1 Productivity

Figure 1 Items in the production system Figure 1 illustrates way from the reservoir, through well and flow line, till the process platform. Production means that the oil / gas flows from the reservoir rock into the well, from bottom to the top of the well and further flow line riser and pipe; through regulation valve into the process plant. Since the flow through the reservoir, pipe and the valve is governed by different laws of physics, it is natural to distinguish between -- Flow from the reservoir to the well -- Flow in well pipe and flow line -- Flow through regulation valve The production rate is determined by the combination of these elements and the inlet and outlet condition, in other words, the

-- Reservoir and the reservoir fluid -- Process inlet pressure, and other restrictions in the process To predict production, it is necessary to determine the relationships between pressure and rate for the elements above and combine them. Since the relationships depend on well design, we will then also be able to calculate the well design that appear to give the best productivity; in other words, optimize well design and completion. In Chapter 1, we will use simple relations for the influx, flow in the well and through regulation valve. The purpose is to show how these relations can be combined to predict production.

1.1 To the flow

In order for a well to produce, fluid must be drawn from the reservoir. Pressure drop in reservoir and well represent loss of energy, because of the flow resistance. The relation between bottom hole pressure and rate is the starting point to construct a production system based on the natural characteristics of the reservoir. We can measure this relation directly, or predict it out from reservoir properties.

1.1.1 Linear flow characteristics

Figure 1.1 indicates measured pressure and rates and personalized relationship between them. The linear context indicated, we can express that
pw = p R 1 qo J

(1-1)

J: productivity index (Sm3/d/bar) J = qo pR: reservoir "pressure" (bar) pw: well potential "pressure" (bar) qo: production (Sm3 / d)

( p R pw )

In chapter 2, we estimate productivity index from Darcy's law and the reservoir. Mathematical relationships makes it possible to predict how productivity index depends on the well design. But because we rarely know the conditions down in the reservoir, well, you should mathematical estimates verified with the measurements. Challenges Estimate out from Figure 1.1: -- Reservoir and productivity indeks (answer: pR = 220 bar, J = 20 Sm3 / d). -- If we lower the production well to the 175 bar? -- Production of this well, when the reservoir has decreased to 200 bar?

Figure 1.1: Inflow characteristics

1.1.2 In flow characteristics by sam production

The same well can be completed in several reservoir. Each reservoir will then produced in accordance with their own inflow characteristics, so that the total flow characteristics becomes a combination of these. In order to quantify, we may consider 2 reservoirs, with pressures: pR1 and pR2, and productivity indices: J1 and J2. Inflow characteristics from each reservoir is given by (1-1)
pw1 = p R1 1 qo1 J1 pw 2 = p R 2 1 qo 2 J2

If we neglect flow friction in the well between the complemented zones, the well potential should be similar pw1 = pw2 = pw. By combining this and relationships above, the total inflow characteristic becomes
pw = J1 pR1 + J 2 pR 2 1 ( qo1 + qo 2 ) J1 + J 2 J1 + J 2

In Figure 1.2, the pressure and productivity indices considered are: pR1 = 220 bar, J1 = 20 Sm3/d; and pR2 = 240 bar, J2 = 10 Sm3 / d. Equation (1-2) gives the linear relationship between bottom pressure and resulting total rate, as illustrated. Based on measurements of bottom pressure and total rate it may appear that the well produces from a reservoir with the pressure: 226.7 bar and productivity index: 30 Sm3/d. This does not reflect of the actual circumstances.

Figure 1.2 Samproduksjon of 2 zones with different reservoir questions: Reservoir "1" produces oil, while "2" produce water: What will be the water fraction, at total production 1000 Sm3/d The well is closed in at the surface What will be the down hole flow (Answer: 130 Sm3 / d, from the reservoir "2" reservoirs "1".) The well is kept closed 1 month. What water fraction can be expected at start-up

1.1.3 Non linear inflow characteristics

At the large rates, the inflow pressure decrease more than proportional to the rate. This gives inflow performance relationship (function: pw(qo) ) that curves downward. Inflow performance characteristics curved upward would mean relatively less inflow resistance at large rates. Such performance is usually caused by measurement error, or the measurements that are carried out before inflow is stabilized.

