SCHOOLS GOING SOLAR ACTIVITIES

Activities to incorporate school PV systems into the classroom learning environment.

GRADE LEVEL
K12

SUBJECT AREAS
Science Social Studies Math Language Arts Technology

Activities for Schools with Solar Installations

Teacher Advisory Board

Shelly Baumann, Rockford, MI Constance Beatty, Kankakee, IL Sara Brownell, Canyon Country, CA Scott Burch, New Albany, IN Amy Constant, Raleigh, NC Joanne Coons, Clifton Park, NY Darren Fisher, Houston, TX Deborah Fitton, Cape Light Compact, MA Linda Fonner, New Martinsville, WV Melanie Harper, Odessa, TX Linda Hutton, Kitty Hawk, NC Kim Jenkins, Cynthiana, KY Barbara Lazar, Albuquerque, NM Robert Lazar, Albuquerque, NM Catherine Norris, Raleigh, NC Don Pruett, Sumner, WA Larry Richards, Eaton, IN Barry Scott, French Camp, CA Regina Sizemore, Letcher, KY Joanne Spaziano, Cranston, RI Nancy Stanley, Pensacola, FL Scott Sutherland, Providence, RI Robin Thacker, Henderson, KY Bob Thompson, Glen Ellyn, IL Doris Tomas, Rosenberg, TX Patricia Underwood, Anchorage, AK Jim Wilkie, Long Beach, CA Carolyn Wuest, Pensacola, FL Debby Yerkes, Ohio Energy Project, OH Wayne Yonkelowitz, Fayetteville, WV

The mission of the NEED Project is to promote an energy conscious and educated society by creating effective networks of students, educators, business, government and community leaders to design and deliver objective, multi-sided energy education programs. In support of NEED, the national Teacher Advisory Board (TAB) is dedicated to developing and promoting standards-based energy curriculum and training.

NEED Mission Statement

Teacher Advisory Board Vision Statement

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Why Introduce PV Projects in Schools ............................... 4 What Do Solar Schools Receive? ...................................... 4 What Students Should Know About Solar Energy............... 5 Suggested Activities ...................................................... 6-9 Resources ..................................................................... 10 Backgrounder on Solar Energy & PV Technology ......... 11-21 PV Glossary .............................................................. 22-23

These suggested activities are for solar schools to use to incorporate the solar arrays into their solar/energy curriculum, in conjunction with the NEED solar curriculum and kits.

Schools around the country are being offered the opportunity to partner with governmental agencies, community foundations, utilities, businesses, and corporations to install PV systems. The Solar Electric Power Association states that, bringing solar to schools is an important first step to increasing the use of solar energy in the community at large. Schools make an excellent showcase for the benefits of solar photovoltaic electricity, solar thermal energy, and passive solar. Changes and improvements at schools are highly visible and closely followed. As has been the case with recycling programs, which were introduced to many communities by schoolchildren educating their parents, students can carry good ideas from the fringe into the mainstream. The PV system installed at your school can provide energy savings. Depending on geographical location, a 2kW PV system produces an average of 7kW of electricity per day (enough electricity to power 10 computers) and an average annual output of 3000 kW. The environmental benefits include offsetting carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by coal-fired power plants. For most schools, however, the decision to install PV systems is more about education and inspiration for their students than about cost savings. The students get a head start on real-world energy concerns. Integrating the data supplied by the PV systems into the school curriculum helps students learn about how solar electricity works and involves them in the study of the benefits of renewable energy and energy efficiency. The PV system also provides students with an opportunity to learn first-hand about employment opportunities in emerging renewable energy technology fields.

Why Introduce PV Projects In Schools?

Many schools that choose to enter into a PV demonstration partnership receive all of the hardware and software needed for complete integration into the curriculum system. The systems typically range from 500 watts to 10 kilowatts in size and are usually designed to be mounted on peaked or flat roofs. Some systems are designed for ground or wall mounts for increased public visibility. In order for students to be able to explore the PV systems effects on electricity use, many schools also receive interactive educational monitoring software designed to produce educational value from the PV system. The goal of the monitoring software is to provide interaction with students and teachers, while also logging PV system data to a database for simple integration into class curricula. Adding an optional Internet component to the data acquisition hardware will allow data to be sent directly to a centralized database for interactive web explorations. The data acquisition systems allow schools to monitor the daily and cumulative production of electricity from the system. The Internet-compatible data collection monitoring systems supplied to many schools allows teachers and students to monitor local atmospheric conditions (i.e. wind speed, temperature, solar radiations, etc.) and compare this data to the electrical production of the system. Most schools cannot afford to install these systems without assistance from a local power company, community foundation, or a government agency. If your school has installed a PV system with funding and support supplied by local utilities and/or state agencies, it has entered into a partnership with the organization(s) who generously supplied the hardware and software. In return for the hardware, software, expertise, and/or curriculum materials supplied by your solar partner(s), your school has agreed to actively use and promote the PV system as a realworld teaching tool in your community. In order to make full use of your PV system as a real-world teaching tool, teachers must find ways to integrate its use throughout the schools curricula. This booklet has been designed to provide teachers with ideas for integrating the system into your science, math, language arts, and social studies class curricula. The ideas in this booklet will help your students master the concepts they need to know about solar energy and PV systems.

What Do Solar Schools Receive?

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What Your Students Should Know About Solar Energy

According to energy experts convened by the National Energy Education Development (NEED) Project, your students should know the following upon high school graduation: All students should know: 1. Solar energy provides the worlddirectly and indirectlywith most of its energy. As well as providing the light and heat energy that sustain the world, solar energy is stored in fossil fuels and biomass, and is responsible for hydropower and wind energy. 2. Radiant energy is produced as a result of nuclear fusion in the suns core. 3. Solar energy is a renewable energy source. Its potential as an energy source is vast. 4. Using solar energy produces no air pollution. 5. Solar energy is abundant, but it is diffuse and not available at all hours. It is not yet economical to harness on a large scale to produce electricity. 6. Most of the solar energy we use for heat and light cannot be measured. Harnessed solar energy provides a small amount (0.1%) of the nations total energy consumption. 7. Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electrical energy. Today, they are mainly used in remote areas and for special applications. 8. Solar energy is used directly to light and heat buildings and heat water. 9. Back-up energy systems are usually needed when using solar energy. Advanced students also should know: 1. Photovoltaicproduced electricity costs more than conventionally produced power; however, PV manufacturing costs are decreasing and cell efficiencies are increasing. 2. Concentrating solar energy and directing it toward a receiver can produce high temperatures capable of producing electricity. 3. Using proven construction techniques, solar heated and lighted buildings decrease the need for conventional energy sources. 4. Solar resources are affected by time of day, season, and location. Using solar energy for heating and lighting is a feasible choice in many areas of the country with current technologies. 5. The environmental and economic advantages and disadvantages of using solar energy. 6. How photovoltaic cells and concentrated solar power systems transform sunlight into electricity. 7. How passive and active solar systems operate.

