Cap 12 MW Digital Modulation

ModulacinDigital
(Digital Modulation)
Captulo 12
Ing. Marcial Lpez Tafur mlopez@uni.edu.pe 2007
Principles of Digital Modulation: Outline of Lectures l Introduction to digital modulation l Relevant Modulation Schemes (QPSK, GMSK, M-Ary Schemes) l Coherent and Differential Reception l The impact of the mobile channel on digital modulation noise and interference random FM (narrowband fading) intersymbol interference (wideband fading)
UNI - Sistemas de MW
Digital Modulation Basics l The bit rate defines the rate at which information is passed. l The baud (or signalling) rate defines the number of symbols per second. Each symbol represents n bits, and has M signal states, where M = 2n. This is called M-ary signalling. l The maximum rate of information transfer through a baseband channel is given by: Capacity fb = 2 W log2M bits per second where W = bandwidth of modulating baseband signal UNI - Sistemas de MW 3
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
l Pulse shaping can be employed to remove spectral spreading. l ASK demonstrates poor performance, as it is heavily affected by noise and interference.
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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
l Bandwidth occupancy of FSK is dependant on the spacing of the two symbols. A frequency spacing of 0.5 times the symbol period is typically used. l FSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple frequencies as different states.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
l Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) demonstrates better performance than ASK and FSK. l PSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple phases and amplitudes as different states. l Filtering can be employed to avoid spectral spreading.
Nyquist & Root-Raised Cosine Filters

l The Nyquist bandwidth is the minimum bandwidth than can be used to represent a signal. l It is important to limit the spectral occupancy of a signal, to improve bandwidth efficiency and remove adjacent channel interference. l Root raised cosine filters allow an approximation to this minimum bandwidth.
Nyquist bandwidth on the QPSK spectrum
Modulation - QPSK
lQuadrature Phase Shift Keying is effectively two independent BPSK systems (I and Q), and therefore exhibits the same performance but twice the bandwidth efficiency. lQuadrature Phase Shift Keying can be filtered using raised cosine filters to achieve excellent out of band suppression. lLarge envelope variations occur during phase transitions, thus requiring linear amplification.
Types of QPSK
lConventional QPSK has transitions through zero (ie. 180o phase transition). Highly linear amplifier required. lIn Offset QPSK, the transitions on the I and Q channels are staggered. Phase transitions are therefore limited to 90o. lIn p/4-QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled each symbol, so transitions through zero cannot occur. This scheme produces the lowest envelope variations. lAll QPSK schemes require linear power amplifiers.
GMSK - Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying l GMSK is a form of continuous-phase FSK, in which the phase is changed between symbols to provide a constant envelope. Consequently, it is a popular alternative to QPSK. l The RF bandwidth is controlled by the Gaussian low-pass filter bandwidth. l The degree of filtering is expressed by multiplying the filter 3dB bandwidth by the bit period of the transmission, ie. by BT. l As BT is lowered the amount of intersymbol-interference introduced increases and this results in either a fixed power penalty or an irreducible error floor. l GMSK allows efficient class C non-linear amplifiers to be used, however even with a low BT value its bandwidth efficiency is less than filtered QPSK.
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
l In MSK phase ramps up through 90 degrees for a binary one, and down 90 degrees for a binary zero. l For GMSK transmission, a Gaussian pre-modulation baseband filter is used to suppress the high frequency components in the data. The degree of out-of-band suppression is controlled by the BT product.
GMSK Signals
l In MSK , the BT is infinity and this allows the square bit transients to directly modulate the VCO. l In GMSK, low values of BT create significant intersymbol interference (ISI). In the diagram, the portion of the symbol energy a acts as ISI for adjacent symbols. l If BT is less than 0.3, some form of combating the ISI is required.
Espectro GMSK
lGMSK has a main lobe 1.5 times that of QPSK. lGMSK generally achieves a bandwidth efficiency less than 0.7 bits per second per Hz (QPSK can be as high as 1.6 bits per second per Hz).
Multi-level (M-ary) Phase and Amplitude Modulation lAmplitude and phase shift keying can be combined to transmit several bits per symbol (in this case M=4). These modulation schemes are often refered to as linear, as they require linear amplification. l16QAM has the largest distance between points, but requires very linear amplification. 16PSK has less stringent linearity requirements, but has less spacing between constellation points, and is therefore more affected by noise. lM-ary schemes are more bandwidth efficient, but more susceptible to noise.
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Shannon-Hartley Capacity Theorem For error free communication, it is possible to define the capacity which can be supported in an additive white gaussian noise (AWGN) channel. fb/W = log2(1 + Eb fb /hW) where fb = Capacity (bits per second) W = bandwidth of the modulating baseband signal (Hz) Eb = energy per bit h = noise power density (watts/Hz) thus Ebfb = total signal power . hW = total noise power fb/W = bandwidth efficiency (bits per second per Hz)
Comparison of Modulation Schemes

