Enthalpy
B
H/m = h = u + Pv J/kg
Entropy
B
S/m = s J/kg K
Specic Heat Cp, Cv J/kg K
Ideal Gas Constant R = Cp Cv J/kg K
Notes:
A
The term specic denotes that the property is independent of mass.
There are two exceptions:
1) specic gravity (or relative density) is given where:

s
= /
H
2
O
and
H
2
O
is 1000 kg/m
3
.
2) specic weight is weight per unit volume
(i.e. W/V = mg/V = g = )
B
The given internal energy, enthalpy and entropy are specic properties.
The term specic is dropped.
3
Pressure
Pressure =
Force
Area
;
N
m
2
Pa
in uids, this is pressure (normal component of force per unit area)
in solids, this is stress
1 kPa = 10
3
Pa : 1 MPa = 10
6
Pa
1 bar = 10
5
Pa : 1 atm = 101, 325 Pa
absolute
pressure
gauge
pressure
vacuum
pressure
absolute
vacuumpressure
ABSOLUTE
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
P
atm
Manometer a device that measures pressure using a column of liquid
4
the uid pressure at any point, 1 in a manometer is given as
P
1
= P
atm
+ gh
Bourdon Tube a device that measures pressure using mechanical deformation
Pressure Transducers devices that use piezoelectrics to measure pressure
Barometer device that measures atmospheric pressure
5
Temperature
temperature is a pointer for the direction of energy transfer as heat
Q Q
T
A
T
A
T
A
T
A
T
B
T
B
T
B
T
B
>
<
It follows that temperature is a property two systems have in common when they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other
Thermal Equilibrium: T
A
= T
B
and Q = 0
0
th
Law of Thermodynamics: if system C is in thermal equilibrium with system A,
and also with system B, then T
A
= T
B
= T
C
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if they have the same temperature, even if they are not
in contact with one another
State and Equilibrium
the state of a systemis its condition as described by a set of relevant energy related properties.
thermodynamic equilibrium refers to a condition of equilibrium with respect to all possible
changes in a given system.
Denitions
Simple Compressible Material: One only open to the compression-expansion reversible work
mode. A system is called simple compressible in the absence of electric, magnetic, grav-
itational, motion, and surface tension effects.
6
State Postulate
when the intensive properties of a system are specied, the thermodynamic state of the sys-
tem is known intensively
State Postulate (for a simple compressible system): The state of a simple
compressible system is completely specied by 2 independent and intensive properties.
note: a simple compressible system experiences negligible electrical, magnetic, gravita-
tional, motion, and surface tension effects, and only PdV work is done
if the system is not simple, for each additional effect, one extra property has to be known to
x the state. (i.e. if gravitational effects are important, the elevation must be specied and
two independent and intensive properties)
7
Properties of Pure Substances
Reading Problems
4-1 4-7 4-31, 4-43, 4-58, 4-61, 4-64, 4-79,
4-80, 4-88
Phases of Pure Substances
a pure substance may exist in different phases, where a phase is considered to be a physically
uniform form of the matter
3 principal phases:
solid liquid gas
Behavior of Pure Substances (Phase Change Processes)
phase change processes:
the following diagram shows the typical behavior of pure substances
s
u
b
lim
a
t
i
o
n
v
a
p
o
r
iz
a
t
i
o
n
m
e
l
t
i
n
g
m
e
l
t
i
n
g
triplepoint
criticalpoint
SOLID
VAPOR
LIQUID
vaporization
condensation
sublimation
sublimation
freezing
melting
P
T
substancesthat
expandonfreezing
substancesthat
contractonfreezing
this is called a phase diagram because all three phases are separated from one another by
three lines
1
T v Diagram for a Simple Compressible Substance
consider an experiment in which a substance starts as a solid and is heated up at constant
pressure until it all becomes as gas
P
0
P
0
P
0
P
0
P
0
P
0
dQ dQ dQ dQ dQ
S
S
L L
L
G G
S+G
L+G
S
S+L
G
L
T
v
criticalpoint
s
t
a
u
r
a
t
e
d
v
a
p
o
r
l
i
n
e
triplepointline
s
a
t
u
r
a
t
e
d
l
i
q
u
i
d
l
i
n
e
f
u
s
i
o
n
l
i
n
e
The Vapor Dome
the general shape of a P v diagram for a pure substance is very similar to that of a T v
diagram
the subscripts denote: f - saturated liquid (uid) and g - saturated vapor (gas)
2
v
criticalpoint
v
fg
subcooled
liquid
saturated
liquidline
L+G
v
f
v
g
P
P (T)
sat
saturated
vaporline
gas(vapor)
two-phaseregion
(saturatedliquid&
saturatedvapor)
T
cr
T
T
we will express values of properties for conditions on the vapor dome as:
specic volume: v
f
, v
g
and v
fg
= v
g
v
f
internal energy: u
f
, u
g
and u
fg
= u
g
u
f
specic enthalpy: h
f
, h
g
and h
fg
= h
g
h
f
specic entropy: s
f
, s
g
and s
fg
= s
g
s
f
The Two-Phase Region
L
L
G G
A B C
saturated
liquid
mixtureof
saturatedliquid
andvapor
saturated
vapor
allthreesystemshavethesameTandP
3
Question: How can we describe the mixture? P and T are obviously not enough since they are
inter-dependent.
Answer: We must also specify how much of each phase is in the mixture, for instance at C in
the above sketch.
We need to dene a new thermodynamic property: Quality x =
m
g
m
=
m
g
m
g
+ m
f
Properties of Saturated Mixtures
P and T are not independent in the wet vapor region.
To x the state we require (T, x), (T, v), (P, x) . . .
all the calculations done in the vapor dome can be performed using Tables.
in Table A-4, the properties are listed under Temperature
in Table A-5, the properties are listed under Pressure
v
criticalpoint
v
fg
saturatedliquidline:x=0
L
G
v
f
v
mixture
v
g
P
P (T)
sat
saturatedvaporline:x=1
T
T
4
Properties of Superheated Vapor
superheated means T > T
sat
at the prevailing P, eg. water at 100 kPa has a saturation
temperature of T
sat
(P) = 99.63

C.
v
L
L+G
G
T
T (P)
sat
P
P
P=100kPa
state:200 Cand100kPa
o
T=200 C
o
Properties of Sub-cooled (Compressed) Liquid
sub-cooled liquid means T < T
sat
at the prevailing P, eg. water at 20