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Suggested PV System Learning Activities

Tour Your Schools PV System
(Primary, Elementary, Intermediate, Secondary) (Science)

Take your students on a tour of your schools PV system. Point out the basic components of the system and explain the role each plays in the production of electricity. If your school also has a data acquisition system, explain what information each component provides. Important components of the system include the PV module(s), PV cells, inverter, transformer, electric meter, electric distribution panel, disconnect switches and your data logger or data acquisition system. If your school also has a weather station, point out the thermometer, anemometer, and pyronometer. An excellent lesson plan (Introduction To Your Schools Solar Electric System) with background information and student worksheets can be downloaded from the Watts On Schools website at www.wattsonschools.com/ activities.htm.

Explore Your Data Website

(Primary, Elementary, Intermediate, Secondary) (Computer Science)

Many of the providers of PV equipment link the schools to each other through a website on the Internet. Depending upon the site, there may be opportunities for students and teachers to communicate with each other, explore the electrical and atmospheric data from their school and compare it with data from other schools, develop their own inquiry projects, and ask questions of experts. While the options provided on these websites may differ, many of the websites provide similar opportunities to teachers and students. A lesson plan for providing an overview of a data website (Whats On Your Website) can be downloaded from the Watts On Schools website at www.wattsonschools.com/activities.htm. The lesson and accompanying worksheet can be modified to provide an overview of the data website provided by your solar partner.

Put Together Educational Displays Throughout the School

(Primary, Elementary, Intermediate, Secondary) (Art, Language Arts, Social Studies)

One of the main reasons that schools are selected to become solar partners is that they make an excellent showcase for the benefits of solar photovoltaic electricity. Changes and improvements at schools are highly visible and closely followed. As with recycling programs, which were introduced to many communities by schoolchildren educating their parents, students can carry good ideas from the fringe into the mainstream. One way to make your PV project highly visible and to promote the benefits of renewable energy technologies is to have students design displays that can be placed in strategic areas throughout your school. Possible themes for the displays include the history of solar energy (past, present, future), uses of solar energy, and documenting your schools PV project.

Graph PV System Data

(Primary, Elementary, Intermediate, Secondary) (Math)

Have students download data from your data acquisition system (DAS) and then use the data to create graphs incorporating different variables. Students at lower levels can make pictographs and older students can create line, bar, and circle graphs. Students should first decide which variables they want to use in their graphs (i.e., energy generated in kW and time of day, season, or different types of weather conditions). After downloading the data, students should decide which type of graph is most appropriate for displaying the data. After students have created their graphs, they can generate questions for other students to answer by analyzing the graphs.

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Conduct An Energy Audit of Your School

(Primary, Elementary, Intermediate, Secondary) (Science, Math)

Physically, schools are ideal places to use solar energy. The energy demand in school buildings is significant and concentrated during the daytime, when the energy from the sun can be used to maximum benefit. However, the value of solar energy is multiplied when using different solar technologies in concert and in combination with other new and efficient uses of resources, including low-wattage lighting, heat pumps, and better insulating windows, walls, and roofs. Your students can experience the multiplying effect of energy conservation by having them perform an energy efficiency audit of their classroom and school. An energy audit allows students to use their school building as a real-world laboratory for applying science knowledge and math skills. The NEED Project publishes three energy conservation booklets (Building Buddies, Monitoring and Mentoring, and Learning and Conserving) for primary through high school students. These curriculum materials introduce students to basic concepts of energy use and conservation; teach methods of measuring energy usage, determining costs, and quantifying environmental effects; guides students through comprehensive surveys of the school building and school energy consumption gathering, recording and analyzing data, and monitoring energy usage; and assist students in developing a comprehensive energy management plan for the school that includes suggestions for retrofits, systems management and conservation practices.

Create a PV Brochure

(Elementary, Intermediate, Secondary) (Language Arts)

In this activity, students research energy alternatives and produce a collection of brochures that can be distributed to adults to provide a basic understanding of the need for alternative energy sources and the strengths of PV systems. A complete lesson plan for this activity (Energy Solutions: A Brochure) with background information, student worksheets, and a grading rubric can be downloaded from the Solar PowerNaturally website at www.nyserda.org/schools/curricular.html.

Calculate How Your Energy Usage Impacts the Environment

(Elementary, Intermediate) (Science, Math, Geography)

A set of interactive online calculators at the Texas State Energy Conservation Office website at www.infinitepower.org/ calculators.htm can help students understand energy production and consumption in a variety of ways. Students can use the calculators to develop a personal profile of their own energy use and the resulting contribution to atmospheric pollution. The site includes a Carbon Pollution Calculator and an Electric Power Pollution Calculator. Additional calculators on this site allow students to determine the trade-offs involved in installing PV systems, determine whether a solar water heater could save money, and explore how different measurements of energy and power relate to one another.

Compare Data From Different Schools

(Elementary, Intermediate, Secondary) (Math, Geography, Computer Science)

If your school is connected to a website in which students can download data from your schools PV system, they can use this data to compare their systems performance and draw inferences as to the causes for differences in performance. This is a good activity for teaching students about variables. Depending upon the capabilities of your DAS, students can compare such factors as power generation, temperature, wind speed, and solar irradiation. A lesson plan (Comparison of Schools) with background information, method, and student worksheets for this activity can be downloaded from the Watts On Schools website at www.wattsonschools.com/activities.htm.

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Convert Your PV Systems Output to Other Forms of Energy Using Interactive Calculator
(Elementary, Intermediate, Secondary) (Math, Science)

It is often difficult for students to picture how much electricity the schools PV system is producing. This activity helps them by providing an interactive calculator that converts electrical energy into equivalent amounts of other forms of energy (chemical, mechanical, thermal) and other everyday energy measures (exercise, pollution). An interactive energy calculator for this activity can be found on the Watts On Schools website at www.wattsonschools.com/activities.htm.