This graph shows that bandwidth efficiency is traded off against power efficiency. l MFSK is power efficient, but not bandwidth efficient. l MPSK and QAM are bandwidth efficient but not power efficient. l Mobile radio systems are bandwidth limited, therefore PSK is more suited.
Comparison of Modulation types
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Coherent Reception An estimate of the channel phase and attenuation is recovered. It is then possible to reproduce the transmitted signal, and demodulate. It is necessary to have an accurate version of the carrier, otherwise errors are introduced. Carrier recovery methods include: l Pilot Tone (such as Transparent Tone in Band) Less power in information bearing signal High peak-to-mean power ratio l Pilot Symbol Assisted Modulation Less power in information bearing signal l Carrier Recovery (such as Costas loop) The carrier is recovered from the information signal
Differential Reception In the transmitter, each symbol is modulated relative to the previous symbol, for example in differential BPSK: 0 = no change 1 = +180o l In the receiver, the current symbol is demodulated using the previous symbol as a reference. The previous symbol acts as an estimate of the channel. l Differential reception is theoretical 3dB poorer than coherent. This is because the differential system has two sources of error: a corrupted symbol, and a corrupted reference (the previous symbol). l Non-coherent reception is often easier to implement.
Modulation Summary Phase Shift Keying is often used, as it provides a highly bandwidth efficient modulation scheme. QPSK, modulation is very robust, but requires some form of linear amplification. OQPSK and p/4-QPSK can be implemented, and reduce the envelope variations of the signal. High level M-ary schemes (such as 64-QAM) are very bandwidthefficient, but more susceptible to noise and require linear amplification. Constant envelope schemes (such as GMSK) can be employed since an efficient, non-linear amplifier can be used. Coherent reception provides better performance than differential, but requires a more complex receiver.
ENG SYSTEMS USING COFDM TECHNOLOGY
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COFDM BASICS Multi-Carrier modulation scheme 200 to 8000 carriers. Most Popular - DVB-T (European) Standard - 2048 carriers Tandberg / Nucomm / Link-MRC
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COFDM BASICS Each Carrier individually modulated using QPSK, 16QAM or 64QAM QPSK - Most Robust Recommended for best results Amplifiers only 2dB down 16QAM Amplifiers 3dB down 64QAM - Highest Data Rates Less resilient to multipath Amplifiers 4 to 5dB down
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Benefits of COFDM over traditional FM Performs very well in a multipath environment Superior reception from urban sites not accessible using FM Bounce RF signal off buildings Superior reception from moving Helicopters or ENG Vans. Superior reception from camera mounted mini transmitters using OMNI antennas
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Benefits of COFDM over traditional FM.. Continued COFDM modulation occupies only 6 8 MHz of RF channel bandwidth Accommodate pending FCC regulatory changes (phase 1 and 2) Capable of transporting multiple multiplexed MPEG-2 compressed video signals in a single channel Capable of dual carrier operation in a single channel 2 x 6MHz = 12MHz
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Disadvantages Still relatively expensive COFDM Mod/MPEG-2 Encoder - $30K COFDM Demod/MPEG-2 Decoder - $6K RF Output Power Amplifiers must be backed off by 2 to 5dB, depending on modulation type chosen.
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COFDM SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ENG Vans Cost - All vehicles or single vehicle Transmitters must be replaced - if not digital ready Low phase noise oscillators Heterodyne - Dual Conversion upconverter Amplifiers must be biased for linear operation Add COFDM modulator and MPEG-2 encoder (single box) Add second antenna - Omni (optional)