1.2 Flow in the production pipe

Production pipe should be selected in accordance with the natural characteristics of the well. The basis for such selection is pressure and flow computation by the pipe flow equation
dp + g x dx + vdv + 1 2 f v dx = 0 2 d

(1-3)

: fluid density (kg/m3) v: flow velocity (m / s) x: length along the pipe, the flow direction (m) gx : component of gravity acceleration in the flow direction (m/s2) f : the friction factor (-)
For single-phase oil flow in the pipe with a constant diameter, it can be assumed that the speed is constant, thereby neglecting vdv. The speed depends on the flow rate and pipe diameter
v= qo Bo d2 4

(1-4)

Too large velocity could accelerate corrosion, in extreme cases also cause mechanical erosion. Too small velocity could lead to accumulation of produced sand. By integrating (1-4) along the production pipe (length: L), we can estimate the pressure valve on the tree; peak pressure 1 pth = p w g x L f v 2 L 2 d (1-5)

1.3 Tubing head pressure characteristics

Tubing head pressure characteristics specify how the pressure at the valve tree vary with rate: pth(qo). For linear the flow characteristics and single-phase oil, we can predict tubing head pressure from (1-1) and (1-5). We usually present tubing head pressure characteristics graphically, as illustrated in Fig 1.3. Challenges Estimate out from Figure 1.3 -- Tubing head pressure at zero production (answer: about 70 bar) -- Tubing head pressure when the well is producing 200 Sm3/d (answer: about 60 bar) -- Production with separator inlet pressure: 20 bars? (answer: about 620 Sm3/d) -- The maximum rate with ruptured flow line (answer: about 800 Sm3/d)

Figure 1.3 Tubing head pressure characteristics A goal is to construct the well to achieve high production capacity. It means to avoid unnecessary flow restriction and pressure loss. Relations above make it possible to predict the effect of: productivity index, pipe diameter, the friction factor, separator pressure, will have on production capacity. Challenge Estimate, according to Figure 1.3 -- Production by reducing the separator pressure from 20 to 10 bar (answer: about 730 Sm3 / d)

1.4 Rate regulation

To regulate the rate of individual wells, we use the choke valves mounted after the valve tree. Pressure reduction is acieved leading a fluid jet into a wider pipe cross-section. By this, the velocity energy is dissipatdby turbulence between the jet and the fluid around it. Pressure loss due to the wall friction will usually be negligible. Figure 1.4 illustrates the simplest construction of such a valve

Figure 1.4 Flow through simple nozzle The behavior can be quantified by combination of the Bernoulli's equation and Carnot relationship. Bernoulli's law describes the pressure until the end nozzles. For incompressible fluid, this gives
1 2 ( vc2 vth ) 2

pc = pth

(1-6)

pc: outlet pressure pth: inlet pressure, tubing head pressure vth: flow speed before the nozzles vc: speed at the end of the nozzles Bernoulli's law ignores friction losses. When the nozzles stream flows out into nearly stagnant fluid, turbulence leads to large friction losses; so that Bernoulli's no longer applies. After the nozzle the following balance (Carnot relationship) of pressure forces and linear momentum applies
vs m vc ) + ( ps pc ) A = 0 (m
: Flow rate m

A: pipe cross-section vs: flow speed for the nozzles, inlet speed of the separator
= vs A , into the relationship above, the downstream pressure is expressed as By: m

ps = pc + vs vc vs2

The combination of this and (1-6) has given the pressure reduction over the choke valve:
pth ps = 1 2 (vc2 vth ) (vs vc vs2 ) 2

The first term of the relation aabove provides the pressure reduction due to acceleration through the nozzles (Bernoulli). The second term provides pressure recovery after the outlet (Carnot ). We assume little compressible fluid and equal pipe size before and after the nozzles, so that the velocites will be the same: vth = vs. The pressure reduction can be expressed
2 2

pth ps =

1 Q 2 Ac

A 1 Q 1 c A 2 Ac

(1-7)

The simplifying indicated above (1-7) assumes the opening through the valve is much smaller than the pipe cross-section: Ac <<A. In valves designed for pressure reduction, this will usually be the case

Figure 1.5 The production rate controlled by the regulation valve Today choke valves are often designed such that jets rays collide with each other. Openings are often adjustable. In Venturi nozzles, the cross section changes gradually. This limits the turbulence, so that most of the velocity energy is reclaimed as pressure and Bernoulli's law applies. Then the pressure after the nozzles is almost the same as the upstream pressure. Such nozzles will not substantially affect the rate.

