1.

Title (lab 1) Introduction to simple preparation and optical microscope for metallographic observation

2. Background Metallography The name metallography was initially used in the early 1700s to signify the description of metals and their properties. It was first used in its modern sense in 1892, that is, to define the study of the internal structure of metals and alloys in relation to their physical, chemical and mechanical properties. Thus it can be seen that its procedures permeate all aspects of the understanding and development of metals and their alloys. Moreover, these techniques are widely used, or at least readily adapted to the study of engineering materials, although full use of this commonality has only been achieved comparatively recently with the replacement of courses in metallurgy by courses in materials science and engineering.

3. Theory Materials engineers can predict the general behavior of materials by observing their microstructure. Besides the crystallographic nature of a material, imperfections inside a material have even a greater influent on the mechanical properties, i.e. tensile, fatigue, creep, fracture toughness, impact properties. Some defects such as missing atoms and dislocations cannot be observed optically except by their effects, i.e. strain, etch pits, slip lines. Other defects such as grain boundaries, twins, precipitates, can be observed readily in the microscope. Details of the structure of metals are not readily visible through naked eyes, but grain structure, grain sizes, effect in metals may be seen with the aid of microscope.

Sample preparation In the study of metallic materials it is often to analyse the phases exit and grain size in the structure. Details of the structure of metals are not readily visible through naked eyes, but grain structures in metals may be seen with the aid of microscope. Metal characteristics such as grain sizes, effect of heat treatment, and carbon content of steels may be determined by studying the micrograph. For this purpose, the metal used in the metallurgical examination must be prepared and polished carefully before a good microscopic image can be seen. It is important to ensure that the surface is totally flat and smooth before microstructure observation under the microscope. Any irregularity will appear as a dark image and may create confusion to the observer who attempts to analyse a structure. In order to obtain this smooth flat surface, several preparatory steps are required.

a) Cutting Cutting is the separation of a physical object, or a portion of a physical object, into two portions, through the application of an acutely directed force. An implement commonly used for cutting is the knife or in medical cases the scalpel. However, any sufficiently sharp object is capable of cutting if it has a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut, and if it is applied with sufficient force. Cutting also describes the action of a saw which removes material in the process of cutting. Technically, grinding wheels are a subset of cutting tools, as grinding is a true metal cutting process. Each grain of abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake angle), and shears a tiny chip that is analogous to what would conventionally be called a "cut" chip (turning, milling, drilling, tapping, etc.). However, among people who work in the machining fields, the term "cutting" is most often understood to refer to the macroscopic cutting operations, and grinding is mentally categorized as a "separate" process. This is why the terms "cutting" and "grinding", or "machining" and "grinding", are often used in contradistinction in shop-floor practice, even though technically grinding is a subset of cutting. Consequently, the term "cutting tool" is often used to refer to all cutters used in "regular" (non-grinding) machining, and thus to exclude grinding wheels.

Cutting tools must be made of a material harder than the material which is to be cut, and the tool must be able to withstand the heat generated in the metal-cutting process. Cutting process is carried out in order to get the desired size of the sample so that it can be easily molded/handle. The first step in sample preparation is raw specimen selection. After the specimen had been selected, its goes to the cutting process. Cutting process is done when get the desired size of the sample so that can be molded. Here, have several types of cutters using in our experiment: i. ii. iii. Diamond cutters Abrasive cutters Cut-off cutters

b) Molding Molding process is carried out to make the sample easier to hold throughout the polishing procedure.

c) Grinding A grinding machine is a machine tool used for grinding, which is a type of machining using an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. Each grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a small chip from the work piece via shear deformation. The grinding machine consists of a power driven grinding wheel spinning at the required speed (which is determined by the wheels diameter and manufacturers rating, usually by a formula) and a bed with a fixture to guide and hold the work-piece. The grinding head can be controlled to travel across a fixed work piece or the work piece can be moved whilst the grind head stays in a fixed position. Very fine control of the grinding head or table position is possible using a vernier calibrated hand wheel, or using the features of NC or CNC controls. Grinding machines remove material from the work piece by abrasion, which can generate substantial amounts of heat; they therefore incorporate a coolant to cool the work piece so that it does not overheat and go outside its tolerance. Types of grinding process:

i.

Rough grinding - to remove rough scale and gross imperfections on the surface of sample.

ii.

Fine grinding - to improve the specimens surface until it begins to shine and reflect light slightly

d) Polishing The Polishing Machine (also called the Buffing Machine) is used to polish soft metals including copper and brass as well as plastics such as Perspex. The two mops spin at high speed when the on switch is pressed. These fixed or variable speed manual polishing machines are available in wheel sizes ranging from 8" - 12" diameter. If the material is carefully pressed against the mop and moved backwards and forwards it will be polished. The material must be filed to remove scratches and then wet and dry paper or emery cloth is used to further smooth the surfaces. Only then can it be polished on the buffing machine. Polish should be applied to the rotating mop before pressing the work against it. Types of polishing process: i. ii. Rough polishing - to remove the imperfections that grinding has left. Fine polishing - to remove all scratches and leave a mirror like finish on the surface.

e) Etching Etching is used in micro fabrication to chemically remove layers from the surface of a wafer during manufacturing. Etching is a critically important process module, and every wafer undergoes many etching steps before it is complete. Various etchant are used to selectively attack the surfaces of metals to reveal grain boundaries, phases, precipitates, inclusions and variations in composition.