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COFDM SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Receive Sites Existing 2 GHz antenna systems are OK 7Ghz antenna systems - must upgrade LNA/Block Down-Converter Central Receiver must be capable of passing digital (Nucomm CR4s can be upgraded) Low phase noise oscillators Add COFDM demodulator and MPEG-2 decoder (single box)
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1.0) Introduction: In a gradual process starting late this year, volunteer TV stations will start transmitting digital television signals direct to homes; the process culminates in the year 2006 when all present analog AM frequency allocations will be revoked (although under certain circumstances stations may be allowed an extension to their license). For those stations that presently use microwave equipment for distribution and contribution of video and audio signals, the conversion process will also include upgrading their analog microwave links to digital transmission. This paper has been written to provide an objective summary of the state of digital microwave link technology. Section 2 provides a brief overview of the main components of a digital microwave link; section 3 concentrates on the task of engineering a digital link to provide reliable transmission. Section 4 lists 7 steps to choosing the right equipment for your link. Finally the appendices cover in some detail the topics of digital modulation schemes, error correction and adaptive equalization. This paper is intended as a guide to new and emerging technology. RF Technology strongly recommends that, when engineering any microwave link, the greatest care be used to comply with all federal regulations. We would be more than happy to discuss how this papers contents relate to your specific circumstances.
The Digital Future: It is true to say that the future of almost all communications mediums is in the transmission of digits. In general, digital transmission offers the end user better quality and the provider more capacity for a given transmission resource. But perhaps the greatest long term advantage of digital transmission is that any type of information can be encoded as 1s and 0s; the network neither knows or cares what the 1s or 0s represent, just that they be transmitted fast and error free. Still pictures, moving pictures, program audio, telephone conversations, data files, computer programs, email, web pages, faxes and many other things can all be transmitted and received. For the transmission of video signals in particular, the digital future holds two major advantages over the analog present. Most importantly, a digital link allows the transmission of high definition video in the same or less bandwidth than the corresponding analog video link. Secondly, a digital link has the capability to transmit multiple channels of standard or high definition video in the same bandwidth as an analog link.
The Transition to Digital: Many factors have pushed the terrestrial microwave market toward a digital future; these include major advances in the availability of digital video compression - primarily compliant to the MPEG II standard; and the pressure, especially in the largest cities, to transmit more video signals in an ever decreasing bandwidth. However, the overwhelming factor is the need to comply with government legislation to transmit at least 19.39MBit/s worth of digital TV to the consumer, over the air. Eventually the vast majority of microwave links will be converted from analog to digital transmission; however for many stations the first step will be to install a digital Studio-Transmitter-Link to feed a digital signal to their ATSC transmitter. There are a number of forms that this digital STL could take. Many stations will co-locate their new ATSC transmitter with their existing NTSC transmitter - enabling them to upgrade their existing analog STL to feed both transmitters! Out of choice or necessity, other stations will locate their ATSC transmitter at a different site from their existing NTSC transmitter and will only transmit an ATSC signal on their digital microwave link. Finally, some stations will rely on multiple hops of microwave to feed their transmitters.
The Components of a Digital Video Microwave Link:
Multiple Channel Digital Microwave Link