Analyze the PV Systems Performance

(Intermediate, Secondary) (Science, Math, Computer Science, Geography)

Have your students calculate the efficiency of the schools PV system. In this case, efficiency refers to the effectiveness of the PV system in converting solar energy to electrical energy and is expressed as a percentage. Another way to look at efficiency is to compare how much electrical energy could have been produced by the solar energy striking your school (at any given time) to the actual amount of electrical energy your system produced. To complete this activity, your DAS will need to provide access to three kinds of historical data: time, solar irradiation striking your local area, and energy output of your system. A lesson plan (Calculating the Efficiency of a SE System) explaining the background information and calculations for this activity can be downloaded from the Watts On Schools website at www.wattsonschools.com/activities.htm.

Compare Solar Power Production, Sunlight, Temperature, and Electrical Production

(Intermediate, Secondary) (Science, Math, Computer Science)

If your schools DAS provides a measurement of solar irradiation and temperature, you can have your students design inquiry projects that will help them understand the relationship between three variables of their photovoltaic system: power, temperature and solar irradiation. A lesson plan (The Relationship Between Solar Power Production, Temperature, and Sunlight) explaining the background information and calculations for this activity can be downloaded from the Watts On Schools website at www.wattsonschools.com/activities.htm.

Design Your Own PV System

(Intermediate, Secondary) (Science, Math, Geography, Computer Science)

The PVWATTS website at http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/codes_algs/PVWATTS/ allows students to calculate the electricity produced by a grid-connected PV system. PVWATTS calculates monthly and annual energy production in kWh and monthly savings in dollars for localities throughout the United States. Two different versions of the calculator allow students to compare the electrical output of identical PV systems in different geographical locations. Students can also compare electrical output of different PV systems by specifying the PV system size, local electric costs, fixed or tracking PV array, and the PV array tilt and azimuth angles.

Determine Whether a PV System in Your Area Is Cost Effective

(Intermediate, Secondary) (Math, Economics)

PV systems are more cost-effective in some situations than in others, depending on the size and nature of the load, the availability of the solar resource, and the cost of alternative sources of power. In many situations, PV systems can be more cost-effective than many alternatives. Have students determine whether installing a PV system is cost-effective for their needs and whether or not there are any financial incentives for installing a PV system in your locality. A lesson plan for this activity can be downloaded from the Montana Green Power website at www.montanagreenpower.com/solar/curriculum/lesson8.html.

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Community PV Decision Simulation

(Intermediate, Secondary) (Social Science, Language Arts)

Have your students participate in a simulation that lets students evaluate the feasibility of installing a PV system on the roof of a school in their community. In this simulation students research the topic and then each student assumes the role of a community member participating in the decision-making process. A complete lesson plan for this activity (To Go Solar or Not To Go Solar!) with all needed materials, background information and student worksheets can be downloaded from the Solar PowerNaturally website at www.nyserda.org/schools/ curricular.html.

Size Up A PV System for YOUR Home or School

(Secondary) (Math, Science, Geography)

This activity allows students to determine the size of the PV system they would need to provide electricity needed to operate all of the loads in their classroom, school, and/or home. In sizing a PV system, students will need to determine the sunlight levels or insolation values of their area and the daily power consumption of their electrical loads. Background information (Estimating PV System Size and Cost) for this activity can be download from the Texas State Energy Conservation Office website at www.infinitepower.org/calculators.htm. A worksheet for this activity can be downloaded from the e-Marine, Inc website at www.e-marine-inc.com/articles/ size.html. An interactive website and sizing calculator can be found at AAASolars website at http://aaasolar.com/design/ pvsizing/PVSIZING.htm. In addition, a complete lesson plan for sizing up a PV system can be found on the Montana Green Power website at www.montanagreenpower.com/solar/curriculum/lesson7.html.

Determine Circuit Wiring for a PV System

(Secondary) (Science, Math)

In this activity, students study different types of circuits and then describe how photovoltaic cells are optimally connected in arrays. A complete lesson plan for this activity (Series or Parallel) with background information and student worksheets can be downloaded from the Solar PowerNaturally website at www.nyserda.org/schools/ curricular.html.

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PV Related Websites
BP Solar www.bpsolar.com/ContentMap.cfm?page=3&BreadCrumb=yes National Renewable Energy Laboratory About Solar Energy www.nrel.gov/clean_energy/solar.html US Department of Energy Solar Technologies Program www.eere.energy.gov/solar/ Sandia National Laboratories PV Systems Research and Development www.sandia.gov/pv/ Florida Solar Energy Center PV and Distributed Generation www.fsec.ucf.edu/pvt/ How Stuff Works How Solar Cells Work www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell.htm Solar Electric Power Association www.solarelectricpower.org/ IEA Basics of PV www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/pv/home.htm

Solar Schools Websites

www.solarconnection-bp.com/index.asp www.chicagosolarpartnership.com/splash.htm www.mge.com/environment/solar/schools.htm www.wattsonschools.com/ www.schoolpowernaturally.org/ www.montanagreenpower.com/solar/schools/sun4schools.html www.soltrex.com/

Solar Radiation Data

Solar radiation data is available from NASAyoull need to register (free) to log in and access data at: http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/sizer.cgi?email=na Solar radiation data previously hosted by REPP is available from the National Renewable Energy Laboratorys (NREL) Solar Radiation Resource Information database at the Renewable Resource Data Center (RReDC) at: http://rredc.nrel.gov/ World Solar Radiation data is available from NREL at: http://wrdc-mgo.nrel.gov/

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What Is Solar Energy?

Solar energy is radiant energy from the sun. It is vital to us because it provides the worlddirectly or indirectlywith almost all of its energy. In addition to providing the energy that sustains the world, solar energy is stored in fossil fuels and biomass, and is responsible for powering the water cycle and producing wind. Every day the sun radiates, or sends out, an enormous amount of energy. The sun radiates more energy in one second than people have used since the beginning of time! Solar energy comes from within the sun itself. Like other stars, the sun is a big ball of gasesmostly hydrogen and helium. The hydrogen atoms in the suns core combine to form helium and radiant energy in a process called nuclear fusion.

Only a small portion of the energy radiated by the sun into space strikes the earth, one part in two billion. Yet this amount of energy is enormous. Every day enough energy strikes the United States to supply the nations energy needs for one and a half years!