C and 100 kPa
has a saturation temperature of T
sat
(P) = 99.63

C.
v
L
L+G
G
T
T (P)
sat
P
P
P=100kPa
state:20 Cand100kPa
o
T=20 C
o
5
Using the Equation of State to Calculate the Properties of
Gaseous Pure Substances
since most gases are highly superheated at atmospheric conditions. This means we have to
use the superheat tables but this can be very inconvenient
a better alternative for gases: use the Equation of State which is a functional relationship
between P, v, and T (3 measurable properties)
Ideal Gases
gases that adhere to a pressure, temperature, volume relationship
Pv = RT or PV = mRT
are referred to as ideal gases
where Ris the gas constant for the specied gas of interest (R = R
u
/

M)
R
u
= Universal gas constant, 8.314 kJ/(kmol K)

M = molecular wieght (or molar mass) of the gas (see Table A-1))
Reference Values for u, h, s
values of enthalpy, h and entropy, s listed in the tables are with respect to a datum where we
arbitrarily assign the zero value. For instance:
Table A-4, A-5: saturated liquid - the reference for both h
f
and s
f
is taken as 0

C. This
is shown as follows:
u
f
(@T = 0

C) = 0 kJ/kg
h
f
(@T = 0

C) = 0 kJ/kg
s
f
(@T = 0

C) = 0 kJ/kg K
Table A-11, A-12, & A-13: saturated R134a - the reference for both h
f
and s
f
is taken as
40

C. This is shown as follows:
h
f
(@T = 40

C) = 0 kJ/kg
h
f
(@T = 40

C) = 0 kJ/kg
s
f
(@T = 40

C) = 0 kJ/kg K
6
Calculation of the Stored Energy
for most of our 1st law analyses, we need to calculate E
E = U + KE + PE
for stationary systems, KE = PE = 0
in general: KE =
1
2
m(V
2
2
V
2
1
) and PE = mg(z
2
z
1
)
how do we calculate U?
1. one can often nd u
1
and u
2
in the thermodynamic tables (like those examined for the
states of water).
2. we can also explicitly relate U to T (as a mathematical expression) by using the
thermodynamic properties C
p
and C
v
.
Specic Heats: Ideal Gases
for any gas whose equation of state is exactly
Pv = RT
for an ideal gas
C
v
=
du
dT
C
v
= C
v
(T) only
C
p
=
dh
dT
C
p
= C
p
(T) only
R = C
p
C
v
the calculation of u and h for an ideal gas is given as
u = u
2
u
1
=
_
2
1
C
v
(T) dT (kJ/kg)
h = h
2
h
1
=
_
2
1
C
p
(T) dT (kJ/kg)
7
First Law of Thermodynamics
Reading Problems
3-1 3-6 3-40, 3-49
5-1 5-5 5-9, 5-10, 5-25, 5-29, 5-35, 5-42, 5-61
6-1 6-5 6-17, 6-23, 6-37, 6-52, 6-78, 6-87, 6-152
Control Mass (Closed System)
The two underlying conservation equations for performing a thermodynamic analysis on a Closed
System or a Control Mass, are:
1. Conservation of Mass, and
2. Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Mass, which states that mass cannot be created or destroyed, is implicitly satised
by the denition of a control mass.
Conservation of Energy
The rst law of thermodynamics states:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed it can only change forms.
energy transformation is accomplished through energy transfer as work and/or heat. Work
and heat are the forms that energy can take in order to be transferred across the system
boundary.
the rst law leads to the principle of Conservation of Energy where we can stipulate the
energy content of an isolated system is constant.
energy entering energy leaving = change of energy within the system
1
Sign Convention
There are many potential sign conventions that can be used.
Cengel Approach
Heat Transfer: heat transfer to a system is positive and heat transfer from a system is negative.
Work Transfer: work done by a system is positive and work done on a system is negative.
Culham Approach
Anything directed into the system is positive, anything directed out of the system is negative.
Forms of Energy Transfer
Work Versus Heat
Work is macroscopically organized energy transfer.
Heat is microscopically disorganized energy transfer.
2
Heat Energy
heat is dened as a form of energy that is transferred solely due to a temperature difference
(without mass transfer)
Notation:
Q(kJ) amount of heat transfer

Q(kW) rate of heat transfer (power)
q (kJ/kg) - heat transfer per unit mass
q (kW/kg) - power per unit mass
Work Energy
work is a form of energy in transit. One should not attribute work to a system.
Notation:
W (kJ) amount of work transfer

W (kW) power
w (kJ/kg) - work per unit mass
w (kW/kg) - power per unit mass
Mechanical Work
force (which generally varies) times displacement
W
12
=
_
2
1
F ds
3
Moving Boundary Work
consider compression in a piston/cylinder,
where Ais the piston cross sectional area (fric-
tionless)
the area under the process curve on a P V
diagram is proportional to
_
2
1
P dV
sometimes called P dV work or
compression /expansion work
polytropic processes: where PV
n
= C
Gravitational Work
Work is dened as force through a distance
W
12
=
_
2
1
Fds
Acceleration Work
if the system is accelerating, the work associated with the change of the velocity can be
calculated as follows:
W
12
=
_
2
1
F ds =
_
2
1
ma ds =
_
2
1
m
dV
dt
ds =
_
2
1
mdV
ds
dt
..
V
and we can then write
W
12
=
_
2
1
mV dV = m
_
V
2
2
2

V
2
1
2
_
4
Charge Transfer Work (Electrical Work)
charge is a conserved quantity, like mass and energy
the electrical work done is given as
W
e
=
_
2
1
I dt
= It
Control Volume (Open System)
The major difference between a Control Mass and and Control Volume is that mass crosses the
system boundary of a control volume. We will dene a region in space that may be moving or
changing shape. As the process proceeds we will monitor the volume as mass, heat and work cross
the system boundary. The control volume approach will be used for many engineering problems
where a mass ow rate is present, such as:
turbines, pumps and compressors
heat exchangers
nozzles and diffusers, etc.
CONSERVATION OF MASS:
m
m
IN
OUT
m
cv
cv
5
_