Figure 1 shows the components which make up a digital microwave link. There are five components, not all of which may be required: MPEG II video compression encoder; multiplexer; modulator; microwave transmitter; waveguide / feeder and antenna. The equipment used to receive, demodulate, demultiplex and decode the video is almost exactly the mirror of the transmission end equipment. Hence it has not been included in the following passages.
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Modulator: The modulator takes as its input a baseband digital bit stream and uses it to modulate either the frequency, the phase or a combination of the phase and the amplitude of a carrier. Typically, the carrier is at an IF (intermediate frequency) of 70 or 140MHz. Two increasingly visible digital modulation techniques are 8-VSB (HDTV broadcast scheme) and 64QAM (digital cable scheme). There are four types of modulation scheme that are most commonly used for digital microwave links; these are FSK, QPSK, 8PSK and QAM. The schemes, together with the advantages and disadvantages associated with each, are described in more detail in appendix A of this paper. The table on the next page lists the bandwidth efficiency -m for each of the common modulation schemes. This is a very important figure of merit; it is a measure of how much data can be transmitted in a given bandwidth. In general, the higher the bandwidth efficiency of the scheme, the more susceptible it is to noise, interference and multipath (and therefore to loss of signal). The table also shows, for data streams incorporating varying levels of error correction coding, how much data can be transmitted in a 10 or 15MHz channel at 2GHz and in a 25MHz channel at 7 or 13GHz.
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There is a strong case for choosing a modulator which has a variable data rate interface. This will allow you to transmit only the data that is required, and to avoid the need to stuff the data stream with empty frames in order to achieve a fixed data rate standard. The modulator and demodulator might also have several countermeasures to combat adverse channel conditions. These include error correction coding and adaptive equalizers, which are described in appendices B & C respectively.
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Microwave Transmitter: The heterodyne microwave transmitter will accept the output of a modulator (usually at an IF of 70 or 140MHz); upconvert the signal to the final RF output frequency and then amplify and filter the digital signal. This type of equipment has seen wide exposure in the broadcast industry when used as an IF repeater in analog multi-hop systems. The key attribute that a heterodyne digital microwave transmitter has, that an analog IF repeater will not have, is a linear Power Amplifier. Specifically, the transmission of PSK and QAM digital signal requires reasonably linear amplification; amplitude variations in the signal need to be passed through the RF signal chain without distortion. Analog FM and Digital FSK signals contain no amplitude modulation component and can be passed through saturated amplifiers. Digital PSK signals contain transient amplitude variations, which if surpressed in a saturated amplifier, will cause in-channel and adjacent channel distortion. This distortion will degrade the performance of the link and interfere with other users of the spectrum. Typically an amplifier backed off from its saturation point by 3dB (i.e. to half power) will pass amplitude components well enough to be suitable for PSK signals. As always, the greatest care must be taken to ensure that the modulator / transmitter combination does not produce out of channel energy.
Digital QAM signals rely on amplitude and phase variations to transmit data; if a QAM signal was passed through a saturated amplifier much of the data would be lost and the performance of the link would be unacceptable. Typically an amplifier backed off 6dB (i.e. to quarter power) will pass amplitude components well enough to be suitable for QAM signals. As always, the greatest care must be taken to ensure that the modulator / transmitter combination does not produce out of channel energy.
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Waveguide/Feeder and Antennas: The hardware used to support analog microwave signals is just as capable of supporting digital microwave signals. As the signal is passed between radio and antenna feed, a fraction of the signal energy will be reflected. The reflected signal interferes with the main, wanted signal and causes degradation in the performance of the link. These reflections have a far greater affect on digital links than they do on analog links. Reflections will occur at every transition in the signal path and they will also occur in the transmission line if there are significant changes in the impedance of the line along its length. The key to avoiding reflections is to ensure that the antenna and transmission line equipment is aligned and tuned. Typically, the return loss into the transmission line at the radio flange should be at least 26dB. If the reflections continue to significantly degrade the performance of the link, it may be time to consider swapping existing antennas for new, low reflection (VSWR) models and/or existing line for lower loss types.
Components of a Digital Video Multi-hop system: The equipment configuration required at the repeater site of a digital multi-hop link is different from that used for the analog equivalent. In the analog system, IF repetition is used to avoid the need to demodulate and remodulate the FM signal. As figure 2 shows, the best configuration for a digital system is to receive and demodulate the signal to a baseband bit stream before remodulating and transmitting. This process allows error correction and adaptive equalization (if used) to be carried out after each hop; it also prevents phase and amplitude inaccuracies from accumulating over several hops.
Digital Microwave Repeater Configuration