Where does all this energy go? About 15 percent of the suns energy that hits the earth is reflected back into space. Another 30 percent powers the water cycle: it evaporates water that is then drawn into the atmosphere, turns into clouds, and falls back to earth as precipitation. Plants, the land, and the oceans also absorb solar energy. The rest could be used to supply our energy needs. Solar energy is considered a renewable energy source. Renewable sources of energy are resources that are continually renewed by nature, and hence will never run out. Solar power is considered renewable because the nuclear (fusion) reactions that power the sun are expected to keep generating sunlight for many billions of years to come.

During nuclear fusion, the suns extremely high pressure and temperature cause hydrogen atoms to come apart and their nuclei (the central cores of the atoms) to fuse or combine. Four hydrogen nuclei fuse to become one helium atom. But the helium atom contains less mass than the four hydrogen atoms that fused. Some matter is lost during nuclear fusion. The lost matter is emitted into space as radiant energy. It takes millions of years for the energy in the suns core to make its way to the solar surface, and then just a little over eight minutes to travel the 93 million miles to earth. The solar energy travels to the earth at a speed of 186,000 miles per second (3.0 x 108 meters per second), the speed of light. No heat from the sun travels to the earth; the light turns into heat when it is absorbed by molecules on earth.

History of Solar Energy

People have harnessed solar energy for centuries. As early as the 7th century B.C., people used simple magnifying glasses to concentrate the light of the sun into beams so hot they would cause wood to catch fire. More than 100 years ago in France, a scientist used heat from a solar collector to make steam to drive a steam engine. In the 1860s in the U.S., John Ericsson developed the first realistic application of solar energy using a solar reflector to drive an engine in a steam boiler.
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Early in the 1900s, scientists and engineers began seriously researching ways to use solar energy. The solar water heater gained popularity during this time in Florida, California, and the Southwest. The industry was in full swing just before World War II. This growth lasted until the mid-1950s when low-cost natural gas became the primary fuel for heating homes and water, and the use of solar energy lost popularity. The public and world governments remained largely indifferent to the possibilities of solar energy until the energy crises of the 1970s. Research efforts in the U.S. and around the world since that time have resulted in tremendous improvements in solar technologies for heating water and buildings and making electricity.

A solar collector is one way to collect heat from the sun. A closed car on a sunny day is like a solar collector. As the sunlight passes through the cars glass windows, it is absorbed by the seat covers, walls, and floor of the car. The light that is absorbed changes into heat. The cars glass windows let light in, but dont let all the heat out. This is also why greenhouses work so well and stay warm year-round. A greenhouse or solar collector: allows sunlight in through the glass; absorbs the sunlight and changes it into heat; and traps most of the heat inside.

Solar Collectors
Heating with solar energy is relatively easyjust look at a car parked in the sun with its windows closed. Getting the right amount of heat in a desired location, however, requires more thought and careful design. Capturing sunlight and putting it to work effectively is difficult because the solar energy that reaches the earth is spread out over a large area. The sun does not deliver that much energy to any one place at any one time. How much solar energy a place receives depends on several conditions. These include the time of day, the season of the year, the latitude of the area, and the clearness or cloudiness of the sky.

Solar Space Heating

Space heating means heating the space inside a building. Today many homes use solar energy for space heating. There are two general types of solar space heating systems: passive and active.

Passive Solar Homes

In a passive solar home, the house operates as a solar collector. A passive house does not use any special mechanical equipment such as pipes, ducts, fans, or pumps to transfer the heat that the house collects on sunny days. Instead, a passive solar home relies on properly oriented windows and is designed with added thermal mass to store and release heat. Since the sun shines from the south in North America, passive solar homes are built so that most of the windows face south. They often have few or no windows on the north side. A passive solar home converts solar energy into heat just as a closed car does. Sunlight passes through a homes windows and is absorbed in the walls and floors. Materials such as tile, stone and concrete are often used, because they can store more heat than wood or sheetrock. To control the amount of heat in a passive solar house, the designer must determine the appropriate balance of mass in the floors and walls and admission of sunlight. Windows let in the sunlight, which is converted into heat when it is absorbed by the walls and floors. The mass stores the heat from the sun and releases it when the air temperature inside drops below the temperature of the mass. Heating a house by warming the walls or floors is more comfortable than heating the air inside a house.

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Additionally, the doors and windows can be closed to keep heated air in or opened to let it out to keep the temperature in a comfortable range. At night, special heavy curtains or shades can be pulled over the windows to keep the daytime heat inside the house. In the summer, awnings or roof overhangs help to shade the windows from the high summer sun to prevent the house from overheating. Passive homes are quiet, peaceful places to live. A well-designed passive solar home can harness 50 to 80 percent of the heat it needs from the sun. Many passive homeowners install equipment, such as fans to help circulate air, to further increase the comfort and energy efficiency of their homes. When special equipment is added to a passive solar home, it is called a hybrid system.

Solar Water Heating

Solar energy is also used to heat water. Water heating is usually the second leading home energy expense, costing the average family over $400 a year. Depending on where you live, and how much hot water your family uses, a solar water heater can pay for itself in as little as five years. A well-maintained solar water heating system can last 15-20 years, longer than a conventional water heater. A solar water heater works in the same way as solar space heating. A solar collector is mounted on the roof, or in an area of direct sunlight. It collects sunlight and converts it to heat. When the fluid becomes hot enough, a thermostat starts a pump. The pump circulates the fluid through the collector until it reaches the required temperature, called the set point. Then the heated fluid is pumped to a storage tank where it is used in a heat exchanger to heat water. The hot water may then be piped to a faucet or showerhead. Most solar water heaters that operate in cold climates use a heat transfer fluid similar to antifreeze that will not freeze and damage the system. Today, over 1.5 million homes in the U.S. use solar heaters to heat water for their homes or swimming pools. Besides heating homes and water, solar energy also can be used to produce electricity. Two ways to generate electricity from solar energy are photovoltaics and solar thermal systems.

Active Solar Homes

Unlike a passive solar home, an active solar home uses mechanical equipment, such as pumps and blowers, to gain greater control of when, where and how much of the collected heat from the sun gets used. The active solar home is designed to deliver the heat from where it is collected to where it is needed.

Storing Solar Heat

The challenge confronting any solar heating system whether passive, active, or hybridis heat storage. Solar heating systems must have some way to store the heat that is collected on sunny days to keep people warm at night or on cloudy days. In passive solar homes, heat is stored by using dense interior materials that retain heat wellmasonry, adobe, concrete, stone, or water. These materials absorb surplus heat and radiate it back into the room when the air temperature is lower than the surface temperature of the material. Some passive homes have walls a foot thick. In active solar homes, heat may be stored in one of two waysa large tank may store a heated liquid, or rock bins beneath the house may store warm mass. Houses with active or passive solar heating systems may also have furnaces, wood-burning stoves, or other heat sources to provide heat during long periods of cold or cloudy weather. These are called backup systems.