_
rate of increase
of mass within
the CV
_

_
=
_

_
net rate of
mass flow
IN
_

_
net rate of
mass flow
OUT
_

_
d
dt
(m
CV
) = m
IN
m
OUT
where:
m
CV
=
_
V
dV
m
IN
= ( V A)
IN
m
OUT
= ( V A)
OUT
with V = average velocity
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:
The 1st law states:
E
CV
(t) + Q + W
shaft
+ (E
IN
E
OUT
)+
(W
IN
W
OUT
) = E
CV
(t + t) (1)
6
where:
E
IN
= e
IN
m
IN
E
OUT
= e
OUT
m
OUT
W = ow work
e =
E
m
= u
..
internal
+
V
2
2
..
kinetic
+ gz
..
potential
Some Practical Assumptions for Control Volumes
Steady State Process: The properties of the material inside the control volume do not change
with time. For example
P
1
P
2
P >P
2 1
V <V
2 1
Diffuser: P changes inside the control volume, but
the pressure at each point does not change with
time.
Steady Flow Process: The properties of the material crossing the control surface do not change
with time. For example
y
x
T=T(y)
TT(t)
Inlet Pipe: T at the inlet may be different at differ-
ent locations, but temperature at each boundary
point does not change with time.
The steadiness refers to variation with respect to time
if the process is not steady, it is unsteady or transient
often steady ow implies both steady ow and steady state
7
Uniform State Process: The properties of the material inside the control volume are uniform and
may change with time. For example
50 C
o
50 C
o
50 C
o
50 C
o
60 C
o
60 C
o
60 C
o
60 C
o
Q
t=0
t=10
Heating Copper: Cu conducts heat well, so that it
heats evenly.
Uniform Flow Process: The properties of the material crossing the control surface are spatially
uniform and may change with time. For example
y
x
PP(y)
Inlet Pipe: P at the inlet is uniform
across y.
Uniformity is a concept related to the spatial distribution. If the ow eld in a process is not
uniform, it is distributed.
8
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Reading Problems
7-1 7-3 8-29, 8-40, 8-43, 8-58, 8-68,
7-6 7-10 8-99, 8-116, 8-148, 8-149, 8-166,
8-1 8-13 8-183, 8-189
Introduction
Zeroth Law: led to the concept of temperature
First Law: led to the thermodynamic property called internal energy
Second Law: leads to the thermodynamic property called entropy
Why do we need another law in thermodynamics?
Answer: While the 1st law allowed us to determine the quantity of energy transfer in a process
it does not provide any information about the direction of energy transfer nor the quality of
the energy transferred in the process. In addition, we can not determine from the 1st law
alone whether the process is possible or not. The second law will provide answers to these
unanswered questions.
A process will not occur unless it satises both the rst and the second laws of thermody-
namics.
gas gas
possible
impossible
1:coldsystem
propeller&
gasrotating
2:warmsystem
propeller&
gasstationary
1
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states:
The entropy of an isolated system can never decrease. When an isolated system
reaches equilibrium, its entropy attains the maximum value possible under the
constraints of the system
Denition
Unlike mass and energy, entropy can be produced but it can never be destroyed. That is, the entropy
of a system plus its surroundings (i.e. an isolated system) can never decrease (2nd law).
P
m
= m
2
m
1
= 0 (conservation of mass)
P
E
= E
2
E
1
= 0 (conservation of energy) 1st law
P
S
= S
gen
= S
2
S
1
0 2nd law
System
Surroundings
W
o
r
k
H
e
a
t
Non-IsolatedSystems
-theirentropy maydecrease
IsolatedSystem
-itsentropymay
neverdecrease
The second law states, for an isolated system:
(S)
system
+ (S)
surr.
0
where final initial
2
2nd Law Analysis for a Closed System (Control Mass)
MER
TER
CM
dW
dQ
T
TER
We can rst perform a 1st law energy balance on the system shown above.
dU = Q + W (1)
For a simple compressible system
W = PdV (2)
From Gibbs equation we know
T
TER
dS = dU + PdV (3)
Combining (1), (2) and (3) we get
T
TER
dS = Q
where
net in-ow dS =
Q
T
TER
net out-ow dS =
Q
T
TER
3
Therefore
(dS)
CM
. .
storage
=
Q
T
TER
. .
entropy flow
+ dS
gen
. .
production
Integrating gives
(S
2
S
1
)
CM
=
Q
12
T
TER
+ S
gen
. .
0
where
Q
12
T
TER
- the entropy associated with heat transfer across a
nite temperature difference, i.e. T > 0
4
2nd Law Analysis for Open Systems (Control Volume)
TER
TER
MER
A
A
B
B
FR
FR
CV
S=sm
S=-sm
B
A
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-2
B
A
A
B
A
B
B
A
A
B
S=- Q d
S= Q d
T
T
TER
TER
dQ
dQ
m
m
S
CV
dW
S=0
isolatedS 0
gen

where:
FR - uid reservoir
TER - thermal energy reservoir
MER - mechanical energy reservoir
5
For the isolated system going through a process from 1 2
S
gen
= (S)
sys
+ (S)
sur
S
gen
= S
CV
. .
system
+
_
s
A
m
A
12
+ s
B
m
B
12

Q
A
12
T
A
TER
+
Q
B
12
T
B
TER
_
. .
surroundings
or as a rate equation

S
gen
=
_
dS
dt
_
CV
+
_
_
s m +

Q
T
TER
_
_
OUT

_
_
s m +

Q
T
TER
_
_
IN
This can be thought of as
generation = accumulation + OUT IN
Reversible Process
Example: Slow adiabatic compression of a gas
A process 1 2 is said to be reversible if the reverse process 2 1 restores the system to its
original state without leaving any change in either the system or its surroundings.
idealization where S
2
= S
1
S
gen
= 0
6
Reversible Compression and Expansion
realorideal
gas
dQ
dW
m
W
12
= m
_
2
1
Pdv
or on a per unit mass basis
w
12
=
W
12
m
=
_
2
1
Pdv
Reversible Isothermal Expansion for an Ideal Gas
The work done at the boundary of a simple, compressible substance (S.C.S.) during a reversible
process
w
12
=
_
2
1
Pdv = constant
_
2
1
dv
v
= P
1
v
1
ln
v
2
v
1
= P
1
v
1
ln
v
1
v
2
w
12
= RT ln
v
1
v
2
= RT ln
V
1
V
2
= RT ln
P
2
P
1
7
Calculation of s in Processes
T s and h s (Mollier) diagrams are very useful
the area under the curve on a T s diagram is the heat transfer for internally reversible
processes
q
int,rev
=
_
2
1
T ds and q
int,rev,isothermal
= Ts
T
s
dA=Tds
processpath
1
2
ds
Tabulated Calculation of s for Pure Substances
Depending on the phase of the substance:
Calculation of the Properties of Wet Vapor:
Use Tables A-4 and A-5 to nd s
f
, s
g
and/or s
fg
for the following
s = (1 x)s
f
+ xs
g
s = s
f
+ xs
fg
Calculation of the Properties of Superheated Vapor:
Given two properties or the state, such as temperature and pressure, use Table A-6.
Calculation of the Properties of a Compressed Liquid:
Use Table A-7. In the absence of compressed liquid data for a property s
T,P
s
f@T
8
Calculation of s for Incompressible Materials
ds =
du
T
= C
dT
T
s
2
s
1
=
_
2
1
C(T)
dT
T
s = C
avg
ln
T
2
T
1
where C
avg
= [C(T
1
) + C(T
2
)]/2
- if the process is isentropic, then T
2
= T
1
, and s = 0
Calculation of s for Ideal Gases
There are 3 forms of a change in entropy as a function of T &v, T &P, and P &v.
s
2
s
1
= C
v
ln
T
2
T
1
+ Rln
v
2
v
1
= C
p
ln
T
2
T
1
Rln
P
2
P
1
= C
p
ln
v
2
v
1
+ C
v
ln
P
2
P
1
Reversible Heat Engine
A heat engine is a device in which a working substance (control mass) undergoes a cyclic process
while operating between two temperature reservoirs (TER).
As an example we can simplify the conventional power plant where a fossil fuel or a nuclear pro-
cess is used to provide high temperature energy to a boiler. Through a vapor compression/expansion
process, mechanical energy is produced in a turbine that in turn is used to produce electrical energy.
A 1st law energy balance gives
E
0
= Q
H
Q
L
W
net
= 0 (1)
The 2nd law gives
S
gen
0 for an isolated system
9
combustion
gases
cooling
water
boiler
condenser
W
P
W
T
Q
H
Q
H
Q
L
Q
L
TER
TER
T
H
T
L
W
net
heat
engines
isolatedsystems
S 0
gen