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Engineering A Digital Link The keys to engineering an analog link are to ensure a decent flat or thermal fade margin (i.e. a good received signal strength) and to ensure that antenna heights are sufficient to maintain line-of-sight between receive and transmit antennas. These two factors are just as important in engineering a digital link, but there is also a third phenomenon that has to be taken into consideration and accounted for multipath, i.e. reflected versions of the transmitted signal interfering with the main, line-of-sight signal. Whilst multipath does affect analog microwave links (typically causing the temporary loss of the color subcarrier), it can be catastrophic in its effect on digital microwave links, causing loss of the entire signal.
Flat Fading: A flat fade is just another way of describing a fade (or reduction in input signal level) where all frequencies in the channel of interest are equally affected. Flat fades are usually caused by temperature/pressure variations in the atmosphere. These variations cause the signal to bend away from the receive antenna, and only a fraction of the signal power to be received. Additionally, if precipitation occurs anywhere along the signal path significant attenuation can result. The effect of rain attenuation is negligible at 2 and 7GHz, but can cause problems at 13GHz and is the prevalent cause of flat fading at 18 and 23GHz.
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The flat fade margin is the difference between the received power level when the link is operating under ideal conditions and the threshold power level, below which the performance of the link is unacceptable. Fixed microwave links should be configured to provide a flat fade margin of approximately 40dB (although this figure varies depending on the local climate). This ideal fade margin is the same for analog and digital microwave links. The key to ensuring that a good flat fade margin is maintained when an analog microwave link is upgraded for digital transmission is to remember two things. Firstly, when transmitting with most digital modulation schemes, the transmitter has to be linearized and will produce less power. Secondly, the receiver threshold for acceptable picture quality from a digital link may well be above that of an UNI - Sistemas de MW 52 analog link.
Digital transmission using FSK doesnt require any back-off of the transmitter, and depending on bandwidth efficiency of the FSK modem, the threshold for an FSK system is very similar to that of an analog FM system. These two things combined mean that on converting an analog FM link to a digital FSK link, there should be no significant difference in flat fade margin. Digital transmission using QPSK typically requires a 3dB back-off of the transmitter; depending on the amount of error correction used, the threshold for a QPSK system is typically equal to an analog FM system. So, on converting an analog FM link to a digital QPSK link, there will be around a 3dB reduction in fade margin. As an illustration, for a 7GHz system, an analog FM link with two 6ft. antennas would have the same flat fade margin as a QPSK digital link with one 8ft. antenna and one 6ft. antenna.
Digital transmission using 16QAM typically requires a 6dB back-off of the transmitter; depending on the amount of error correction used, the threshold for a 16QAM system is typically 6dB worse than an analog FM system. So, on converting an analog FM link to a digital 16QAM link, there will be around a 12dB reduction in fade margin. Using the same illustration at 7GHz, an analog FM link with 6ft. antennas has the same flat fade margin as a 16QAM digital link with 12ft. antennas! It is important not to assume that because your analog link had a good fade margin on a certain path, a digital link will perform just as well. It is extremely worthwhile spending some time calculating the flat fade margin of your new digital link.
If necessary, there are several ways in which the flat fade margin of a link can be improved, including using larger antennas, a higher power microwave transmitter, lower loss feed line and splitting a longer path into two shorter hops. Although the threshold levels for digital transmission may be worse than the equivalent analog links, the performance of the digital link just above threshold is far superior. Figure 3, an idealized version of the relationship between the video signal-to-noise ratio and the RF received signal level under flat fade conditions is shown on the following page for analog and digital modulation schemes.
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Threshold performance Digital Vs. Analog
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Frequency Selective Fading or Multipath: Digital PSK and QAM links are far more susceptible to frequency selective fading or multipath than analog FM or FSK links. Frequency selective fades, as their name suggests, do not affect each frequency in the channel equally. These fades occur when there are multiple paths along which the microwave signal can travel between transmitter and receiver.
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Causes of multipath in fixed microwave links include (but are not limited to) the following phenomena. Firstly, signals reflected from the terrain between the transmit and receive antennas - very likely if the hop is over a body of water or marshy ground. Secondly, signals reflected in temperature/pressure layers in the atmosphere - likely to occur if the local weather conditions often include rapid temperature and humidity changes, (i.e. at dawn and dusk in the Southern and South Eastern United States). An explanation of how these reflected signals cause multipath is contained in Appendix C. Several steps, listed on the following page, can be taken to minimize the effects of multipath.
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The most effective way to improve the ability of a link to endure frequency selective fades, is to ensure that the link has a good flat fade margin! Employing space diversity or adaptive equalization wont help the performance of a link if the flat fade margin is so narrow that even a small amount of frequency selective fading will cause loss of signal. If there is any flexibility in the choice of the geographical location of the hop, avoid transmitting over large bodies of water and marshy areas, which more readily reflect signals than regular or hilly terrain.