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Photovoltaics
Photovoltaic (or PV) systems conver t light directly into electricity. The term photo comes from the Greek phos, which means light. The term volt is a measure of electricity named for Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), a pioneer in the development of electricity. Photovoltaics literally means lightelectricity. Commonly known as solar cells, PV cells are already an important part of our lives. The simplest PV systems power many of the small calculators and wrist watches we use every day. Larger PV systems provide electricity for pumping water, powering communications equipment, and even lighting homes and running appliances. In certain applications, such as motorist aid call boxes on highways and pumping water for livestock, PV power is the cheapest form of electricity. Some electric utility companies are building PV systems into their power supply networks.

In 1954, scientists at Bell Laboratories depended on the Czochralski process to develop the first crystalline silicon photovoltaic cell, which had a conversion efficiency of four percent. As a result of technological advances, the cost of PV cells has decreased significantly over the past 25 years, as the efficiency has increased. Todays commercially available PV devices convert seven to 17 percent of the radiant energy that strikes them into electricity. In the laboratory, combining exotic materials with specialized cell designs has produced PV cells with conversion efficiencies as high as 38 percent.

Solar Systems
The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV cell converts sunlight directly into electricity. PV technology works any time the sun is shining, but more electricity is produced when the light is more intense and when it is striking the PV modules directlywhen the rays of sunlight are perpendicular to the PV modules. Unlike solar systems for heating water, with which you might be more familiar, PV technology does not produce heat to make electricity. Instead, PV cells generate electricity directly from the electrons freed by the interaction of radiant energy with the semiconductor materials in the PV cells. Sunlight is composed of photons, or bundles of radiant energy. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected or absorbed, or transmitted through the cell. Only the absorbed photons generate electricity. When the photons are absorbed, the energy of the photons is transferred to electrons in the atoms of the solar cell, which is actually a semiconductor. With their newfound energy, the electrons are able to escape from their normal positions associated with their atoms to become part of the current in an electrical circuit. By leaving their positions, the electrons cause holes to form in the atomic structure of the cell into which other electrons can move. Special electrical properties of the PV cella builtin electric fieldprovide the voltage needed to drive the current through a circuit and power an external load, such as a light bulb.

History of Photovoltaics
French physicist Edmond Becquerel first described the photovoltaic (PV) effect in 1839, but it remained a curiosity of science for the next half century. At the age of 19, Becquerel found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. The effect was first studied in solids, such as selenium, by Heinrich Hertz in the 1870s. Soon selenium PV cells were converting light to electricity at one to two percent efficiency. The conversion efficiency of a PV cell is the proportion of sunlight energy that the cell conver ts into electrical energy relative to the amount of sunlight that is available and striking the PV cell. This is very important when discussing PV devices, because improving this efficiency is vital to making PV energy competitive with more traditional sources of energy, such as fossil fuels. During the second half of the 20th century, PV science was refined and the process more fully explained. Major steps toward commercializing PV were taken in the 1940s and 1950s, when the Czochralski process was developed for producing highly pure crystalline silicon.

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Different materials are used to produce PV cells, but siliconthe main ingredient in sandis the most common basic material. Silicon is a relatively cheap material because it is widely available and used in other things, such as televisions, radios and computers. PV cells, however, require very pure silicon, which can be expensive to produce. The amount of electricity a PV cell produces depends on its size, its conversion efficiency and the intensity of the light source. Efficiency is a measure of the amount of electricity produced from the sunlight that a cell receives. A typical PV cell produces 0.5 volts of electricity. It takes just a few PV cells to produce enough electricity to power a small watch or solar calculator. The most important parts of a PV cell are the semiconductor layers, where the electron current is created. There are a number of different materials suitable for making these semi-conducting layers, and each has benefits and drawbacks. Unfortunately, there is no one ideal material for all types of cells and applications. When sunlight strikes the surface of a PV cell, the electrical field provides momentum and direction to light-stimulated electrons, resulting in a flow of electric current, or flow of electrons, when the solar cell is connected in a circuit.

Photovoltaic Cells
The basic building block of PV technology is the photovoltaic cell. PV cells come in many shapes and sizes. The most common shapes are circles, rectangles and squares. The size and the shape of a PV cell and the number of PV cells required for one PV module depend on the material of which the PV cell is made.

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How a PV Cell is Made

Lets look more closely at how a PV cell is made and how it produces electricity.

Step 1
Pure silicon is used to form very thin wafers. In half of the wafers, a small amount of the element phosphorous is added. In the other wafers, a small amount of the element boron is added. This process is called doping . Dopants are similar in atomic structure to the primary material. The phosphorous has one more electron in its outer shell than silicon, and the boron has one less. These dopants help create the electric field that makes it easier for the electrons to become dislodged when light strikes the PV cell. The phosphorous gives the wafer of silicon an excess of free electrons; it has a negative character. This wafer with the phosphorous is called the n-layer (n = negative). The n-layer is not a charged waferit has an equal number of protons and electronsbut some of the electrons are not held tightly to the atoms in the wafer. They are free to move to different locations within the layer. The boron gives its wafer of silicon a positive character, because it has a tendency to attract electrons. The layer has an equal number of protons and electrons; it has a positive character but not a positive charge. This wafer with boron is called the p-layer (p = positive).

them, knocking them free of their atoms. These electrons are attracted to the positive charge in the n-layer and repelled by the negative charge in the player.

Step 4
If the n-layer is attached by a conducting wire to the p-layer, a circuit is formed. As the free electrons are pushed into the n-layer, they repel each other because they are of like charge. The wire provides a path for the electrons to move away from each other. This flow of electrons is an electric current that can power a load, such as a calculator or other device, as it travels through the circuit from the n-layer to the player. In addition to the semi-conducting materials, solar cells consist of a top metallic grid or other electrical contact to collect electrons from the semi-conductor and transfer them to the external load, and a back contact layer to complete the electrical circuit.

Step 2
When the two wafers are placed together, the free electrons from the n-layer are attracted to the player. At the moment of contact between the two wafers, free electrons from the n-layer flow into the p-layer for a split second, then form a barrier to prevent more electrons from moving between layers. This point of contact and barrier is called the p-n junction. When the layers are joined, there is a negative charge in the p-layer section of the junction and a positive charge in the n-layer section of the junction. This imbalance in electrical charge at the p-n junction produces an electric field between the player and the n-layer.