An entropy balance gives
S
gen
= (S)
CM
. .
0 (cyclic)
+(S)
TERH
. .
Q
H
/T
H
+(S)
TERL
. .
+Q
L
/T
L
+(S)
MER

0
Therefore
Q
L
T
L
=
Q
H
T
H
+ S
gen
or
Q
L
Q
H
=
T
L
T
H
+
S
gen
T
L
Q
H
(2)
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2)
W
net
= Q
H
_
1
T
L
T
H
_
. .
Wmax possible
T
L
S
gen
. .
W
lost
due to irreversibilties
The engine efciency is dened as the benet over the cost
=
benefit
cost
=
W
net
Q
H
= 1
T
L
T
H

T
L
S
gen
Q
H
10
The Carnot Cycle
an ideal theoretical cycle that is the most efcient conceivable
based on a fully reversible heat engine - it does not include any of the irreversibilities asso-
ciated with friction, viscous ow, etc.
in practice the thermal efciency of real world heat engines are about half that of the ideal,
Carnot cycle
T
T
T
s s s
Q
Q
Q
W
P=P
P=P
H
H
L
L
1
1
2
4
4
3
in
out
11
Conduction Heat Transfer
Reading Problems
10-1 10-6 10-38, 10-48, 10-57, 10-70, 10-71, 10-78, 10-92
10-117, 10-121, 10-153
11-1 11-2 11-14, 11-19, 11-39, 11-45, 11-53, 11-91
Fourier Law of Heat Conduction
x=0
x
x
x+ x D
x=L
insulated
Q
x
Q
x+ x D
g
A

x
_
k
T
x
_
. .
longitudinal
conduction
+ g
..
internal
heat
generation
= C
T
t
. .
thermal
inertia
Special Cases
1. Multidimensional Systems: The general conduction equation can be extended to three dimen-
sional Cartesian systems as follows:

x
_
k
T
x
_
+

y
_
k
T
y
_
+

z
_
k
T
z
_
+ g = C
T
t
2. Constant Properties: If we assume that properties are independent of temperature, then the
conductivity can be taken outside the derivative
1
k
_

2
T
x
2
+

2
T
y
2
+

2
T
z
2
_
+ g = C
T
t

2
T +
g
k
=
1

T
t
where
= del operator
_

x
+

y
+

z
_
= thermal diffusivity
k
C
3. Steady State: If t then all terms

t
0

2
T =
g
k
Poissons Equation
4. No Internal Heat Generation:

2
T = 0 Laplaces Equation
2
Thermal Resistance Networks
Resistances in Series
Conditions for 1-D heat ow through a plane wall include:
constant cross sectional area, A
steady ow conditions
The total heat ow across the system can be written as

Q =
T

1
T

2
R
total
where R
total
=
4

i=1
R
i
The heat ow rate is sometimes written in terms of an overall heat transfer coefcient, U

Q = UA(T

1
T

2
)
where
UA =
1
R
total
=
1
1
h
1
A
+
L
2
k
2
A
+
L
3
k
3
A
+
1
h
4
A
3
Resistances in Parallel
T
1
Q
1
T
2
Q
2
L
R
1
k
2
k
1
R
2
For systems of parallel ow paths as shown above, we can use the 1
st
law to preserve the total
energy

Q =

Q
1
+

Q
2
In general, for parallel networks we can use a parallel resistor network as follows:
T
1
T
1
T
2
T
2
R
1
R
total R
2
R
3
=
where
1
R
total
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
+
and

Q =
T
1
T
2
R
total
4
Thermal Contact Resistance
heat ow through the contact turns to seek out the solid-solid contact points, leading to an
increase in resistance and a temperature drop across the interface

Q
total
=

Q
contact
+

Q
gap
the total heat ow rate can be written as

Q
total
= h
c
AT
interface
where:
h
c
= thermal contact conductance
A= apparent or project area of the contact
T
interface
= average temperature drop across the interface
The conductance can be written in terms of a resistance as
h
c
A =

Q
total
T
=
1
R
c
where:
R
c
= contact resistance (K/W)
Table 10-2 can be used to obtain some representative values for contact conductance.
5
Cylindrical Systems
L
r
1
r
2
Q
r
T
1
T
2
A=2 rL p
k
r
Performing a 1
st
law energy balance on a control mass from the annular ring of the cylindrical
cylinder
dr
r
Qr
Qr+dr
dQr
dr
C.M.
leads to the following equation

Q
r
=
T
1
T
2
_
ln(r
2
/r
1
)
2kL
_
where R =
_
ln(r
2
/r
1
)
2kL
_
Composite Cylinders
Then the total resistance can be written as
R
total
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ R
4
6
=
1
h
1
A
1
+
ln(r
2
/r
1
)
2k
2
L
+
ln(r
3
/r
2
)
2k
3
L
+
1
h
4
A
4
Critical Thickness of Insulation
The resistor network can be written as a series combination of the resistance of the insulation, R
1
and the convective resistance, R
2
R
total
= R
1
+ R
2
=
ln(r
o
/r
i
)
2kL
+
1
h2r
o
L
Although the purpose of adding more insulation is to increase resistance and decrease heat trans-
fer, we can see from the resistor network that increasing r
o
actually results in a decrease in the
convective resistance.
7
Could there be a situation in which adding insulation increases the overall heat transfer?
Spherical Systems
r
i
r
o
T
i
T
o
We can write the heat transfer as

