LOC 4 AC 2 - PRINCIPLES OF CALCULUS Differentiation VS Integral

(A) Differentiation Given that the slope of a straight line can be determined by applying the two point formula as follows : m = y/x = (y2 y1) / (x2 x1) x y

However, if we would like to find a general expression for the difference quotient in function other than straight line (refer to below example), will be as follows : Given that two points on the function f(x) = x2 which have coordinates (x, f(x)) and (x + x, f(x + x)), we have y/x = [f(x + x) f(x)] / x = [(x + x)2 x2] / x = [x2 + 2x(x) + (x)2 x2] / x = 2x(x) + (x)2 / x = 2x + x

In fact, as the value of x gets close to 0, the slope of the tiny line segment connecting the first point with the second point becomes an excellent approximation. The exact tangent slope can be determined by finding the limit of the difference quotient as x 0. Thus, y/x = 2x + 0 = 0, same as differentiation approach, dy/dx = 2 . x2-1 = 2x (proved)

Questions: Please find the dy/dx for the following functions : (1) -2x2 + 3x 10 Answer = -4x + 3 3 2 (2) 8x 4x + 3x 10 Answer = 24x2 8x +3 (3) 5/x2 Answer = -10/x3 (4) 3x2 Answer = 2/33x Usage of First-derivative test, dy/dx or f(x) To determine the RATE of construction, payment, development, etc for a particular project, f(x). However the further second-derivative test, f(x) or known as d2y/dx2 is aim for identifying the MINIMUM or MAXIMUM for the particular project in such a way that it can be optimized. The relationship between f(x), f(x) and f(x) are as follows : f(x) f'(x) = dy/dx Slope / Tangent Graph f(x) = d2y/dx2 Characteristics x - x
Negative ()

x 0

x + x
Positive (+)

x - x
Positive (+)

x 0

x + x
Negative ()

<0 Maximum

=0 Nature

>0 Minimum

(B) Integral The process of finding anti-derivatives is more frequently called integration. And the family of functions obtained through this process is called the indefinite integral. The notation f(x) dx = F(x) + C if F(x) = f(x) is often used to indicate the indefinite integral of the function f. The symbol is the integral sign; f is the integrand, or the function for which we want to find the indefinite integral; and dx, indicates the variable with respect to which the integration process is performed. Two verbal descriptions of the process are integrate the function f with respect to the variable x or find the indefinite integral of f with respect to x. C, reflects the indefinite nature of finding the anti-derivative, or indefinite integral. Questions : Please find the indefinite integral for the followings : (1) (8x3 + 6x2 2x + 10) dx Answer : 2x4 + 2x3 x2 + 10x +C (2) (5x) dx Answer : 5x5x/6 + C (3) (2/3x) dx Answer : -3x3x /2+ C (4) (ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e) dx Answer : ax5/5 + bx4/4 + cx3/3 +
dx2/2 + ex + C

However, if f is a bounded function on the interval [a,b], we shall define the definite integral of f as ba f(x) dx = F(b) F(a) The values a and b which appear, respectively, below and above the integral sign are called the limits of integration. The lower limit of integration is a, and the upper limit of integration is b. The notation can be described as the definite integral of f between a lower limit x = a and an upper limit x = b or more simply the integral of f be tween a and b.

When evaluating definite integrals, always subtract the value of the indefinite integral at the lower limit of integration from the value at the upper limit of integration. The constant of integration (C) will always drop out in this computation. Thus, there is no need to include the constant in evaluating definite integrals. For example, evaluate 30 x2 dx Questions : Evaluate the following definite integrals : (1) 2-2 8 dx (2) 40 (4x3 + 3x2) dx (3) 490 x dx (4) 42 (5x3 + 5x2) dx - 42 (8x3 + 6x2 + 10) dx Usage of Definite Integral To reverse back to the original function f(x) and identify the total usage, payment, etc of a particular project, when only the RATE, also known as f(x), is given. Besides that, it is also useful to calculate the Area from a particular survey plan. Answer : 9

Answer : 32 Answer : 320 Answer : 228.6667 Answer : - 218.6667