Step 3
If the PV cell is placed in the sun, photons of light strike the electrons in the p-n junction and energize
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PV Modules, Panels and Arrays

For more power, cells are connected together to form larger units called modules. Photovoltaic cells are connected in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power levels. A PV module is the smallest PV component sold commercially, and can range in power output from about 10 watts to 300 watts. A typical PV module consists of PV cells sandwiched between a clear front sheet, usually glass, and a backing sheet, usually glass or a type of tough plastic. This protects them from breakage and from the weather. An aluminum frame can be fitted around the PV module to enable easy affixing to a support structure. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, fieldinstallable unit. A PV array is the complete powergenerating unit, consisting of any number of modules and panels.

In the simplest systems, DC current produced by PV modules is used directly. In applications where AC current is necessary, an inverter can be added to the system to convert DC to AC current. Battery System: PV systems cannot store electricity, so batteries are often added. A PV system with a battery is configured by connecting the PV array to an inverter. The inverter is connected to a battery bank and to any load. During daylight hours, the PV array charges the battery bank. The battery bank supplies power to the load whenever it is needed. A device called a charge controller keeps the battery properly charged and prolongs its life by protecting it from being overcharged and completely discharged. PV systems with batteries can be designed to power DC or AC equipment. Systems operating only DC equipment do not need an inverter, only a charge controller.

PV Systems
cell module

Two types of PV systems are grid-connected systems and stand-alone systems. The main difference between these systems is that one is connected to the utility grid and the other is not.

Grid Connected Systems

array panel

PV System Components
Although a PV module produces power when exposed to sunlight, a number of other components are required to properly conduct, control, conver t, distribute, and store the energy produced by the array. Depending on the type of system, these components may include: Power Inver ter : PV modules, because of their electrical properties, produce direct current (DC) rather than alternating current (AC). Direct current is electric current that flows in a single direction. Many simple devices, such as those that run on batteries, use direct current. Alternating current, in contrast, is electric current that reverses its direction of flow at regular intervals (120 times per second). This is the type of electricity provided by utilities and the type required to run most modern appliances and electronic devices.

Grid-connected PV systems are designed to operate in parallel with and interconnected with the national electric utility grid. What is the grid? It is the network of cables through which electricity is transported from power stations to homes, schools and other places. A grid connected PV system is linked to this network of power lines. The primary component of a grid-connected PV system is the inverter, or power conditioning unit (PCU). The inverter converts the DC power produced by the PV system into AC power consistent with the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid.

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This means that it can deliver the electricity it produces into the electricity network and draw it down when needed; therefore, no battery or other storage is needed.

Benefits and Limitations Benefits

Solar electric systems offer many advantages: They are safe, clean and quiet to operate. They are highly reliable. They require virtually no maintenance. They are cost-effective in remote areas and for some residential and commercial applications. They are flexible and can be expanded to meet increasing electrical needs. They can provide independence from the grid or backup during outages. The fuel is renewable and free.

Stand-alone Systems
As its name suggests, this type of PV system is a separate electricity supply system. A stand-alone system is designed to operate independent of the electric utility grid and to supply electricity to a single system. Usually a stand-alone system includes one or more batteries to store the electricity. Historically, PV systems were used only as stand alone systems in remote areas where there was no other electricity supply. Today, stand-alone systems are used for water pumping, highway lighting, weather stations, remote homes and other uses away from power lines.

Limitations
There are also several practical limitations to PV systems: PV systems are not well suited for energy-intensive uses such as heating. Grid-connected systems are rarely economical, primarily because the current cost of the PV technology is much higher than the cost of conventional electricity in the United States.

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Measuring Electricity
Electricity makes our lives easier, but it can seem like a mysterious force. Measuring electricity is confusing because we cannot see it. We are familiar with terms such as watt, volt, and amp, but we do not have a clear understanding of these terms. We buy a 60-watt lightbulb, a tool that needs 120 volts, or a vacuum cleaner that uses 8.8 amps, and dont think about what those units mean. Using the flow of water as an analogy can make electricity easier to understand. The flow of electrons in a circuit is similar to water flowing through a hose. If you could look into a hose at a given point, you would see a certain amount of water passing that point each second. The amount of water depends on how much pressure is being applied how hard the water is being pushed. It also depends on the diameter of the hose. The harder the pressure and the larger the diameter of the hose, the more water passes each second. The flow of electrons through a wire depends on the electrical pressure pushing the electrons and on the cross-sectional area of the wire.

Voltage

Current
The flow of electrons can be compared to the flow of water. The water current is the number of molecules flowing past a fixed point; electrical current is the number of electrons flowing past a fixed point. Electrical current (I) is defined as electrons flowing between two points having a difference in voltage. Current is measured in amperes or amps (A). One ampere is 6.25 X 1018 electrons per second passing through a circuit. With water, as the diameter of the pipe increases, so does the amount of water that can flow through it. With electricity, conducting wires take the place of the pipe. As the cross-sectional area of the wire increases, so does the amount of electric current (number of electrons) that can flow through it.

Voltage
The pressure that pushes electrons in a circuit is called voltage. Using the water analogy, if a tank of water were suspended one meter above the ground with a ten-centimeter pipe coming out of the bottom, the water pressure would be similar to the force of a shower. If the same water tank were suspended 10 meters above the ground, the force of the water would be much greater, possibly enough to hurt you. Voltage (V) is a measure of the pressure applied to electrons to make them move. It is a measure of the strength of the current in a circuit and is measured in volts (V). Just as the 10-meter tank applies greater pressure than the 1-meter tank, a 10-volt power supply (such as a battery) would apply greater pressure than a 1-volt power supply. AA batteries are 1.5-volt; they apply a small amount of voltage or pressure for lighting small flashlight bulbs. A car usually has a 12-volt batteryit applies more voltage to push current through circuits to operate the radio or defroster. The voltage of typical wall outlets is 120 voltsa dangerous amount of voltage. An electric clothes dryer is usually wired at 240 voltsa very dangerous voltage.

Current

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Resistance
Resistance (R) is a property that slows the flow of electrons. Using the water analogy, resistance is anything that slows water flow, a smaller pipe or fins on the inside of a pipe. In electrical terms, the resistance of a conducting wire depends on the metal the wire is made of and its diameter. Copper, aluminum, and silvermetals used in conducting wireshave different resistance. Resistance is measured in units called ohms (W). There are devices called resistors , with set resistances, that can be placed in circuits to reduce or control the current flow. Any device placed in a circuit to do work is called a load . The lightbulb in a flashlight is a load. A television plugged into a wall outlet is also a load. Every load has built-in resistance.