Q =
4kr
i
r
o
(r
0
r
i
)
(T
i
T
o
) =
(T
i
T
o
)
R
where R =
r
o
r
i
4kr
i
r
o
8
Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces
The rate of heat transfer from a surface is given by Newtons Law of Cooling

Q = hA(T
s
T

)
heat transfer is improved by h and A
it is difcult to obtain a signicant increase in h
an increase in Ais easily achieved through extended surfaces or ns
The conduction equation for a n with constant cross section is
kA
c
d
2
T
x
2
. .
longitudinal
conduction
hP(T T

)
. .
lateral
convection
= 0
9
The temperature difference between the n and the surroundings (temperature excess) is usually
expressed as
= T(x) T

which allows the 1-D n equation to be written as

d
2

dx
2
m
2
= 0
where the n parameter mis
m =
_
hP
kA
c
_
1/2
The solution to the differential equation for is
(x) = C
1
sinh(mx) + C
2
cosh(mx)
The heat transfer owing through the base of the n can be determined as

Q
b
= A
c
_
k
dT
dx
_
@x=0
=
b
(kA
c
hP)
1/2
tanh(mL)
Transient Heat Conduction
T
H
T
s
T
s
T

=
L/(k A)
1/(h A)
=
internal resistance to H.T.
external resistance to H.T.
=
hL
k
= Bi Biot number
10
R
int
<< R
ext
: the Biot number is small and we can conclude
T
H
T
s
<< T
s
T

and in the limit T

H
T
s
R
ext
<< R
int
: the Biot number is large and we can conclude
T
s
T

<< T
H
T
s
and in the limit T
s
T

Lumped System Analysis

if the internal temperature of a body remains relatively constant with respect to time
can be treated as a lumped system analysis
heat transfer is a function of time only, T = T(t)
typical criteria for lumped system analysis Bi 0.1
The characteristic length for the 3-D object is given as L = V/A. Other characteristic lengths for
conventional bodies include:
Slab
V
A
s
=
WH2L
2WH
= L
Rod
V
A
s
=
r
2
o
L
2r
0
L
=
r
0
2
Sphere
V
A
s
=
4/3r
3
o
4r
2
0
=
r
0
3
At t > 0, T = T(x, y, z, t), however, when Bi < 0.1 then we can assume T T(t).
11
For an incompressible substance specic heat is constant and we can write
mC
. .
C
th
dT
dt
= Ah
..
1/R
th
(T T

)
where C
th
= lumped capacitance
This type of an approach is only valid for Bi =
hV
kA
< 0.1
T(t) T

T
i
T

= e
t/(R
th
C
th
)
= e
t/
= e
bt
where
1
b
= = R
th
C
th
= thermal time constant =
mC
Ah
12
Heisler Charts
The lumped system analysis can be used if Bi = hL/k < 0.1 but what if Bi > 0.1
need to solve the partial differential equation for temperature
leads to an innite series solution difcult to obtain a solution
The solution procedure for temperature is a function of several parameters
T(x, t) = f(x, L, t, k, , h, T
i
, T

)
We must nd a solution to the PDE

2
T
x
2
=
1

T
t
The analytical solution to this equation takes the form of a series solution
T(x, t) T

T
i
T

n=1,3,5...
A
n
e
_

n
L
_
2
t
cos
_
nx
L
_
If we let Fo = t/L
2
, we can see that the rst term with n = 1 provides a very good estimate
to the innite series solution.
By using dimensionless groups, we can reduce the temperature dependence to 3 dimensionless
parameters
Dimensionless Group Formulation
temperature (x, t) =
T(x, t) T

T
i
T

position x = x/L
heat transfer Bi = hL/k Biot number
time Fo = t/L
2
Fourier number
13
note: Cengel uses instead of Fo.
Now we can write
(x, t) = f(x, Bi, Fo)
The characteristic length for the Biot number is
slab L = L
cylinder L = r
o
sphere L = r
o
contrast this versus the characteristic length for the lumped system analysis.
With this, two approaches are possible
1. use the rst term of the innite series solution. This method is only valid for Fo > 0.2
2. use the Heisler charts for each geometry as shown in Figs. 11-15, 11-16 and 11-17
First term solution: Fo > 0.2 error about 2% max.
Plane Wall:
wall
(x, t) =
T(x, t) T

T
i
T

= A
1
e

2
1
Fo
cos(
1
x/L)
Cylinder:
cyl
(r, t) =
T(r, t) T

T
i
T

= A
1
e

2
1
Fo
J
0
(
1
r/r
o
)
Sphere:
sph
(r, t) =
T(r, t) T

T
i
T

= A
1
e

2
1
Fo
sin(
1
r/r
o
)

1
r/r
o
where
1
, A
1
can be determined from Table 18-1 based on the calculated value of the Biot number
(will likely require some interpolation).
14
Convection Heat Transfer
Reading Problems
12-1 12-8 12-41, 12-46, 12-53, 12-57, 12-76, 12-81
13-1 13-6 13-39, 13-47, 13-59
14-1 14-4 14-24, 14-29, 14-47, 14-60
Introduction
convection heat transfer is the transport mechanism made possible through the motion of
uid
the controlling equation for convection is Newtons Law of Cooling

Q
conv
=
T
R
conv
= hA(T
w
T

) R
conv
=
1
hA
where
A = total convective area, m
2
h = heat transfer coefcient, W/(m
2
K)
1
T
w
= surface temperature,

C
T

= uid temperature,

C
Factors Affecting Convective Heat Transfer
Geometry: at plate, circular cylinder, sphere, spheroids plus many other shapes. In addi-
tion to the general shape, size, aspect ratio (thin or thick) and orientation (vertical or
horizontal) play a signicant role in convective heat transfer.
Type of ow: forced, natural, mixed convection as well as laminar, turbulent and transi-
tional ows. These ows can also be considered as developing, fully developed, steady
or transient.
Boundary condition: (i) isothermal wall (T
w
= constant) or
(ii) isoux wall ( q
w
= constant)
Type of uid: viscous oil, water, gases (air) or liquid metals.
Fluid properties: symbols and units
mass density : , (kg/m
3
)
specic heat capacity : C
p
, (J/kg K)
dynamic viscosity : , (N s/m
2
)
kinematic viscosity : , / (m
2
/s)
thermal conductivity : k, (W/m K)
thermal diffusivity : , k/( C
p
) (m
2
/s)
Prandtl number : Pr, / ()
volumetric compressibility : , (1/K)
All properties are temperature dependent and are usually determined at the lm tem-
perature, T
f
= (T
w
+ T