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One of the most successful methods of combating multipath is to employ vertical space diversity at the receive end of the link. This can be achieved by placing a second antenna 10 to 20ft. below the main receive antenna, and adding an extra receiver and demodulator. Furthermore trials have proven that the performance of a diversity system can be optimized if the main and diversity antennas are of different size. Selection between the two demodulated bit streams is typically carried out on the basis of the bit error rate of each. Employing diversity on a link with a good flat fade margin will yield a significant improvement in system performance.
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Together with space diversity, adaptive equalization has proved to be one of the most successful methods of combating multipath. Adaptive equalization is included in both the ATSC standards for direct-to-home transmission and in digital cable systems, as well as being a key part of TDMA cell phone systems. The theory behind adaptive equalization is explained in some detail in appendix C. Well designed and implemented equalizers will typically compensate for many of the multipath effects that are encountered in a point-to-point microwave system. The longer the path, the greater the statistical probability is that there will be a reflection point which will cause multipath. Always choose the shortest path available; if necessary consider splitting a longer path into two shorter hops.
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7 Steps to Engineering a Digital Link: 1) Decide how many video channels, and of what kind need to be transmitted. 2) Assign 8MBit/s for every 4:2:0 encoded NTSC channel, 20MBit/s for every 4:2:2 encoded NTSC channel and 19.39MBit/s for every ATSC high definition channel. Add all of the data rates together to find the total bit rate to be transmitted. 3) Note the channel bandwidth that is available for the link. 4) Consult Table 1; starting from the top of the table, pick the first modulation scheme / error correction combination which accommodates your desired data rate. This will be the optimal choice and will utilize as much of the available bandwidth as possible.
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5) By referring to section 3.1, calculate the transmitter back-off and the reduced threshold (compared to an analog link) of the modulation scheme chosen in step 4. 6) Choose antenna sizes and feeder/waveguide type to provide sufficient flat fade margin (at least 40dB). Contact RF Technology if help is required in carrying out these calculations. 7) Decide whether your link will be prone to multipath effects (see section 3.2 for a list of the major causes of multipath). If there is a chance that your path will be affected, seriously consider some of the remedies also listed in section 3.2.
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An example using the 7 Steps: 1) A broadcaster has decided to transmit an ATSC signal, and is fortunate enough to be able to co-locate his ATSC antenna on the same tower as his NTSC antenna. However, he only has a single microwave frequency allocation to his tower site. He needs to transmit his existing NTSC channel as well as his ATSC channel on the microwave link. The link is a single hop and for distribution so only 4:2:0 encoding is required. 2) The channel of 4:2:0 NTSC requires 8MBit/s of data to be transmitted, the channel of ATSC requires 19.4MBit/s of data. The broadcasters total requirement is 27.4MBit/s, i.e. 28MBit/s. 3) The frequency allocation the broadcaster has is in the 7GHz band, hence the bandwidth available is 25MHz.
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4) Consulting Table 1, the 28MBit/s data stream will be accommodated by QPSK with 5/6 viterbi coding (forward error correction). 5) The back off in the transmitter required for QPSK signals is 3dB. The flat fade threshold level of a digital QPSK link is very similar to that of an analog FM link i.e. -86dBm.
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6) The saturated output power of the transmitter is 2W, the backed off output power is therefore 1W. The length of the hop is 20 miles, and the antennas have to be placed at the 500ft. level on the towers at either end of the link. The link will use EW63 waveguide. The broadcaster also needs to take into account 2dB of miscellaneous loss at either end of the link and a 3dB field margin. Using the above information, the broadcaster calculates that he needs 8ft. antennas at either end of the link. 7) The terrain of the path and local weather conditions dont indicate that there will be excessive multipath. If the broadcaster decides to take extra precaution by installing space diversity at the receive end of the link, an ideal solution would be to install a 6ft. antenna 15ft. below the main antenna, run a second length of waveguide down the tower and install a second receiver, demodulator and a diversity switch.
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Muchasgracias porsu atencin
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Cap 12 MW Digital Modulation

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ModulacinDigital

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Nyquist & Root-Raised Cosine Filters

Nyquist bandwidth on the QPSK spectrum

Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)

Comparison of Modulation Schemes

Comparison of Modulation types

ENG SYSTEMS USING COFDM TECHNOLOGY

The Components of a Digital Video Microwave Link:

Multiple Channel Digital Microwave Link

Digital Microwave Repeater Configuration

Threshold performance Digital Vs. Analog

Muchasgracias porsu atencin

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