Ohms Law
George Ohm, a German physicist, discovered that in many materials, especially metals, the current that flows through a material is proportional to the voltage. In the substances he tested, he found that if he doubled the voltage, the current also doubled. If he reduced the voltage by half, the current dropped by half. The resistance of the material remained the same. This relationship is called Ohms Law, and can be written in a simple formula. If you know any two of the measurements, you can calculate the third using the following formula: voltage = current x resistance V=IxR or V=AxW

Electrical Power
Power (P) is a measure of the rate of doing work or the rate at which energy is converted. Electrical power is the rate at which electricity is produced or consumed. Using the water analogy, electric power is the combination of the water pressure (voltage) and the rate of flow (current) that results in the ability to do work. A large pipe carries more water (current) than a small pipe. Water at a height of 10 meters has much greater force (voltage) than at a height of one meter. The power of water flowing through a 1-centimeter pipe from a height of one meter is much less than water through a 10-centimeter pipe from 10 meters. Electrical power is defined as the amount of electric current flowing due to an applied voltage. It is the amount of electricity required to start or operate a load for one second. Electrical power is measured in watts (W). The formula is: power = voltage x current P= V x I or W=VxA

Power

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Electrical Energy
Electrical energy introduces the concept of time to electrical power. In the water analogy, it would be the amount of water falling through the pipe over a period of time, such as an hour. When we talk about using power over time, we are talking about using energy. Using our water example, we could look at how much work could be done by the water in the time that it takes for the tank to empty. The electrical energy that an appliance or device consumes can be determined only if you know how long (time) it consumes electrical power at a specific rate (power). To find the amount of energy consumed, you multiply the rate of energy consumption (measured in watts) by the amount of time (measured in hours) that it is being consumed. Electrical energy is measured in watt-hours (Wh). Energy (E) = Power (P) x Time (t) E = P x t or E = W x h = Wh

The same applies with electrical power. You would not say you used 100 watts of light energy to read your book, because 100 watts represents the rate you used energy, not the total energy used. The amount of energy used would be calculated by multiplying the rate by the amount of time you read. If you read for 5 hours with a 100-W bulb, for example, you would use the formula as follows: Energy = Power x Time (E = P x t) Energy = 100 W x 5 hour = 500 Wh One watt-hour is a very small amount of electrical energy. Usually, we measure electrical power in larger units called kilowatt-hours (kWh) or 1,000 watthours. (kilo = thousand). A kilowatt-hour is the unit that utilities use when billing most customers. The average cost of a kilowatt-hour of electricity for residential customers in the U.S. is about $0.09. To calculate the cost of reading with a 100-W bulb for five (5) hours, you would change the watt-hours into kilowatt-hours, then multiply the kilowatt-hours used by the cost per kilowatt-hour, as shown below: 500 Wh divided by 1,000 = 0.5 kWh 0.5 kWh x $0.09/kWh = $0.045 It would cost about four and a half cents to read for five hours with a 100-W bulb.

Another way to think about power and energy is with an analogy to traveling. If a person travels in a car at a rate of 40 miles per hour (mph), to find the total distance traveled, you would multiply the rate of travel by the amount of time you traveled at that rate. If a car travels for 1 hour at 40 miles per hour, it would travel 40 miles. Distance = 40 mph x 1 hour = 40 miles If a car travels for 3 hours at 40 miles per hour, it would travel 120 miles. Distance = 40 mph x 3 hours = 120 miles When we look at power, we are talking about the rate that electrical energy is being produced or consumed. Energy is analogous to the total distance traveled. A person wouldnt say he took a 40-mile per hour trip because that is the rate. The person would say he took a 40-mile trip or a 120-mile trip. Just as the total distance is calculated by multiplying miles per hour by time, the amount of energy is calculated by multiplying power (work/time) by time.

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PV Glossary
Alternating Current (AC): an electric current that reverses direction at frequent, regular intervals. Angle of Incidence: angle between the normal to a surface and the direction of incident radiation; applies to the aperture plane of a solar collector. Azimuth: angle between due north and the direction the surface of the PV array faces, measured clockwise from north. As applied to the PV array, 180-degree azimuth means the array faces due south. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Saved: amount of carbon dioxide that would have been produced by burning fossil fuels (such as coal) to generate an equivalent amount of electricity measured in pounds. Current: the rate of flow of electricity. Direct Current (DC): electric current in which electrons flow in one direction only. This is the type of electricity produced by a PV system. Disconnect Switches: safety devices that start and stop the flow of electricity in the PV system. They are used when qualified personnel need to work on the system. There are two disconnect switches (an AC switch and a DC switch). Distribution Panel: the place where the electrical energy produced by the PV system is integrated with the schools electric system. This allows solar energy to be used for lighting, computers, and other electric loads in the school building. Dual-Axis Tracking: a sun-tracking system capable of rotating independently about two axes (e.g., vertical and horizontal) and following the sun for maximum efficiency of the solar array. This type of system allows the array to point directly at the sun at all times. Two-axis tracking arrays capture the maximum possible daily energy. Electric Circuit: path followed by electrons from a power source (generator or battery) through an external line (including devices that use the electricity) and returning through another line to the source. Electric Meter: a device that keeps track of the amount of electrical energy produced by the PV system. Energy: the ability to do work or make a change. Energy Conservation: the practice of extending the useful life of the Earths energy resources through reduced and more efficient energy use. Energy Totals: amount of electricity produced in one day, and since the beginning of the year, measured in kilowatt-hours. Grid: an integrated system of electricity distribution, usually covering a large area. Grid-Connected (PV system): a PV system in which the PV array acts like a central generating plant, supplying power to the grid. Insolation: the amount of sunlight reaching an area, usually expressed in milliwatts per square centimeter, or langleys. Inverter: a device that converts DC electricity into AC electricity. Kilowatt-hour: a unit of energy equal to 1000 watts being used for one hour. Life-Cycle Cost: the estimated cost of owning and operating a PV system for the period of its useful life. Load: anything in an electrical circuit that, when the circuit is turned on, draws power from that circuit. Monthly Data: total amount of energy produced each day for a calendar month, measured in kilowatt-hours. Photon: an elemental unit of light energy or a tiny particle of light. Photovoltaic (PV) Array: a group of PV modules connected together.