)/2
External Flow: the ow engulfs the body with which it interacts thermally
Internal Flow: the heat transfer surface surrounds and guides the convective stream
Forced Convection: ow is induced by an external source such as a pump, compressor, fan, etc.
2
Natural Convection: ow is induced by natural means without the assistance of an external
mechanism. The ow is initiated by a change in the density of uids incurred as a result
of heating.
Mixed Convection: combined forced and natural convection
Dimensionless Groups
In the study and analysis of convection processes it is common practice to reduce the total number
of functional variables by forming dimensionless groups consisting of relevant thermophysical
properties, geometry, boundary and ow conditions.
Prandtl number: Pr = / where 0 < Pr < (Pr 0 for liquid metals and Pr
for viscous oils). A measure of ratio between the diffusion of momentum to the diffusion
of heat.
Reynolds number: Re = UL/ UL/ (forced convection). A measure of the balance
between the inertial forces and the viscous forces.
Peclet number: Pe = UL/ RePr
Grashof number: Gr = g(T
w
T
f
)L
3
/
2
(natural convection)
Rayleigh number: Ra = g(T
w
T
f
)L
3
/( ) GrPr
Nusselt number: Nu = hL/k
f
This can be considered as the dimensionless heat transfer
coefcient.
Stanton number: St = h/(UC
p
) Nu/(RePr)
Forced Convection
The simplest forced convection conguration to consider is the ow of mass and heat near a at
plate as shown below.
as Reynolds number increases the ow has a tendency to become more chaotic resulting in
disordered motion known as turbulent ow
transition from laminar to turbulent is called the critical Reynolds number, Re
cr
Re
cr
=
U

x
cr

3
for ow over a at plate Re
cr
500, 000
the thin layer immediately adjacent to the wall where viscous effects dominate is known as
the laminar sublayer
Boundary Layers
Velocity Boundary Layer
the region of uid ow over the plate where viscous effects dominate is called the velocity
or hydrodynamic boundary layer
Thermal Boundary Layer
the thermal boundary layer is arbitrarily selected as the locus of points where
T T
w
T

T
w
= 0.99
4
Flow Over Plates
1. Laminar Boundary Layer Flow, Isothermal (UWT)
The local values of the skin friction and the Nusselt number are given as
C
f,x
=
0.664
Re
1/2
x
Nu
x
= 0.332 Re
1/2
x
Pr
1/3
local, laminar, UWT, Pr 0.6
Nu
L
=
h
L
L
k
f
= 0.664 Re
1/2
L
Pr
1/3
average, laminar, UWT, Pr 0.6
For low Prandtl numbers, i.e. liquid metals
Nu
x
= 0.565 Re
1/2
x
Pr
1/2
local, laminar, UWT, Pr 0.6
2. Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow, Isothermal (UWT)
C
f,x
=

w
(1/2)U
2

=
0.0592
Re
0.2
x
local, turbulent, UWT, Pr 0.6
Nu
x
= 0.0296 Re
0.8
x
Pr
1/3

local, turbulent, UWT,

0.6 < Pr < 100, Re
x
> 500, 000
5
Nu
L
= 0.037 Re
0.8
L
Pr
1/3

average, turbulent, UWT,

0.6 < Pr < 100, Re
x
> 500, 000
3. Combined Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow, Isothermal (UWT)
Nu
L
=
h
L
L
k
= (0.037 Re
0.8
L
871) Pr
1/3

average, combined, UWT,

0.6 < Pr < 60,
500, 000 Re
L
> 10
7
4. Laminar Boundary Layer Flow, Isoux (UWF)
Nu
x
= 0.453 Re
1/2
x
Pr
1/3
local, laminar, UWF, Pr 0.6
5. Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow, Isoux (UWF)
Nu
x
= 0.0308 Re
4/5
x
Pr
1/3
local, turbulent, UWF, Pr 0.6
Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres
1. Boundary Layer Flow Over Circular Cylinders, Isothermal (UWT)
The Churchill-Berstein (1977) correlation for the average Nusselt number for long (L/D > 100)
cylinders is
Nu
D
= S

D
+ f(Pr) Re
1/2
D
_
_
1 +
_
Re
D
282, 000
_
5/8
_
_
4/5

average, UWT, Re < 10

7
0 Pr , Re Pr > 0.2
where S

D
is the diffusive term associated with Re
D
0 and is given as
S

D
= 0.3
and the Prandtl number function is
f(Pr) =
0.62 Pr
1/3
[1 + (0.4/Pr)
2/3
]
1/4
6
All uid properties are evaluated at T
f
= (T
w
+ T

)/2.
2. Boundary Layer Flow Over Non-Circular Cylinders, Isothermal (UWT)
The empirical formulations of Zhukauskas and Jakob given in Table 12-3 are commonly used,
where
Nu
D

hD
k
= C Re
m
D
Pr
1/3
see Table 12-3 for conditions
3. Boundary Layer Flow Over a Sphere, Isothermal (UWT)
For ow over an isothermal sphere of diameter D
Nu
D
= S

D
+
_
0.4 Re
1/2
D
+ 0.06 Re
2/3
D
_
Pr
0.4
_

w
_
1/4

average, UWT,
0.7 Pr 380
3.5 < Re
D
< 80, 000
where the diffusive term at Re
D
0 is
S

D
= 2
and the dynamic viscosity of the uid in the bulk ow,

is based on T

and the dynamic

viscosity of the uid at the surface,
w
, is based on T
w
. All other properties are based on T

.
7
Internal Flow
The Reynolds number is given as
Re
D
=
U
m
D

For ow in a tube:
Re
D
< 2300 laminar ow
2300 < Re
D
< 4000 transition to turbulent ow
Re
D
> 4000 turbulent ow
Hydrodynamic (Velocity) Boundary Layer
the hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness can be approximated as
(x) 5x
_
U
m
x

_
1/2
=
5x

Re
x
the hydrodynamic entry length can be approximated as
L
h
0.05Re
D
D (laminar ow)
8
Thermal Boundary Layer
the thermal entry length can be approximated as
L
t
0.05Re
D
PrD (laminar ow)
for turbulent ow L
h
L
t
10D
Wall Boundary Conditions
1. Uniform Wall Heat Flux: Since the wall ux q
w
is uniform, the local mean temperature de-
noted as
T
m,x
= T
m,i
+
q
w
A
mC
p
will increase in a linear manner with respect to x.
The surface temperature can be determined from
T
w
= T
m
+
q
w
h
9
2. Isothermal Wall: The outlet temperature of the tube is
T
out
= T
w
(T
w
T
in
) exp[hA/( mC
p
)]
Because of the exponential temperature decay within the tube, it is common to present the
mean temperature from inlet to outlet as a log mean temperature difference where