4. Introduction to optical microscope The optical microscope, often referred to as the "light microscope", is a type of microscope which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly designed in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very simple, although there are many complex designs which aim to improve resolution and sample contrast. Historically optical microscopes were easy to develop and are popular because they use visible light so that samples may be directly observed by eye. The image from an optical microscope can be captured by normal light-sensitive cameras to generate a micrograph. Originally images were captured by photographic film but modern developments in CMOS and charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras allow the capture of digital images. Purely digital microscopes are now available which use a CCD camera to examine a sample, showing the resulting image directly on a computer screen without the need for eyepieces. Alternatives to optical microscopy which do not use visible light include scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. 5. Objectives Upon completion of this experiment, students should be able to: Understand preparation procedure of metallographic sample Understand the concept of etching and the purpose of this process Understand basic function of optical microscope and its operation Use and perfume analysis from the microstructures observed

6. Apparatus Cutter Mounting machine Grinding Polisher Dryer Optical microscope

References http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1511 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_microscope Materials Science and Engineering, George E. Dieter, 3rd edition McGraw-Hill Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, William D. Callister, Jr, 6th Edition John Wiley & Sons, Inc

1. Title (lab 2) Microstructure study of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys under various compositions and heat treatment conditions

2. Introduction The properties of metals can be changed or controlled by three different processes; strain hardening or cold-working, alloying and heat treatment. All three processes are influenced by and dependent on the crystalline nature of metals. In the study of engineering metal, it is commonly categorized into two big groups; ferrous and non-ferrous. Steels are essentially alloys of iron and carbon containing up to 1.5% carbon. By varying the manner in which carbon steels are heated and cooled, different combinations of mechanical properties for steel can be obtained. Heat treatment process is a process of ability to change the properties by applying heat. Such treatment modifies microstructures, producing a variety of mechanical properties that are important in manufacturing, such as improve formability and machinability. Copper and aluminum are categorized as non-ferrous metal which have been used in engineering either as in its pure state or as an alloy. The applications of copper and aluminum have been very wide in the electrical conductors as well as in corrosive environment. Heat treatment of these materials has in many ways improved their properties for specific or specialized applications. The properties of copper and aluminum either in their pure state or as in an alloy can be improved by heat treatment. These changes in properties are the results in the microstructures in these materials through heat treatment. Thus microstructures transformation has influenced the properties of these materials.

3. Objective Upon completion of this experiment, students should be able to: Understand the differences between ferrous and non-ferrous alloys from the metallurgical point of view Understand the phase diagram of iron-carbon and non-ferrous alloys system that enables for heat treating and procedures in heat treatment involved Describe the principle engineering properties and industrial application of ferrous and nonferrous alloys.

4. Material and apparatus 8 specimens a) 4 specimens of ferrous alloys b) 4 specimens of non-ferrous alloys

Optical microscope

References Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, William D. Callister, Jr, 6th Edition John Wiley & Sons, Inc Materials for Engineering; L.H. Van Vlack, pp 34,91-92,128 Materials Science and Engineering, George E. Dieter, 3rd edition McGraw-Hill

1. Title (lab 3) The Jominy end-quench test

2. Introduction In engineering field, the properties and behavior of metals and alloys play a vital role especially during manufacturing and performance during their service life. The most common example of property improvement is heat treatment of metals and alloys. Such treatment modifies microstructure, producing a variety of mechanical properties that are important in manufacturing, such as improved formability and machinability. Conventional heat treatment procedures for producing martensitic steels involve contionuous and rapid cooling of an austenitized specimen in quenching medium, such as water, oil, or air. If austenite is rapidly quenched to near-ambient temperatures by plunging the metal into cold water, a diffusionless transformation occurs to equilibrium phase called martensite.in this martensitic transformation, elongated BCC cells form, and all of the carbon atoms remain as interstitial impurities in the lattice. Martensite is significantly harder and stronger than any other carbon steel product, but it is not ductile, even at low carbon concentrations. The optimum properties of steel that has been quenched and then tempered can be realized only if, during the quenching heat treatment, the steel has been converted to a high of martensite. Formation of any pearlite and/or bainite will result in other than the best combination of mechanical characteristics. During the quenching treatment, it is impossible to cool the specimen at a uniform rate throughout as the surface will always cool more rapidly than interior regions. Therefore, the austenite will transform over a range of temperatures, yielding a possible variation of microstructure and properties with position within a specimen. The influence of an alloy composition on the ability of a steel alloy to transform to martensite for a particular quenching treatment is related to a parameter called hardenability. For every different steel alloy there is a specific relationship between the mechanical properties and the cooling rate. Hardenability is a term that is used to describe the ability of an alloy to be hardened by the formation of martensite as a result of a given heat treatment. The term hardenability should not be confused with hardness, which is the resistance of a material to indentation or scratching. Hardenability is a qualitative

measure of the rate at which hardness drops off with distance into the interior of a specimen as a result of diminished martensite, not only at the surface but to a large degree throughout the entire interior.

Objective The objective of this experiment is to find out the relation between hardness and microstructure to the cooling rate of the specimen after been heated (quenching) using the Jominy test method. Beside that students should be able to distinguish clearly between hardness and hardenability and the purpose of this test. Factors that determine hardenability should be established after completing this experiment.

Material and apparatus Specimen Furnace Quenching apparatus Optical microscope

References Materials Science and Engineering, George E. Dieter, 3rd edition McGraw-Hill Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, William D. Callister, Jr, 6th Edition John Wiley & Sons, Inc http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_hardness_test http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/jominy/printall.php