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Photovoltaic (PV) Cell: the basic building block in photovoltaic systems that turn sunlight directly into electricity. Sometimes called solar cells. Photovoltaic (PV) Conversion Efficiency: the ratio of the electric power produced by a photovoltaic device to the power of the sunlight incident on the device. Photovoltaic (PV) Effect: the phenomenon that occurs when photons, the particles of energy in a beam of light, knock electrons loose from the atoms they strike. When this property of light is combined with the properties of semiconductors, electrons flow in one direction across a junction, setting up a voltage. With the addition of circuitry, current flows and electric power is available. Photovoltaic (PV) Efficiency: the ratio of electric power produced by a cell at any instant to the power of the sunlight striking the cell. This is typically about 717 percent for commercially available cells. Photovoltaic (PV) Module: the smallest replaceable unit in a PV array; an integral, encapsulated unit containing a number of PV cells. Photovoltaic (PV) System: a complete set of components for converting sunlight into electricity by the photovoltaic process, including the array and other system components. Pyronometer: an instrument for measuring total hemispheric solar irradiance on a flat surface. Real Time Display: data readouts at a given moment from a photovoltaic and weather-monitoring system. Renewable Energy: sources of energy that can be replenished in a short period of time or are inexhaustible because their use today does not diminish their availability tomorrow. Solar, wind, biomass, and hydropower are examples. Semiconductor: any material that has a limited capacity for conducting an electric current. A semiconductor generally falls between a metal and an insulator in conductivity. Single-Axis Tracking: a system capable of rotating about one axis, usually following the sun from East to West. Solar Cell: another term for a photovoltaic (PV) cell. Solar Energy: radiant energy from the sun. Sunlight: amount of solar energy reaching the surface of a collector at a given moment, measured in watts per square meter. Temperature: the ambient air temperature at a given moment in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius. Todays Data: amount of power produced since midnight for the current calendar day, measured in kilowatts. Also the amount of solar energy that reached the surface of the solar collectors since midnight for the current day, measured in watts per square meter. Tracking Array: a PV array that follows the path of the sun to maximize the solar radiation incident on the PV surface. The two most common orientations are single-axis, where the array tracks the sun East to West, and dual-axis tracking, where the array points directly at the sun at all times. Typically, a single axis tracker will provide 15 to 25 percent more power per day than a stationary array, and dual axis tracking provide 20 to 30 percent more. Tracking arrays use both the direct and diffuse sunlight. Total output depends somewhat on latitude and season. Transformer: a device that changes the voltage of the electricity coming from the inverter to match the voltage of electricity that is used in the school building. Utility-Interactive System: a PV installation connected to a utility power line. Voltage: a measure of the potential difference (push) of electric current. The higher the voltage, the more force there is to push the current through the wire. Watt: a metric unit of power that gives the rate at which work is done or energy is expended. Wind Speed: how fast the wind is blowing at a given moment, measured in miles per hour or kilometers per hour.

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NEED National Sponsors and Partners

Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs American Association of Blacks in Energy Detroit Chapter American Association of Drilling Engineers Houston Chapter American Electric Power American Petroleum Institute Houston Chapter American Public Power Association Aramco Services Company Association of Desk & Derrick Clubs BJ Services Company BP BP Solar Bureau of Land Management U.S. Department of the Interior Cape and Islands Self Reliance Cape Cod Cooperative Extension Cape Light Compact Massachusetts Chesapeake Public Schools Virginia Chevron Chevron Energy Solutions Cinergy Corporation Citizens Gas ConEd Solutions Council of Great Lakes Governors Regional Biomass Partnership Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District Texas D&R International School Energy Efficiency Program Dart Container Corporation Foundation Desk and Derrick of Roswell, New Mexico Devon Energy Dominion Duke Energy Indiana Duke Energy Kentucky East Kentucky Power Energy Information Administration U.S. Department of Energy Equitable Resources Escambia County School District Florida Florida Department of Environmental Protection FMC Technologies Fuel Cell Store Gerald Harrington GlobalSantaFe Governors Ethanol Coalition Guam Energy Office Halliburton Foundation Hydril Illinois Clean Energy Community Foundation Illinois Department of Commerce and Economic Opportunity Independent Petroleum Association of NM Indiana Community Action Association Indiana Office of Energy and Defense Development Indianapolis Power and Light Interstate Renewable Energy Council Iowa Energy Center Johnson Controls Kentucky Clean Fuels Coalition Kentucky Office of Energy Policy Kentucky Oil and Gas Association Kentucky Propane Education & Research Council Kentucky River Properties LLC Kentucky Soybean Board Lee Matherne Family Foundation Llano Land and Exploration Maine Energy Education Project Maine Public Service Company Marathon Oil Company Marianas Islands Energy Office Massachusetts Division of Energy Resources Michigan Energy Office Michigan Oil and Gas Producers Education Foundation Minerals Management Service U.S. Department of the Interior Mississippi Development Authority Energy Division Narragansett Electric A National Grid Company National Association of State Energy Officials National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges National Biodiesel Board National Fuel National Hydrogen Association National Ocean Industries Association New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection North Carolina Department of Administration State Energy Office Nebraska Public Power District New Mexico Oil Corp. New Mexico Landmans Association New York State Energy Research and Development Authority Noble Energy Offshore Energy Center/Ocean Star/OEC Society Ohio Energy Project Oil & Gas Rental Services Pacific Gas and Electric Company Permian Basin Petroleum Association Petroleum Equipment Suppliers Association Premiere Puerto Rico Energy Affairs Administration Renewable Fuels Association Roanoke Gas Robert Gorham Rogers Training and Consulting Roswell Desk and Derrick Club Roswell Geological Society Rhode Island State Energy Office Saudi Aramco Schlumberger Sentech, Inc. Shell Exploration and Production Society of Petroleum Engineers Southwest Gas Spring Branch Independent School District Texas Strategic Energy Innovations Tennessee Department of Economic and Community Development Texas Education Service Center Region III Texas Independent Producers & Royalty Owners Association TransOptions, Inc. University of Nevada Las Vegas Urban Options U.S. Environmental Protection Agency U.S. Department of Agriculture Biodiesel Education Program U.S. Department of Energy U.S. Fuel Cell Council Vectren Virgin Islands Energy Office Wake County Public Schools North Carolina W. Plack Carr Company Xcel Energy Yates Petroleum

The NEED Project

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Manassas, VA 20108

1-800-875-5029

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