Q = hAT
ln
T
ln
=
T
out
T
in
ln
_
T
w
T
out
T
w
T
in
_
=
T
out
T
in
ln(T
out
/T
in
)
10
1. Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes, Isothermal (UWT) and Isoux (UWF)
For laminar ow where Re
D
2300
Nu
D
= 3.66 fully developed, laminar, UWT, L > L
t
&L
h
Nu
D
= 4.36 fully developed, laminar, UWF, L > L
t
&L
h
Nu
D
= 1.86
_
Re
D
PrD
L
_
1/3
_

w
_
0.14

developing laminar ow, UWT,

Pr > 0.5
L < L
h
or L < L
t
In all cases the uid properties are evaluated at the mean uid temperature given as
T
mean
=
1
2
(T
m,in
+ T
m,out
)
except for
w
which is evaluated at the wall temperature, T
w
.
2. Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes, Isothermal (UWT) and Isoux (UWF)
For turbulent ow where Re
D
2300 the Dittus-Bouler equation (Eq. 13-68) can be used
Nu
D
= 0.023 Re
0.8
D
Pr
n

turbulent ow, UWT or UWF,

0.7 Pr 160
Re
D
> 2, 300
n = 0.4 heating
n = 0.3 cooling
For non-circular tubes, again we can use the hydraulic diameter, D
h
= 4A
c
/P to determine both
the Reynolds and the Nusselt numbers.
In all cases the uid properties are evaluated at the mean uid temperature given as
T
mean
=
1
2
(T
m,in
+ T
m,out
)
11
Natural Convection
What Drives Natural Convection?
uid ow is driven by the effects of buoyancy
uids tend to expand when heated and contract when cooled at constant pressure
therefore a uid layer adjacent to a surface will become lighter if heated and heavier if cooled
by the surface
Recall from forced convection that the ow behavior is determined by the Reynolds number. In
natural convection, we do not have a Reynolds number but we have an analogous dimensionless
group called the Grashof number
Gr =
buouancy force
viscous force
=
g(T
w
T

)L
3

2
where
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s
2
12
= volumetric expansion coefcient, 1/T
T
w
= wall temperature, K
T

= ambient temperature, K
L = characteristic length, m
= kinematic viscosity, m
2
/s
The volumetric expansion coefcient, , is used to express the variation of density of the uid with
respect to temperature and is given as
=
1

T
_
P
Natural Convection Over Surfaces
the velocity and temperature proles within a boundary layer formed on a vertical plate in a
stationary uid looks as follows:
13
note that unlike forced convection, the velocity at the edge of the boundary layer goes to zero
Natural Convection Heat Transfer Correlations
The general form of the Nusselt number for natural convection is as follows:
Nu = f(Gr, Pr) CGr
m
Pr
n
where Ra = Gr Pr
1. Laminar Flow Over a Vertical Plate, Isothermal (UWT)
The general form of the Nusselt number is given as
Nu
L
=
hL
k
f
= C
_
_
_
_
_
g(T
w
T

)L
3

2
. .
Gr
_
_
_
_
_
1/4
_
_
_
_
_

..
Pr
_
_
_
_
_
1/4
= C Gr
1/4
L
Pr
1/4
. .
Ra
1/4
where
Ra
L
= Gr
L
Pr =
g(T
w
T

)L
3

2. Laminar Flow Over a Long Horizontal Circular Cylinder, Isothermal (UWT)

The general boundary layer correlation is
Nu
D
=
hD
k
f
= C
_
_
_
_
_
g(T
w
T

)D
3

2
. .
Gr
_
_
_
_
_
1/4
_
_
_
_
_

..
Pr
_
_
_
_
_
1/4
= C Gr
1/4
D
Pr
1/4
. .
Ra
1/4
D
where
Ra
D
= Gr
D
Pr =
g(T
w
T

)L
3

All uid properties are evaluated at the lm temperature, T

f
= (T
w
+ T

)/2.
14
Natural Convection From Plate Fin Heat Sinks
Plate n heat sinks are often used in natural convection to increase the heat transfer surface area
and in turn reduce the boundary layer resistance
R =
1
hA
For a given baseplate area, W L, two factors must be considered in the selection of the number
of ns
more ns results in added surface area and reduced boundary layer resistance,
R =
1
hA
more ns results in a decrease n spacing, S and in turn a decrease in the heat transfer
coefcient
R =
1
h A
A basic optimization of the n spacing can be obtained as follows:

Q = hA(T
w
T

)
15
where the ns are assumed to be isothermal and the surface area is 2nHL, with the area of the n
edges ignored.
For isothermal ns with t < S
S
opt
= 2.714
_
S
3
L
Ra
S
_
1/4
= 2.714
_
L
Ra
1/4
L
_
with
Ra
L
=
g(T
w
T

)L
3

2
Pr
The corresponding value of the heat transfer coefcient is
h = 1.307k/S
opt
All uid properties are evaluated at the lm temperature.
16
Radiation Heat Transfer
Reading Problems
15-1 15-7 15-27, 15-33, 15-50, 15-58, 15-77, 15-79,
15-86, 15-106, 15-107
Introduction
Radiation is a photon emission that occurs when electrons change orbit. Thermal radiation occurs
when the excitation is caused by heating.
The following gure shows the relatively narrow band occupied by thermal radiation.
An even narrower band inside the thermal radiation spectrum is denoted as the visible spectrum,
that is the thermal radiation that can be seen by the human eye. The visible spectrum occupies
roughly 0.4 0.7 m. Thermal radiation is mostly in the infrared range. As objects heat
up, their energy level increases, their frequency, , increases and the wavelength of the emitted
radiation decreases. That is why objects rst become red when heated and eventually turn white
upon further heating.
1
Blackbody Radiation
A blackbody is an ideal radiator that
absorbs all incident radiation regardless of wavelength and direction
Denitions
1. Blackbody emissive power: the radiation emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per
unit surface area
E
b
= T
4
[W/m
2
] Stefan-Boltzmann law
where
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 10
8
W/(m
2
K
4
)
and the temperature T is given in K.
2. Spectral blackbody emissive power: the amount of radiation energy emitted by a black-
body per unit surface area and per unit wavelength about the wavelength . The following
relationship between emissive power, temperature and wavelength is known as Planks dis-
tribution law
E
b,
=
C
1