1.5 Future production

With time, the reservoir conditions will change, depending on production and injection. Such changes affect -- Future production and income -- How different production decisions will affect future production Future pressure and fluid composition are usually forecasted by numerical reservoir simulation. Below a reservoir model is simplified sufficiently to be analytical solvable. Combining this with well flow relation provides fundamental insight into the dynamics of field production.

1.5.1 Reservoir model

We will assume that the reservoir is producing by expansion, quantify by the compressibility equation
1 dV c = V dp

c: fluid compressibility, under reservoir conditions V: fluid volume in the reservoir dp: pressure reduction dV: additional fluid volume, because of the pressure reduction Reservoir fluids fill the pore space. Thus,additional fluid volume corresponds to production. From the compressibility equation, we can relate production to change in reservoir pressure dpR 1 dV 1 = = qo Bo dt cV dt cV

Numerical reservoir simulation solve the relationship equation above in 3-dimentions. Here, we will ignore pressure gradient in the reservoir. Assuming constant pore volume and constant fluid compressibility, the relationship above provides pressure change due to production

p R ( to ) p R ( t ) =

1 t qo Bo dt cV to

(1-8)

pR: average reservoir pressure qo: production rate Equation (1-8) can be viewed as a simple reservoir model. By solving for different assumptions about the flow and production, we will be able to predict future production. This is shown below

1.5.2 Plateau
Processing capacity: qop, may initially limit the production. With production rate equal processing capacity, we can solve (1-8). This shows that under these assumptions, the reservoir pressure declines steadily with time

pR ( t ) = pRi

Bo qop t cV

(1-9)

With reservoir pressure declining, the well pressure will also decline, as illustrated by figure 1.6. To maintain constant production the choke valve must then gradually be opene; untill the tubing head pressure equals the process inlet pressure: pth = ps. After that, we will no longer be able to maintain a constant rate. Challenges From figure 1.6 predict -- Pressure decrease across the choke valve , year zero -- Length of the plateau

Figure 1.6 Pressure Drop at constant rate, (assumed constant compressibility and reservoir volume) Figure 1.6 indicates that the tubing head pressure will reach separator pressure in year 6. By combining the relationships above, we can express this analytical
t p to = cV qop Bo q pR ( t o ) ps + pt + op J

pt: pressure drop along the production pipe

1.5.3 Declining production

We consider fully open choke valve, providing constant tubing head pressure. With pressure loss along the pipe dominated by the static component, the bottom well pressure will then also be

approximately constant. It then follows from (1-1) that the rate change must then correspond to the change in reservoir pressure
dqo = J d pR

Setting this into the reservoir relation (1-8) and integrate, predict the production profile after the plateau period

qo ( t ) = qop e

J Bo t t p cV

)
(1-11)

Under the assumptions above, production would decline exponentially, as illustrated in Figure 1.7 below. Equation (1-11) also makes it possible to predict how changes in the reservoir and production conditions will affect the immediate and future production.

Figure 1.7 Declining production At the plateau reservoir will fall linearly with time, as shown above. With declining production, reservoir pressure will fall more slowly and approach the well pressure. By combining (1-11) and (1-9), we can quantify this

pR ( t t p ) = pRp ( 1 ( pRp ps pt ) ) e
There: pRp : reservoir pressure at the end of the plateau

J Bo t t p cV

)
(1-12)

Figure 1.8 illustrates the pressure over time, based on relationships and conditions above

Figure 1.8 Future pressures, according to the simple reservoir model

1.7 Literature
Gilbert, WE: Flowing and Gas-Lift Well Performance Paper A.P.I. 801-30H. Presented at the spring meeting of the Pacific Coast District, Division of Production, API, Los Angeles May 6-7, 1954 Golan, M., and Whitson, C.H. : Well Performance IHRDC, 1986, Prentice-Hall, 1991 Economides, MJ, Watters, LT, Dunn-Norman, S.: Petroleum Well construction Wiley, 1998