5
[exp(C
2
/T) 1]
[W/(m
2
m)]
where
C
0
= 2.998 10
8
[m/s] (vacuum conditions)
C
1
= 2hC
2
0
= 3.743 10
8
[W m
4
/m
2
]
C
2
= hC
0
/K = 1.439 10
4
[m K]
K = Boltzmann constant 1.3805 10
23
[J/K]
h = Plank

s constant 6.63 10
34
[J s]
E
b,
= energy of radiation in the wavelength
band d per unit area and time
2
The wavelength at which the peak emissive power occurs for a given temperature can be
obtained from Wiens displacement law
(T)
max power
= 2897.8 m K
3. Blackbody radiation function: the fraction of radiation emitted from a blackbody at tem-
perature, T in the wavelength band = 0
f
0
=
_

0
E
b,
(T) d
_

0
E
b,
(T) d
=
_

0
C
1

5
[exp(C
2
/T) 1]
d
T
4
let t = T and dt = T d, then
f
0
=
_
t
0
C
1
T
5
(1/T)dt
t
5
[exp(C
2
/t) 1]
T
4
=
C
1

_
T
0
dt
t
5
[exp(C
2
/t) 1]
= f(T)
f
0
is tabulated as a function T in Table 15.2
3
We can easily nd the fraction of radiation emitted by a blackbody at temperature T over a
discrete wavelength band as
f

2
= f(
2
T) f(
1
T)
f

= 1 f
0
Radiation Properties of Real Surfaces
The thermal radiation emitted by a real surface is a function of surface temperature, T, wavelength,
, direction and surface properties.
E

= f(T, , direction, surface properties) spectral emissive power

Denitions
1. Emissivity: dened as the ratio of radiation emitted by a surface to the radiation emitted by
a blackbody at the same surface temperature.
(T) =
radiation emitted by surface at temperature T
radiation emitted by a black surface at T
=
_

0
E

(T) d
_

0
E
b
(T) d
=
_

0

(T)E
b
(T) d
E
b
(T)
=
E(T)
T
4
where changes rather quickly with surface temperature.
4
2. Diffuse surface: properties are independent of direction.
3. Gray surface: properties are independent of wavelength.
4. Irradiation, G: the radiation energy incident on a surface per unit area and per unit time
If we normalize with respect to the total irradiation
+ + = 1
5. Radiosity, J: the total radiation energy leaving a surface per unit area and per unit time.
For a surface that is gray and opaque, i.e. = and + = 1, the radiosity is given as
J = radiation emitted by the surface + radiation reected by the surface
= E
b
+ G
= T
4
+ G
Since = 0 for a blackbody, the radiosity of a blackbody is
J = T
4
5
Solar Radiation
The incident radiation energy reaching the earths atmosphere is known as the solar constant, G
s
and has a value of
G
s
= 1353 W/m
2
While this value can change by about 3.4% throughout the year its change is relatively small
and is assumed to be constant for most calculations. Although G
s
= 1353 W/m
2
at the edge of
the earths atmosphere, the following gure shows how it is dispersed as it approaches the surface
of the earth.
View Factor (Shape Factor, Conguration Factor)
the radiative exchange between surfaces clearly depends on how well the surfaces see one
another. This information is provided by using shape factors (or viewfactors or conguration
factors).
Denition: The view factor, F
ij
is dened as the fraction of radiation leaving surface i
which is intercepted by surface j. Hence
F
ij
=

Q
ij
A
i
J
i
=
radiation reaching j
radiation leaving i
It can be shown that
F
ij
=
1
A
i
_
A
i
_
A
j
cos
i
cos
j
R
2
dA
i
dA
j
6
This is purely a geometrical property.
It is also found that
F
ji
=
1
A
j
_
A
i
_
A
j
cos
i
cos
j
R
2
dA
i
dA
j
The last two equations show that
A
i
F
ij
= A
j
F
ji
This is called the reciprocity relation.
consider an enclosure with N surfaces
Since this is an enclosure, the energy leaving a given surface is intercepted by the remaining
surfaces in proportion to how well they see that surface. For example:
A
1
J
1
=

Q
11
+

Q
12
+ . . . +

Q
1N
7
Therefore
1 =
N

j=1
_
_

Q
ij
A
i
J
i
_
_
=
N

j=1
F
ij
Hence
N

j=1
F
ij
= 1 ; i = 1, 2, . . . , N
This is called the summation rule.
Note that F
ii
= 0 for a concave surface. For a plane or convex surface F
ii
= 0.
superposition rule: if the surface is not available in the tables sometimes it can be treated as
the sum of smaller known surfaces to form the full extent of the surface of interest.
symmetry rule: if the problem is symmetric, then the view factors will also be symmetric.
Hottel Crossed String Method
A
1
F
12
= A
2
F
21
=
(total crossed) (total uncrossed)
2
8
A
1
and A
2
do not have to be parallel
A
1
F
12
= A
2
F
21
=
1
2
[(ac + bd)
. .
crossed
(bc + ad)
. .
uncrossed
]
Radiation Exchange Between Diffuse-Gray Surfaces
Forming an Enclosure
We will assume that:
1. each surface of the enclosure is isothermal
2. radiosity, J
i
, and irradiation, G
i
are uniform over each surface
3. the surfaces are opaque (
i
= 0) and diffuse-gray (
i
=
i
)
4. the cavity is lled with a uid which does not participate in the radiative exchange process
an energy balance on the i

th surface gives:

Q
i
= q
i
A
i
= A
i
(J
i
G
i
)

Q
i
= A
i
(E
i

i
G
i
) (1)
J
i
= E
i
+
i
G
i
(2)
E
i
=
i
E
b,i
=
i
T
4
i
(3)

i
= 1
i
= 1
i
(4) since
i
+
i
+
i

0
= 1
and
i
=
i
9
Combining Eqs. 2, 3 and 4 gives
J
i
=
i
E
b,i
+ (1
i
)G
i
(5)
Combining this with Eq. 1 gives
Q
i
=
E
b,i
J
i
_
1
i

i
A
i
_

potential difference
surface resistance
next consider radiative exchange between the surfaces.
By inspection it is clearly seen that
_
irradiation on
surface i
_
=
_
radiation leaving the
remaining surfaces
_
A
i
G
i
=
N

j=1
F
ji
(A
j
J
j
) =
N

j=1
A
i
F
ij
J
i
Therefore
G
i
=
N

j=1
F
ij
J
j
Combining this with Eq. 5 gives
J
i
=
i
T
4
i
+ (1
i
)
N

j=1
F
ij
J
j
In addition we can write

Q
i
= A
i
J
i

j=1
A
i
F
ij
J
j

Q
i
=
N

j=1
J
i
J
j
_
1
A
i
F
ij
_

potential difference
space resistance
10